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Assessment of Causes and Effects of Monasticism from Kingdom of God Perspective:

Then and Now

Rukuzo Ruho

Introduction
“To truly seek God” is for Benedict the very essence of monastic life. Monasticism is an
ascetic system of living apart from the world: to be one with God. i It has its derivation from
the Greek word monastis meaning monk from the root word monos meaning alone. This
article is an attempt to see the rise and development – the causes and later its effects. Against
such a backdrop it will be the effort of the presenter to explore how context places a demand
on any theological enterprise to treat it (context) justly. Upon such a just consideration will an
authentic theology or movement take shape as is found to be true even in the case of
Monasticism. Subsequently if ‘Kingdom of God’ is about that state of peace, righteousness,
justice and love that God gives to the world in the present and to consummate upon the future
where none is excluded; an attempt is made to explore whether Monasticism does in some
way aid in the ushering of that sort of kingdom.

1. Rise and development of Monasticism

Monasticism is an attempt to develop and regulate the exercise of asceticism and mysticism.
It can by no means be purely called a creation of Christianity because long before the
Christian era a highly organized Monasticism existed in India and parts of Asia. ii Greek
asceticism and mysticism seems never to have produced monastic system; but among the
Jews both in Judea and Alexandria, this development took place. In Judea the Essenes before
the time of Christ lived a peaceful monastic life. The same is also true in regards to the
Therapeutae, who lived near Alexandria. On the one hand a general sketch of pre-Christian
asceticism and Monasticism with indication of the chief authorities and common among
scholars is the idea that pre-Christian realizations of the monastic idea had no influence on
the rise and development of Monasticism.iii Yet on the flip side we may see how asceticism
among heathens and other socio-cultural, religious traditions might as well have aided in the
development of Christian Monasticism.

At this instance Adrian Hastings has rightly pointed that the common error in Church
historical interpretation is to underestimate the dependence of developments in the 4 th century
CE upon what went before.iv In fact it is not mere exaggeration when we say that progress
was aided by ascetic tendencies inherent in the better philosophies of ancient world, such as
Hellenistic ideals as manifested in Origen’s

asceticism. Even before the close of the 3rd century CE the holy virgins were a conspicuous
element in the church as men and women without leaving their homes were practicing
asceticism. Representation of asceticism and Monasticism are to be found in the religions of
India and among Jews, Greeks and Egyptians.v Before we go in-depth in to the causes and
effects let us see the beginnings of Christian Monasticism as championed by St. Anthony.

2. Founder of Christian Monasticism

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St. Anthony the great is the patron saint of herdsman and hermit of Upper Egypt and is
considered as the father of Christian Monasticism. vi Around 270 CE Anthony who was about
twenty years old heard the words of the Sunday gospel read in Coptic: “If thou will be
perfect, go and sell all that thou hast and give to the poor, and come follow me.”(Matt.19:21)
His immediate response was not different from that of many people before him as he too
moved to a shed on the edge of his Egyptian village and continued to share in public worship,
supported himself by making mats and baskets and learnt from older ascetics living in the
same way. Considerably latter he moved out to the edge of the desert, developing new model
of emphatically eremitical life, a model that many others soon came to imitate, as in
Athanasius’ later hyperbolic words; “the desert was made a city by monks coming out from
their own and enrolling in the heavenly citizenship. Anthony’s way remained that of a
hermit”vii and Monasticism was basically a laymen’s movement in origin. viii However, before
St. Anthony and his friends developed monastic fervor the stage was set and the time was
ripe. Let us see the potent causes.

3. Causes for growth of Christian Monasticism

The apostolic age came to a close around 100 C E. The apostles were followed by apostolic
fathers. From the writings that the signs of deterioration as was predicted in the epistle of the
apostles and in the letters to the seven churches in Revelation has already begun. In the
course of the next 400 hundred years that deterioration increased steadily ix ultimately leading
to the growth and development of Monasticism. Let us see the potent causes.

3.1. Christianity void of Christian living

In the apostolic times the church was no doubt conceived as composed exclusively of
experiential Christians. There were of course people who needed discipline in it and the
church could be ideally described as spotless and wrinkle free and the like. But by the
beginning of third century this picture was marred – their being experiential Christians and
attending public worship was not impressive anymore.

They were Christians in little more than in name. When the gentiles discovered that the works
of Christians are not worthy of the words they spoke about oracles of God, they were termed
as ideal stories and a delusion. x The life of sacrifice ever renewing the mind and not living
according to the patterns of the world was not manifest in the believers. They were talking
Christians who however, do not walk and work the talk. As such the walking and working
Christians wanted an alternative way.

3.2. Altering concept of church

Further the concept of church was changing from that of the communion of saints to that of
an agency of salvation by the rapid growth of Christian population from 202 – 250 CE.
Church membership increasingly began to depend on enrolment only, rather than truly
experiencing Christ and living a Christian life. This change was evident as Bishop Kallistos
of Rome cites the parable of the tares and the wheat and compared the church to the ark of
Noah in which were things clean and unclean. According to Williston Walker, the earlier and
the later theories thus indicated divide the allegiance of modern Christendom to this day. xi
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3.3. New philosophies leading to worldliness

Another tendency much increased by the rapid growth of heathen converts is the rejection of
the Montanists and the decay of the expectation of the speedy end of the world undoubtedly
favouring the spread of worldliness in the church. xii At the same time the dualistic view of
flesh and spirit with its tendency to consider flesh evil and spirit good, although so much
characteristic of the Orient-influenced Christianity through the Gnostic and Neo-Platonic
movements. As a response retirement from the world was thought would help the individual
to crucify the flesh and to develop the spiritual life by meditation and ascetic acts. xiii

3.4. Controversial doctrines and practices

Not only new philosophies but the following unscriptural doctrines and practices were
becoming deeply rooted in the church life:
(i) Prayer for the death, (ii) a belief in purgatory, (iii) the forty-day Lenten season, (iv)
the view that the Lord’s Supper is sacrifice, and that its administrators are priests, (v) a
sharp division of the church into clergy and laity, (vi) the veneration of martyrs and saints
and above all the adoration of Mary, (vii) the burning of tapers or candles in honor of
saints, (viii) veneration of relics of martyrs and saints, (ix) the ascription of magical
powers to these relics (x) pictures, images and altars in the churches,

(xi) gorgeous vestments for the clergy, (xii) more and more elaborate and splendid
rituals, (xiii) less and less preaching, (xiv) pilgrimage to holy places, (xv) persecution of
heathens and heretics.xiv These beliefs and practices stood in the way of the establishment
of the kingdom of God.

3.5. Shallow Christianity

If a ruler accepted Christianity, the emperor and his people were baptized whether or not
they fully understand the meaning of the act or the implication of Christianity on their lives. xv
As such it resulted in loose morals and unethical Christian lives with no real faith on the part
of the new believers who need better Christian admonishings. This was one of the main
reasons the stricter Christian chose self-segregation and retreated to the deserts and forests.

3.6. End of martyrdom and its consequences

On the one hand rapid growth of Christianity had led to increased social acceptance and great
accommodation in the practice of church discipline. On the other hand, legalization and
imperial establishment in the 4th century had put an end to Christian martyrdom in the Roman
Empire. In both cases there was a growing sentiment among many that the Christian
martyrdom had lost something of its spiritual edge, something of its dynamic power, as such
the desires for greater discipline and self-sacrifice for the opportunity to give to Christ, sent
many into the wilderness in search of a life of holiness.xvi
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3.7. Dangers from heathenism

It is also noticeable that the moment of the church’s victory over heathenism became the hour
of the church’s greatest danger from heathens. Like the heathen religion soon the church too
had its sacrifice, its priests and altars. The heathens had gods innumerable and their images
were to be seen on every hand. Martyrs and saints took the place of the old heathen gods.
Heathenism was full of superstition and soon was transferred to pieces of cross and to the
relics of saints and martyrs, such as bones and hairs and fragments of their clothing. The
image of Christians was derogatory and even Emperor Julian the Apostate called the
Christians bone worshippers. In many lands among the heathens there were monks and before
long many Christians became monks and nuns. xvii Though heathenism raised its ugly heads
St. Anthony was going back to the scriptures and that became a firm base for the movement
to take shape.

3.8. Scriptural basis

As was evident in the case of St. Anthony, scripture seems to support the idea of separation
from the world. Paul’s apparent advocacy of the celibate life in I Cor. 7:38(…, and he who
refrains from marriage will do even better) is a case in point. The early church fathers such as
Origen, Cyprian, Tertullian and Jerome urged celibacy as the correct interpretation of such
scriptures.xviii “If thou will be perfect, go and sell all that thou hast and give to the poor, and
come follow me.”(Matt.19:21) has also been a powerful passage. The scripture taught that
Christ might come very soon and that marriage ties might impede evangelism was taken
seriously. The Jews had a tradition of asceticism, both individual and communal, reaching
back into the Old Testament. The Nazarite vow involved temporary abstinence from wine
and other restrictions. Later in Israelite history, prophets gathered special groups for teaching
and prayer under the leadership of notable persons such as Elijah. In the New Testament John
the Baptist’s ascetic life in the Judean desert also represent Palestinian asceticism. James the
Lord’s brother was admired by many for his constant fasting and prayer. Practices such as
these inspired later developments in Monasticism.xix

3.9. Geographical causes

Along with the above causes geography merits some consideration as a factor responsible for
the rise of Monasticism. The warm dry climate and the multitude of caves in the hills along
the banks of Nile were conducive to separation of the individual from society. Small gardens,
along with the resources of food provided by the nearby Nile, made securing of food by the
individual fairly easy. The nearness to the desolate forbidding scenery of the desert
stimulated meditation.xx
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In the context of the above state of affairs rose Monasticism either to curb the menace and
remedy the ills prevalent or respond to the call for what we may term a form of higher and
lower Christianity then. The pinch of Christianity apparently missing the ingredients of
kingdom values was a felt reality. For a better understanding of the movement it is necessary
to see the systems prevalent in the practice of Monasticism, which is discussed as under.

4. Systems in eastern Monasticism: rise and development

Monasticism went through four main stages during the period of its emergence in the Roman
Empire. At first, ascetic practices were carried on by many within the church. Many later
withdrew from society to live as anchorites or hermits. The holiness of these hermits attracted
others, who would take up residence in nearby

caves and look to them for leadership in what was called a laura. Finally the organized
communal life within a monastery appeared. This process had its beginning in the east in the
4th Century CE and later spread to the church in the west. xxi It is evident even today that
though the east looks towards the west in many respects, the west looks east for spiritual
directions especially in ascetic practices..

4.1. Hermit form under Anthony

St. Anthony’s life of holiness gave him such a reputation that others also went to live near
him under numerous caves that was not far from his habitation. He never organized these
followers into a community; rather each practiced the ascetic life of a hermit in his own
cave.xxiiAnthony was influential by the first form of Monasticism that is the hermit form. xxiii
Athanasius wrote Anthony’s biography, The Life of Anthony, which was translated twice into
Latin and exercised a considerable influence in the spread of the new ideal of Monasticism.
Even to St. Augustine it was a decisive moment as he read the book and in his Confession
describes the shattering effects the book had on him and some of his contemporaries. xxiv It is
observable that the life and testimony of Anthony itself has become an enormous motivating
factor to take the monastic movement forward.

4.2. The communal or social type under St. Pachomius (290-346 CE)
It is also called Cenobite Monasticism and made its appearance first in Egypt. Pachomius a
discharged soldier, after living 12 years as a hermit, organized the first monastery about 320
at Tabernisi on the east bank of Nile. He soon had several thousand monks under his direct
control in Egypt and Syria. Simplicity of life, work, devotion and obedience were the
keynotes of his organization.xxv The enormous growth in membership saw the increase in
number of buildings and structures; there was also a separate building for women. xxvi For
new members a three-year probationary period was required after which one was admitted
with full standing. Monks and nuns fasted twice a week. They meditate on the scriptures and
for those of them who could not read upon entering the community, they were taught: which
led to the establishment of educational programmes.xxvii
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4.3. Utilitarian and social expression under St. Basil (330-379 CE)
Basil took the basic rule of Pochomius and adopted it to fit their own peculiar situation. He
integrated the Egyptians’ model with the Caesarean. The new rule that he wrote emphasized
more the Monastic community’s relationship to the wider church. His rule called the monks
and nuns to be under the pastoral authority of a bishop. His influence in developing monastic
principles for the church was in fact great enough to earn for him the title- father of Eastern
Orthodox Monasticism.xxviii

Basil’s organizing and legislating skills proved fulfilling in giving a new concept to
Monasticism. Living in community is now conceived as the normal framework for the growth
of spiritual life. Anchoritism rather disappeared from the horizon. Old Testament examples of
the call of Abraham and the ascent of Elijah so dear to the early anchorits were replaced in St.
Basil’s writings by a picture of early Christians of Jerusalem. xxix He did much to popularize
the communal type of monastic organaization. He gave a more utilitarian and social
expression under him and the monks were to work, pray, read the bible and perform good
deeds. He discouraged extreme asceticism.xxx Here we see a not so utterly other-worldly form
of asceticism which indeed appears more sensible and in line with kingdom principles.

4.4. Other peculiar forms in the east

From Egypt, Monasticism spread rapidly over the entire east. Some were in queer forms as
in Syria a certain monk Simon after having lived buried up to the neck for several months xxxi
lived for thirty years until the day of his death on top of a pillar (stylus). Others lived in fields
and grazed grass after the manner of cattle. Ammoun still had a particular reputation for
sanctity because he never undressed or bathed after he became a hermit. Another wandered
naked in the vicinity of Mt. Sinai for fifty years. These forms were only the fanatic fringes of
the movement found more in the east than in the west.xxxii

5. Systems in western Monasticism: rise and development

St. Athanasius introduced Monasticism into the West. Martin of Tours, Ambrose, Jerome,
and Augustine did much to promote it, which was to be one of the outstanding features of the
life of the middle ages.xxxiii The influence of Egyptian Monasticism spread rapidly in the
Latin-speaking west in the 4th and 5th centuries CE under St. Athanasius when he was much
influenced by it during his exiles in Egypt (339-346 CE) xxxiv. The western form differed
considerably from that in the east. The cold climate made it essential for warm buildings and
food. Monasticism was much more practical in its expression. It rejected idleness and
deplored purely ascetic acts: work as well as devotion was emphasized. xxxv A cursory reading
of few of them mentioned as under would make it clear.

5.1. Episcopal monasteries in the west

5.1.1. Martin of Tours: In 372 CE, just two years after Basil became a bishop, Martin, the
founder of the very first monastery in Gaul, was made bishop of Tours and became a pioneer
evangelist of the Gallic countryside. Some criticized his appointment because he was grubby
and a lower class. He was certainly different
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from Ambrose, but Basil and Martin provided henceforth the norm for the best kind of bishop
in both east and west for 800 years. They both were at one time monks. It brought with it
among other things, a shift from the elderly married man to the younger celibate.xxxvi

5.1.2. St. Ambrose and Bishop Eusebius: In Milan, Italy, St. Ambrose spread the ideals of
Monasticism. Eusebius was the bishop of Vercelli, but he also wanted to be a monk. To fulfill
his desire he grouped the members of his clergy round him in order to lead an ascetical form
of life in community.xxxvii

5.1.3. St. Augustine: St. Augustine in Africa embraced the monastic life. In his monastery of
intellectuals, the scientific and philosophical studies went hand in hand with the religious life.
Thus it saw on the Christian plane, the dream of a community of thinkers, which Plotinus had
once toyed with. On becoming a priest in 391 CE, he did not give up his ascetical vocation,
further, when he became a bishop in 395 CE, he turned his house into an Episcopal
monastery.xxxviii

5.2. St. Jerome and ascetical propaganda in Roman circles

St. Jerome’s writing on asceticism rank next to the Bible and Benedict’s Rule in the medieval
monks’ library.xxxix His propaganda for ascetical ideal met with great success, notably among
a certain number of ladies, widows or virgins belonging to the highest senatorial aristocracy.
However, his success met with opposition and was controversial in the spheres of Mariology,
marriage and virginity and soon he had to leave Rome, xl a fact not uncommon if one has
views too radical to be accepted.

5.3. St. Benedict’s rule (480-543 CE) and St. Scholastica

Western Monasticism was greatly reformed from the chaotic condition under Benedict of
Nursia. His famous rule exhibited his profound knowledge of human nature and his Roman
genius for organization. His conception of a monastery was that of a permanent, self-
contained and self-supporting garrison of Christ’s soldier. xli The Rule of Benedict, as we
know, is based on two activities, prayer and work. The abbot was their spiritual head and
exercised all normal discipline.xlii His followers were also known as Black monks and they
lived at Monte Cassino. Apart from their religious exercise, the monks were to be employed
in study, teaching and manual labour. St. Benedict’s sister Scholastica is regarded as the
founder of the Benedictine nuns. Her convent was at Plombariolsa near Monte Cassino. The
brother and sister met each year at a house to share concerns.xliii

Studying the causes and observing the rise of Monastic flavor in Christendom it can be
affirmed that every theology grows out of a particular socio-historical context.

Having affirmed so, it still remains an imperative to see both the positive and negative sides
of the movement.

6. Positive effects of Monasticism

6.1. Light in the Dark Ages

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Some may dismiss monks as of little value or evince a hostility that does not take into
account the contribution made by the monk in his own day, a contribution that still effect
modern civilization.xliv In fact in the 5th century CE, Europe was overrun by successive
manners of barbarian invasions. In 476 CE the last of the western emperor was deposed by a
barbarian Gothic king and the Western Roman Empire had effectively ceased to exist. The
ensuing period, until about 1000 CE can be aptly called the ‘Dark Ages’. But while western
European life was at the low ebb, theology and learning continued in a relative security
provided by the Monastic communities. It was the age of the Monastic theology- xlv a light in
the dark ages.

6.2. Enhancing scholarship and course of future theology

Monasticism kept scholarship alive during the Dark Ages. In many centers reading and
copying was compulsory. It also became missionary centers, which saw enormous growth of
many new churches. It produced outstanding church leaders such as Basil, Gregory,
Augustine of Hippo and others.xlvi The Benedictines were a great civilizing influence in
Western Europe.xlvii As mentioned earlier Basil and Martin provide the best norm for the best
kind of bishop both in east and west for 800 years. We are also aware that St. Augustine who
read the biography of St. Anthony written by St. Athanasius describes in his confession the
shattering effect the book had on him and some of his contemporaries.

As the Dark Ages came to an end there arose another form of theology known as Scholastic
theology which was based on questioning, logic, speculation and disputation but it did not
eliminate the older monastic approach of edification and worship which was based on
contemplation, meditation and adoration. It is also noteworthy that reformers such as Calvin
who opposed allegory, nonetheless saw in Monastic theology the presentation of purer form
of Augustinian theology.xlviii

6.3.Producing Qumran document and preserving Greco-Roman culture

The Essenes of Qumran produced the Dead Sea scroll, a document that aided in preserving
important historical records. Emphasis on monastic learning also ensured that Greco-Roman
culture survived into the middle Ages.xlix

6.4. Cross-cultural spirituality

Monasticism became one of the most important vehicles for cross-cultural spiritual
fertilization among churches in the world. The desert communities of Egypt though
nationalistic in orientation, harboured a broader vision of spirituality and ministry. As
Sebastian Brock and Susan Ashbrook Harvey asserts, “for the Christendom of late antiquity it
was holy lives that most often transcends differences of language, culture and time”. Ideas of
Anthony who spoke only Egyptian reached the Latin speaking community by means of
Athanasius’ book The Life of Anthony. It went beyond national boundaries reaching as far as
Germany.l

6.5. Advancing agriculture with a purpose

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Monasticism served as agricultural farms developing better methods of agriculture. The

produce of the monasteries was used as charitable gifts for the poor. li This generally reveals
that though a form of retreat from the worldly pleasures nonetheless soberly remained
worldly relevant, i.e., to live in the world and also sustain the body that houses the soul.

6.6. Practicing good virtues

Of the chief virtues articulated by desert fathers and mothers the on act that needs to be
commended is that of service to one’s neighbours. Basil the great built his monastery
adjacent to the church, which served as a health care facility. In the west hospitality to the
strangers was a central component of the rule of Benedict’s communities. In Egypt white
monastery of Shenoute of Africa fed thousands of refugees.lii

7. Negative effects of Monasticism

7.1. Double standards

It produced spiritual pride among the monks. It advocated a double standard of Christian
living, one to be attained by the elite and the other for the ordinary or less dedicated people. It
is not Biblical and as such unhealthy.liii There is no doubt there is a higher calling at the same
time demand for a more disciplined life on the part of the clergy. This, however, should not
make room for double standards.

7.2. One-sided progress and unequal representation in church and society

Though some of the greatest church leaders emerged from monasteries there is also a debit
sheet that must be considered. Too many best men and women of the empire were drained off
into monasteries, and their abilities were lost to the world, which was so badly in need of
such leaders.liv

7.3. Affected procreation of healthy offspring

Since the monks and nuns opted for celibacy they did not have biological children. It kept the
most able men and women from rearing able children to become leaders of the future. In this
regard Hrangkhuma has aptly commented ‘God needs able men and women to carry on His
work in the world’.lv

7.4. Spiritual pride of monks

Very often Monasticism nurtured spiritual pride and monks were proud of the ascetic acts
performed to benefit their own soul. F. Hrangkhuma in this regard has pointed out aptly that
there is not much point if holiness does not benefit others. lvi Christianity is a religion for all
and not to be hoarded.

7.5. Misuse of power

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Since most of the monasteries were controlled by popes in the West, the monastic movement
increased the power of popes who thus misused power.lvii For instance, the White monastery
in Egypt, supported Cyril of Alexandria violently and effectively when he got Nestorius
condemned for heresy at the Council of Ephesus 431 CE. The armed crowd of monks took
side in theological disputes such as these. lviii Even in the case of the theology worked out by
Basil and his friends was eventually to triumph at the Council of Constantinople 381 CE. lix
Their position as asserting right from wrong is important, yet the means they employed for
their desired ends sure is a case to be questioned.

7.6. Preached one thing and lived another

When the Bible taught love of neighbors the Christians were destroying pagan temples,
harassed and even murdered pagan heretics. As such they were no better than the pagan
mobs, who in the earlier periods persecuted them at Alexandria and else where. lx They were
resorting to an eye for an eye and tooth for a tooth which breeds more violence.

8. Monasticism from Kingdom of God perspective: An assessment

It is generally understood that Kingdom of God is about both present and future whereby no
one is excluded from God’ reign. lxi Contemporary expression of God’s reign proclaimed by
Jesus stress God’s unconditional love, manifest in human compassion and service to others. lxii
On the other hand Kingdom of God is that order of perfect peace, righteousness, justice and
love that God gives to the world. This gift according to Stanley J. Grenz is eschatological, for
it comes in an ultimate way only at the renewal of the world consummated at Jesus’ return. In
fact the kingdom of heaven or kingdom of God is the central theme of Jesus’ preaching.lxiii
Thus the concept of the Kingdom of God reminds us that ultimately we engage in the
theological task- we address theological questions- from the vantage point of the
consummation of God’s activity in establishing his will and progress for the world.lxiv

Even as signs of deterioration predicted in the epistles and letters to the seven churches in the
book of Revelation has already begun, it deteriorated continually. Such a context needed a
response and the appropriate response one may contend was Monasticism as a Christian
movement. In other words the maxim that every theology is historically and socially
conditioned is found valid even in the case of Monastic theology.

Eugene Peterson expresses his concern in his book A Long Obedience in the Same Direction
on the need to return to prolonged and unwavering devotion saying- “Our attention spans
have been conditioned by thirty-second commercials. Our sense of reality has been flattened
by thirty-page abridgements. It is not difficult in such a world to get a person interested in the
message of the gospel; it is terribly difficult to sustain the interest. Millions of people in our
culture make decisions for Christ, but there is a dreadful attrition rate… In our kind of culture
anything, even news about God, can be sold if it is packaged freshly; but when it loses its
novelty, it goes on the garbage heap. There is a great market for religious experience in our
world; there is little inclination to sign up for a long apprenticeship in what earlier
generations of Christians called holiness”. lxv Peterson’s remark remains a helpful reminder
for all Christians today echoing the re-living of the monastic ideals. In the context of
Christianity void of Christian living even as martyrdom ended and heathenism began to raise
its ugly head, the early church fathers began to start a new form of Christian living choosing
the most congenial of places. Today in our own land (Nagaland) torn apart with all sorts of
isms at the political and social levels even Christianity is Divided. Denominationalism
stretches its deadly tentacles in alarming proportions restricting the growth of ‘a healthy
church of Christ’. Maybe the mushrooming of non-affiliating churches, prayer houses,
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theological colleges and even individuals are signs of weariness of the already divided
church. The churches also need to be aware that people tend to go to these places of prayer
for healing and restoration, and starting new life. It is pertinent that the churches brace itself
and reach out to people’s problems in more intimate ways in that way inaugurating and
ushering God’s kingdom into individual lives and the world at large. We ought to learn from
the ills of what went on during the Monastic movement lest the saying “those who fail to
learn from the mistakes of history are bound to repeat it” befall us.

Monasticism aided the rapid development of hierarchical, centralized organization in the

church that we have today. In fact, monastic ideals can be one of the most important factors
that can contribute to cementing old ties, create newer ones and in the long run instill
ecumenical vision in this sectarian torn and denominationalism riddled world. An insight one
must draw from our readings of history is that Christianity and its theology should continue
to be practical coupled with the very important reality that Christianity is a missionary
religion that is not to be hoarded nor become exclusive. At the same time, Christianity does
not propagate pseudo-Christianity nor does it promote sectarianism or denominationalism. In
other words, we are neither followers of Paul or Apollos nor of Monasticism or Scholasticism
alone but the whole principles of Christ and Christianity – its centrality being the love of God
for us and through us in every phase of human civilization.

Monasticism in effect threatened to create a separate parallel organization of the Christian

life. This problem was resolved only as the leaders of the church themselves became sponsors
of this movement.lxvi Regarding celibacy the council of Ancyra in 315 CE declared that
deacons had to choose between marriage and celibacy before ordination and also by the
council of Neocaeserea about 320 CE it declared that presbyters who married after ordination
were to be deposed.lxvii Such old forms of celibacy that still prevail and other newer ones
need to be assessed properly by us Christians today using Biblical teachings. Actually even
when Paul taught about being single, for better results in mission it applied for those who
really can; and are called for and it does not become a norm to be adhered to by every Tom,
Dick and Harry or Mary, Martha and Sara. One should not be misled, for Paul himself might
surely have been married once; the fact that he himself was a member of the Jewish council –
the Sanhedrin – in which membership is conferred only when one is married is proof of that.
One is caught up between two extremes of ‘…it is not good for man to be alone….’(Gen.
2:18) on the one hand and- ‘So then he who marries his bethrothed does well, and he who
refrains from marriage does better’ (I Cor. 7:38) on the other. The matter then, is one of
personal choice and ofcourse God’s intentions too.

No matter how daunting the task, one has to risk heresies, and issues need to be addressed:
for one can be emboldened by the lives of monks. In those Monasteries both for monks and
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nuns one notices the hermit form, the communal, the utilitarian, admitting even younger
celibates. There was room even for the intellectuals whereby scientific and philosophical
studies went hand in hand with the religious life. Health care facilities were attached to the
monasteries taking care of the sick poor and the

needy. The authentic writings of St. Jerome ranked next to the bible and Benedict’s rule. In
the dark ages Monastic theology continued and enhanced the scholarship and course of future
theology. Even the Dead Sea scroll was produced preserving the important historical records.
It also produced outstanding church leaders such as Basil, Gregory, Augustine of Hippo and
others whose life and work made Christian faith more intelligible. There was also the
exchange of ideas whereby cross-cultural spirituality became a reality. The world owe a lot to
Monasticism because of the educational system and civilizing influences. Agricultural
practices too improved the products and became charitable gifts for the poor. Good virtues
were inculcated and love of neighbour was a lived reality.

As one compares the context that spurred Monasticism and that of the present day issues the
world is facing like fanaticism, fundamentalism, sectarianism, wars, ecological problem,
racial, caste and class problems, gender issues, poverty, divorce cases, abortion and
euthanasia and homosexuality, drug and HIV/AIDS etc… there is a need to go back to the
basics. In fact there is the urgent and continued need for a radical soul searching by kingdom
people- may be even monastic ideals of edification and worship based on contemplation,
meditation and worship needs to be renewed. Today, we are also challenged to address the
above issues because though we are not of this world we live in the world and are for the
world and are called to go into the world.

Conclusion
In an age where Christianity was growing quantitatively, qualitative Christianity seems to be
on the decline. The supposedly kingdom standards in the ‘should be’ kingdom of God
apparently were inadequate. In such a state of affairs it is evident that the context of that day
was pregnant and ready for the birthing of a new movement called Monasticism. The church
fathers and mothers kept the lamp flickering in the dark ages by making sure that the
Christian lamp did not run out of oil. Indeed their choice of the path less traveled where they
had to face the unknown, the dark and the deep led to unearthing of oil for the lamp. No
matter with some flaws in the movement Monasticism became a light in the Dark Ages. To
the present day Christians it remains a movement that should be able to convict and inspire
one and all to be able to respond aptly as the monks and nuns did in their day. Adequately,
the long term disciplined life becomes the wheels on which ‘let thy kingdom come’ becomes
more than just a prayer as it comes alive bursting forth
 13

with activity and movement. In other words, “to truly seek God” leads to the understanding
of the meaning of kingdom of God and thereby live towards its consummation.

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