Prof.

Rick Trebino
Polarization I Georgia Tec!"
www.frog.gatech.edu

Linear, circular, and elliptical polarization

Mathematics of polarization: Jones vectors

Unpolarized light

Optical vortices

Uniaxial crystals

Birefringence

Polarizers
Vertical and Horizontal Polarizations

Electric-field vector
The simplest
polarizations are
vertical and
x horizontal.
y z

Light can have any Electric-field vector

sum of these two
waves with any
relative phase.
x
And much more! y z
45° Polarization
Adding two components
in phase and with the
{
Ex ( z , t ) = Re 1
2 }
E0 exp[i (kz − ω t )]
same amplitudes yields
45º polarization.
E ( z , t ) = Re {
y
1
2
E exp[i (kz − ω t )]}
0

Electric-field vector

The orientation of
the field vector is
45º to the x and y
axes.
x
y z
 45º Linear Polarization
Arbitrary-Angle
E-field variation over time
Linear Polarization
y Plot the E-field vs. time as it passes by.

45º {
Ex ( z , t ) = Re 1
2 }
E0 exp[i (kz − ω t )]
x E ( z , t ) = Re { 1
E exp[i (kz − ω t )]}
y 2 0

Arbitrary-Angle Linear Polarization

E-field
y variation
Ex ( z , t ) = Re {E0 cos(α ) exp[i (kz − ωt )]} over time
α
Ey ( z , t ) = Re {E0 sin(α ) exp[i (kz − ωt )]}
x
Here, the y-component is in
phase with the x-component,
but has different magnitude.
 For simplicity, we’ll stop
Right Circular Polarization normalizing the field.

Here, the components are

Ex ( z, t ) = Re{E0 exp [i ( kz − ω t )]} always 90° out of phase.
Ey ( z, t ) = Re{+i E0 exp [i ( kz − ω t )]} e iπ /2 = cos π / 2 + i sin π / 2 = +i
( ) ( )
The electric-field vector obeys
Or in terms of sines and the right-hand rule if your
cosines (assume E0 is real): thumb points along k.
Ex ( z, t ) = E0 cos(kz − ω t )
Ey ( z, t ) = − E0 sin(kz − ω t ) Electric-field vector

Looking into the beam,

the E-field rotates
counter-clockwise
around the k-vector. x
y z
This polarization is also
called positive helicity.
Left Circular Polarization
Here, the components are
Ex ( z, t ) = Re{E0 exp [i (kz − ω t )]} always -90° out of phase.
Ey ( z, t ) = Re{−iE0 exp [i (kz − ω t )]} e i (−π /2) = cos (−π / 2) + i sin (−π / 2) = −i

Or in terms of sines and The electric-field vector obeys

cosines (assume E0 is real): the left-hand rule if your
thumb points along k.
Ex ( z, t ) = E0 cos(kz − ω t )
Ey ( z, t ) = E0 sin(kz − ω t ) Electric-field vector

Looking into the beam,

the E-field rotates
clockwise around the
k-vector. x
y z
This polarization is also
called negative helicity.
Unequal arbitrary-relative-phase
components yield elliptical polarization.
Ex ( z , t ) = Re {E0 x exp [i (kz − ω t ) ]} Elliptical polarization
E-field variation over time
Ey ( z , t ) = Re {E0y exp [i (kz − ω t ) ]} y
where E0x and E0y are arbitrary
complex amplitudes.
x
Or in terms of sines and cosines:

Ex ( z , t ) = E0 x cos(kz − ω t − θ x )
Ey ( z , t ) = E0 y cos(kz − ω t − θ y )
where |E0x| ≠ |E0y| and θx ≠ θy.
The resulting E-field can
rotate clockwise or counter-
clockwise around the k-
vector (looking along k).
The Mathematics of Polarization
Define the polarization state of a field ⎡ Ex ⎤ Normalize this
as a 2D vector—Jones vector— E=⎢ ⎥ vector to unity
containing the two complex amplitudes: ⎣ Ey ⎦ magnitude.

For many purposes, we only ⎡1 ⎤ This way, only one number

care about the relative values:
E ⎢ ⎥ need be specified.
= Ey ⎢ ⎥
Ex Alas, it might be ∞.
⎢⎣ Ex ⎥⎦
Specifically:
0° linear (x) polarization: Ey /Ex = 0 In this ⎡ Ex ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
90° linear (y) polarization: Ey /Ex = ∞ case, use: ⎢E ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
45° linear polarization: Ey /Ex = 1 ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦
Arbitrary linear polarization:
Ey sin(α )
= = tan(α )
Ex cos(α )
The Mathematics of Circular and
Elliptical Polarization
Circular polarization has an ⎡ Ex ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
imaginary Jones-vector y-component: E=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ E y ⎦ ⎣ ±i ⎦
Right circular polarization: E y / E x = +i

Left circular polarization: E y / E x = −i

Elliptical polarization has both real and imaginary components:

E y / E x = a + ib
It’s possible to calculate the eccentricity and tilt of the ellipse.
If the amplitudes and/or phases of the x- and
y-polarizations fluctuate, we say the light is
unpolarized.
Usually, it’s the
{ }
Ex ( z, t ) = Re E0 x exp ⎡⎣i ( kz − ω t − θ x (t ) )⎤⎦
phases that vary:
{
Ey ( z, t ) = Re E0 y exp ⎡⎣i ( kz − ω t − θ y (t ) )⎤⎦ }
where θx(t) and θy(t) vary faster than
Unpolarized Light
can be measured (but usually on a
time scale slower than 1/ω). E-field variation over time
y
If only the phases vary, the polarization
state (Jones vector) will be:

⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ x
⎢ E0 y ⎥
{ }
⎢ E exp i ⎡⎣θ x (t ) − θ y (t ) ⎤⎦ ⎥
⎣ 0x ⎦
Light with very complex polarization
vs. position is also unpolarized.
Light that has passed
through most real-world
materials is usually
unpolarized for this reason.
We’ll see why later.

Plastic baggie
Crossed polarizers

If the polarization vs.

position is resolvable, we
should refer to this light as
locally polarized.
An intentionally spatially varying
polarization can be interesting.
Imagine a donut-shaped beam with radial polarization.

Focus

k
Longitudinal
electric field
at the focus!

Lens
This type of beam can also focus to a smaller spot than a beam
with a spatially uniform polarization!
A Complex Polarization in Space

An optical
vortex

x
Birefrin-
gence

The molecular
“spring constant”
can be different for
different directions.
 ny(ω)

Birefringence ny
1

The x- and y-
polarizations
can see ω
different
resonances nx(ω)
and hence nx
different 1
refractive
index curves.

ω
ω0y ω0x
Uniaxial crystals are asymmetrical.
Optic Axis Uniaxial crystals have one
refractive index for light polarized
Uniaxial along the optic axis (ne) and
crystal another for light polarized in either
of the two directions perpendicular
Extraordinary
polarization
to it (no).
k
Light polarized along the optic axis
is called the extraordinary ray,
k and light polarized perpendicular
to it is called the ordinary ray.
Ordinary These polarization directions are
polarizations
the crystal principal axes.

Light with any other polarization must be broken down into its
ordinary and extraordinary components, considered
individually, and recombined afterward.
Birefringence can separate the two
polarizations into separate beams.
Due to Snell's Law, light of different polarizations will bend by
different amounts at an interface.

e-ray

ne o-ray

no

no > ne

This can be useful or irritating.

 Calcite

Calcite is one of the most birefringent materials known.

Birefringent Materials

Refractive Indices of Uniaxial

Crystals
(20ºC; λ = 589.3nm)
Rutile (TiO2), often called
Material no ne
_______________________________________ Titania, has the highest
Tourmaline 1.669 1.638 refractive index of all
Calcite 1.6584 1.4864 gemstones but is softer
Quartz 1.5443 1.5534 than diamond.
Sodium nitrate 1.5854 1.3369
Ice 1.309 1.313
Rutile 2.616 2.903

Calcite is particularly useful because

it’s also transparent over the entire
visible spectrum and even into the UV Rutile is named after the
(~300nm). thin (reddish) strands
that often run through it.
Wollaston Polarizing Beam Splitter
The Wollaston polarizing beam splitter uses refraction in two
birefringent prisms, the second rotated by 90º with respect to the first.

The transmitted polarizations have opposite-sign refractive-index

transitions and so diverge at the oblique-incidence-angle interface.

Normal to The x-polarization

y the interface Optic The x-polarization
axis is the o-ray in the goes from e (low-n)
2nd prism. to o (high-n) and so
bends toward the
x no normal (upward).
ne The y-polarization
The y-polarization goes from o (high-n)
is the e-ray in the
no > ne 2nd prism.
to e (low-n) and so
Optic axis Calcite bends away from the
normal (downward).
How to Make a Better Polarizer
Use birefringence, but also take advantage of the Fresnel equations.

Glass-to-air (ni > nt) reflectivity and transmissivity:

Perpendicular polarization Parallel polarization

1.0 1.0
R R
.5 .5

T T
0 0
0° 30° 60° 90° 0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle, θi Incidence angle, θi

The reflectivity varies rapidly with incidence angle.

Use total internal reflection (TIR) and Brewster’s angle.
 S and p polarizations
P-polarized (from the German parallel) light has an electric
field polarized parallel to the plane of incidence, while s-
polarized (from the German senkrecht) light is
perpendicular to this plane.
The Glan-Taylor polarizer uses birefringence,
Brewster's angle, and total internal reflection.
The Glan-Taylor (or Glan-
laser) polarizer transmits Optic axis Calcite
the p-polarization (θi ≈θB) e-ray
and reflects the s (θi >θcrit). ~θB

Some p-polarization is TIR

rejected along with the s no = 1.66 ne = 1.49
(θB varies with wavelength). Air gap
o-ray
~22º
The second prism simply
cancels the first’s angular
dispersion (and so must have the same orientation as the first).

The Glan-Taylor polarizer is the most common polarizer. It’s compact

(and hence uses minimal calcite) and broadband (350nm to 2.3µm).

Due to the air gap, it can also handle high intensity (1GW/cm2).
Polarizer
Variations
Not all polarizers use
Brewster’s angle for
the transmitted beam.
They still use TIR for
the rejected beam.
Optic axis
TIR
Optic
axis
ne = 1.49
e-ray
TIR
no = 1.66
TIR into cement (n = 1.55)
Cement
requires a larger incidence angle. o-ray
Glan-Thompson polarizer:
Note the optic High polarization purity and
axes ( to that of acceptance angle (30º - 40º).
the Glan-Taylor). But cement damages easily.
The Glan-Foucault polarizer has an
air gap and so can handle high
e-ray intensity, but has less transmissivity
and poor output laser-beam quality
(due to reflections at the interface).

Air gap Notice that these polarizers

o-ray
transmit the s and reject the p.
Real Calcite
Polarizers

The polarization purity of the

transmitted beam is the
highest priority. The trade-
Air-spaced polarizers off is that the rejected beam
used for high-power is often not so pure and
lasers often is blocked by the
manufacturer.
The Pile-of-Plates Polarizer
After numerous Brewster-angle transmissions,
mainly the parallel polarization remains.

Unpolarized
input light

Unfortunately, only about 10% of the perpendicular polarization

is reflected on each surface, so you need a big pile of plates!
And the rejected beam is a mess and so can’t be used.
Dielectric Polarizers
A multi-layer or thin-film coating (which
uses interference; we’ll get to this later) can
also act as a polarizer. It still uses the same
basic ideas of TIR and Brewster’s angle.

It can also be considered a pile of very thin

plates.

Glass
Wire-Grid Polarizer

k Output light
contains only the
polarization perpen-
dicular to the wires.

Input light
contains both
polarizations. Wire-grid polarizer

The light can excite electrons to move only along the wires, which
then emit light that cancels the input light. This cannot happen
perpendicular to the wires. Such polarizers work best in the IR.
Wire-Grid Polarizer in the Visible
Using semiconductor fabrication techniques, wire-grid polarizers have
recently been developed for the visible.

Thorlabs wire-grid polarizer

(wavelengths: 420-700nm)

The spacing is less than 1 micron.

Performance of a Visible Wire-Grid
Polarizer

A polarizer’s
performance
typically varies
greatly with
wavelength and
incidence angle.

The polarizer’s overall transmission is also important, as is the

amount of the wrong polarization in each output beam.
The wires need not be very long.
A wire-grid polarizer for telecom applications uses small elongated
copper particles.
Others use gold nanoparticles. Gold nanoparticles in a polarizer

Elliptical nanoparticles

These polarizers can achieve a transmission

> 99% and generate 99.99% pure polarization.
Polaroid sheet polarizers use the same
idea, but with long polymers.
The Measure of a Polarizer
The ideal polarizer will pass 100% of the desired polarization and
0% of the undesired polarization. It doesn’t exist.

The ratio of the transmitted 0° Polarizer

irradiance through polarizers Unpolar-
oriented parallel and then ized light
crossed is the Extinction ratio input
0° Polarizer
90° Polarizer
or Extinction coefficient.
The second polarizer is
We’d like it to be ∞. often called an “analyzer.”

Type of polarizer Ext. Ratio Transmission Cost

Calcite: 105-106 > 95% $1000 - $2000
Dielectric/wire grid: 103-104 > 99% $100 - $200
Polaroid sheet: 103 ~ 50% $1 - $2
Thin film Calcite

Extinction
Coefficient
Additional Polarizer Properties