a.

Alternating Current
The current which changes in direction and magnitude with time is called alternating current. For e.g. the electric
mains supply in our homes which varies sinusoidally with time. AC voltage is represented as-
@

t
o

Average value of a function

The average value of any function y = f(x) over an interval from x1 to x2 can be calculated as-

The following are some results for average value of trigonometric functions which should be memorized-

1)

2)

For a sinusoidal wave, the average value in one time period will be 0 as equal current flows in forward and backward
direction. Therefore, the average value is calculated over half a time period-

Root mean squared (RMS) value/ Effective value

RMS value for an ac current is that value of dc current which when applied to the same resistor for the same amount
of time, produces the same amount of heat as ac.
Mathematically,

Note: - ‘An ac current of 4A’ implies that the RMS value is 4A

Let current be I = i˳ Sin(ωt), where i˳ is the peak value. The RMS value is related to peak value as-

IBE
rn s
Similarly, the rms voltage or effective voltage-

AC voltage applied to a Resistor

Consider a resistor of resistance R is connected to an alternating voltage source v= v˳Sinωt, where v˳ is the amplitude
of the oscillating potential difference and ω is the angular frequency. Using Kirchhoff’s loop law-

t t

Where-

In the graph, both v and i reach minimum and maximum values

Simultaneously. Therefore, for a resistor voltage and current are
In phase with each other i.e. phase difference = 0.

Power consumed
In complete cycle, since equal current flows in both directions, the avg current over a complete cycle is 0 but the
average power consumed is not zero. This is because the power consumed is given by i2R (according to Joule’s law)
which depends on i2 and not i and i2 is always positive whether i is positive or negative. Thus, there is Joule heating
and dissipation of electrical energy when ac current passes through a resistor.
Instantaneous power dissipated in the circuit-

Therefore, average power dissipated-

Also-

From 1

Note: The instantaneous values of ac current/ voltage obey dc laws like Kirchhoff’s loop and junction law.
Representation of AC voltage and current by Rotating vectors- Phasors
A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin with angular speed ω. The orthogonal components of phasors v
and I give the instantaneous values v and i and their magnitude represents the amplitude v˳ and i˳

W
O

=
wt
•

Note: Though the voltage and current in an ac circuit are represented by vectors they are not vectors themselves.
They are scalar quantities.

AC voltage applied to an inductor (PYQ 2011)

Consider an inductor of self inductor L and negligible resistance in its windings. Thus, the circuit is purely inductive.
Let the voltage be v= v˳ Sinωt. Using Kirchhoff’s loop law-

t
+
The negative sign is in accordance with Lenz’ law

The integration constant has dimensions of current and is time independent. Since the source emf and the current
oscillate symmetrically about zero, the integration constant will be 0

Inductive reactance (XL)

The quantity ωL is analogous to resistance and is called Inductive reactance.
L

- Dimensions are same as Resistance | SI Unit- Ohm (Ω)

Phasor
Comparing the expression for current and voltage in a purely inductive circuit, we see that the current lags behind
voltage by π/2 or 1/4 th of the cycle.

Vo
Io
Power consumption
The instantaneous value of power supplied to the inductor is-

The average power over a complete cycle-

Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor in one complete cycle is zero

Magnetization and demagnetization of an inductor

0-1 Current i flows through the coil entering at A and
Increases from 0 to maxm value and the core gets
Magnetized. Current and voltage are both positive
So, P=vi is positive. Hence, energy is absorbed from
source
1-2 current in the coil is positive but decreasing
the core gets demagnetized. v Is negative as
di/dt is negative and hence vi is also negative
i.e. energy is returned to the source

2-3 current I becomes negative entering at B. The polarity 3-4 current decreases and reaches 0. The voltage is
Of the magnet is revered, v and i are negative hence vi is positive but current is negative hence vi is
Positive. Hence, energy is being absorbed. Negative. Hence power is returned to the source.

Hence, over the entire cycle, net power absorbed or lost is zero.

AC voltage applied to a capacitor (PYQ 2015, 2017)

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C connect to an ac voltage v= v˳ Sinωt.
When a capacitor is connected to an ac source, it limits or regulates the +

The current but does not completely limit the flow of charged. The capacitor + tttt

Is repeatedly charged and discharged as the current reverses direction every - -

- - -

Half cycle. Let q be the charge on a capacitor at a time t. the instantaneous -

Voltage v across the capacitor will be-

Using Kirchhoff’s law

Capacitive reactance (XR) (PYQ 2015)
Comparing i˳= v˳/R for a purely resistive circuit, we find that 1/ωC plays the role of resistance. It limits the magnitude
of current in a purely capacitive circuit just like resistance limits the value of current in a purely resistive circuit
- SI unit- Ohm (Ω) C

Phasor
Comparing the expression for voltage and current for a purely capacitive circuit we see that current leads voltage by
π/2 or by ¼ th of a period

Io Vo

Power consumed
The instantaneous value of power supplied to a capacitor is-

The average power over a complete cycle-

Thus, the average power supplied to a capacitor in complete cycle is zero.

 Charging and discharging of a capacitor

0-1 the current flows starting from its maximum
value. Plate A is charged +vely and B is charged
-vely. The charge on plate becomes maxm and
Current becomes 0. Let charge on capacitor at
Time t be q, then, voltage v = q/C. Since P=vi is
+ve, energy is absorbed from the source.
1-2 the current I reverses direction so the charge is
depleted and capacitor is discharged. The voltage
is reduced but remains +ve and I is -ve therefore
p=vi is negative i.e. energy is returned to the
source.

2-3 as current continues to flow from A to B, the 3-4 the current again reverses its direction. The
capacitor is charged to reverse polarity. Both charge is again depleted and the voltage v is reduced
current and voltage are -ve so P=vi is +ve. Hence, till it becomes 0 and capacitor is discharged. P=vi is
energy is absorbed from the source -ve hence, energy is returned to the source

important PYQs
t.ie?
. Ques: A device X is connected to an ac source V=V˳Sinωt. The variation and voltage, current and power in one cycle
is shown in the following graph
a. identify X
b. which of the curves A, B, C represent the voltage,
current, and the power consumed in the circuit? Justify
c. how does its impedance vary with frequency of ac source?
Show graphically
d. obtain an expression for the current in the circuit and its phase
relation with ac voltage (PYQ 2017) [5M]

Ans: b) From the informa@on in the ques@on we can conclude c) Since it is a purely capaci@ve circuit, the impedance will be
that- I
equal to the capaci@ve reactance hence-
B- V | C- I | A- power. This is because the current will
have a phase difference of -11/2 With the voltage and the
power will have twice the frequency of the voltage/
Z
current. =
C

a) from the diagram we can see that the current leads the
W
voltage by a difference of 1172 . Therefore the device is a
capacitor
d) already done above in notes. Refer to capacitor
in an ac circuit
AC voltage applied to series LCR circuit (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016, 2015,2014, 2013, 2012, 2010)
Consider a resistance R, capacitor C and inductor L, connected to
an ac source v= v˳Sinωt. Let charge on C be q and current in the
circuit be i= i˳Sinωt then using Kirchhoff’s loop law-

Phasor solution
To calculate the current i in the circuit let us take help of the phasors. Since all 3 components L, C, R are in series the
current through all of them will be same. In the phasor diagram let this current be represented by I˳. let voltage
across R, C and L be VR, VC, VL respectively and net voltage be V˳. We know that for a resistor current is in phase with
voltage, for a capacitor current leads by π/2 and for an inductor, current lags by π/2. This can be shown as-
K

#
Vr

÷
Dividing the voltages by I˳ we can draw the same diagram as-

Xc

(since, VR/I˳ = R, VC/I˳ = XC, VL/I˳ = XL)

Now, since VL and VC are in the same line their net result can be written as- |VL – VC| and then the net voltage V˳ can
be written as-

v:
' '

:
(Where Is phase diff between voltage and current)
Impedance (Z)
We define a quantity called impedance in an ac circuit which is analogous to resistance in a dc circuit| SI unit- Ohm

R
l l l
W
Impedance diagram C

Impedance diagram is a right-angled triangle with Z as its hypotenuse.

(where ɸ is the phase difference b/w current i and

Voltage v in the circuit)
From the diagram, we can see-
Z

Note: 1. Equation (1) gives the amplitude of the current and equation (2) gives its phase angle.
2. If XC > XL, ɸ is +ve, the circuit is predominantly capacitive and the current leads the voltage.
3. If XL > X C, ɸ is -ve, the circuit predominantly inductive and the current lags behind the voltage.

Disadvantages of using Phasors-

1. The phasor diagram gives nothing about the initial condition
2. The solution obtained is called the steady state solution and it is not a general solution
3. We have a transient solution which exists for v= 0. The general solution is the sum of the transient solution
and the steady state solution. After sufficiently long time, the effects of the transient solution dies out and
only the steady state solution defines the circuit.

Analytical solution
Using Kirchhoff’s law we can write-

This is like the equation for a forced, damped oscillator. So let us assume-

Subs@tu@ng these in 3

We know-

From impedance diagram

Comparing both sides we get-

Therefore, current in the circuit-

 Where-

Choke coil (PYQ 2014)

A choke coil (inductor) is a device which is kept in series with a fluorescent tube light so that it provides the required
potential across the coil without consuming any energy.
50 V 100W ,
p- 0 =

Mme

u
Choke coil

220 V

Important PYQs t.EE?.3

¥ Ques: A resistance R and a capacitor C are connected in series to a source v= v˳Sinωt. Find:
.

a. The peak value of the voltage across the i. resistance and the ii. Capacitor
b. The phase difference between the applied voltage and current. Which one of them is ahead? (PYQ 2020)
[3M]
Ans: We know-
a)

Also, current in the circuit-

b) Since there is no induc@ve element,

current will lead the voltage

Ques: a. Draw graphs showing variation of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance with the frequency of the
applied ac source
b. Draw the phasor diagram for a series RC circuit connected to an ac source
c. An alternating voltage of 220V is applied across a device X, a current of 0.25 A flows, which lags behind the
voltage by a phase difference of π/2. If the same voltage is applied across another device Y, same current flows but
now it is in phase with the applied voltage
i. name devices X and Y
ii. Calculate the current in the circuit when the same voltage is applied across series combination of X and Y (PYQ
2018) [5M]

Ans: a) C
c) i) X- inductor ; Y- Resistor

ii) ATQ-

Illy
.

Therefore-

Io

b)
V
R So, current in the circuit-

V
C
Ques: An inductor L of inductive reactance XL is connected in series with a bulb B and an ac source. How would the
brightness of the bulb change when i. number of turns in the inductor are reduced ii. An iron rod is inserted in the
inductor iii. A capacitor of capacitive reactance Xc = XL is inserted in series. Justify (PYQ 2015) [3M]

Ans: i) As number of turns are reduced, the inductance and
hence the induc@ve reactance decreases, therefore the
impedance decreases and hence current in the circuit
increases. So, brightness of bulb increases
ii) as an iron rod is inserted, the inductance and hence
the reactance increases. Therefore current decreases so
bulb glows less brightly
iii) as a capacitor of same reactance is introduced,
the inductance becomes minimum and hence
current increases and bulb glows more brightly
Circuit will be in resonance and amplitude of current
will be maximum

Ques: A capacitor C, a variable resistor R and a bulb B are connected in series to the ac mains in the circuit as shown.
The bulb glows with some brightness. How will the glow of the bulb change if i. a dielectric is introduced between
the plates of the capacitor, keeping the resistance R to be the same, ii. the resistance R is increased keeping the
capacitance same? (PYQ 2014) [2M]

Ans: i) the dielectric increases the capacitance ii) as resistance is increased the
and hence reduces the reactance. So, the impedance increases and
impedance decreases and hence the bulb current decreases so, bulb glows
glows more brightly less brightly

Ques: An electric lamp having coil of negligible inductance connected in series with a capacitor and an AC source is
glowing with certain brightness. How does the brightness of the lamp change on reducing the i. capacitance and ii.
The frequency. Justify (PYQ 2010) [2M]

Ans: We know that- So on reducing he capacitance and the frequency, the capaci@ve reactance increases.
This increases the impedance and hence reduces the current in the circuit.
Therefore, the bulb glows less brightly.

Resonance (PYQ 2016, 2013, 2012, 2010)

The phenomenon of resonance is a characteristic of systems which have a tendency to oscillate at a particular
frequency. This frequency is called the system’s natural frequency. If such a system is driven by an external energy
source at a frequency almost equal to the system’s natural frequency, then the amplitude of oscillation becomes
very large.
Consider an RLC circuit with amplitude of voltage= v˳ and frequency ω. The current in the circuit can be written as-

So, if ω is varied, then at a particular frequency (ω˳), XC = XL , impedance will be minimum-

This frequency is called the resonant frequency

Genius) R l l l
W
At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum- C
Uses of resonance in LCR circuit

Tuning of radio set or TV- to hear the signal from particular station, we need to tune the radio for which we vary the
capacitance of a capacitor such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes almost equal to the frequency of
the radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the signal becomes
maximum.

In which circuit does resonance take place?

Resonance is only exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are present in the circuit. Only then do the voltages
across L and C cancel each other as they are out of phase and current amplitude is maximum i.e. the total source
voltage appears across R. This means we cannot have resonance in a RL and RC circuit.

Sharpness of resonance
The amplitude of current in the series LCR circuit is given by-

We know that it is maximum for ω=ω˳= and the maximum value is-

For values other than ω˳, the amplitude of current is less than the maxm value. Consider a value for ω at which the
amplitude becomes 1/√2 times the maxm value. At this value, the power dissipated becomes half (P∝ I2)
From the graph above, we see that there are two such values for ω. Let them be ω1 and ω2 –

Bandwidth of the circuit

The difference ω1 - ω2 = 2Δω is called the bandwidth of the circuit.

The quantity ω˳/2Δω is called the sharpness. The smaller the value of Δω, the sharper or narrower is the resonance.
We know that the relation b/w I˳ for ω1 and I˳ for ω˳ is as follows-

l l l I

1) ( I
 Therefore, sharpness of resonance is given by-

Quality factor (Q) (PYQ 2013)

The ratio ω˳L/R is called the quality factor of the circuit

We see that-

So, larger the value of Q, the smaller the value of 2Δω or the bandwidth of the circuit and sharper is the resonance.

Using ω˳2 = 1/LC we get-

Selectivity of the circuit

If the resonance is less sharp, not only is the maxm current less, the circuit is close to resonance for a larger range
(Δω) of frequencies and tuning of the circuit is not good. So, less sharp is the resonance, less is the selectivity of the
circuit or vice versa.
Also, if Q is large i.e. R is low or L is large, selectivity is also large.

Important PYQs
¥÷i?E3
⇐
Ques: In a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source of variable frequency and voltage V= Vm Sinωt, draw a plot
showing the variation of current I with angular frequency ω for two different resistances R1 and R2 (R1>R2). Write the
condition under which resonance takes place. For which out of the two curves, a sharper value of resonance is
produced? Define Q factor of the circuit and give its significance (PYQ 2013) [5M]

Ans: a) I
C) Greater is the value of Q, sharper is the
resonance, therefore, resonance is sharper for R

Air
- z

(b and d already shown in notes)

# w

Ques: the figure shows a series LCR circuit with L= 5.0 H, C= 80 µF, R= 40 Ω connected to a variable frequency 240 V
source. Calculate-
a. The angular frequency of the source which drives the circuit
At resonance
b. The current at resonating frequency
c. The rms potential drop across the capacitor at resonance
(PYQ 2012) [3M]

Ans: a)

b)
¥⇐÷7s
c)

Ques: Define quality factor and write its SI unit (PYQ 2016) [1M]

Ans: It is defined as the ratio ω˳L/R. it is dimensionless and unitless quantity

Boards)
Power in an AC circuit: Power factor (PYQ 2017, 2010) (not in CBSE
syllabus for
2020

Consider a series RLC circuit with a voltage source v=v˳Sinωt. Let current in the circuit be i=i˳Sin(ωt+ɸ). We know-

Therefore, the instantaneous power supplied by the source is-

Average power-
The average of the time dependent term in one complete cycle will be 0 hence the average power-

Where Cosɸ is the power factor of the circuit

case(i): Resistive circuit- If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive. For such a circuit-

therefore, there is maximum power dissipation.

Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit- If the circuit contains only a capacitor or an inductor, the phase
difference is π/2. Therefore, cosɸ=0 i.e. no power is dissipated even though a current flows. This is called Wattless
current.

Case(iii)- LCR series circuit- In series LCR circuit power is given by –

So ɸ may be non 0 is RLC, RL or RC circuits. Even here, power is dissipated only across R.

Case (iv): Power dissipated at resonance- maximum power is dissipated (through R) at resonance

Important PYQs

Ques: In a series LR circuit XL = R and power factor of the circuit is P1. When a capacitor with capacitance C such that
XL = XC is put in series, the power factor becomes P2. Calculate the ratio P1/P2 (PYQ 2017) [1M]

Ans:
LC oscillations
We know that a capacitor and inductor can store electrical and magnetic
energy respectively. Consider a capacitor C, initially charged(q˳), connected
to an inductor L. As the circuit is completed, current begins to grow in the
circuit and the charge on the capacitor decreases. Let q and i be the charge
on the capacitor and the current in the circuit resp. Using Lenz law and
Kirchhoff’s loop law-

We can write i= -dq/dt (as q decreases, i increases) therefore,

Comparing this equation with that of a simple harmonic motion-

We see that the charge is oscillating and the natural frequency of oscillation is-

Further, we can also deduce that charge varies with time as-

Where q˳ is the amplitude/ maxm value of charge and ɸ is phase constant. For the case given above, q=q˳ @ t=0 ,
ɸ=0 so-

For current-

Note: Since circuit has no dissipative element, total energy remains constant

Visualization of LC oscillations
1. At t=0, the charge on capacitor is q˳ and the current in the circuit is 0. Hence, there is no energy stored in the
inductor and the total energy of the circuit is the electrical energy stored in the capacitor-

2. When the switch is closed, current starts growing in the circuit, the charge on the capacitor and hence the
electrical energy starts decreasing and then some energy gets stored as magnetic energy in the inductor. If
at time t current is I then the magnetic energy-

3. At time t= T/4, current reaches its maximum value i˳, all the energy is stored as magnetic energy and the
capacitor has no charge and no energy.
4. As the current continues to flow, it again starts charging the capacitor. This process continues till the
capacitor is again fully charged at t=T/2 but in the opposite polarity.
5. This whole process repeats itself till the system is reverted to its original state. Thus, the energy oscillates
between the capacitor and inductor
This oscillation can be compared to that of a block connected to a spring-
0

Here ω˳= √k/m where k is the spring constant. Comparing the two equations, we see that L is analogous to mass ‘m’.
L is a measure of resistance to change in current in the circuit.
For an LC circuit-

And for a spring-

So, 1/C is analogous to k. the constant k= F/x tells us the force required to produce unit displacement similarly, 1/C=
v/q tells us the potential difference required to store unit charge

The above discussion is not realistic because-

1. Every inductor has some resistance. The resistance causes damping of charge and current which causes the
oscillations to die away
2. Even if the total resistance is 0, the total energy will not remain constant, it is radiated away in the form of
electromagnetic waves.

Transformer (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2015, 2011)

It is a device used to step up or step-down alternating voltage
Principle- mutual induction
Construction- A transformer consists of two sets of coils insulated from each other. They are wound over a soft iron
core either on top of each other or on separate limbs of the core. One of the coils, known as the primary coil has N1
turns and the other coil, called secondary coil has N2 turns. Usually, primary coil is for input and secondary coil is for
output.

Working- When an alternating current is passed through the primary coil, an alternating magnetic flux is induced in
the coil. Through mutual induction, the alternating emf in the primary coil sets up an alternating emf and hence
alternating current in the secondary coil. We assume that the coils have no resistance and entire flux of the primary
coil is linked with the secondary coil i.e. there is no flux leakage. According to Faraday’s laws, the emf induced in N1
turns of the primary coil-
Similarly, the emf induced in N2 turns of the secondary coil-

Assuming ε1=V1 and ε2=V2 where V1 and V2 are the potential across primary and secondary coil respectively

Dividing both we get-

Now assuming that there is no power loss-

Power at primary = power at secondary

Where I1 and I2 are currents in primary and secondary coils respectively. Therefore,

Assumptions made-
1. The primary resistance the current is small
2. Entire flux of primary coil is linked with the secondary coil i.e. there is no flux leakage
3. The secondary current is small

Types of transformers-
1. Step-up transformer
if the number of turns of secondary coil is more than that of the primary coil i.e. N1<N2, we can see that V2>V1.
Such a transformer is called a step-up transformer

2. Step-down transformer
If number of turns of primary coil is more than that of the secondary coil i.e. N1>N2, we can see that V2<V1.
Such a transformer is called step down transformer

Energy losses in transformers/ factors affecting efficiency of a transformer (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2011)
1. Flux leakage- The complete flux of primary and secondary coil cannot be linked. There are always some
leakages. It can be reduced by winding the coils over one another.
2. Resistance of the windings- The windings have some resistance which causes loss of energy in the form of heat.
They are minimized by using thick wires
3. Eddy currents- The alternating emf induces eddy currents and causes loss of energy as heat
4. Hysteresis- The magnetization of core is continuously reversed by alternating magnetic field which causes loss of
energy due to hysteresis. It can be reduced by using materials of low hysteresis loss.

Use of transformers-
The large-scale transmission of electrical energy is done with the help of transformers. The source voltage is stepped
up to reduce current and hence minimize I2R losses. At the point of consumption, the voltage is stepped down to
about 240 V which reaches our home.

Efficiency of a transformer (η) (PYQ 2018)

It is defined as the ratio of useful output power to the input power
 Important PYQS ¥??EE3
¥ Ques: Laminated iron sheets are used to minimize___________ currents in the core of a transformer (PYQ 2020)
.

[1M]
Ans: Eddy currents

Ques: A small town with a demand of 1200 kW of electric power at 220V is situated 20 km away from an electric
plant generating power at 440V. The resistance of the two-wire line carrying power is 0.5 Ω per km. the town gets
power from the line through a 4000-220 V step down transformer at a sub-station in the town. Estimate the line
power loss in the form of heat. (PYQ 2019) [2M]

Ans: Total resistance- Heat loss-

Current in the wires-

Ques: Calculate the current drawn by the primary of a 90% efficient transformer which steps down 220V to 22V, if
the output resistance is 440Ω (PYQ 2018) [2M]

Ans:

Ques: The primary coil of a step-up transformer has 100 turns and transformation ratio is also 100. The input
voltage and power are respectively 220V and 1100W. calculate
a. Number of turns in secondary
b. Current in primary
c. Voltage across secondary
d. Current in secondary
e. Power in secondary (PYQ 2017) [3M]

Ans: Since it is a step up transformer-

a) d)

b)

e)
c)

Ques: Is it possible to use a transformer to bring down high dc voltage? Explain (PYQ 2015) [1M]
 Ans: No, a transformer cannot be used to step down dc voltage because the working principle of a transformer is
mutual induction which requires a time varying magnetic flux and hence a time varying current. Since, dc is not time
varying, it can’t produce a variable flux and hence cannot be stepped down.

ET
Derivations and definitions asked as PYQs
Ques: Define capacitive reactance and write its SI unit (PYQ 2015) [1M]

Ques: show that in an ac circuit containing a pure inductor, the voltage is ahead of current by π/2 in phase (PYQ 2011)
[2M]

Ques: A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac source having voltage v= vm Sinωt. Derive the expression for the
instantaneous current I and its phase relationship to the applied voltage
Obtain the condition for resonance to occur. Define power factor and state the conditions where it is i. maximum ii.
Minimum (PYQ 2010) [5M]

Ques: An ac voltage source V= V˳ Sinωt is connected to a series combination of L, C and R. use the phasor diagram to
obtain an expression for the impedance of the circuit and the phase angle between voltage and current. Find
the condition where the current will be in phase with the voltage. What is this circuit condition called? (PYQ
2016) [4M]

Ques: Why is a choke coil needed in the use of fluorescent tubes with ac mains (PYQ 2014) [1M]

Ques: Define Q factor of a circuit and give its significance (PYQ 2013) [1M]
Ques: With the help of a labelled diagram, explain the working of a step-up transformer. Give reason to explain the
following-
1. The core of a transformer is laminated
2. Thick copper windings are used in windings (PYQ 2020) [3M]

Ques: Draw the diagram of the device used to decrease high ac voltage into a low ac voltage and state its working
principle. Write 4 sources of energy loss of this device (PYQ 2019) [3M]

Ques: 1. state working principle of transformers

2. define efficiency of a transformer
3. state two factors which affect the efficiency of a transformer (PYQ 2018) [3M]

Ques: write the function of a transformer. State its working principle with the help of a labelled diagram. Mention
various energy losses in the device (PYQ 2017) [3M]

Ques: What device is used to bring high ac voltage down to low voltage ac. What is the principle of working? (PYQ
2015) [1M]

- Ques: Mention the various energy losses of a transformer (PYQ 2011) [2M]
 if Electromagnetic Induction
The phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying magnetic fields in called Electromagnetic
Induction.

The experiments of Faraday and Henry

'

Experiment 1
Consider a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer as shown in the figure. When the north pole of a bar magnet is
pushed towards the coil, there is a deflection in the galvanometer indicating the presence of electric current in the
coil.
- The current flows for as long as the magnet is in motion, there is no deflection when magnet is stationary.
- When the north pole is pulled away from the coil, there is a deflection in the opposite direction i.e. current flows in
the opposite direction
- When the south pole of the magnet is pushed/pulled, the deflection is opposite to that when the north pole was
being moved.
- The deflection is larger when the magnet is pushed/pulled faster
- Even when the magnet is fixed and the coil C1 is moved, there is a deflection.

Conclusion: Relative motion between the coil and magnet is responsible for generation (induction) of current in the
coil.

Experiment 2
The bar magnet in experiment 1 is replaced by a coil C2 connected to a battery. Steady current in the coil C2 sets up a
steady magnetic field. when C2 is moved towards C1, the galvanometer records a deflection. This indicates current is
induced in C1
- When C2 is moved away, there is a deflection in the opposite direction
- The deflection lasts as long as the coil C2 is in motion
- When C2 is fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are recorded

Conclusion: Relative motion between the two coils is responsible for inducing electric current

Experiment 3
Consider the two coils C1 and C2 but this time C2 is connected to the battery through a key. When the key is closed
the galvanometer records a momentary deflection. After closing the key for a long time, there is no deflection. When

taxi
tiniest
. .
 the key is opened, there is again a momentary deflection but in the opposite direction. The deflection increases by
many folds when an iron rod is inserted into the coils along their axis

Note: Uniform field – field constant w.r.t. position | Steady field- field constant w.r.t. time

Magnetic Flux (φB)

It gives a measure of the number of magnetic field lines intersecting a given area. The magnetic flux through area A
due to field B can be written as-

Where θ is the angle between B and area vector A

SI unit – weber (Wb) or tesla meter squared (Tm2) | scalar quantity

÷i÷¥ Faraday’s law of Induction

1st Law- If the flux linked with a coil varies with time, an EMF is induced across the coil

2nd Law- The magnitude of induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linked with coil

The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and the direction of current in the loop
For a coil of N turns-

Note: Flux can be varied by varying B, A or θ. Therefore, emf can be induced by-
1. Changing B (e.g. time varying field)
2. Changing the shape of the coil (area changes)
3. Rotating coil in a magnetic field so that angle θ between B and A changes
Ann #
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
Lenz’ Law and conservation of Energy (PYQ 2017, 2013, 2012, 2011)
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produced it. This is a consequence of conservation of Energy.
The negative sign in the expression for flux in Faraday’s law represents this effect.

Consider the following two cases- (PYQ 2013)

v u
n

Mahatmas Bent
ftp.a.BMMB.at
§
taboo
Bind

.
Biafra I

As the north pole of the magnet is pushed towards
The coil, the flux through the coil increases. Hence,
Current is induced in the coil such that it opposes the
Increase in flux. For the observer, this will happen when
Current is induced in the anticlockwise direction.
This will result in a north pole being formed facing the
Magnet which will repel the magnet and oppose the
Increase in flux.
If the north pole of the magnet is pulled away
from the coil , the flux through the coil will
decrease so current will be induced such that
flux through coil increases. For the observer,
This will happen when current flows in the
clockwise direction which will result in an
attractive force which opposes the decrease
In flux.

Note: If an open circuit is used instead of a closed loop, an emf is still generated with polarity according to Lenz’ law.

Correctness of Lenz’s Law-

Suppose that the current induced was in the direction which supported the change in flux. Then in the first case, the
induced south pole of the coil would face the north pole of the magnet. This means that the magnet will
continuously be accelerated towards the coil. A gentle push will initiate the acceleration of the magnet and its
velocity and K.E will go on increasing without any expenditure of energy (perpetual motion) but this violates the law
of conservation of energy and hence can’t happen.

According to Lenz’ law, the magnet experiences a repulsive force. So, to keep the magnet in motion, work has to be
done by an external agent on the magnet. This work done is seen as the heat produced due to circulating current in
the coil in accordance with Joule’s law of heating effect of current.

Important PYQs t÷E7

Ques: Predict the polarity of the capacitor in the following case (PYQ 2017, 2011) [1M]

Ans: according to Lenz’s law, the induced current opposes the change in magnetic flux which causes it so on the
right-side current will flow clockwise so as to form south pole and, on the left, anti-clockwise so as to form north
pole. Therefore, the polarity will be as shown-

K
Lind
APRIL
thirtieth
# c ,
Ques: Predict the directions of induced currents in metal rings 1 and 2 lying in the same plane where current I is
increasing steadily (PYQ 2012) [1M]

Ans: The magnetic field on the sides of the wire is as shown in the figure. As current is increasing, the field and hence
flux through the rings will also increase. So, to oppose the increase the change in flux, current will be induced
according to Lenz law-

S
VI
•• B

N Tt
B

Methods of generating EMF-

1. B as a function of time (t)
Consider a solenoid with a time varying current i= I˳sinωt, no of turns per unit length n and radius a. A loop of N
turns and radius b (b>a) is placed as shown. Let’s find the emf ε induced in the loop.

is
(Not.Fib as field only /ll a)

g
Ea
n n
'
n

Case 2: θ as a function of time (PYQ 2011)

Consider a coil of radius a and N turns kept in a uniform magnetic field B with its plane perpendicular to the field. It
is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the field, in the plane of the loop with an angular velocity ω. The flux
through the loop at a time t is-
w
u

A N B

Ami
Thirst . .
 Motional EMF (PYQ 2020,2018, 2011)
The emf generated by moving a conductor in a magnetic field i.e. by changing the flux in the circuit is called motional
EMF.

In the figure, there is a rectangular conductor PQRS kept in a magnetic field B, in which arm PQ of length L is free to
move. The rod PQ is moved towards left with a constant velocity v. Assume that there is no loss of energy due to
friction.
Explanation 1: Using Faraday’s Law
As PQ is moved, the area enclosed by PQRS keeps on changing. At time t let RQ= x, then the flux associated with
PQRS –

Since x is changing w.r.t. time, the flux through PQRS will also vary with time and hence due to Faraday’s law, an EMF
will be induced which can be written as-

(Where dx/dt = -v as x is
Decreasing with time)

Explanation 2: Using Lorentz force

Consider a charge q in the conductor PQ. As PQ moves towards the left with velocity v, the charge will also move
with same velocity. As the charge is moving in a magnetic field, it will experience a force F = qvB towards Q. All like
charges will experience the same force in the same direction. The work done in moving a charge from P to Q-

EMF is the work done per unit charge-

- Direction of positive polarity of motional emf is given by direction of v × B.

- The magnitude of motional emf is the product of B, L, v in mutually perpendicular directions. For e.g.-

B K
Y Z

t) t
go
v Gino B
U

Direc/on of emf

l K
'
Y z

Ii) v
e vcosgo B

APRIL
B ( i.e. if any 2 of B,l,v are parallel, e=0)
e= 0

thirtieth
# c ,
 Note: General formula-

emf induced in a stationary conductor kept in a varying magnetic field-

In case of stationary conductor, the force on its charges will be-

Since v=0, the force must be due to E. therefore, to explain the induction of current we must assume that a time
varying magnetic field generates an Electric field. but, the electric field due to static charges and that due to varying
magnetic field have different properties.

Important PYQs ¥iE¥÷

.
Ques: A rectangular frame of wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field directed outwards, normal to the paper. Ab is
connected to a spring which is stretched to A’B’ and then released at time t=0. Explain qualitatively how induced emf
in the coil would vary with time (neglect damping of oscillations of spring) (PYQ 2018) [2M]

Ans: As AB is pulled to A’B’, it experiences a force due to the spring

which causes it to perform simple harmonic mo/on about AB.
As it performs SHM, the area and hence the flux through the
loop also varies and hence an emf is induced. The arm AB
doesn’t move with constant velocity hence the emf produced
is also not constant. It varies with /me periodically in both
magnitude and direc/on. Its frequency is same as that of SHM
of the arm AB.

i÷¥÷⇐ Motional EMF in rotation (PYQ 2012)

Consider a rod OP of length R rotating with an angular velocity ω as shown in the figure-

Method 1:
As the rod is rotated, the charges in the rod experience a force and move towards O. At a certain value of emf there
is no more flow of electrons and steady state is reached. Consider a differential element of length dx at a distance x
from O. As the rod moves perpendicular to the field, the magnitude of emf across dx will be-

Anti
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
Method 2:
Consider a closed loop OPQ with rod OP rotating with ω. As OP rotates, the area and hence flux linked with the loop
changes and an emf is induced across the loop. At time t, let angle between OP and OQ be θ. Area OPQ is-

Hence flux linked with loop is-

• •

Energy Conservation

Let resistance of PQ be R and resistance of all other arms is negligible. Therefore, the net resistance is R and doesn’t
change as PQ moves. The current I in the circuit can be written as-

As current flows through the arm PQ, it will experience a force due to the magnetic field which can be written as-
or

The direction of this force will be towards right, opposite to that of its velocity.
To keep the rod moving with constant velocity v, an equal force in the opposite direction is needed. The power
required for this will be-

The power spent is dissipated as Joule’s heat and is given by-

Therefore, the mechanical energy required to move PQ is converted to electrical energy and then thermal energy.

ten
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 Charge circulated

-
①

-
②

(From 1,2)

i÷¥÷ Eddy Currents

When conductors are subjected to changing magnetic flux induced currents are produced in them. Their flow
patterns resemble swirling eddies in water hence they are called eddy currents.

Consider a copper a plate which allowed two swing like a pendulum

Between the pole pieces of strong magnets. We see that the motion
Of the plate is damped and that it comes to rest after a while. This is
Because the flux linked with the plate keeps on changing a sit moves
In and out of the region between the plates. This induces eddy currents
in the plate which opposes the motion of the plate. The direction of
eddy current is opposite when the plate swings in and out of the region.

Disadvantages of eddy currents

Eddy currents are undesirable as they heat up the core and dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat.

Methods of reducing eddy currents

1. Holes or slits made in the plate reduces the area available for eddy currents to flow

2. Laminations – laminations of a metal are used to make a core. The laminations are separated by an insulating
layer like lacquer. The plane of the laminations must be parallel to the magnetic field so that they cut across the
eddy current paths. This reduces the strength of eddy currents and hence the loss of energy as heat (P=I2R)

Advantages/ Uses of Eddy currents

1. Magnetic breaking in trains – Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails. When activated, they produce
eddy currents which oppose the motion of the train. As there is no mechanical contact, breaking is smooth
2. Electromagnetic damping- certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of nonmagnetic metallic material.
When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the coil oppose its motion and quickly bring the coil to
rest
3. Induction furnace- they are used to produce high temperatures to make alloys by melting the constituent
metals. Ahigh frequency A/C is passed through a coil which surrounds the metal to be melted. The eddy currents
induced in the metals produce high temperatures sufficient to melt it
4. Electric power meters- The shiny metal discs in the electric power meter rotates due to eddy currents. Electric
currents are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally varying currents in a coil

i÷¥÷ Electromagnetic damping (PYQ 2014)

Take two cylindrical pipes of equal diameters, one of aluminum and the other of PVC. Drop a cylindrical magnet
through the pipes such that it does not touch the sides of the pipes. We observe that the magnet dropped through
the PVC pipe falls faster than the one dropped through the aluminum pipe. This is because as the magnet falls
through the aluminum pipe, the flux associated with it changes which generates eddy currents in the pipe that
oppose the motion of the magnet. Eddy currents are not generated in the PVC pipe as it is an insulator.

Ann
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 Important PYQ t.EE?
c
Ques: Two spherical bobs of one metallic, and the other of glass of the same size are allowed to fall freely from the
same height above the ground. Which of the two will reach early and why? (PYQ 2014) [1M]

Ans: As the metal ball falls, it experiences a force due to gravity downwards. But, as it falls, the flux through it due to
earth’s magnetic field is changing due to which eddy currents are induced in the metal sphere such that they oppose
its motion. So, it experiences a retarding force upwards. However, since glass is an insulator, no eddy currents are
induced and it experiences only a force due to gravity. Therefore, the glass sphere reaches before the metal sphere.
a

Glass sphere
Metal sphere
g g

i÷t÷÷ Inductance
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by another coil nearby or flux change produced
by the same coil. In both cases the flux produced is directly proportional to the current.

If geometry of coil remains constant with time then-

For a coil of N turns, the magnetic flux is linked with each turn therefore the net flux will be N times of the flux
associated with a single turn i.e.-

Where L is a constant of proportionality which is called inductance. Inductance only depends on the geometry of the
coil and intrinsic material properties.

- Inductance- scalar| SI unit- henry (H)

How to calculate inductance of a coil of a certain geometry?

Step 1: Pass current I through the coil, calculate the field and hence the expression for flux through the coil
Step 2: Compare this expression with φ = LI to find out L

÷÷t÷ Mutual inductance (PYQ 2019, 2017, 2016, 2015)

The phenomenon due to which an emf is induced in a coil due to a varying flux produced by a coil kept nearby is called
mutual induction.
Consider two long coaxial solenoids each of length l. Let radius of inner solenoid S1 be r1 and number of turns per unit
length be n1 and for outer solenoid S2 be r2 and n2. Let total turns be N1 and N2
When a current I2 is set up in S2, it links a magnetic flux through S1. Let the flux through S1 be φ1-

-
①

Where M12 is mutual inductance/ coefficient of mutual induction of S1 w.r.t. S2

Ann#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 We now consider the reverse case. A current I1 is flown through S1. The flux linked with S2-
-

③
Where M21 is mutual inductance/ coefficient of mutual induction of S2 w.r.t. S1

-
④
From 3,4.

Therefore, we see that M12= M21 = M.

If there was a medium of relative permeability µR in the solenoids then,

Note: The mutual inductance of a pair of solenoids also depends on their separation and their relative orientation

If current through one of the coils is varied with time, an emf is set up in the other coil which is calculated as-

-
①

Also, -

(From 1,2)

Important PYQs ¥÷¥i÷7

Ques: A pair of adjacent coils have a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. if the current in one coil changes from 0 to 20 A in
0.5s, what is the change influx linkage of the other coil? (PYQ 2016) [2M]

Ans:

'

Self inductance (PYQ 2019, 2017, 2013, 2012, 2010)

The phenomenon due to which an emf is induced in a coil due to varying current through the same coil is called self
induction. In this case, the flux through a coil of N turns is directly proportion to the current in the coil-

Where L is a proportionality constant knows as self inductance/ coefficient of self induction

Ann
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# C ,
Inductance of solenoid
Consider a solenoid of no of turns per unit length n, radius a, current I. we know-

-
①

Also,
-
②

From 1,2

For a solenoid with a core of relative permeability µR -

if current through the coil is varied with time an emf is induced-

Also,

(From 1,2)

Note: Self induced emf is also called back emf as it opposes any change in the current in a circuit. Physically, self
inductance plays the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics.

Important PYQs ¥E÷÷7

:

Ques: A plot of magnetic flux versus current is shown in the figure for two inductors A and B. which of the two has a
larger self-inductance (PYQ 2010) [1M]

Ans: We know-

Therefore, greater the slope, greater is the self inductance.

i.e. A has greater self-inductance than B

Ques: If number of turns of solenoid is doubled without changing the length and area of cross-section. The self-
inductance of the solenoid will become___________? (PYQ 2020) [1M]

Ans: It will be doubled (Since,

Ques:

•
Ans:
(PYQ 2013) [3M]

i)
4. ii) E

ok I
-
Catt
April
±
Thirst . .
 iii) U

'

U = LI

Energy stored in inductor (PYQ 2012)

As back emf opposes any change of current in a circuit, some work needs to be done against it to setup steady current
in the circuit. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy-

This expression can be compared with the kinetic energy of a body in mechanics . this shows that L is
analogous to m (i.e. L is electrical inertia and it opposes growth and decay of current in the circuit).

In general-
Consider the case of current flowing simultaneously in two nearby coils. The flux through one coil will be the sum of
the two fluxes –

Where M11 is the inductance due to the same coil. Using faraday’s law-

M11 is self inductance and is written as L1-

i÷¥ AC Generator (PYQ 2013, 2011, 2010)

Use: It converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

Principle: if flux linked with a coil varies with time, an EMF is induced in the coil

Ann
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 Construction: - it consists of a coil mounted on a rotor shaft kept in a strong magnetic field. The axis of rotation of the
coil is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
- The coil is connected to external circuit with the help of slip rings and brushes

Working-
- The coil of area A is rotated in field B, the flux through the loop will be BAcosθ where θ is the angle between field and
area vector.
- As the coil rotates, θ and hence the flux through the coil changes which sets up an induced emf in the coil
- Let the coil rotate with a constant angular velocity ω. The angle between A and B at a time t is θ = ωt, assuming θ= 0°
at t=0, the flux at any time t can be written as -

Since value of sine function varies between +1 and – 1, the polarity of the emf also varies. Hence, direction of current
also varies periodically with time therefore, current is called alternating current.

Types of commercial generators-

1. Hydro-electric generators- mechanical energy required to rotate armature is provided by water falling from a
height
2. Thermal generators- water is heated using coal to produce high pressure steam to rotate the armature
3. Nuclear generators- instead of coal, nuclear fuel is used.

Note: Frequency of rotation of armature/ electromagnets – India = 50Hz | USA= 60Hz

Important PYQs
t÷E
-
Ques: For an A/C generator, show a plot of variation of-
1. Magnetic flux
2. Alternating emf versus time generated by a loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field (PYQ 2013) [2M]

Ans: For a coil rotaGng in a magneGc field with constant angular velocity

Ann
Titian A
# C ,
 QB
BA

Tt
E
Eo 11 11 11

#
t
544 T
174 The

SOmE MoRe PyQS

"

gates
Treated
thongs HE
w

s
e

(PYQ 2017) [2M]

agog
.

④V
The situaGon is as shown in the figure e
Since all three , B, L, and v are in mutually perpendicular
direcGons, the induced EMF-

→
→

DirecGon of emf is given by v X B-

Ann
Thirst. .
 mm

DEfInItIoNs aNd dErIvAtIoNs aSkEd aS pYqs

Ques: Define mutual inductance (PYQ 2016) [1M]

Ques: a) Define mutual inductance and write its SI unit

b) Derive an expression for the mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids of same length wound over one
another
c) In an experiment, two coils C1 and C2 are placed close to each other find out the expression for the induced emf in
coil C1 due to change in current through C2. (PYQ 2015) [5M]

Ques: State Lenz law (PYQ 2013) [1M]

Ques: Define self inductance of a coil. Show that magnetic potential energy required to build up current I in the coil
of self conductance L is given by LI2/2 (PYQ 2012) [2M]

Ques: A metallic rod of ‘L’ length is rotated with angular frequency ω with one end hinged at the center and the
other end at the circumference of a circular metallic ring of radius L about an axis passing through the center and
perpendicular to the plane of the ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field B parallel to the axis is present
everywhere. Deduce the expression for emf between the center and the metallic ring (PYQ 2012) [2M]

Ques: State the working of an AC generator having N turns each of area A, is rotated with constant angular velocity
ω. Deduce the expression for alternating emf generated in the coil. (PYQ 2011) [5M]

Ques: Describe briefly, with the help of a well labelled diagram, the basic elements of an AC generator. State its
underlying principle. Show diagrammatically, how an alternating emf is generated by a loop of wire rotating in a
magnetic field. write the value for the instantaneous value of the emf in the coil. (PYQ 2010) [5M]

Anti
Thirst
. .
 tf Magnetism and Matter s

s Some commonly known ideas about magnetism

i. The earth behaves like a magnetic with the magnetic field pointing approximately from the geographical south
to north.
ii. A bar magnet when suspended freely points in the North-South direction. The tip which points to the
geographical north is called the north pole of the magnet and that which points to the geographical south is
called the south pole of the magnet.
iii. Like poles of the magnet repel and unlike poles attract.
iv. Magnetic monopoles do not exist. If we cut a magnet in half, we end up with two smaller magnets with both
north and south pole.
v. It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys

s
Bar magnet
A bar magnet has two poles. One pole is designated as the North pole and the other as the south pole. When iron
filings are sprinkled around a bar magnet, they are arranged in a pattern similar to the one seen around a current
carrying solenoid.

s Magnetic field lines (PYQ 2019)

- Magnetic field lines for a bar magnet or a current carrying solenoid form closed loops, this is because magnetic
monopoles do not exist.
- Tangent to a field line at a point gives the direction of the magnetic field at that point.
- The greater the density of field lines in a region, the greater is the magnitude of the magnetic field in that region.
- Magnetic field lines do not intersect. This is because, at the point of intersection there will be two tangents which
means that the magnetic field at that point will have two directions, which is not possible.

(i) Bar magnet (ii) solenoid

Note: 1. For a bar magnet (or a current carrying solenoid) the direction of magnetic field is from the North pole to
the South pole outside the magnetic and from the south pole to the north pole inside the magnet.
2. Unlike in electrostatics, the magnetic field lines do not indicate the direction of force on a moving charge.

s
Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid
Ampere hypothesized that all magnetic phenomenon are due to circulating currents. The similarity between
magnetic field lines produced due to a bar magnet and a current carrying solenoid suggests that a bar magnet may
be thought of as a large number circulating atomic currents in analogy with a solenoid.

Ann
Titian .
 Consider a solenoid of length 2L and radius a carrying current I, having no of turns per unit length as n. Let us
calculate the field at a point P on its axis at a distance r from its center. Consider a differential element of thickness
dx a distance x from the center. It consists of n.dx turns. We know the expression for field due a to a circular element
at a point on its axis-

Z l

-
l

For

- l

( m = NIA)
r

This is also the magnetic field for a bar magnet a point far on its axis (obtained experimentally). Thus, a bar magnet
and a solenoid produce similar magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is thus equal to that of an
equivalent solenoid which produces the same magnetic field.

S
Magnetic pole strength/ Magnetic charge (qm)
1. It is called magnetic charge and is analogous to electric charge| SI unit- A m (ampere-meter)
2. It depends on area of cross-section and intensity of magnetization
3. North pole has a magnetic charge +qm and south pole has -qm
4. Magnetic moment of a bar magnet of length 2L can be written as –

5. Consider a solenoid of length L, current I and n no of turns per unit length. Its magnetic moment can be
written as-

Also-

Equa+ng both-

6. The magnetic field strength due to qm at a distance can be written as-

s
Dipole in a uniform magnetic field (PYQ 2013)
Consider a magnetic needle of magnetic moment m and moment of inertia I kept in a magnetic field B making an
angle θ with the field. The needle experiences a torque which is given by-
Ann
Titian . .
 Where τ is restoring torque (-ve sign indicates that torque is restoring) which can be written as-

For small angular displacements (θ→0), sinθ→θ therefore,

-
①

This represents simple harmonic motion-

-
②

Comparing both equations, we get-

Important PYQs ¥i÷¥7

Ques: A small compass needle of magnetic moment m is free to turn about an axis perpendicular to the direction
magnetic field B. The moment of inertia of the needle is I. the needle is slightly displaced from the
equilibrium position and released. Prove that it executes SHM and hence find its Time period (PYQ 2013)
[3M]

Ans: (Exactly as given above)

Potential energy of dipole in magnetic field

:
Potential energy of dipole in magnetic field can be calculated similar to that in electrostatic field. the potential
energy (U) is given by-

Note: -The zero of potential energy is taken when the dipole is perpendicular to the field i.e. θ=90°
-Potential energy is minimum at θ=0° (stable equilibrium) | maximum at θ=180° (unstable equilibrium).

Electrostatic analogue
The equation for magnetic field due to bar magnet of moment m can be obtained from the equation of field due to
an electric dipole of moment p by making the following replacements

E → B | p → m | 1/4πε˳ → µ˳/4π
April
Thirst . .
 The field at equatorial position (BE) of a bar magnet at a distance r (r>>L), where L is the length of the magnet-

The field at axial position (BA) of a bar magnet at a distance r (r>>L), where L is the length of the magnet-

assay

Gauss’ law in Magnetism (PYQ 2019)

:
Gauss’ law in magnetism states that the net flux through any closed surface is zero

This follows from the fact that magnetic field lines always form closed loops so for any given Gaussian surface, the
no of field lines entering the surface will be equal to the number of field lines exiting the surface. Gauss’ law for
magnetism is a reflection of the fact that magnetic monopoles do not exist.

Earth’s Magnetism
- The earth’s magnetic field is thought to arise due to electric currents produced by convection and rotation of
molten metallic fluids (nickel and iron) in the outer core of the earth. This is known as the dynamo effect.
- The magnetic field lines of the earth resemble that of a hypothetical magnetic dipole located at the center of the
earth. The axis of this dipole is at angle of 11.3° to the axis of rotation of the earth.
- The pole near the geographical north pole is called the north magnetic pole and that near the geographical south
pole is called the south magnetic pole
- But the field lines enter the earth from the north magnetic pole and exit from the south magnetic pole. This
convention came around because magnetic north was the direction in which the north pole of a magnet pointed.
- Thus, in reality the north magnetic pole of earth behaves like the south pole of a bar magnet and vice-versa.

Nm

Nsm
Atkins . .
 Let us define some terms-
1. Geographic meridian- At a given place, it is the plane containing the longitude and the Earth’s axis
2. Magnetic meridian- At a given place it is a vertical plane containing a freely suspended magnet
3. Declination (θ)- At a given place, it is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian.
Declination is greater near high latitudes and smaller near the equator.
For e.g. A declination of 10° west means magnetic north is 10° west of geographic north.

Declina7on or Geographic meridian

Magne7c
meridian

Earth’s magnetic field-

- At magnetic south, is vertically upwards
- At magnetic north, is vertically downwards
- At equator, is parallel to the surface
- In southern hemisphere, is inclined above the horizontal
- In northern hemisphere, is inclined below the horizontal

s
Inclination/ Dip (𝛿) (PYQ 2020, 2013, 2012)
It is the angle that a freely suspended magnet makes with the horizontal. The earth’s magnetic field BE at a point can
be resolved into a horizontal component HE and a vertical component ZE. The angle that BE makes with HE is the angle
of dip 𝛿
At poles,
At equator,

Convention- Dip in the northern hemisphere is positive | southern hemisphere is negative

Geographic meridian
a
Declina7on
8 HE
Dip Magne7c meridian

BE
F-

Note: Dip needle- it is a compass pivoted to move in a vertical circle containing the magnetic field of the earth.

Important PYQs
i÷÷E?
.
Ques: Earth’s magnetic field and the angle of dip at a point is 0.3G and 30°. Calculate the vertical component of
Earth’s magnetic field. (PYQ 2020) [1M]

Ans:

¥ Ques: A compass needle free to turn in the vertical plane, orients itself vertically at a certain place on the earth.
.

Calculate (i) the horizontal component 0f earth’s magnetic field (ii) the angle of dip (PYQ 2013) [2M]

Ans:

Any
Thirst . .
 Ques: The horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field at a point is B and the angle of dip is 60°. What is the
vertical component? (PYQ 2012) [1M]

Ans:

S
Time period of oscillation in earth’s magnetic field
For a compass in the horizontal plane-

S
Neutral Points (NCERT back Ques 5.13, 5.14, 5.18)
Neutral points are those points where field due toa magnet cancels out the horizontal component of Earth’s
magnetic field at that point

Case I:
HE w
E

v
s
w v

:B
- The field due to the magnet will be opposite to HE along the axial line
- There will be two neutral points

Case 2:

HE w
E
B
S

:B
- Field due to the magnet will be opposite to HE in the equatorial plane
- There will be infinite neutral points

Any
Thirst . .
 NCERT BACK EXERCISES
¥:¥÷?

Ans 5.13 We know that for a Bar magnet- 5.14 This is similar to case 2 men7oned above
① From the previous part we know that-

ATQ,
-

Equa7ng 1,2

Now, ATQ
-

Also, we know-
-
④

From 3,4

(On the perpendicular bisector)

( in the direc7on of Earth’s field)

co

G. M
M N
M -

BE
= 2 -5 A
f .

18 .

100
W .
•
E
w
•

B
•

Anti
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 Ans: We know field due to an infinite current element-
Therefore, the line of null points will be parallel to the
wire at a distance of 1.5 cm above the wire (using right
ATQ, hand rule)

To obtain null point we equate the two-

S
3 Magnetic vectors
1. Magnetization vector (M or I) – It is a characteristic of material. The magnetic moment of various electrons
in a bulk material can add up vectorially and give a non-zero net magnetic moment. The magnetization of a
sample is defined as the net magnetic moment per unit volume| SI unit- A m-1

2. Magnetic field intensity (H)- it is a characteristic of field| SI unit- A m-1

3. Magnetic field/ Magnetic induction vector (B)- it is a characteristic of field| SI Unit – Tesla

s
Relation between H, B, M
The magnetic field in the interior of a solenoid is given by-
If the interior of the solenoid is filled with a material with non-zero magnetization, the field inside the solenoid will
be greater than B˳. the net field B may be expressed as-

Where Bm is the field contributed by the material core. It is found that this additional field is directly proportional to
M-

Also,

Here we see that the net magnetic field inside the solenoid is due to factors. One, due to external factors like
current in the solenoid which is represented by H, and two, due to nature of magnetic material represented by M.
mathematically, we can write-

Where χm is a dimensionless quantity called magnetic susceptibility. So, we can write-

Where

Magnetic susceptibility (χm) (PYQ 2018)

It is a measure of how magnetic materials respond to external magnetic field.
For paramagnetic materials χm is small and positive| for diamagnetic materials χm is small and negative
Amu
Titian
. .
 Relative magnetic permeability (µr)
It is a dimensionless quantity given by-

It is the analog of dielectric constant in electrostatics. The magnetic permeability of a substance thus can be written
as-

S Calculating H due to various magnetic configurations

1. Due to solenoid
Consider a solenoid with number of turns per unit length n and carrying current I. We know,

Also,

Equa7ng

2. Due to toroid
Consider a toroid of total turns N and current I. we know,

Also,

Equa7ng

Note: Even if the solenoid or toroid are filled with a magnetic material the value of B will change but H will remain
the same. Therefore, we can say that H is the property of the geometry and NOT the material.

s
Magnetizing current (Im)
It is the additional amount of current that needs to be passed through the windings of the solenoid in absence of the
core which would give the value of B as in the presence of the core i.e.-

NCERT EXAMPLE ¥÷÷i3

.

o
Ques: A solenoid has a core of material with relative permeability 400. The windings of the solenoid are insulated
from the core and carry a current of 2A. if the number of turns is 1000 per meter, calculate a) H b) M c) B d)
magnetizing current. (NCERT e.g. 5.10)

I
Ans: a) b)

c)

d)

Amn
Thirst . .
S Magnetic Properties of materials (PYQ 2019, 2018, 2012)

1. Diamagnetism
- The substances which are weakly repelled by magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances
- They move from a region of stronger field to a weaker field.
- The resultant magnetic moment of a diamagnetic atom is zero.
- E.g. Bismuth, Copper, Lead, Silicon, Nitrogen (STP), Water, NaCl
Explanation for diamagnetism-
When an external field is applied, the electrons having orbital magnetic moment slow down and those having that in
the opposite direction speed up (this happens in accordance with Lenz’ law). Therefore, the substance develops a
net magnetic moment is the direction opposite to the external field and hence is repelled.
Susceptibility of diamagnetic materials- It is small and negative. It is independent of temperature.

Xm

I
Diamagne7c

Superconductors- They are the most exotic diamagnetic materials. They are metals which when cooled to very low
temperatures exhibit perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here, the magnetic field lines are completely
expelled out of the substance. For a superconductor-
= -1

The phenomenon of diamagnetism in super conductors is called Meissner effect. They are used to make
magnetically levitated superfast trains.

2. Paramagnetism
- They are substances which weakly magnetized when kept in an external field. They are weakly attracted towards
the field
- They move from a region of weak field to strong field
- E.g. Aluminum, Sodium, Calcium, Oxygen (STP), Copper Chloride

Explanation
The individual atoms/ions/molecules of a paramagnetic material have a permanent magnetic dipole moment. In the
absence of an external field, due to random thermal motion of the constituent atoms, the net magnetic moment of a
paramagnetic material is zero. But, in the presence of an external field B˳ and at low temperatures, the magnetic
moments of constituent atoms align in the direction of field and we get a net magnetic moment in the direction of
external field. The field lines get concentrated inside the material and the field inside the material gets enhanced.

Amn
Titian . .
Susceptibility-
For paramagnetic materials, it is small and positive

Curie’s Law
The susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to Absolute temperature i.e.

(Where C is called Curie’s constant)

Note: As the field is increased or the temperature is lowered, the magnetization increases until it reaches its
saturation MS at which point the dipoles are perfectly aligned with the field. Beyond this point, curie’s law is no
longer valid.

3. Ferromagnetism
- They are materials which get strongly magnetized when placed in an external magnetic field.
- They move from region of weak field to region of strong field i.e. they are strongly attracted

Explanation-
The constituent atoms/ions/molecules of ferromagnetic substances possess a permanent dipole moment and they
align themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic volume called domain (a domain contains about 10 11
atoms). In absence of external field, the orientation of the domains is random and hence there is no net magnetic
moment. In the presence external field, the domains orient themselves in its direction. Hence, the field inside the
ferromagnet becomes stronger and the field lines inside become extremely dense

-
External field

Domain

Hard ferromagnets- When external field is removed, in some ferromagnetic substances, the magnetization persists.
E.g. Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminum, nickel, cobalt and copper; Lodestone. They are used to make permanent
magnets like compass needle

Soft ferromagnets- when external field is removed, the magnetization is also removed. E.g. Soft Iron

Susceptibility- for ferromagnetic substances, it is very large and positive

April
Titian. .
 Curie- Weiss Law
At temperatures above Curie Temperature (TC), ferromagnets become paramagnetic. The domain structures
disintegrate with increase in temperature. The susceptibility above the curie temperature is described as-

(This C is NOT curie’s constant)

=
-

I T
tc

Important PYQs :3
ta
Ques: Two magnetic materials A and B have relative magnetic permeability as 0.96 and 500 resp. Identify A and B
(PYQ 2018) [1M]

Ans: A- diamagnetic (µr<1)

B- ferromagnetic (µr>>1)

Ques: The magnetic susceptibility of a material is -2.6 × 10-5. Identify the material (PYQ 2012) [1M]

Ans: Since χm < 0, it is diamagnetic

s
Hysteresis curve
Hysteresis means ‘lagging behind’. Let us study the relation between B and H. Consider a unmagnetized
ferromagnetic substance kept inside a solenoid.
- As the current in the solenoid is increased, the value of B also rises and becomes saturated as shown in the curve
oa. At this point all the domains are aligned with external field.
- Now, when H (or I) is decreased to zero, we see that B does not come down to 0, represented with curve ab. The
value of B at H=0 is called retentivity or remanence
- Next, the current in solenoid is increased in the opposite direction till the value of B becomes 0, represented by
curve bc. The value of H when B=0 is called coercivity.
- Therefore, we conclude that for a given value of H, B is not unique but depends on the previous history of the
sample. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
- The area under B-H curve of hysteresis cycle gives loss of energy per unit volume during a cycle of magnetization
and demagnetization.

t.mu
Thirst . .
S
Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets (PYQ 2017, 2013)
1. Permanent magnets-
Substances which at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic property for a long period of time are called
permanent magnets.

Preparation- 1. Hammering an iron rod kept in the north-south direction

2. Stroking a steel rod with one end of a bar magnet in the same sense repeatedly.
3. Placing a ferromagnet in the center of a solenoid and pass a current. The magnetic field of the solenoid
magnetizes the rod

Properties of materials used as permanent magnets-

1. High retentivity- so that magnet is strong
2. High coercivity- so magnetization is not removed by stray fields, temp fluctuations or minor mechanical damage.
3. High permeability
e.g.- steel, alnico, Cobalt steel and ticonal (alnico + Titanium)
3. Electromagnets
They are ferromagnetic materials which are made into magnets by passing a current through it using a coil

Properties of materials used to make electromagnets-

1. High permeability
2. Low retentivity
e.g. soft iron
3. The area under hysteresis curve should be small so that loss of energy in cycle of magnetization and
demagnetization is less e.g. in the case of transformer cores and telephone diaphragm
4. high resistivity- to lower eddy current losses

Uses- electric bells, loudspeakers, telephone diaphragm, cranes.

Apna
Tinian. .
MOvInG ChArGeS
& MaGnEtIsM
Classmate
-
BEST NOTES
-
All Previous
Year Q 's

ApNIKAkSHA_
• o

ignoring
✓

@
 tf MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM s

s
Oersted’s experiments
Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current carrying wire caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby magnetic
compass needle. On conducting a few experiments, he found that-
- The compass needle aligns tangentially to an imaginary circle at the center of which is the current carrying wire
and whose plane is perpendicular to the wire.
- Reversing the direction of current, reverses the direction of orientation of the compass needle.
- The deflection increases on bring the wire closer to the needle or increasing the current.
- Iron filings sprinkled around the wire, arrange themselves in concentric circles with the wire as the center.

Conclusion- Moving charges or currents produce a magnetic field in the surrounding space.

Note: Important convention-

Current emerging out of the plane is depicted by a dot ••
| going into the plane is depicted by a cross

Magnetic field (B)

:
Like static charges produce electrostatic field, moving charges produce both electrostatic and magnetic field.
It is a vector quantity| SI Unit- Tesla (T) or Webber meter-2 (Wb m-2)|cgs unit- Gauss(G) 1G = 10-4 T

Principle of superposition of magnetic field

Total magnetic field at point due to multiple sources is the vector sum of all magnetic field of each individual source.

Magnetic force (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016, 2014, 2013, 2011)
1. Magnetic Force on a moving, charged particle
The magnetic force Fb on charge q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is given as-

- It depends on q, v, and B. Force on a negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge

- The magnetic force q (v × B) includes a vector product of velocity and magnetic field. So, force will always be
perpendicular to v and B. Direction of force is given by cross product rule or Flemings’ left-hand rule
- Since Fb is perpendicular to v, the work done by magnetic force is always zero.
i.e. in a magnetic field, speed of particle remains constant, only the direction of velocity can change.
- Magnetic force becomes zero when v = 0 i.e. only moving charges can experience magnetic force.
- Magnetic force depends on the frame of reference.
- Magnetic force becomes zero when v is parallel to B i.e. when particle is moving along or opposite to the field, it
experiences no magnetic force.

Case 1: v is perpendicular to B
If a charged particle moving with velocity v enters a '

Magnetic field B perpendicularly, the force acts such

T q
That the particle moves in a circular path (see fig) with ••
I

Be
The same speed v.
Let radius of circle be r. The magnetic force that the
→
Particle experiences provides the centripetal force B
'

FI • B
Required to move in the circle. Therefore, we can write-
q
E

(Where p is momentum, KE is kinetic energy and V is potential difference)

 Time period of the particle is independent of speed and radius of the particle i.e. if a charged particle of mass m and
charge q enters a magnetic field with different velocities, in each case its time period remains same.

Note: Use the following table to quickly solve the questions asking you to compare Time period and radius of various
charged particles in magnetic fields!

Proton Electron Alpha particle Deuteron

Charge +e -e +2e +e
Mass m m/1840 4m 2m
Important PYQs
¥¥¥÷i7
.

¥ Ques: An alpha particle is accelerated through a potential difference of 10kV and moves along the x-axis. It enters in
.

a region of uniform magnetic field B= 2 × 10-3 T acting along the Y-axis. Find the radius of its path. (mass of alpha
particle = 6.4 × 10-27 kg) (PYQ 2020) [3M]

Ans:

¥ Ques: An alpha particle and a proton of the same kinetic energy are allowed are in turn allowed to pass through a
.

magnetic field B, acting normal to the direction of the motion of the particles. Calculate the ratio of radii of the
circular paths described by them. (PYQ 2019) [1M]

Ans:
P

¥ Ques: a) Write the expression for the magnetic force acting on a charged particle moving with velocity v in the
.

presence of magnetic field B

b) A neutron, an electron and an alpha particle moving with equal velocities, enter a uniform magnetic field going
into the plane of the paper as shown in the fig. Trace their trajectories and justify your answer. (PYQ 2016)

Ans: a) F = q (v × B)
b) The neutron will not be deflected as it is neutral in nature. The electron and the alpha particle will go around
circular trajectories (since they enter perpendicular to the field). However, they will be deflected in opposite
directions as they are oppositely charged, however they both wont be able to complete their circular
trajectories as they will exit the field.
- Ques: A proton and deuteron having equal momenta enter a region of uniform magnetic field at right angle to the
direction of the field. Depict their trajectories in the field. (PYQ 2013) [2M]

Ans: They will both move in circular trajectories.

D
p

Case 2: v is inclined to B at an angle θ

If a charge q enters a magnetic field at an angle other than 90°
It will not move in a perfect circular path. Instead it will move in USino → →
V B
A helical path. This can be explained by resolving the velocity into
Components. The component parallel to field will experience no
)O
Force and hence continue moving in the same straight path. The V cos O

Component perpendicular to the field will experience a force due

To which the charge will move in a circle. The net result of these two
Will result in a helical trajectory of the charge.

To calculate the radius, we will take the perpendicular component only hence-

Pitch- it is the forward distance moved in one complete revolution. Only the parallel component will contribute to
the pitch hence-

f :/
"

" " "

÷
.

Pitch
Important PYQ ¥E÷Ff
.

Ques: Two protons of equal kinetic energies enter a region of uniform magnetic field. The first proton enters normal
to the field direction while the other enters at angle of 30° to the field direction. Name the trajectories followed by
them. (PYQ 2018) [1M]

Ans: The first will go around in a circular trajectory and the other will go in a helical path.

Motion in combined electromagnetic field/ Lorentz force (PYQ 2014, 2011)

Consider a charge q moving with velocity v in a region with both electric E and magnetic field B. the charge will
experience both electrostatic and magnetic force. This was first given by H.A. Lorentz therefore it is called Lorentz
force.
 Important PYQs i¥÷7.

Ques: Write the expression, in a vector form, for the Lorentz magnetic force F due to a charge moving with velocity v
in a magnetic field B. What is the direction of force? (PYQ 2014)

Ans: F = q (v × B). The magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to both v and B.

-
Ques: Write the expression, in a vector form, for the Lorentz magnetic force F due to a charge moving with velocity v
in a magnetic field B. Show that no work is done by this force on the charged particle (PYQ 2011)

Ans: F = q (v × B). Since the force acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charged particle, no work is
done by this force.
W = F.s = F.s cos90°= 0

S Velocity selector (PYQ 2017)

Consider the following situation where the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and to the
velocity of the particle. From the figure we can see that-
→
E

'
F
E

(If net F =0)

•••• v→
q

Tf Fri
•••

So, we can balance the value of E and B such that the two forces become equal and since they act in opposite
directions, they will cancel out and the charged particle moves undeflected.
This condition can be used to select particles of a particular velocity out of a beam containing charges moving with
different speeds. Therefore, the crossed (perpendicular) E and B fields act as a velocity selector.

Use: 1) used by JJ Thomson to calculate e/m ratio of electron

aaa to mass ratio
2) used in a Mass spectrometer- device that separates charges, usually ions according to their charged

s
Cyclotron

It is a device used to accelerate charged particles or ions to high energies

Construction
It consists of two semicircular disc-like metal containers D1 and D2 separated by a small distance which are called
dees as they look like the letter D. It also contains an oscillator which produces an oscillating electric field. The
cyclotron makes use of crossed electric and magnetic field to increases the energy of charged particles
 Principle
A cyclotron works on the principle that the time taken by an ion to complete one revolution in its orbit is
independent of the speed or radius of its orbit.
Working
Inside the dees, the particle is shielded as no electric field acts on it. The magnetic field acts on the charged particle
and makes it go in a circular trajectory. Every time the charged particle moves out of one of the dees, it is acted upon
by the electric field. The direction of electric field changes in tune with the circular motion of the charge such that it
is always accelerated by the electric field. Each time the charge is accelerated, its energy increases and hence its
radius increases as well. So, it moves in a spiral trajectory. The increase in kinetic energy of the particle is qV (V is
potential difference across the dees at that time) every time it crosses one of the dees. These ions are repeatedly
accelerated till they have enough energy to have a radius approximately that of the dees. They are then directed by
a magnetic field and leave the system through an exit slit.
Calculations
When positively charged particles like protons are released in the center of the dees, they move in a semicircular
Path in one of the dees and then arrive in the gap between them in a time interval T/2 which is given by-

This frequency is known as the cyclotron frequency. The frequency of the applied voltage is adjusted such that the
polarity of the dees is reversed in the same time that the particle takes to complete one half revolution i.e.
frequency of applied voltage = cyclotron frequency. This condition is called resonance condition.
We can also calculate kinetic energy of the ions-

Uses-
1. Bombard nuclei with energetic particles to study nuclear reactions.
2. To implant ions in solids to modify their properties or synthesize new materials.
3. Used in hospitals to produce radioactive substances used in diagnosis and treatment.

2. Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor

Consider a rod of length l and uniform cross-sectional are A. Let the number of electrons per unit volume be n. So
total number of electrons will be N=nlA. Let drift velocity of electrons be vd. So, the total magnetic force on the
electrons moving inside the conductor will be-
F = (nlA)e vd × B
Now, from the previous chapter we know that ne vd is the current density j and neA vd is the current I. So-

F = (ne vd) Al × B = jAl × B

F = Il × B
Where l is a vector of magnitude equal to the length of the conductor and direction as that of the current I

Note: Current is not a vector, we transferred the vector sign from j to I(current)

S Biot- Savart Law/ Magnetic field due to a current element (PYQ 2020,2019,2018,2017,2012)
Consider a current carrying conductor carrying current I. Consider an infinitesimal element dl of the conductor. The
magnetic field produced due this element at a point at a distance r from the wire is directly proportional to the
magnitude of current, the length dl and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r. Its direction is
perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r. Mathematically, we can write-

q••
 Where µ˳/4π is a constant of proportionality (the above expression holds when the medium is vacuum)

Permeability of free space (µ˳)

Magnetic permeability is the ability of a substance to acquire magnetization in magnetic fields. It is a measure of the
extent to which magnetic field can penetrate matter.
µ˳/4π = 10-7 Tm A-1
Relation between ε˳ and µ˳

(Where c is speed of light in vacuum)

Similarities between Coulomb’s Law and Biot- Savart Law

- Both are long range forces since both depend inversely to the square of the distance.
- The principle of superposition applies to both the fields
- Both magnetic and electrostatic fields are linear in their sources (I dl and electric charge resp)

Differences-
Magnetic force Coulombic force
Produced by a vector source I dl Produced by a scalar source
Field is perpendicular to the plane containing the Field is along displacement vector joining the source
displacement vector r and the current source dl and the point of interest
There is an angle dependence There is no angle dependence

s
Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2017,2012)
Consider a current carrying loop of radius R and current I placed in y-z plane. We want to calculate the field at a
point P on the x axis at a distance x from the center of the loop. Consider a differential element dl of the loop. Using
Biot-savart law-

For N turns of coil

( due to symmetry)

J
Field at center
 n n
' " H
-
road
•
*
O

Direction of magnetic field due to current carrying loop (Right hand thumb rule)
The direction of magnetic field is given by the right-hand thumb rule ‘curl the palm of your right hand around the
circular wire with the fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand thumb gives the direction of the
magnetic field.’

Important PYQs
t÷÷3
⇐
Ques: Two identical circular coils, P and Q each of radius R carry current 1A and √3A resp, are placed concentrically
and perpendicular to each other lying in the XY and YZ planes. Find the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic
field at the center of the coils. (PYQ 2017) [2M]

Ans:
Bp
B
WEA
YO
BQ
GEA IA

-
Ques: Two circular coils P and Q of radius R carrying current I, are placed perpendicularly such that they have a
common center as shown in the fig. find the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at the center of the
two coils (PYQ 2012) [2M]

Ans:
Bp

Fu
Bo
,
S
Field due to straight current carrying wire (using integration)
Consider a straight current carrying wire carrying current I. We want to calculate the magnetic field due to the wire
at a point P a distance r from the wire. Consider a differential element dlg of the wire at a distance x from P

\
k

dyt Y
I
o ,

y r g .

/
H E
o '

In

Using Biot-Savart Law

Case 1: If point is at middle of wire-

=

C:L =p )

From the triangle

Case 2: at mid point of infinite wire- 3 f f Ha
⇐ a =p 907 -
-

Case3: at one end of finite wire-

C. F- o )

Case4: at one end of infinite wire-

4114 HE
I
(:p -=qoy
=
- o
,
L

=
←

Direction of magnetic field due to current carrying wire (Right Hand Rule)
Hold the wire in your right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of the current, then the direction in
which the fingers curl gives the direction of magnetic field.

(
o•

I
Important PYQs i÷÷?
Ques:

gggggggggggyggg-tT ca -

footpaths
(PYQ 2020) [3M]

Ans: (upwards)

(downwards)

(upwards)

Ques: D C

-ogggTrTTtt
pggg@TEgEGf (PYQ 2019) [2 M]
A B

Ans: Let us calculate the force on AB. Since field is variable across AB, consider a
differenHal element dl at distance l from the wire. Force on it-

'
D c

F
F

! ÷÷÷÷÷
f

a.
.

(Upwards)
AB

Similarly force on CD-

(Downwards)
CD

Field along DA and BC will be constant hence-

(Towards right)

(Towards right)

.::
(Towards le=)
BGC
S Ampere’s Circuital Law (ACL) (PYQ 2015, 2014, 2011, 2010)
The integration of a magnetic field along a closed loop is equal to µ˳ times the total current passing through
the surface of the loop.

Sign convention-
Let the fingers of your right hand be curled in the sense that the boundary is traversed in the loop integral. Then the
direction of the thumb gives the sense in which the current I is regarded as positive.

Conditions where Ampere’s circuital law is helpful-

÷
1. B is tangential to the loop and is a•anon zero constant
2. B is normal to the loop
3. B vanishes

S Field due to infinite straight current carrying wire (using ACL)

Consider an infinitely long straight conducting wire with current I. we want to calculate the magnetic field at a point
P at a distance r from the wire. Consider an Amperian loop of radius r with the wire at its center.

From ACL,

- The field at every point on a circle of radius r is same i.e. the magnetic field due to a long straight current
carrying wire has cylindrical symmetry
- The direction of the field at any point on the circle is tangential to it. Thus, the field lines of constant magnitude
form concentric circles
- Even though the wire is infinite, the field due to it at finite distance is not infinite. It only blows up when we
come very close to the wire.
- Direction of field is given by right hand rule
* Right hand rule and Right hand Thumb rule are NOT the same

Note: - Ampere’s circuital law is to Biot-savart law what Gauss’s law is to Coulomb’s law. ACL and Gauss’ law relate a
physical quantity on the boundary (electric or magnetic field) to another physical quantity.
- Ampere’s law holds for steady currents which do not fluctuate with time.

Important PYQ ¥ ?÷sE3

.
Ques: a long straight wire of circular cross section (radius a) carrying steady current I. the current I is uniformly
distributed across this cross section. Calculate the magnetic field in the region i) r < a and ii) r > a (PYQ 2010)
Ans: 1) For r>a 332 Graph

÷
For r<a
Let Be the current per unit area-

Consider amperian loop 1

(A is area)

Solenoid (PYQ 2015, 2014, 2011)

It is a piece of equipment which generates magnetic field. It consists of an insulated conducting wire which is wound
(like a helix) around a core. For an ideal solenoid-
- The windings are tightly placed
- The length of the solenoid is very large as compared to its radius
- Field outside the solenoid is negligibly small
- Field around the middle region of its length is uniform and constant
- Direction of field is given by right hand rule
- Field can be made stronger by inserting a soft iron core inside the solenoid (PYQ 2011)

Magnetic field inside a solenoid (using ACL)

Consider the following solenoid with number of turns per unit length as n, current I. Consider a rectangular
Amperian loop ABCD (with AB=l)

•!a Be
 qq@sE.I
° °

( since BC, DA are To B)

(Since CD is outside solenoid and field is negligible)

agog
goes €8

Using ACL,

enc

(Since current in each turn is I)

Important PYQs ¥E÷?7

"
" Ques:

Ans: i) inside
Field due to inner solenoid-
(PYQ 2014) [3M]

DirecHon- towards le= if n > n and vice versa

. .
t.BA
(Towards le=)
ii) field outside the system will be negligible
Field due to outer solenoid-

(Towards right)

Net field-

Ques: An observer to the left of a solenoid of N turns and crosse section area A observes that a steady current I flows
in the clockwise direction. Depict the field lines due to the solenoid specifying its polarity. (PYQ 2015)

Go #
#
OBSERVER

s Toroid (PYQ 2015, 2011)

The toroid is hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound. It can be viewed as a
solenoid which has been bent in a circular shape to close on itself.
Consider the following toroid of inner radius a and outer radius b with current I and total turns N
 Amperian loops
Toroid
Field

Consider the following 3 Amperian loops

enc

enc ( no current is enclosed)

(Current coming out of the plane is

enc
cancelled by that going into the plane)

Force between two parallel currents (PYQ 2018, 2016, 2011)

Consider two long, parallel conductors A and B separated by a distance d. A carries a current IA and B carries a
current IB (in the same direction). The conductor A produces a field Ba at all points along B. the direction of the field
will be downwards (conductors placed horizontally). From cross product rule, we can see that the direction of force
will be towards the left. From Ampere’s circuital law-

Everybody Gangsta

The force (Fba) on segment of length L of wire B can written as-

Till the real gangsta arrives

Similarly, the wire A will also experience an equal force (Fab) but in the opposite direction (towards right). Using
Newton’s third law of motion-

Note: Parallel currents attract, antiparallel currents repel (can be verified by cross product or Fleming’s left-hand
rule)
 Force per unit length (fba)
let fba be the magnitude of force Fba per unit length L. so we can write-

S The Ampere
The above expression can be used to define the ampere (A). ‘An ampere is that value of steady current which when
flows in each of the two long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross section, placed one meter apart in
vacuum, produces on each of these conductors a force of • 24× 10-7N per meter of length.’
Similarly, we can define the Si unit of charge-
When a steady current of 1A flows through a conductor, the quantity of charge that flows through it in one second is
1C

Note: An instrument called the current balance is used to measure the force acting on the two long, straight, parallel
conductors.
Important PYQs ¥Ei?

¥ Ques: Two long straight parallel conductors A and B carrying current IA and IB in the same direction are placed a
.

distance d apart. If a third conductor C carrying current Ic in the opposite direction is placed symmetrically in b/w A
and B, calculate the net force on C. (PYQ 2018) [2M]
A c B

Ans: The conductor C will experience repulsive forces from both the
conductors A and B as shown in the figure.
Fc B

B
C
A

FCA

dy
z

s Torque on current carrying loop and magnetic dipole (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2012, 2010)
1. Torque on rectangular current loop in magnetic field
A loop carrying steady current I in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque. It does not experience a net force
(analogous to behavior of dipole in electric field). This can be shown as-
a. Field is in the plane of the loop
Consider a rectangular loop ABCD carrying current I, kept in a magnetic field as shown-
Force on AD and BC will be zero as field along their length (sinθ=0)
Force on arm AB will be into the plane and that on CD will be out of
Of the plane. Therefore, net force on the loop will be zero as all forces
Cancel out. But net torque is not zero. Torque can be calculated as-

(A is area of coil)

b. Field is at an angle with the loop

Let the magnetic field B be at angle θ with the perpendicular to the
Area of the loop. The forces on arms BC and DA are equal and opposite
So, they cancel each other out. Also, they are collinear and act along the
axis of the loop and hence produce no torque. The forces on AB and CD
 are also equal and opposite with magnitude-

But since they are not collinear, they produce a couple as in the previous case. The torque acting on the loop can
be written as-

Note: When θ→0, the perpendicular distance b/w the forces also approaches zero, therefore the forces become
collinear and net torque on the loop also becomes zero.

2. Magnetic dipole/ magnetic moment

A current carrying loop of any shape behaves like a magnetic dipole. Consider the following circular loop with
current I and area A and square loop with side L and current I -
e

S N e

Front view Back view I

- The face of the loop with clockwise current acts South Pole| anticlockwise current acts as North pole
We define the magnetic moment(m) of the loop as-

We can also write it in vector form with the help of cross product as-

Where direction of area vector A is given by the right-hand thumb rule| SI unit- Am2
Direction of moment- The direction of magnetic moment of a dipole is from clockwise face (S) to anticlockwise
face (N) (which will always be the same as the direction of the area vector)

The torque on a current carrying loop in magnetic field can also be expressed in terms of its magnetic moment
as-

Note: 1. This is analogous to the torque experienced by an electric dipole kept in an electric field-
2. m parallel to B – stable equilibrium| m antiparallel to B- unstable equilibrium
3. If a loop has N turns, then m = N I A

Important PYQs tines

¥ Ques: A rectangular wire loop of 4cm × 10cm carries a steady current of 2 A. A straight long wire carrying 5A is kept
.

near the loop as shown. If the loop and wire are coplanar then find,
i) The torque on the loop
ii) Magnitude and direction of the net force acting on the loop (PYQ 2012)[3M]

Ans: D C

K
A B

b
 I
I)Torque:

(Towards le=)

2) Force
•B/ /

Similar PYQ ¥i÷7

:

-
Ques: A square loop carrying current I is placed at a distance L next to a
wire carrying current I1 in the same plane. Explain how the loop experiences
no torque but a net force. Write the expression of this force. (PYQ 2010) [3M]

S
Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole
Consider circular loop of radius R, carrying current I. the magnetic field on its axis at a distance x from the center-

Let area of the loop be A. Then, A= πr2. Substituting in 1,

Also, m = IA. Therefore,

This expression is very similar to the expression for electric field due to an electric field at axial position. It can be
seen if we substitute –
µ˳→1/ε˳ | m→p | B→ E

Similarly, the expression for field due to an electric dipole at appoint on the perpendicular bisector is-

If we make the above-mentioned substitutions, we obtain the result for B at a point in the field of the loop, at a
distance x from the center (for x>>R)-

Difference b/w electric and magnetic dipole

 An electric dipole is built up of two elementary units- charges/ electric monopoles but in magnetism, the magnetic
dipole (any current carrying loop) is the most elementary element i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist.

Note: - We seen that a current carrying loop i) produces a magnetic field and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large
distances ii) experiences a torque in external magnetic field like a magnetic needle. This led Ampere to believe that
all magnetism is due to circulating currents, which is partly true.
- Electrons and protons also carry an intrinsic magnetic moment, which is not due to any circulating current.

S
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
Consider the situation shown in the fig. Due to the revolving electron,
A current is setup in the opposite direction which is given by-
I= e/T
Where T is the time period of the electron.

Substituting value of T, we get-

egg
We know -
(Where L is angular momentum of electron)

(since current flows in opposite direction)

The ratio µ/L is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value is 8.8×1010 C/kg for an electron.
From Bohr’s model of an atom we know that angular momentum of an electron is quantized i.e.-
L= nh/2π
Substituting this in the previous expression-

This value is called the Bohr magneton

Note: - Any charge in uniform circular motion will have a magnetic moment associated with it which is called the
orbital magnetic moment
- The electron has another intrinsic magnetic moment, called the spin magnetic moment which has a value of 1
B.M (Bohr magneton)
- It is not that the electron is spinning. This is because it is an elementary particle and doesn’t have an axis to spin
about, like our earth. But it does have an intrinsic magnetic moment.

s Moving coil galvanometer (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016, 2015, 2011, 2010)
 It is a device which is sensitive to small current
Construction-
It consists of a coil of many turns which is free to rotate about a fixed axis, in a uniform radial magnetic field. It also
consists a soft iron core which makes the field radial and also increases the strength of the magnetic field.
Reasons for a radial field- (PYQ 2020,2019)
Cylindrical magnets are used to generate radial fields so that the magnetic moment of the coil is always
perpendicular to the field.
Principle- (PYQ 2016, 2015, 2011, 2010)
A current carrying loop in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque
Working-
When a current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque of magnitude-

Since field is radial (i.e. perpendicular to the area vector) we take sinθ=1
The galvanometer is fitted with a spring which provides a torque in the opposite direction which balances the
magnetic torque resulting in a steady angular deflection. Let the spring have angle of twist φ and torsional constant
K-

Note- Torsional constant is restoring torque per unit angular displacement.

Current sensitivity of a galvanometer (PYQ 2020,2010)

It is defined as the deflection per unit current -
We can increase the current sensitivity of the galvanometer by increasing the number of turns N of the coil

Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer (2011)

It is defined as the deflection per unit voltage-

We cannot increase voltage sensitivity by increasing the number of turns because if the number of turns increase,
the resistance also increases by the same amount, hence voltage sensitivity remains the same. For e.g.-

S
Galvanometer as an Ammeter (PYQ 2020, 2011, 2010)
The galvanometer cannot be used to measure the current in a circuit as it is because-
i) It gives full scale deflection for currents of the order of µA
ii) For measuring current, it will have to be connected in series and since it has such a high resistance RG , it
will change the value of current in the circuit
To convert the Galvanometer into an ammeter –
We attach a very small resistance rs (called shunt resistance) in parallel with the galvanometer so that most of
the current passes through the shunt. Since both are in parallel, the resistance of the combination is-
AG

⑧
S
Galvanometer as a Voltmeter (PYQ 2015)
Galvanometer can also be converted to a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across a section of the
circuit for which it must be connected in parallel to the circuit and draw very less current. To achieve this, we attach
a large resistance R in series with the galvanometer- •o•

GG

Important PYQs iE÷Ef

a
Ques: An ammeter of resistance 0.80Ω can measure current up to 1.0 A
1. What must be the value of the shunt resistance to enable the ammeter to measure current up to 5A?
2. What is the combined resistance of the ammeter and the shunt (PYQ 2013) [2M]

The current should split as shown. Since both are in parallel

Rg
Mr
-

IA

bA R
JA
g

4A

Rs
 CHAPTER # L : Electric Charges and Fields
# Coulomb 's law of Electrostatics :( In vector form)
consider two distance o !
q and q separated by
'

where ,
charges + -

F)2 force exerted on q by 92

⑨-Ñ
=
,

Fa force exerted
on
qz by 9s ma
=
F. ⊕ ← .

,
I
FI 1<-181 -

kq.iq#r?-rI )
i. =

¥ñ
=%÷f ⇐ ñ=¥ ) ,

¥: ::::
brackets # ET

=¥÷ :÷÷ ,
i :* .

Ñ2Ñt

E.
,k¥÷ 'ñ-ñ Heme PED
: =
>

similarly ,
Force applied by FI ,
FI
=kq;,9÷(É%
=%÷ I
:÷÷,
=

FI
,!%;→cñ-ñ Peᵈ
÷ =
>

Hence
Here ,
we can
clearly observe that → FI = -
FI ,
i. e- 3rd law of newton is valid in
electrostatics also .

# Electric Field due to dipole on axis : →

P
we have two
a
opposite charges separated by
distance of 21 ; which makes it a dipole
'

.
⑦ -
l→ I
← →
④ - - - - - - - -

A is a random point on axis at a distance

g- ate +721¥ '
ayaan sit
'

ÑN→
from centre of dipole
' '
r IT
teacher impress 1
.

Now Field due to ' -9 ' A E-

-1T¥,
at →
5-
,
,

' '
Field due to 1- +
similarly +9 at A
,k÷e,
- =

, g. ,
 So , Net Field f- f-qtftq

=÷÷ii÷ .

=
-Ñq( 8+172
( (rtl) (8-1)/2
2kPr
21%21%-2
=

WI

Now denominator ,
, if 8 >> l ,
we can
ignore 12 in the

E-
=2¥
E-
21¥ µenie%¥ "
"

field due to dipole equitorial line :

'
# Electric on ,
"
,

E-
q=¥→ 1-+9=4%2
'
,
i
.

, .
,

%
C-net =
J+E+iE -q e-e-
it
e- e→

=¥÷i¥÷;iÑ " +nisa ,

Hypo TH (
__
d
°
: pytha)

¥+2 ②
so cos ②

÷÷+÷÷:i
= -

,
= ,

JY¥ f+•
=

11,2%+97,12121050=(71+10520--2105-0)
(2%+1-4152)
= cos ⊖

putting lose here from ② ,

Enet
-1%4%312
=

T.fr > > d ,

12 can be
neglected in the denominator .
 - here
- denotes the direction which
resign
is anti-parallel
-kg¥
Hence, f-
direction of dipole / veto +ve)
=

PIM
to -

Hence
#
Torque on
dipole in external field : _

_*÷ .

Figure shows an electric dipole with

charges + q& q -

at a
separation of 2L
placed in a uniform electric
field CET .

Dipole makes an
angle ⊖ with electric field .

FT = -

qf →
force on
charge -

F) =

qf
→
force on
charge q

FT = -

Fi
which means the force
direction at the two ends
acting on dipole is equal
will behave
in
like
magnitude and opposite in
Therefore
.
it a
couple .

As couple Ps on
acting dipole it produces torque
,
so .

either force )
we know ,
I = ( magnitude of ( ✗
to
line
distance
of action
from
of F)
= F ✗ ( BC)

=
qE ✗ (21 sin ⊖ )
I =
PE Sino ( % P=qke ))
E=FxÉ
Pᵈ
Hence
Caste : when ② = 0° % sin 0=0 ; which means K= .

this condition is called stable equilibrium because when the dipole is

displaced from this orientation ,Ptam back to same
configuration .

fassett : when ⊖ -480° .

: sin 1800--0 ; which 12=07 means
condition is called unstable cause once displaced
this equilibrium
the dipole never comes backlothientaninsted it
aligns itself
parallel to the field
_É¥teaur
.

when -0=9-8 af
e✗Pᵗᵈ ☒
"

CEIL : i. sin 90=1 ; which means T.is maximum .

unstable G-
I2&¥ Ñ
F- PEsÉᵈ 1$47
paper

Miguel
II=Pcm→ *
teacher
d- An FEI 34TH /
ot ¥%
 Gauss verification Coulomb's law :
# law
using
late know, the net electric field closed surface B. D) Ps
enclosed by the
through a
¥
times
the net
charge surface .

Hosed =

%÷= § F. dA→

Verification :
According to electric flux ,
☒ § Ed? § Edsco so
c.
=
,
=

intensity of electric field IÉI distance from

;gᵗ
we know at same
,

charge q will remain constant

,

also for spherical surface 0=00

To electric flux : -

∅e =
C- Ads cos 0°

∅ c- =
c-
fgds
( As § ds means area =
4*82)

To ∅e = f 4-11-82 -
②

Coulomb's law 9
Now ,
according to C- =

{◦ %
( putting in ②, we
get :-
c- "*
∅e=¥¥×
A- =

¥9
◦
og Ole =

i. ✗ ( enclosed charge)
Have
Pwᵈ
# Electric field due to a
straight long charged
08
conductor

Electric field due to a line of density'd!

straight uniformly charged infinite*
'
'
Consider
part of length l uniform
↑
a on this
conductor .
c- 1-
So Gaussian surface will be cylindrical in 1 A
,
this case . d I

-
#
Let
As
direction
da be the small areas
conductor is positively
of E- field will
on

charged
be
the
this "

,
't""
| ; !
radially
,

outwards .

1
I ×

da
Now
, ∅ / c- DA
,
= cos ⊖ G- 90T
=
,
1
i
1

02 =/ EDA [⊖ 90° )
-
o
cos ⊖

[
=

Here A- linear charge den

∅ =/
.

( 0=0]
,
C- DA cos ⊖
} 12=9/1

Hence Netflix ,
÷ One + =
∅ -102+0}
,

=
ffda cos 90 +
ffdA cos 90° -1
/EDA cost
= 0 + 0 +
SEDA
∅ =
C- A

i.
[ Total curved area of surface =2ñrl ]
Now Ace to Gauss
.
Law :
,

∅=9÷
from⑦ , C-
(211-8/1) =

1¥ [: gin Al]
__

E-
2¥74 P¥ʳᵈ
=

Hence
Here , we can clearly see
,
C- ✗
±
^

So
Graphically
Eats
÷
, c-

>
# Electric Field due to infinite phage she
!et of density
'
o
'
:
-

¥
+
Ida
T→da
-

¥
- -

± -

d←§
- -
- - - -

'

+ +1

infinitely long charged

with uniform
plane sheet
surface charge
I 1 density → ( o) .

I
_

Gaussian cylinder of of radius

' '
Draw a area 8 .
Take 3 sample small
'
surfaces 'd A at ① ② ,
& ③ .

Total flux , ∅net

=
∅ -10/2+03
,

ffd A cos 0° +
/ C- DA cos 0° / C- DA + cos 90°

=
/ C- DA +
/ C- DA 0 +

=
C- A + C- A
l∅A→ ②

Acc to
gauss
law, ∅
=9g÷ 0¥
from ② d④

oq.t /C---oy-- Pw¥ᵈ

ZEA =

independent of ,
_

↳•
 CHAPTER # 2 : Electric Potential and capacitance
# Potential at a point due to
point charge :

+a
ᵗ→p*
--

charge
'

Let there be P at distance '

from +9
a
point a r .

Electric potential means work done to

bring a unit +
recharge from infinite
to the
point P .

% Wip → a)
=
/ Fext dr
"
=

§ kQ¥
D
dr cos ⊖

[ I 0=180 ]
'

dr
§¥
=
-

KQ cos 180=-1

*•
1¥15
-
=

KQ
f-± t 's ) ]
-

= -

KQ
1- ± I]
=
-

Wtp →
a) ¥=

4¥ ¥
,µueP¥ᵈ
✓ =

ooo
.

# Potential due to dipole :

(a) At a point on axial line :

-9 + q
④-10
•p
- - - - - - -
- - -

a
→

Consider dipole with separated by distance of '2A !

a
charges +94 q a
-

point the axial line at distance from centre of dipole

'

A P dies on a
'
r .

Potential at P due +1 , ✓+
So to
¥ᵈa
=

due to q , V
-_a
- =
-

% Net potential at Pg Vaxial =

µ) + ( V ) .

=4¥aHH¥a )
 =

k9G+aj¥aY*
=

12,91%
Hence Vaxial
¥a2
=

for short dipole ( r >> a)

2s Vania, =
KI
82
proved
# p
Her
iii. Arta
ar y
'

(b) At a point on Equatorial line : ,

'
i.
Let there be
'
P' at distance 's
'

equatorial line
'

point
'

a a on .
'
"
"
' '
'
'

q ↑ + q
so , as in diagram :
a-a 1- a- a-

Potential at P due to +9 4-
!÷g
=

,
due to -9 , V. =

,ka¥ᵈ→
So
,
Net potential at P,
Veg =
(4) ( K) +

=÷→+t÷
lVeg=07_µenoePnᵈ
Hence , electric
potential due to dipole at any point on
eq dine will be
.
0 .

(c) At any arbitrary point :

"
" ^

let A be any distance 's

'
from !
arbitrary point at a o ,

centre of dipole making angle ⊖ with

dipole axis Pcos ⊖
'
an .

Observe the resolve

figure carefully :
If we
④ ☒

dipole moment(F) P
into two
rectangular components -

q
+
q
as shown .
e- a →
Éga →

Then axial line of dipole with

'

point A lies dipole moment pcos -0

"
on
,

potential k(pcg
at due to this
so
,
a
component =

' '
and point A lies on equatorialline of dipole with dipole moment sin-0
p
but as discussed component
above as A is
,
on
eq line
. i.
potential due to this
will be zero .
 Hence , Vnet =kpc +
O

kp
µeneePIeᵈ
V =

# Relation between Electric field and Potential :

Consider two equipotential surface A and B

separated by
_y
a distance of '
da let the potential
'

,
of surface
B be VB=V
and of A be Va =
Vtdv

Now , Work done to displace unit positive charge from Bto A :

dw = Fdr cos 180°

dw =
-

Fdn

( =Ee→j )
As c-

i. C- = F

so , dw = -
Édse -
②

Also , we know dW= q( Va -

VB )
dw-tt.tl/Vtdv-HdW--dv -

④
from ② & - Édx =
dv

E-
date
¥×µuP¥ᵈ
- =
c- = -

# Potential Energy of system of two point charge ( in absence of C- f.)

A-
Initially there were no
charge .
at A and B .

9, 92

Firstly we'll
, bring 9 from ,
• to A .

So work
,
done to place charge 9, to A g WA =
% VA
=
0 [% Va =
0
,
ie -

of static
]
potential energy
charge
Now
,
we'll
bring 92 from • to B (and in this case
q, is already at A)

So ,
potential at B due to % at A ,
VB =

k¥ -
②

% Work done to place 92 at B, WB Ez VB

( from②)
=

94k¥ )
WB =

k9jI
 And as we know
,
sum of work done is equal to the potential energy of system
Potential Energy A)
k9i9÷
% = 0 1-

U
k9÷µwePYᵈ
=

# Potential Energy of a
system of two charges in an external electric field :
-

Let A and B %
potential at be Va and Vis respectively .

Now ,
,

work done to place q ,

at A ,

Wa =
9, Va -
② ( % inHally 92 was not there ) %

Work done to 92 at B
.

place ◦
.

WB =
92 VB t 1<9191 -
④
r

% Net work done ,

W =
WA + WB
9 Va +
9243+1<9%1
=
,

And as we know , this work done is equal to potential energy of system .

U q VA
-192%+1<9%1 proved
=
,

Her#
# Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor [ without dielectric] : -

1¥:|
Consider a
parallel plate capacitor of plate area A , and
separation d.
- -
→ - -

Let ±o be the surface

charge densityis
→ - -

Electric field outside capacitor plates zero .

1- d →
Now ,
the electric field inside the capacitor plate ,

E-
( by application of gauss law
of charge plate)
Ig
=

Potential difference between the plates ,

f- Ed
✓
Ed
=

V= d- d-②
A Eo
 we know that G-
,

c=¥n↳d (from② )

c=
Aeg µµP¥ᵈ
#
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor [ with dielectric]

;-g
consider a parallel plate capacitor 4- Plate area
and
'

separation d.
'
A

Let to be the surface charge density The gap .

+
between the plate is filled with dielectric
substance dielectric constant K
having .

The electric field between plates will be

F-d -1-0
:

C- = 0
ETK

¥,
②
( :o=-)
°

c- = -

:O Potential difference between the plate

f- Ed
" d ④ / using -0)
-

<

Now
, Capacitance C' ,
=

C' =

¥ (torn

'

AE
c =

' '
C C K C KC
org or
= =

capacitance
'
where C = with dielectric
,
C =
capacitance without dielectric
K =
dielectric constant of the medium .

Conclusion : After inserting dielectric medium in between the plates of a

K' times initial capacitance

'

it's
capacitor , capacitance increases by .
 +Qi -

Qi
#
Capacitance Pn Parallel : +
+
+
-

+
-

Consider two capacitors connected in parallel combination 1-

+
_

shown in the
figure
+
as c, =

In
parallel combination potential difference across all
the capacitors remains same but distribution of charge +02 -9
across each capacitor will be different
+

. + :
+ -

◦
: 0=9 Qz
,
+ ±
, :

CV = (
µ + Czv (% a- CV ) +
Cz -

c✗=X (4+5)
c=c , + Cz µene¥ᵈ ← ✓ →

↳ The effective capacitance of combination of n' capacitors

'
a

in parallel combination Ps algebric som of capacitance of

each capacitors .

# Capacitors in series :
Q, -0 , Az -02

Consider two capacitors are connected ion series ¥ +

- -

= +

combination in a circuit with capacitance

-

+
-

C , and Cz
respectively shown in
figure
+
as +
- -

.
-

+
-
+
+ -

+
-

C, Cz
In series combination the , potential difference across
←v. → + v. →
each capacitor is different but distribution of
remains same
charge
.

% ✓ = V1 + V2
+
÷ (E) 0--1%+1=10
± =

± +
÷
Which means
,
the effective capacitance of a combination of n' '
capacitors
in series is :

d- ± =

,
+
E. E. + + - - -

+
In
# Energy stored in capacitor AND Expression for Energy density :
'

dq
'
let be the small amount of charge transferred by the source from +ve

plate to -

ve plate .

Then work done by dw=vdq

r=d¥ ]
the source is
%
[%
dw=dq % g- cv ]
 % Total work done by the source is transferring amount of charge .

W =/ dw
w
If dq
=

w=
{ fqdq
w=
± (E)
w=±¥
w=
Iz I¥ ( : q=cv]
w=
± 0¥
W
1-2 C. v2
=

Now , the work done is in the form of potential energy ,

i. e. :
-

U v2
{(
=

U= v21
±
or
,

U=
lzqv µewePIʳᵈ
ENERGY DENSITY :
-

The potential energy per unit volume of a capacitor is known as

Energy
density

?
.

%
Energy density ,
µ=¥me
µ
ᵗfaI
=

Fd →

=¥:÷
tEA÷¥
±
=

A
=
± E÷¥dA
 2
Eo C-
µ =
£

If any medium is there between plates of a

capacitor
,

2
£ Er
14=21 C-
 CHAPTER ☒ 3 : current Electricity
# Obtain an expression for Drift velocity of Electrons 5-

Drift velocity is the velocity with which electrons in a conductor are

drifted towards the positive terminals of the potential source .

We know that Pn a conductor there are N number of electrons .

Initially without any electric field the electrons in the conductor

'

, ,

with
move
randomly some velocity ( ri )
ie ②
± 0
. -

Now, when an electric field is applied across the conductor ; The force
applied on a electron by the electric field is :
-

F = -

e E [
°
: F- QE]
ma = -
e E f : F- ma)
a
¥
= -

where a= acceleration of e⊖ towards +ve terminal -

,
m mass of the electron
-
.

It we take '
E' to be the
average relaxation time ( the time interval
between any two successive collision)

then by first equation of motion

,

H¥gCig a (4) avg

Vd = 0 +
femi ) (2)
Vd = -

eEIm where Vd =

Hug =
drift velocity

Hence
Iced
# Relation between current and drift velocity : - - E

consider a conductor of length l and area of cross-section

of e⊖ present per unit volume
'
and n' be the
' '
A no .
.

N=nAl %
Total
charge , Q=n Ale
% Current in the conductor ,
E-

nA¥
IAk ⇐ he ¥ )
# Series combination of Resistance :
→Ñm-nnÉ
Two resistors of resistance Ri and Ra connected
↳ -1 _
1- V, -1
are 1-
V2-1
Pn series ,
. •
,
As we know, in series combination , current Ps
same but is different across the
voltage comp
orients v

% V= V, + V2
law ,
using IR0hm's =
IR , + I Rz

☒ =
✗ ( Rit
Rz
R2)
Peᵈ
R= R , +
Hence
To for
'

n
'

no .
of resistance in series, R = R , + Rat R} t -
- - - -

Rn .

# Parallel combination of Resistance : →

Two resistors R and Rz , are connected in parallel

ⁿmʰ→¥
-mÉm_¥f
with a battery of V'
'

voltage .

1- ✓ → ,
2
As we know in parallel combination voltage remains
^

,
and current is different across the
same
1-11-1 .
)
-

components of the circuit .

I, I =
11+12
using 0hm 's law
,

¥ =

¥ ¥2 ,
+

1--41 E. +
E.)
¥
=

¥ ¥ +
P¥ᵈ
,
Hence
for resistors in parallel ,
¥ ¥
%
'

¥ En
n' = + + + - - - - -
+

= Relation between Internal resistance , terminal potential diff and . EMF :-

'

Consider
'
with internal resistance 's
'
a cell of emf E -
⑥ -

jE_ jj
connected to the external resistance ( R) The current .

in the circuit Ps :
[ ② : 5- =

¥ ,
-

1- ¥¥Éaⁿd i. - - - - -
- -

if
Terminal potential difference
my→
V= IR -
⑤
Now
,
② can be written as → I(R+r ) =
E ( cross -

multiply)
IR + Is =
E
V -1 Ir =
E ( from ⊕ )
✓ =
f- 28 / For v5 E)

too V > C- µ=E+2 ,

which is the relation b/w Errands .

# Cells in series :

÷ii÷÷÷÷
mnn→,
consider two cells with emf Gandfz and
having ii.- - - - - -
:

[
- - -
'
- -

internal resistance 8, and rz respectively .

R
n

connected in series .

V1 = C- , -
28 , ( for ✓< e)
also V2 =
Ez -
I 82
,

We know , in series current is same but potential across components is diff .

% Veg V , + V2 =

Veg ( E , In) + (Fa Ird

= -
-

Veg
=
(E ,
+
Eat ( Ir -1182)
-

Veq
=
(Gtf) (8,1-82) I - -
②
Now ,
we know Veg Eeg Ing = -
-
⑤

Comparing ② &④ ,

feg =
E, +
Eat - - - -

proved
-

req 8, -182-1
flank
= -
- - - -

# Cells in Parallel ÷
: - -
- - -

considertwo cells of emf G and ta with internal

resistance o, and ra connected in
respectively ,_ʰ?- '
- - - - - -

f. E-miii-i.fr
,

parallel '
:
-
- - - -

we know, in parallel combination potential man

_ -

diff is same but current will be different

across components .

% I =
I, + Iz
( )
% V= E- Ir
I
4¥ 4¥
=
+
I=E¥
2-
G- ¥ -4£ -1¥)
+

v1 "¥ )=ᵗ%¥ -2
 ✓ =

"%¥÷ -47%-1
✓ Eeg Ing
Comparing this with -
=

Eeg =

Er¥¥
and
, he =

2%-2 µenuPÉᵈ
We can also write these equations in simple ways ,

¥g=¥+§÷+
-
- -
-

and
, Teg =

¥ ,
+
¥ -
- - -

_A€Éᵈʰ%¥
+ Wheatstone Bridge :
Wheatstone
bridge is an
arrangement * to

G%
"
resistance used to determine resistance of
resistors in terms of three resistors
tiny
one other .

For a balanced bridge ^ -2 R -1

,
I
VB=V☐ ( as Pn figure)
Now ,
applying Kirchoff rule on loop ADBA .÷
-11-1 ) -

Iz R
- -

1,10=0
I, P =
IZR
-

②
Now
,
applying Kirchoff s rule on loop BCDB : -

Ill -225--0
I ,Q =
Ias
-
④

dividingeg②&④i we get :

⊕②_ {¥=%÷
% Proud
G- =

part
↳ his is the condition for balanced
wheatstone bridge .
#
Finding unknown resistance
using
⑧
slide wire
bridge :
Principle of meter
bridge and
finding unknown resistance

¥¥÷÷I÷¥i
Pinup : wheat stone bridge
As shown in
figure ,

R= Unknown resistance
I
known
= s
resistance
-11-1 .

Move the Jockey G) on wire AC of length I to obtain the null point lire .
zero

reading of the
galvanometer) . Let point ☐ be null point on wire AC .

As the
bridge is balanced therefore by wheat sone
bridge principle :
-

, ,

¥a☐ =

¥13
¥
←
Hms
⑥

Fe ¥00 e)
}tÉÉ←
=

proved RAD
-

RDB
¥eµ•=
R =
•
 CHAPTER # 4 :
Moving charges and magnetism
#
Magnetic field at the centre of a circular
carrying current :
loop
consider circular
a current
carrying loop carrying
current I .
We have to find magnetic field at the
centre of this loop .

→↑d2
I" ← - - -

g
-
-
-

Consider a small current element d on circumference

of this loop .

Clearly angle between d and o is 90?

Applying Biot savant 's law , we

get >

dB=M÷( 1¥90 ) y
2

dB
1%+1%4
=

both sides
integrating ,
we
get :

1dB =

1M¥ Idgaf
B
ME ¥ fall
=

( :
fdl total circumference
°

14¥ ¥
B =
✗
211-8 means

B =

MET µencePᵈ
#
Magnetic Field on the axis of a circular current loop : -

"

↑
-

-
-

-
r !dñ°ˢ° dB→
^I >
⊖
of dB→sPn
-
- - - - - - -

t.rs#si-no-----
"
I sdB→
-ÉÉÉ
I

distort
Iq
-
_
_

Consider a circular loop of radius '

a' the axis of the circular loop at which
we have to calculate the magnetic field due to the circular
'
loop and ✗ is
the distance between the loop and the point P'
.

According to Biot savants law ,

dB=¥¥Iᵈ¥irE
 So the
, magnetic field at P due to current element Idf :

-1dL ]
dB=%ˢ Idl{In9I [:
°

dB
ME ,É+→
=

Idt
Magnetic field at P due to current element

dB '
14¥ Idlgi29I
=

dB '

ME {aᵈ÷×z )
=

dB =D B
'

we can see →
Here
,

Resolving dB in two components we find that cos ⊖ component for

,
two
diametrically opposite elements cancel each other .

So that
, magnetic field intensity at P will be
only due to sin 0
component
therefore ,
total
magnetic field due to the whole coil .

B→ =
5dB sin ⊖

☒ =

11¥ IdlaÉ+n-
B-
µ%a?→fᵈl
=

B-
47%4×5*+7 fall
=

⑤ #a
¥Y%¥×→a≠×
=

's

B- =

%a?pk Hence
%¥
it n> >> a
,
then a Ps
neg legible
⑤
Mz¥ñ)
=

31k

if
Mz÷s
=
# Ampere 's circuital Law :

It states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity over a closed loop
is µo times the total current
threading the loop .

↳ i. e.
§ B- .de?--1UoI of

Proof : Consider a
straight
conductor
carrying as shown in the

"ÉqÑ↑B
-

"

figure Consider a circular American loop of radius r !

-

around the conductor

'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

As B- and DÑ are in same direction so

angle between the miso .
^

%
/ B- diBdl
•

=
/ cos 0°

=
fBdl
=

Bfdl
=M¥j# ( :
fdl means circumference =2#r)

/Bdl = Not Pw¥ᵈ

peen
MF due to • long
straight current
[ solenoid
.

conductor
carrying
Application of Ampere's circuital law →

[ Toroid

# Magnetic field due to an

infinitely long straight current
carrying conductor :

along of a cross-sectional radius a' carrying steady

'
we've given straight wire
current I .
This current is uniformly distributed across this cross-section .

have to calculate field at a distance from

Now
But
,
we
here we 'll have 3 cases :
magnetic -
o centre .

④ r > a ; i. e. point lies outside wire

E) r a ; ie point lies on the wire
=
.

Pl
r< a
;
ie point lies inside the wire .

CA: -

8 >a at point Pi .

Now , to find the magnetic field at point P, .

- - -

outside the wire make a circular loop -

made of radius o as shown in figure

' '
.
 Using Ampere's law ,
ftp.di =
µ I .

§ Bdl cos 0° =
Not

B Jodl =
No I

B (2*8) =
MOI ( : Jodl
°

means circumference -211-8)

②
B=Y¥-g ( where is the distance of point from]
-

r
centre

Bttg ( for o> a)

Cased :
-

r=a at point Pz

Now to find
,
the
magnetic field intensity at point B. on the surface of the wire .

Make a circular loop of

radius a) G- .

% similarly like ②st we'll

get → B- MI
-

21T A

cased : -

Ra ,
at
point Pz

§
To find the magnetic field intensity at
point B inside the surface of
the - -

loop
- - -

circular
cylindrical wire
radius
→
make a

made of 8 (rea)

Now in this
,
case the enclosed current Ie is not I but less
than the value .
Since the current distribution is uniform the current enclosed
,

is ,
2
Ie =
I✗
at

using Ampere's law , § B. DI Mo Ie =

§ Bdl =M°Ia¥
B § de =
Mo
Ia¥
B (2*4) =

MoIa¥
1321T
Nigg B=
µz¥%
=

Bar
↳
 Field due to solenoid :
#
Magnetic
@£%①①☆
Mmm MM
"

⊕⊕É⊕⊕⊕⊕ק
← "
2

g-I →
<
No .
Of turns =
N <
<

D C

⑥
③ ③ ① ③ ⑨ ③ ①③ ①
:
-13
A

I
④ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ?⃝

let a solenoid consists of of turns per unit length and carry current
'

n' no .
I.

Magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform and strong .

M F
.
outside the solenoid is weak Ialmost zero)
.

Consider a close loop ABCD .

%
§ Bode fB→•de→ JEDI fB?dT + + +
fB?dT
=

AB BC CD DA

Here
,
B. all =
0 [B outside -0]

B-
dt-afB.de?0fiB.tdeT
Hence
§ # DI § B- di +0+0+0
,
= -

AB

§ B.DI / Edt =

AB
cos 0°

§ B- di = B- Jdt
AB

§ Bill = BTL ) -
②

According to Ampere's law :

§ B. all =
No 7-

Here , N number of turns ,

are present
To
§
B. dl MONI =

BCL ) MON I = -

from ②
1401¥
B=
 ⑦ =
Mon I

where ,n= no .
of turns per unit length i.e.
,
n=
NI
I

4¥ " B=M B= Mon

i
i.
>
corner
centre
law , obtained
#
Using Ampere 's circuital the
magnetic field inside toroid
a

Outside / Between) : -

Case) Inside
=
-
-
_

,
,

??;
,

from Ampere 's law : -

'

§BdÑ= Motion [at Pi )

,
1
,
•
t

here Iin 0
:
= ' '
,
'

§ B- di
'
= 0 13--0 , "

'
-4 if _
*
B
Casey )
-

Between the turns :

-
_
-

from Ampere 's law : -

§ Edt =
No 1in fat B)

§ Bdl cos ② =
Mo Lin
B fall =
MONI
B (211-8) =
MONI
B- -

M◦¥÷ or B- Mon I
-

[ ñn=N_ =

Egg ]

Case Outside :-( at B)

§ Bdl =
Nitin
13--0

# Force
acting on a current
carrying conductor placed in Mf :
-

a B-

Consider
carrying
a conductor of
current I placed
lengthinland
a
of section A
area

magnetic field at an
( I
¥↑
l -
⊖ shown It of electrons in the
density
angle number
←
as .

conductor Ps n then
,
total no .
of electrons in the conductor Ps : Aln .
 As the force
acting one electron is f-=eVdBsPn⊖ where Vd is the drift velocity of
electrons .

So the total force acting on the conductor is =

Alnf
= Alnlevd BsPn⊖)
=fAneVd)lBsPn⊖
f-
↳ direction
=
IIB sin ⊖
µnaPN¥
can be determined by
Fleming's
left hand rule .

# Force between two parallel straight conductors carrying current :

( ✗ and Y )
Consider two infinite long straight conductors ^
carrying currents I, and Iz in the

same direction . .

They are held parallel to each other at a distance

'
r!

Since
each
magnetic field is produced due to
conductor experiences force a .
current through each conductor
,
therefore

and , the force will be Il BSPNQ

←
.

Bi
- -
-
-

-
-
-
,
-

ftp.p
,
←
magnetic field at P due to a:
-

Now current I,
-
- -
,
,
, '

② "
M¥j
B,
-
'
-

=
-
- - - -
>_
- -
- -
- -

→
-
-
-
- -

As the current conductor Y dies in the

carrying magnetic -1-2
field Bi , therefore the unit
length of Y will experience ^4 ^

a force given by
-

✗ →
< →
y
F, =
Iz (d) Bi sin 90° ( Td =L / unit length))

Fz =
Bi Iz ✗ d (% sin 90=1)

Fz
M°{¥
=

Magnetic field due to current Iz at point Q

B2
③
Bz MOTI ←
-

④
-

= - -
- -

_ ,

21-18 ,
,
:
- -

Similarly conductor ✗ will also experience a force a $ - Fi ( i

'
,
F, due to 12 current "
-
- -
- -

.
-

-
-
→
-

11--1 (unit length I]

_
-

F, -=Bz 1 sin ⊖ 12
, NI, a

F, =
Bz I , sin 90°
✗ <→ →
Y

F, =
MoIiI_
211-8
 We can observe that F, acts perpendicular to ✗ and directed towards Y .

Hence ✗ and Y attract each other

f- FEY
.

So F, Fz
,
=
F,

⑨ Bz ⑦ Bi
but when current next be in
opposite directions ,

?⃝
the conductors will repel each other and
will be same as derived above
magnitude fz
⑦ Bz ④ B,

n I, -1 I2
Same current direction → attraction
Hence
↳ opposite current dioxin →
repulsion
# TORQUE
acting on a current
carrying loop/coil in uniform MF . /
rectangular) :
a→

¥
¥¥¥¥!¥÷¥µ
⇐
. ⇐

→ i-
When a
rectangular current is placed in
carrying coil does uniform magnetic a

field then it
experiences It a
torque
not experience .
a .

force
%
Magnetic on a current
carrying conductor .

f- =
II.b- Sino - on arms ABI CD
only
but field exerts no force on the two arms AD and BC of loop because
B is antiparallel to I
↑F2
.

→
c- a
Kow ,
The magnetic field is
perpendicular to the arm
A¥¥
AB of the loop and exerts a force fi it ,
↓f
on
which is directed into the plane of the -

loop .

,
↳ (front )
view

F, =
IIB sin 90° IIB
=

directed
Similarly ,
the
magnetic
of the loop
field exerts a force Fz on arm CD
,
which is out of
the plane .

Fz =
Il B =
F,

loop (as said earlier)

'
Thus , the net on the is zeoo
But ,
as we can see there will a
torque on the loop due to the pair of forces F, and Fz

,↑E=BIl Now , consider the case when the plane

field and makes
of the loop B not
,

along the
magnetic an
angle with it .

£
Let the
angle between the field and the normal to the
c-
¥ . _
Coil be
angle ⊖ .

↓f,=BIl
- - - - - -
- -

Theforce on arms AB and CD are F, and fz

F, =
Fz I Bl
= ③ -

MAIA
M =
KIA ( Here 1<=1 )
A →
for N no . of turns ,
Ñ=NIA→

# Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter :

hmˢnÉᵗ
Galvanometer
/
be converted into ammeter

stz.gg#Ig---max
can
by
connecting a small Resistance s(shunt) in
parallel with the galvanometer
current
through galvanometer
I = ammeter range
Rj =
Galvanometer Resistance

As S and
G are connected in parallel , SCI Ig) Ig Rg
-
=

s=%É
# Conversion of Galvanometer into voltmeter ±

④nE±
Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by
resistance in series
connecting high .

Ig = current galvanometer
through
R =

high resistance
✓ = External potential
Rg =
Galvanometer resistance

total resistance = Rt
Rg
Ig ( Rgt R)
Now ace to 0hm 's law , V=
,
.

Ig
= Rt
Rg
R
Ey Rg
-
-
 CHAPTER # 6 :
Electromagnetic Induction
# Notional EMF or Induced EMF :
s 4×74 % ✗ ☒
✗

rectangular conducting
± m
consider a PQRS loop
in the plane of the
paper in which the
× × ×

⑤
×

←
× ×
/ ✗ ✗

conductor PQ is free to more .

✗ × ×
×
×e ✓
/
✗ ✗ ✗ × ✗ ✗
×

let the rod POPS moved towards right

✗

× ✗ ✗ × ✗
× × ✗

with a constant
velocity V' assume
_
'

, µ
of energy friction
×
loss
×
due to × × × ✗
×
there is
×
R
-

no .

→ A c- Q
Pa is moved n' distance towards enclosed
right the by loop
'
Let area
,
PQRS increases Area (A) .lu
.
=

Therefore , the amount of flux magnetic linked with the loop increases .

An emf is induced in the loop .

then through area / A) BTÑ

BA cos ⊖
∅ =

∅ =
Blk COSO
∅ =
Bla -
②

% Induced EMF in the coil is →

E. =

-9ft
E. = Blk / from ⑦]
E. Bl
@d¥)
= -

E- -

Bev
P¥ᵈ [ :
day means

which is
rate
of change of displacement
velocity
)
Hence
force on the wire ( external)
f- BIL sin 90°
f Bff ]
=

?
F-
131B¥) e
I
Egg
=
- =

f- =

BIRI
✗
± ×
Induced EMF due to rotation of Rodin Magnetic field :-,
-
-

#
-
-

✗ i
× i. i × -
×

Consider a metallic rod of

length 'd Ps placed Pna
'
,
'
y
uniform magnetic field as shown in the
figure
×
'

×
× , ×
,
;
,

Area covered by the rod

=
Hd2
on
rotating by 21T
angle ×
'

,
× × " ×

É
"

'

✗
✗ -
Y .
.
.
-
-

_
 ¥ ¥
J
% for I unit rotation ( area) =
=

1 simple unitary method applied )

% for ⊖
angle rotation =

1¥
To Area will be A
1¥ ②
= -

Now , flux through area A

, ∅ = B- A-•

∅ = BA cos 0°

∅ -13K¥ )
Induced EMF in the rod ,
E. = -

dd¥
e-
¥1B %-)
-
_

E
BIG dd¥
=

E. =

Btw where ,
w =
angular velocity ( d
Hence PIED
# Self -
Induction of Solenoid :

Consider turns with length l and cross-section area A

'

solenoid
having N
'

a .

I is the current
flowing through
the solenoid
it So there will be magnetic field at
.

,
a a

given point in it B
, represent by .

Now,The magnetic flush per turn will be equal to

product of B and area of each
turn .

Mo¥ A
=
✗

% Total
magnetic flue will be
given by product of fun present in each turn
turns
and
the no .

of .

∅
MONI N
=

②
∅
M_◦N÷
= -

And ,
we also know ∅ =
LI -
④
,

:O
from ② &④ Lf =

Monet
↳
M¥ µµeP¥ᵈ
[ This is self inductance of
-
a solenoid .
# Mutual inductance of two solenoids : -

s ,→Niwmˢ

llltllllllllldmd.TN
consider two
,
s , and
long
52
solenoids stands≥ each of

respectively .
length
and Nz are the no of turns in the solenoid
.

sz
N2 tums
'

52 Ps wound
↳

are considered
closely over S ,
to have the
,
so both the solenoids
- l -
same area of cross
section A'
'
.

I , is the current
flowing through Si .

Now ,
I,
the
Ps
magnetic field B, produced at any point inside solenoids , due to current

⑦
MoNe
B, =
-

And , the
magnetic flux linked with each turn of sa ie equal to B ,
A .

Total
magnetic flux linked with solenoid sa having Na turns is
∅ = B , A N2
,

∅z=(µoN¥) AN≥ / from ②)

∅ ,
=

( WWII) A -
④

but ∅z =
MI , -
④ where m is the coefficient of mutual induction
,
between S, and S2
from ④ d④
i. MI ,
=(M°%N A

MoNyN# µmeeP¥ᵈ
% M =

And , if the core is filled with a

magnetic material of permeability M

M
MNiN2A_
=
 CHAPTER #7 :
Alternating Current

# AC voltage applied to a Resistance :

mm

1-② -1
_

Consider a resistor tester of resistance R is

connected in series with a circuit containing
Alternating EMF → Eosin wt -
⑦ -

C- =
Eosin wt
circuit,
% current
through the

I
§ 5-
EosP¥wt
=

④
tlencepnred
I Tosin wt
-

comparing ② &④ we can

say that there is ,
no phase difference between current
and EMF
^
.

WAVE FORM DIAGRAM :-

fosinwt -

→
- - - - - -
- -

;
Eo ^
✗
fi

É
Iosinwt i
-

-
- - - -

*
,
Io I
,

↑wᵗ i !
'
✓ - →
Phaser diagram .

L
# AC
voltage applied to an Inductor : ummmm

µ→ -1
'

Consider an inductor of inductance L

'

connected in series with a circuit containing -

Alternating EMF → Eosin wt -

⑦ £ =
↳ spnwt

An EMF will induce in the inductor due to the current I .

i. e. e=
Ldtˢd
-

Lenz law, the induced emf

According
we
to will oppose the alternating EMF .

can
say ,
F. = -
e

c- = -

(-1%-1)
C- L
¥t
=

dI=
Edt
dI=
Eosinwtdt
 for total current
integrating both side ,

fd 2=1 I
C- sinwtdt ◦

E-
¥ tioswwt)

/
SIME -0-1=0so
]
I =
coswt %
,
sin to ) sin ⊖
¥ ( sing wt
= -

I = -
-

I
¥ sin / wt TE) ④
= -
-

when sin wt ( E)
-
will be Ig the I will be peak value .
i. e.
I◦=E?⃝
④ -
I Io sin
( wt
E)
tlencethored
= -

on
comparing ② &④ ,
we see that I and E have different phase
i. e.
phase difference between I and E.

∅ aft aft ¥
= -

∅ ¥ =
.
:
voltage leads current .

" ÷
;
waveform diagram for 1- and E
◦

¥
'
i
¥
-
-
-
-
-
-

- - - - - - - - - - -

_qfo
i

§
'

Phasor
diagram for I and C-
s
i
÷ ;
'

wt
↑ ;
d- tot)
:
¥
-

" '

fwt -

E)
iii. ¥
±
- - - - - - -
# AC
voltage applied to a capacitor :
-

→ 1-
Consider a
capacitor of capacitance C' is connected
'
V=E

in series contain AC of EMF of Eosinwt

g
E- Eosin wt
E- Eosin wot -
②

The maximum voltage of the capacitor will be equal to EMF of the AC .

Also ,
charge on
capacitor q=cv ,
in wt f: E)
g- Ceos
v=

Instantaneous current in the circuit ,

I
dd¥
=

I
day ( Eosinwt)
c.
=

I = CEO
ddtlsinwt)
-

I =
Cfo wcoswt

I =
CEO W
(sin + wt
) -

⑤
Now, I will be Max / peak) when
(sing + wt ) will become I.

To I◦ =
c Eow

(wt E)
PID
So ④ I =
To sin + _

Hence
Comparing ② and 1⑤
due to which current
,
we see that there is
behind
a phase difference between 2 and E
is
leading the
voltage .

◦ : phase difference between I and E

, ∅ =
aft +
E -

wt
∅ =

Waveform diagram for Z and E

÷:
I
 %

,
%
phaser
diagram for 7- and E :
-
- - - - - -

☒ "
-

; wt
-1¥ !
M↑wt
' '

! I

# Impedance in series LCR circuit : -

Consider a LCR circuit connected to an AC source in series Mmm

Ya -1
T
1- -1

E ②
.
-

k=c
Here ,
voltage drop across resistance , capacitor and
inductor Ps -
/_mmm_t e-vi. → t

VR= I R

} [ E.
L

)
vi. 1% ②-
""
"
✗a. = WL
ka
± I
-
- -

4--1 .
×
,

!
'

Phaser E.
diagram for t.GR circuit :-,

%i →
[
Consider , Eo Ps the total
voltage supplied in the ¥
circuit .

let K > Vc
In the above phasor diagram ,
.

"
Vc
% Kc =
( Vik ) -

Now ,
voltage across all the components ,
V=J2t
V=t(2X+IR
V=tIÉ+R}
✓
=IfÉ+R
F. É =

=/ (✗É
2 is called impedance pfoeePn¥
#
Resonating frequency in series LCR circuit :
-

Resonance occurs when inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitive

reactance .

✗[ =
Xc
WL
¥
=

WZ =

¥
w =

¥
211-0 =

Proved
V
2T¥ Hertel
=

↳ ± V , ✗< will become to Xc and resonance will

equal
occur ,
and the frequency is known as
resonating frequency .

#
Average Power in LCR Circuit :

we know that a
voltage E- Eosin wt applied to a series RLC circuit drives a

circuit given
current in the
by is
pospnlwt ∅ ) -

; where % =
&

/ ×c-¥- )
"

◦
? instantaneous
power by the source is : ∅ = tan

p = C- I Eosin wt ✗ % sin /wt ∅) -

P
EoI÷ / ∅ cos (2 wt ∅)
) ②
-
=
+
cos
-

Now, the
average power over a cycle is given by the
average of the two terms in
R H S -
- .

of the above equation .

But we can see that

only the second term is time dependent % Its average
.
will
be zero ( % positive half of the cosine cancels the
negative second half)
% P=
Eo÷ Cos ∅

P=k÷) ( E.) ' •

∅ I :& -
-

¥ ¥)
✗

P =
Érms Isms cos ∅
Hence
Proved .
#
Energy stored in an Inductor : - Mmm
consider an inductor of inductance L connected to a
shown in
Voltage source E as
figure .

As we know , P= EI

[ =dd¥)
% C-
P
Liddy
=

¥ 12¥ 1° P=dd÷)
= :

dw =
LI DI
-
②
Io

Integrating both sides

, fdw / LIDI
=

0 Io
( Io =
max current in the circuit
W=
LJIDI
w=% !
w=L
1¥ ] -
°

W=
121102
[ This work is stored in the circuit as
magnetic potential
energy .

To
0=1-21202 µµeP¥ᵈ
-
 CHAPTER #9 :
Ray Optics
# Relation between critical angle and refractive index of a medium :
air
i
consider medium (M) m -1

to rarer
a
(1)
light ray travelling from denser ;
90°
fit
.

,
to Snell 's law
According :
µ since (1) sin 90°
= '

I
µ Ill
Ési=c
=

>
I
µ spnc
=

µ
=
1- I
since proved
Hank
# Retraction at a spherical surface : '

figure shows refraction by convex refracting M' me

surface .

¥ I¥_É -8-1
; ±
- -

g-
-
- -
- - - -
- - - -
-

let and 8 be the made by

xp
incident ray , normal and refracted
angle # ✓

ray with the principle axis .

The normal drawn from the convex refracting surface passes through the
centre of curvature (c) .
All distances are measured from pole and the .
,

direction of incident is taken + re

ray
.

Now , In AOMC , In ACMI ,

%
0-1--4+13 73=-02 + Y
0-2=73 -

Now , Bysnetsaw :
µ, sin ⊖ , =
Mz Sin 0-2
as ⊖ , & 0-2 are
very small ,
% sin -0 , ≈ ⊖ , and sin 0-2 ≈
-02
µ, 0-1 =
µ -02
2

µ , / ✗ + B) =
Mz / B- 8) -

Here , 9,1348 are very small

- :
tant = h_ ≈ ✗
-

tan B B
¥ ≈
=

8- V
tan -

¥ ≈

i. ② Mi
th E) + =
Molk ¥) -
 µ ,
/ ¥ 1) - =

Malta E) -

¥ -

¥ =

Mfs -

¥ ¥
MTµµP¥ᵈ
→ -
=

# Lens Maker Formula : Ni i Ne

> I >
Consider a convex lens ( thick) , let an object i

Ps placed on the principle axis at O'

'

.
g Iz ri i ☐ { ,
{
The
image formed by the convex thick dens
Ps at I. '

1) Refraction
through first surface (ABC) :
"
im A-
If surface ADC is not present then

}
I, l '

image will
formed
.

shown in
i.
¥ ,
be at I , as the
figure .

According refraction formula :

←ñÉ
to
°
• .
'
8 B %
②
m_#,=%- ¥
-
-

ni na

E) further , refraction through second surface ( ADC) : -

A
-
-

%
-

If the surface

/
then ABC is not
present ""
image I will behave like object and the
, -

second surface will be formed at

-

image by
-

figure
☐
I shown in , ±
{
•

as .

Now ,
According to refraction formula ,
--=vi
④
n¥= -7
-

¥ -
c

Adding ② d④ : -

na-r÷+- MI R2
=

¥ % ,
-
+
F- n¥
n¥ˢ +
m-rn÷
=

¥ -

¥
nz-r.rs -

cnzz.nl#--ni( ± ±) -
 in ni
1¥ nil ¥ )
-

-
=

n
hi
( tr E.),
-
=

¥
¥-11k ,
-

E) ± =

f- =
In 1) -

(¥ ,
-

µuP¥ᵈ A
Prism :
# Refraction through
consider a triangular prism , let a ray of
PQ strikes on the face AB of the \
light

refracted •↑É
"

"
.

prism and then refracted by the ,

t.a.ee AB towards the base of the

É
,

prism BC and again OR is

the false AC away from the normal
by .
if
¥ , ,
"
> - -
s

P IF s

F- of incidence
andAngle
B C
8, r ≥
=

angle of refraction by face

AB and AC
respectively
A =

angle of prism
f- angle of deviation

In AQNR Lr, + LK + LQNR =

180° -
③
,

In quadrilateral AQNR ,
LA +90° + LQNR +90° = 360°

LA + LQNR =
360° -180°
LA + LON R =
180° -
⑤

from ② I Lr , + Lk +
LOHR =
LA +
L∅NR
Lr , -1282 =
LA

or A = 8
,
+ 82
-

④
Also ,
8=81+82
f- (T a) + ( e
-

-82)

8 =
(ite) -

Coin)
 f- ( ite) -
A ( from eg④)
or Pte =
8+A -
⑤

when ,
f- 8min ,
then F- e
81--82--8

I.
eg becomes ,
rtr = A
28 = A
a- -
④

And ,
eg becomes it i =
8Mt A
2? = 8m + A
i
8m-¥ ④
=
-

Now , According to Snell 's law,

his retractive
)
index of the
(
where
gn÷= µ
material present in the
prism

/sm¥ )
sin
1¥ ( from ④ & v10)
s# =
µ.
;¥;¥t
si
-

proved
-

't
Her
 CHAPTER # 10 : wave Optics
# Position and width of the fringe in interference :
The distance between any two consecutive
bright P
↑
•

equal dark width of

fringe is
fringe
and the distance between any two consecutive
to the a
si -
- - - -
- - - -
A
y
dark fringe is
bright fringed↑
equal to the width of a

!
◦
Consider light from two slit stand { superimposed
at point P on the screen
bright and
dark
fringes 1 .

"

S2
the distance between two slits stands,
B
let d be
- -
- - - - - - -

- →
and D be the distance between slit and screen .
☐

Now at point P
,
the path difference of two waves is :

DR =
Sz P -
S, P -
②

In DSIAP
9s , p 2=5 A
2-
APZ
Pytha D£BBszp2= 5,132
: ,
+ In
=
D2 +
( y ¥)- 2-④ + BPZ
D2 +
( y f) 2-④
=
+

Now
,
er .④ -

eq⑤
Szp 2- S, P2 =D 2-1 / Ytdz )2 -
D2 +
( y ¥12
-

⇐P -
S , P) ( Sap +
Sip) =
↳
y
✗
dz
P -
S , P) ( SP SP) + =
2yd

Assuming P close to 0 such that S , P ≈ Szp =D

very ,

-
^

. ④ D) DX+ =
2yd
XD DX -12yd
on =
4¥
Casey) for Maximal
☐ x=nd

Y;:¥#
-
.

when gn=0 , y
= 0 Central bright fringe)
n=l g y =

¥ ( 1st B. F)
i f.)
n = n g Y =
n ( nth B.
Castle) for minima :

DK =
(2n 1) 412
-

1) %
y☐d=(2n
-

when ,
n= I g
y=IdD_ [ 1st DF )
n 2
Y 3- [ 2ⁿᵈ F)
- =
☐
g
i
i
n- n
, y
=

(2n¥ ( nth D- F)

To Alternate Dark &

Bright fringes appear
.

Now ,
Expression for fringe width : -

The difference between 2 consecutive bright fringes gives the fringe width
of dark fringes & bright fringes .

☆dark Yn+ =

,
-

Yn
In
=

-117¥ n¥ -

A-
¥
Similarly ,
for bright → 73 =

1¥
 CHAPTER # LL : Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
de
# -

Broglie Equation :

For radiation of frequency G)

a

the energy of one photon Ps :

&
wavelength A) propagating in raccoon
,

E- hv -
②

According to Einstein mass

energy equivalence
-

C- =
me
2 -

Comparing ② & ④ ,
hit me
1m=k -

Now , momentum of each photon is

,
P =
MC

P=h¥ ¢ ✗

hip
=

¥
=

,
P =

¥ 1: A- E)
it
¥
this is
de€9 ?
=
-

Let take example e⊖ accelerated potential diff

' '
then its
us an , through a . v
,
K e.
.
can be written as :

1k=
'
-0
The linear momentum &
'
KE of e
moving with
velocity r are :
-

|p=m_
& K =

Izmit
multiplying both sides :
' '
m mk =

Izmit
2m K =
m2 v2
root both side :
☒ 1m27
square
=

my =
12mi

Now from de
broglie D=
¥
"
eg :
-
-

d-
¥
-
 1ᵗ-¥
"
h= 6-63×10-3
substituting Js
M-9.1×10-3 kg
-

e- 1.6×10-19C
'

} 1=-1
}¥-
 CHAPTER # 12 :
Atoms

#
Using Bohr 's
Hydrogen
theory of atoms derive the expression for total ,

Energy of e⊖ in stationary states of the atom

Consider an electron of mass m and
-

charge e _
,

with
revolving velocity v around a nucleus
' ,

↑
'
'

having atomic number Then the centripetal

2

e
.

force required by the electron is provided by ⊕ ⑤

electrostatic force of
attraction between nucleus
× '

according
,
and electron to equation :
"
"
"
"

Fe Fc
⊕É
'
=
--

k9i9÷ =

m¥
k¥e=mjˢ
-10
ke¥e = m v2

Acc to Bohr 's Postulates : ④

mvr
n¥-
.
= -

Now
,
± :
-

miff n¥÷×¥zez =

41T€
Mr
n÷✗
=

-2 @ 2

✗= n2h2I
mazes
tlenllʳᵈ -
④
↳ Radius of nth orbit

Now ,
Velocity of e- in stationary orbits :

mvr
rift
=

m✓n2h2I
MIT Ze
2
=

Nz¥
"
3¥ .
pouted
↳ level
Velocity of e⊖ in nth
energy
Now, Energy of e-0in stationary orbits :
-

f) Kif .
=

f- MV E) PE =
1<9,91
r

=Im(ZnnI%)2 =

kteh.ae?e)
F. 2
KE
%nEn%→ -85%7%-2
=

PE =

Hi, Tf = KE + PE

i. e. =

-F¥n→ .