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17BQA00340
 Assignment No.1
Unit No. 1 – 4
Educational Research (837)
Tutor: Respected Mrs. Salma Ayyub
Submitted By:
Name: Muhammad Ibrahim
F/Name: Rasheed
Reg. No: 17BQA00340
Roll Number: BO639202
Semester: Spring 2023
Programme: M.Ed. One Year Science Education
District: Quetta, Balochistan

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Q. No. 1 Critically evaluate different sources of knowledge you
studied in Unit 1. (20)

The sources of knowledge

According to Donald Ary (2010:2-8), there are five major sources of
knowledge. Those are experience, authority, deductive reasoning,
inductive reasoning and scientific approach.
Experience
Experience is a familiar and well-used source of knowledge. By personal
experience, you can find the answers to many of the questions you face.
Much wisdom passed from generation to generation is the result of
experience. If people were not able to profit from experience, progress
would be severely retarded. In fact, this ability to learn from experience is
a prime characteristic of intelligent behavior.
Yet for all its usefulness, experience has limitations as a source of
knowledge. How you are affected by an event depends on who you are.
Two people will have very different experiences in the same situation.
Another shortcoming of experience is that you so frequently need to know
things that you as an individual cannot learn by experience. For example:
A teacher could learn through experience the population of a classroom on
a particular day but could not personally count the population of the United
States.
Authority
For things difficult or impossible to know by personal experience, people
frequently turn to an authority; that is, they seek knowledge from someone
who has had experience with the problem or has some other source of
expertise. For example: We go to a physician with health questions or to a
stockbroker with questions about investments. To learn the size of the U.S.
population, we can turn to reports by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. A
student can look up the accepted pronunciation of a word in a dictionary.
A superintendent can consult a lawyer about a legal problem at school. A
beginning teacher asks an experienced one for suggestions and may try a
certain technique for teaching reading because the teacher with experience
suggests that it is effective.
Authority is a quick and easy source of knowledge.
However, authority has shortcomings that you must consider:
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First, authorities can be wrong. People often claim to be experts in a field
when they do not really have the knowledge to back up the claim.
Second, you may find that authorities disagree among themselves on
issues, indicating that their authoritative statements are often more
personal opinion than fact.
Deductive reasoning
Aristotle and his followers introduced the use of deductive reasoning, which
can be described as a thinking process in which one proceeds from general
to specific knowledge through logical argument. An argument consists of a
number of statements standing in relation to one another. The final
statement is the conclusion, and the rest, called premises, offer supporting
evidence. A major kind of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. A syllogism
consists of a major premise and a minor premise followed by a conclusion.
In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is
necessarily true.
For example:
“All men are mortal” major premise
“The king is a man” minor premise
“The king is mortal” conclusion
Deductive reasoning has its limitations. To arrive at true conclusions, you
must begin with true premises. The conclusion of a syllogism can never
exceed the content of the premises. Because deductive conclusions are
necessarily elaborations on previously existing knowledge, you cannot
conduct scientific inquiry through deductive reasoning alone because it is
difficult to establish the universal truth of many statements dealing with
scientific phenomena. Deductive reasoning can organize what people
already know and can point out new relationships as you proceed from the
general to the specific, but it is not sufficient as a source of new knowledge.
Despite its limitations, deductive reasoning is useful in research because it
provides a way to link theory and observation. It lets researchers deduce
from existing theory what phenomena they should observe. Deductions
from theory can help build hypotheses, which are a vital part of scientific
inquiry. Deductive reasoning starts with general knowledge and predicts a
specific observation.

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Example of deductive reasoning: From reading the hierarchy of facts
about the machine, the mechanic knows the horn of the cycle is powered
exclusively by electricity from the battery. Then, he can logically infer that
if the battery is dead the horn will not work. Dalton, after much reflection,
concluded that matter must consist of small particles called atoms. His early
assumptions became the basis for the atomic theory.
Knowing that radioactive substances constantly give off particles of energy
without apparently reducing their mass, Einstein developed the formula E
= mc 2 for converting matter into energy.
Inductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is the reverse of the deductive method. Inductive
reasoning starts from particular experiences to general truths. We can see
the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning in the following
examples:

Deductive: Every mammal has lungs.

All rabbits are mammals.
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
Inductive: Every rabbit that has ever been observed has lungs.
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

In deductive reasoning you must know the premises before you can reach
a conclusion, but in inductive reasoning you reach a conclusion by
observing examples and generalizing from the examples to the whole class
or category. To be absolutely certain of an inductive conclusion, the
investigator must observe all examples. This is known as perfect induction.
Imperfect induction is a system in which you observe a sample of a group
and infer from the sample what is characteristic of the entire group. An
example of a conclusion based on imperfect induction is the present
thinking concerning the physical characteristics of very intelligent children.

Example of the inductive reasoning:

If the cycle goes over a bump and the engine misfires, and then goes over
another bump and the engine misfires, and then goes over another bump
and the engine misfires, and then goes over a long smooth stretch of road
and there is no misfiring, and then goes over a fourth bump and the engine
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misfires again, one can logically conclude that the misfiring is caused by
the bumps.
After extensive observation of reactions, Lavoisier concluded that
combustion is a process in which a burning substance combines with
oxygen. His work was the death blow to the old phlogiston theory of
burning.
The scientific approach.
People found that many problems could not be solved by induction alone.
In the 19th century, scholars began to integrate the most important
aspects of the inductive and deductive methods into a new technique,
namely the inductive–deductive method, or the scientific approach. This
approach differs from inductive reasoning in that it uses hypotheses.

A hypothesis is a statement describing relationships among variables that

is tentatively assumed to be true. It identifies observations to be made to
investigate a question.

For example, a researcher interested in increasing student on-task behavior

might hypothesize that positive teacher feedback increases on-task
behavior. All hypotheses indicate specific phenomena to be observed (the
variables), in this case positive teacher feedback and on-task behavior.

Charles Darwin, in developing his theory of evolution, is generally

recognized as the first to apply this method in the pursuit of knowledge.
Darwin’s procedure, involving only observation, was unproductive until
reading and further thought led him to formulate a tentative hypothesis to
explain the facts that he had gathered through observation. He then
proceeded to test this hypothesis by making deductions from it and
gathering additional data to determine whether these data would support
the hypothesis. From this method of inquiry, Darwin was able to develop
his theory of evolution. This use of both inductive and deductive reasoning
is characteristic of modern scientific inquiry.

Example of scientific approach:

Accepting Einstein’s theory, Fermi carried on experimentation that resulted
in splitting the atom.
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After studying reinforcement theory, a teacher hypothesizes that using a
tutorial computer program will lead to superior achievement in arithmetic.
She devises a study in which the tutorial is used with two sixth-grade
classes, whereas conventional materials are used with two other sixth-
grade classes.
Later scientists took Dalton’s assumptions, made deductions from them,
and proceeded to gather data that confirmed these assumptions. They
found support for the atomic theory.

Q. No. 2 Critically examine the significance of research in

education. (20)
According to professionals from Schools in Bengaluru, there are many
different ways to define research. A general definition of research is a
systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current
knowledge by discovering new facts. It’s important to understand the
nuances of the different types of research, how they are used and in what
situations.
Educational research involves collecting information about student learning
and educational programs to improve future practice. This can include
gathering information about students’ prior learning and experiences;
collecting student work; surveying teachers, parents, and other
stakeholders; or administering standardized tests. It may also involve
exploring the effectiveness of particular teaching methods or procedures,
such as a flipped classroom model, to inform other teachers’ practices.
Educational research is the scientific field of study that examines education
and learning processes and the human attributes, interactions,
organizations, and institutions that shape educational outcomes.

Research plays a key role in all fields of study. It is the fundamental building
block for academics and the entire education system. The field of
educational research is an essential part of every university’s academic
department, as well as an important component of the overall education
system itself. Education research has been conducted on a wide range of
topics, with some focusing on particular areas of sub-fields within
educational research, while others focus on broader issues.

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Education research is an important part of the field of education. Research
helps educators and policymakers develop, evaluate, and improve
educational practices. It helps teachers know what methods work best for
particular groups of students. It tells school districts whether or not efforts
to change schools are effective. Education research also creates better
teacher training programs and school improvement programs.
Many different organizations research education. Local, state, and federal
agencies use education research to make decisions about funding schools
and other educational programs. They also use it to determine how well
students are learning in different schools and school systems. University
researchers often work with government agencies on these projects.
Importance of educational research

Teaching professionals from the schools in Pune define it as — The

importance of educational research is a critical aspect of the overall
education process. Because it contributes greatly to both the quality of
education and learning outcomes for students, it also contributes greatly
to how people learn in general. Educational researchers seek to determine
why certain things work better than others when it comes to teaching and
learning. They also look at what methods are effective at promoting
learning in general. This includes identifying problems that exist within the
current system and developing possible solutions for them.
In addition to providing valuable insights into how schools function,
educational researchers also provide valuable insight into how individual
teachers do their jobs effectively to maximize their effectiveness in terms
of student performance.
Researchers also look at broader issues in education. For example, some
researchers study how gender affects learning styles or how students’
home lives influence their academic success. Other researchers study how
cultural differences affect teaching methods or the ways that students learn
in the classroom. These studies can help improve education for all students
by providing information about the diverse ways that people learn and
process information. It helps improve teaching and learning methods:
educational research helps to evaluate existing teaching methods, and find
new ways of teaching and learning.

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It helps in curriculum design: Curriculum design is a process that involves
choosing the content to teach, determining its organization, planning its
delivery, and evaluating its effectiveness. The process is greatly enhanced
by educational research because it provides information about what people
need to learn, what they know already etc.
It improves the quality of education: educational research provides
educators with data about learning processes and outcomes so that they
can improve the quality of their practice as well as other aspects of
education. It contributes to economic development: For an economy or
country to develop or remain competitive, it must have a good education
system that caters to the needs of its people.
Takeaway
Ultimately, the importance of educational research lies in the desire to
discover and understand. Through the years, cultural norms and
expectations have been based on fakers, but with educational research,
we can begin to discover the real purpose of education and when it is not
delivering that purpose. We can use this information to create new
practices such as independent learning. I believe this is why educational
research is important as it allows us to learn more about ourselves so we
are better able to grow.

Q. No. 3 Why teachers and Principals should study educational

research? Support your answer with arguments. (20)
Educational research provides a vast landscape of knowledge on topics
related to teaching and learning, curriculum and assessment, students’
cognitive and affective needs, cultural and socio-economic factors of
schools, and many other factors considered viable to improving schools.
Educational stakeholders rely on research to make informed decisions that
ultimately affect the quality of schooling for their students. Accordingly, the
purpose of educational research is to engage in disciplined inquiry to
generate knowledge on topics significant to the students, teachers,
administrators, schools, and other educational stakeholders. Just as the
topics of educational research vary, so do the approaches to conducting
educational research in the classroom. Your approach to research will be
shaped by your context, your professional identity, and paradigm (set of
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beliefs and assumptions that guide your inquiry). These will all be key
factors in how you generate knowledge related to your work as an
educator.
Action research is an approach to educational research that is commonly
used by educational practitioners and professionals to examine, and
ultimately improve, their pedagogy and practice. In this way, action
research represents an extension of the reflection and critical self-reflection
that an educator employs on a daily basis in their classroom. When
students are actively engaged in learning, the classroom can be dynamic
and uncertain, demanding the constant attention of the educator.
Considering these demands, educators are often only able to engage in
reflection that is fleeting, and for the purpose of accommodation,
modification, or formative assessment. Action research offers one path to
more deliberate, substantial, and critical reflection that can be documented
and analyzed to improve an educator’s practice.
Purpose of Action Research
As one of many approaches to educational research, it is important to
distinguish the potential purposes of action research in the classroom. This
book focuses on action research as a method to enable and support
educators in pursuing effective pedagogical practices by transforming the
quality of teaching decisions and actions, to subsequently enhance student
engagement and learning. Being mindful of this purpose, the following
aspects of action research are important to consider as you contemplate
and engage with action research methodology in your classroom:
Action research is a process for improving educational practice. Its methods
involve action, evaluation, and reflection. It is a process to gather evidence
to implement change in practices.
Action research is participative and collaborative. It is undertaken by
individuals with a common purpose.
Action research is situation and context-based.
Action research develops reflection practices based on the interpretations
made by participants.
Knowledge is created through action and application.
Action research can be based in problem-solving, if the solution to the
problem results in the improvement of practice.

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Action research is iterative; plans are created, implemented, revised, then
implemented, lending itself to an ongoing process of reflection and
revision.
In action research, findings emerge as action develops and takes place;
however, they are not conclusive or absolute, but ongoing (Koshy, 2010,
pgs. 1-2).
In thinking about the purpose of action research, it is helpful to situate
action research as a distinct paradigm of educational research. I like to
think about action research as part of the larger concept of living
knowledge. Living knowledge has been characterized as “a quest for life,
to understand life and to create… knowledge which is valid for the people
with whom I work and for myself” (Swantz, in Reason & Bradbury, 2001,
pg. 1). Why should educators care about living knowledge as part of
educational research? As mentioned above, action research is meant “to
produce practical knowledge that is useful to people in the everyday
conduct of their lives and to see that action research is about working
towards practical outcomes” (Koshy, 2010, pg. 2). However, it is also
about:

creating new forms of understanding, since action without reflection and

understanding is blind, just as theory without action is meaningless. The
participatory nature of action research makes it only possible with, for and
by persons and communities, ideally involving all stakeholders both in the
questioning and sense making that informs the research, and in the action,
which is its focus. (Reason & Bradbury, 2001, pg. 2)

In an effort to further situate action research as living knowledge, Jean

McNiff reminds us that “there is no such ‘thing’ as ‘action research’” (2013,
pg. 24). In other words, action research is not static or finished, it defines
itself as it proceeds. McNiff’s reminder characterizes action research as
action-oriented, and a process that individuals go through to make their
learning public to explain how it informs their practice. Action research
does not derive its meaning from an abstract idea, or a self-contained
discovery – action research’s meaning stems from the way educators
negotiate the problems and successes of living and working in the
classroom, school, and community.
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While we can debate the idea of action research, there are people who are
action researchers, and they use the idea of action research to develop
principles and theories to guide their practice. Action research, then, refers
to an organization of principles that guide action researchers as they act
on shared beliefs, commitments, and expectations in their inquiry.
Reflection and the Process of Action Research
When an individual engages in reflection on their actions or experiences, it
is typically for the purpose of better understanding those experiences, or
the consequences of those actions to improve related action and
experiences in the future. Reflection in this way develops knowledge
around these actions and experiences to help us better regulate those
actions in the future. The reflective process generates new knowledge
regularly for classroom teachers and informs their classroom actions.
Unfortunately, the knowledge generated by educators through the
reflective process is not always prioritized among the other sources of
knowledge educators are expected to utilize in the classroom. Educators
are expected to draw upon formal types of knowledge, such as textbooks,
content standards, teaching standards, district curriculum and behavioral
programs, etc., to gain new knowledge and make decisions in the
classroom. While these forms of knowledge are important, the reflective
knowledge that educators generate through their pedagogy is the
amalgamation of these types of knowledge enacted in the classroom.
Therefore, reflective knowledge is uniquely developed based on the action
and implementation of an educator’s pedagogy in the classroom. Action
research offers a way to formalize the knowledge generated by educators
so that it can be utilized and disseminated throughout the teaching
profession.

Q. No. 4 Discuss the significance of action research. What type of

problems can be solved through action research? (20)
One caution is the possibility of conflict of interest between the roles of
teaching and conducting action research (Hammack, 1997). A teacher’s
first priorities should be the welfare of his or her students: first and
foremost, you want students to learn, to be motivated, to feel accepted by
their peers, and the like. A researcher’s first priorities, however, are to the
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field or topic being studied. The two kinds of priorities may often overlap
and support each other. Vivian Paley’s observations of children in her
classes, described earlier, not only supported her children’s learning, but
also her studies of the children.
But situations can also occur in which action research and teaching are less
compatible, and can create ethical dilemmas. The problems usually relate
to one of three issues: privacy, informed consent, or freedom to
participate. Each of these becomes an issue only if the results of a research
project are made public, either in a journal or book, as with the examples
we have given in this chapter, or simply by being described or shared
outside the classroom. (Sharing, you may recall, is one of the defining
features of action research.) Look briefly at each of the issues.
Teachers often learn information about students that the students or their
families may not want publicized. Suppose, for example, you have a
student with an intellectual disability in your class, and you wish to study
how the student learns. Observing the student work on (and possibly
struggle with) academic activities may be quite consistent with a teacher’s
responsibilities; after all, teachers normally should pay attention to their
students’ academic efforts. But the student or his family may not want such
observations publicized or even shared informally with other parents or
teachers. They may feel that doing so would risk stigmatizing the student
publicly.
To respect the student’s privacy and still study his learning behavior, the
teacher (alias the “action researcher”) therefore needs to disguise the
student’s identity whenever the research results are made public. In any
written or oral report, or even in any hallway conversation about the
project, the teacher/researcher would use a pseudonym for the student,
and change other identifying information such as the physical description
of the student or even the student’s gender. There are limits, however, to
how much can be disguised without changing essential information. The
teacher could not, for example, hide the fact of the intellectual disability
without compromising the point of the study; yet the intellectual disability
might be unusual enough that it would effectively identify the student being
studied.
Students may not understand what is being studied about them, or even
realize that they are being studied at all, unless the teacher/researcher
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makes an explicit effort to inform them about the action research and how
she will use the results from it. The same is true for the students’ parents;
unless the teacher-researcher makes an effort to contact parents, they
simply will not know that their child’s activities are being observed or may
eventually be made public. Students’ ignorance is especially likely if the
students are very young (kindergarten) or have intellectual or reading
difficulties, as in the example we described above. As an action researcher,
therefore, a teacher is obliged to explain the nature of a research project
clearly, either in a letter written in simple language or in a face-to-face
conversation, or both. Parents and students need to give clear indications
that they actually understand what class activities or materials will
constitute data that could be made public. In most cases, indicating
informed consent means asking students’ parents signing a letter giving
permission for the study. Sometimes, in addition, it is a good idea to
recheck with students or parents periodically as the project unfolds, to
make sure that they still support participation.
When a student fails to participate in an ordinary class activity, most
teachers consider it legitimate to insist on the student’s participation—
either by persuading, demanding, or (perhaps) tricking the student to join.
Doing so is ethical for teachers in their roles as teachers, because teachers
are primarily responsible for ensuring that students learn, and students’
participation presumably facilitates learning. If a teacher designates an
activity as part of an action research project, however, and later shares the
results with them, the teacher then also becomes partly responsible for
how other teachers use knowledge of the research study. (Remember:
sharing results is intrinsically part of the research process.) The resulting
dual commitment means that “forcing” a student to participate in an action
research activity can no longer be justified solely as being for the student’s
own educational good.
Much of the time, a simultaneous commitment to both teachers and
students presents no real dilemma: what is good for the action research
project may also be good for the students. But not always. Suppose, for
example, that a teacher wants to do research about students’ beliefs about
war and global conflict, and doing so requires that students participate in
numerous extended group discussions on this topic. Even though the group
discussions might resemble a social studies lesson and in this sense be
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generally acceptable as a class activity, some parents (or students) may
object because they take too much class time away from the normal
curriculum topics. Yet the research project necessitates giving it lots of
discussion time in class. To respond ethically to this dilemma, therefore,
the teacher may need to allow students to opt out of the discussions if they
or their parents choose. She may therefore need to find ways for them to
cover an alternate set of activities from the curriculum. (One way to do
this, for example, is to hold the special group discussions outside regular
class times—though this obviously also increases the amount of work for
both the teacher and students.)
Is action research practical? From one perspective the answer has to be
“Of course not!” Action research is not practical because it may take
teachers’ time and effort which they could sometimes use in other ways.
Keep in mind, though, that a major part of the effort needed for action
research involves the same sort of work—observing, recording information,
reflecting—that is needed for any teaching that is done well. A better way
to assess practicality may therefore be to recognize that teaching students
always takes a lot of work, and to ask whether the additional
thoughtfulness brought on by action research will make the teaching more
successful.
Looked at in this way, action research is indeed practical, though probably
not equally so on every occasion. If you choose to learn about the quality
of conversational exchanges between yourself and students, for example,
you will need some way to record these dialogues, or at least to keep
accurate, detailed notes on them. Recording the dialogues may be practical
and beneficial—or not, depending on your circumstances. On the other
hand, if you choose to study how and why certain students remain on the
margins of your class socially, this problem too may be practical as action
research. Or it may not, depending on whether you can find a way to
observe and reflect on students’ social interactions, or lack thereof. Much
depends on your circumstances—on the attention you can afford to give to
your research problem while teaching, in relation to the benefits that
solutions to the problems will bring students later. In general any action
research project may require certain choices about how to teach, though
it should not interfere with basic instructional goals or prevent coverage of
an important curriculum. The main point to remember is that action
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research is more than passive observation of students and classrooms; it
also includes educational interventions, efforts to stimulate students to new
thinking and new responses. Those are features of regular teaching; the
difference is primarily in how systematically and reflectively you do them.

Q. No. 5 Write a detailed note on descriptive research. (20)

Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe the
characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a
wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular
population or group. For example, descriptive studies might be used to
answer questions such as: What percentage of Head Start teachers have a
bachelor's degree or higher? What is the average reading ability of 5-year-
olds when they first enter kindergarten? What kinds of math activities are
used in early childhood programs? When do children first receive regular
child care from someone other than their parents? When are children with
developmental disabilities first diagnosed and when do they first receive
services? What factors do programs consider when making decisions about
the type of assessments that will be used to assess the skills of the children
in their programs? How do the types of services children receive from their
early childhood program change as children age?
Descriptive research is an exploratory research method. It enables
researchers to precisely and methodically describe a population,
circumstance, or phenomenon.

As the name suggests, descriptive research describes the characteristics of

the group, situation, or phenomenon being studied without manipulating
variables or testing hypotheses. This can be reported using surveys,
observational studies, and case studies. You can use both quantitative and
qualitative methods to compile the data.

Besides making observations and then comparing and analyzing them,

descriptive studies often develop knowledge concepts and provide
solutions to critical issues. It always aims to answer how the event
occurred, when it occurred, where it occurred, and what the problem or
phenomenon is.
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Descriptive research does not answer questions about why a certain
phenomenon occurs or what the causes are. Answers to such questions
are best obtained from randomized and quasi-experimental studies.
However, data from descriptive studies can be used to examine the
relationships (correlations) among variables. While the findings from
correlational analyses are not evidence of causality, they can help to
distinguish variables that may be important in explaining a phenomenon
from those that are not. Thus, descriptive research is often used to
generate hypotheses that should be tested using more rigorous designs.

A variety of data collection methods may be used alone or in combination

to answer the types of questions guiding descriptive research. Some of the
more common methods include surveys, interviews, observations, case
studies, and portfolios. The data collected through these methods can be
either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are typically analyzed
and presenting using descriptive statistics. Using quantitative data,
researchers may describe the characteristics of a sample or population in
terms of percentages (e.g., percentage of population that belong to
different racial/ethnic groups, percentage of low-income families that
receive different government services) or averages (e.g., average
household income, average scores of reading, mathematics and language
assessments). Quantitative data, such as narrative data collected as part
of a case study, may be used to organize, classify, and used to identify
patterns of behaviors, attitudes, and other characteristics of groups.

Descriptive studies have an important role in early care and education

research. Studies such as the National Survey of Early Care and Education
and the National Household Education Surveys Program have greatly
increased our knowledge of the supply of and demand for child care in the
U.S. The Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey and the Early
Childhood Longitudinal Study Program have provided researchers, policy
makers and practitioners with rich information about school readiness skills
of children in the U.S.

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Each of the methods used to collect descriptive data have their own
strengths and limitations. The following are some of the strengths and
limitations of descriptive research studies in general.

Strengths:

• Study participants are questioned or observed in a natural setting

(e.g., their homes, child care or educational settings).
• Study data can be used to identify the prevalence of particular
problems and the need for new or additional services to address these
problems.
• Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research
and relationships between variables that require future study.
Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis generating
research."
• Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies
can generate rich datasets on large and diverse samples.

Limitations:

• Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and effect

relationships.
• Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey questions
or may give socially desirable responses.
• The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire may influence
the descriptive findings.
• Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings may not be
generalizable or produce an accurate description of the population of
interest.

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