Learning and

Conditioning

UNIT 3
Definition of Learning

1. The process of learning is concerned about experience

acquisition, retention of experiences, and experience
development in a step by step manner, synthesis of
both old and new experiences for creating a new
pattern.
2. Learning is concerned about cognitive, conative and
affective aspects. Knowledge acquisition process is
cognitive, any change in the emotions is affective and
conative is acquisition of new habits or skills.
Definition of Learning

● Gales defined Learning as the behavioural modification

which occurs as a result of experience as well as
training.
● Crow and Crow defined learning as the process of
acquisition of knowledge, habits and attitudes.
● According to E.A, Peel, Learning can be described as a
change in the individual which takes place as a result of
the environmental change.
 Classical Conditioning

Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical

conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning.
This learning process creates a conditioned response through
associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral
stimulus.

For example, whenever you come home wearing a baseball

cap, you take your child to the park to play. So, whenever
your child sees you come home with a baseball cap, he is
excited because he has associated your baseball cap with a trip
to the park.
Instrumental Conditioning

Instrumental conditioning is another term for operant

conditioning, a learning process first described by B. F.
Skinner. 1 In instrumental conditioning, reinforcement or
punishment are used to either increase or decrease the
probability that a behavior will occur again in the future.

Instrumental conditioning (also called operant conditioning)

is a procedure in which a reinforcement, such as food, is
delivered contingent upon a response, although it may
also be contingent upon the time of occurrence of a previous
stimulus or reinforcement.
 Classical and Instrumental
Conditioning
The main difference between classical conditioning and
instrumental conditioning is that classical conditioning involves
involuntary behaviour, whereas instrumental conditioning
involves voluntary behaviour.

Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs by linking

two stimuli together to produce a new learned response in an
individual, while instrumental conditioning is a learning process that
occurs by linking behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.
 Biofeedback and reinforcement
Biofeedback is a mind-body technique that involves using
visual or auditory feedback to teach people to recognize the
physical signs and symptoms of stress and anxiety, such as
increased heart rate, body temperature, and muscle tension.

A biofeedback therapist helps you practice relaxation

exercises, which you fine-tune to control different body
functions. For example, you might use a relaxation
technique to turn down the brainwaves that activate
when you have a headache.
 Biofeedback and reinforcement
During a biofeedback session, a therapist attaches
electrical sensors to different parts of your body. These
sensors might be used to monitor your brain waves, skin
temperature, muscle tension, heart rate and breathing.
Reinforcement

Reinforcement is defined as a consequence that follows

an operant response that increase (or attempts to
increase) the likelihood of that response occurring in
the future.

For example, reinforcement might involve presenting

praise (the reinforcer) immediately after a child puts
away her toys (the response). By reinforcing the desired
behavior with praise, the child will be more likely to perform
the same actions again in the future.
Verbal Learning

the process of learning about verbal stimuli and

responses, such as letters, digits, nonsense syllables,
or words. The methods used include paired-associates
learning and serial learning.

Verbal learning is the process of actively memorizing new

material using mental pictures, associations, and other
activities. Verbal learning was first studied by Hermann
Ebbinghaus, who used lists of nonsense syllables to test
recall.
Basic Conditioning and learning
The conditioning theory of learning describes a form of
learning where learning occurs as a result of
associating a condition or stimulus with a particular
reaction or response. Human behavior is shaped by habits
we pick up in response to certain situations in life and is the
outcome of learning by conditioning theory.

Conditioning is a form of learning in which either (1) a given

stimulus (or signal) becomes increasingly effective in
evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing
regularity in a well-specified and stable environment. The
type of reinforcement used will determine the outcome
Schedules of reinforcement
In continuous schedules, reinforcement is provided every
single time after the desired behavior.

Unlike continuous schedules, partial schedules only

reinforce the desired behavior occasionally rather than all
the time. This leads to slower learning since it is initially
more difficult to make the association between behavior and
reinforcement.

In a fixed schedule the number of responses or amount of

time between reinforcements is set and unchanging. The
schedule is predictable.
 Schedules of reinforcement
In a variable schedule the number of responses or amount of time
between reinforcements change randomly. The schedule is
unpredictable.

In a ratio schedule reinforcement occurs after a certain number of

responses have been emitted.

Interval schedules involve reinforcing a behavior after a period of

time has passed.

In operant conditioning, a fixed interval schedule is when

reinforcement is given to a desired response after specific
(predictable) amount of time has passed.
 Schedules of reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a variable interval schedule is when the
reinforcement is provided after a random (unpredictable) amount
of time has passes and following a specific behavior being
performed.

In operant conditioning, a fixed-ratio schedule reinforces behavior

after a specified number of correct responses.

A variable ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a

behavior is reinforced after a random number of responses.
 Role of reinforcement in developing
social behaviour
Reinforcement theory is a psychological principle maintaining
that behaviors are shaped by their consequences and that,
accordingly, individual behaviors can be changed through
rewards and punishments.

Social Reinforcement: A child's behaviors are reinforced by

positive social. interactions. Social reinforcement can include
smiles, tickles, high fives, and praise.
 Role of reinforcement in developing
social behaviour
A reinforcer is something that increases the likelihood that a
specific behavior or response will occur. ... Positive
reinforcers add something in order to increase behavior, while
negative reinforcers take something away. Reinforcers can also
be primary or secondary
Transfer of learning

Transfer of learning means the use of previously acquired

knowledge and skills in new learning or problem-solving
situations. Thereby similarities and analogies between
previous and actual learning content and processes may
play a crucial role.

Transfer of learning is the process of applying acquired

knowledge to new situations. Examples of transfer of
learning: A student learns to solve polynomial equations in
class and then uses that knowledge to solve similar
problems for homework.
Learning by Observing Models

Observational learning is the process of learning by

watching the behaviors of others. The targeted behavior
is watched, memorized, and then mimicked. Also known as
shaping and modeling, observational learning is most
common in children as they imitate behaviors of adults.

An infant learns to make and understand facial

expressions. A child learns to chew. After witnessing an
older sibling being punished for taking a cookie without
asking, the younger child does not take cookies without
permission.
Biological limits

Biological constraints on learning refers to he limitations on

a species ability to learn new tasks that are imposed by
physical restraints or cognitive (mental) abilities of the
species.