Prof.

Rick Trebino
Lasers* Georgia Tec!"
www.frog.gatech.edu
Stimulated
Emission

Gain

Inversion

The Laser

Four-level System

Threshold

Some Lasers

* Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Stimulated emission leads to a chain
reaction and laser emission.
If many molecules in a medium are excited, one photon can become
many.
Excited medium

This is the essence of the laser. The factor by which an input beam is
amplified by a medium is called the gain and is represented by G.
The Laser in the form of excited states

A laser is a medium that stores energy, surrounded by two mirrors.

The output mirror is partially reflecting and so lets some light out.
Back Output
mirror mirror
I0 I1
Laser medium with gain, G

I3 I2
R = 100% R < 100%

A laser will lase if the intensity increases during a round trip: if I3 ≥ I0.
Usually, additional losses in intensity occur, such as absorption, scat-
tering, and reflections. In general, the laser will lase if, in a round trip:

Total Gain > Total Loss This called achieving Threshold.

It’s also called achieving laser oscillation.

 2
Calculating the Gain:
Einstein A and B Coefficients 1

The various transition rates between molecular states (say, 1 and 2)

involving light of intensity, I:

Absorption rate = B N1 I

Spontaneous emission rate = A N2

Stimulated emission rate = B N2 I

where Ni is the number density of molecules in the ith state,

and I is the intensity (irradiance).
 Laser medium
Laser Gain
I(0) I(L)
Neglecting spontaneous emission: z
0 L
dI dI
∝ ∝ BN 2 I − BN1 I Stimulated emission minus
dz dt absorption
I = I(z ± ct) ∝ ( N 2 − N1 ) I
Proportionality constant is the
The solution is: absorption/gain cross-section, σ

I ( z) = I (0)exp ⎡⎣σ ( N2 − N1 ) z ⎤⎦
g and α are
There can be exponential gain or loss in irradiance. the gain and
absorption
Normally, N2 < N1, and there is loss (absorption).
coefficients.
But if N2 > N1, there’s gain, and we define the gain, G:

If N2 > N1: g ≡ ( N2 − N1 )σ
G ≡ exp ⎡⎣σ ( N2 − N1 ) z ⎤⎦ = exp( gL)
If N2 < N1 : α ≡ ( N1 − N2 )σ
Another way to look at this is that, in Inversion
order to achieve G > 1, stimulated
emission must exceed absorption:

B N2 I > B N 1 I Inversion
“Negative
Canceling the BI factors, N2 > N1, 4 temperature”

Energy
or: 3
2
ΔN ≡ N1 - N2 < 0
Molecules

1
This condition is called inversion.
It does not occur naturally (it’s Here, there is inversion from
forbidden by the Boltzmann level 4 to levels 3 and 2.
distribution). It’s inherently a
non-equilibrium state.

In order to achieve inversion, we must hit the laser medium very

hard in some way and choose our medium correctly.
Achieving Inversion:
Pumping the Laser Medium
Now let Ip be the intensity of (flash lamp) light used to pump energy
into the laser medium:

Back Output
mirror
Ip mirror

Laser medium

Will this intensity be sufficient to achieve inversion, N2 > N1?

It’ll depend on the laser medium’s energy level system.
Rate Equations for a 2 N2
Two-Level System Pump Laser

1 N1
Rate equations for the densities of the two states:

Stimulated emission Spontaneous

Absorption
emission
dN 2 If the total number
= BI p ( N1 − N 2 ) − AN 2
dt of molecules is N:
Pump intensity
dN1 N ≡ N1 + N 2
= BI p ( N 2 − N1 ) + AN 2
dt ΔN ≡ N1 − N 2
d ΔN 2 N 2 = ( N1 + N 2 ) − ( N1 − N 2 )
⇒ = −2 BI p ΔN + 2 AN 2
dt = N − ΔN
d ΔN
⇒ = −2 BI p ΔN + AN − AΔN
dt
Why Inversion is Impossible 2 N2
in a Two-Level System Laser
d ΔN 1 N1
= −2 BI p ΔN + AN − AΔN
dt
In steady-state: 0 = −2 BI ΔN + AN − AΔN
p

⇒ ( A + 2 BI p )ΔN = AN
⇒ ΔN = AN / ( A + 2 BI p )
⇒ ΔN = N / (1 + 2 BI p / A)
N where: I sat = A / B
⇒ ΔN =
1 + 2 I p / I sat Isat is the saturation intensity.

ΔN is always positive, no matter how high Ip is!

It’s impossible to achieve an inversion in a two-level system!
Rate Equations for a 3
Fast decay
Three-Level System 2

Pump Laser
Assume we pump to a state 3 that rapidly
Transition Transition
decays to level 2. This eliminates pump
stimulated emission! 1
Spontaneous
emission
dN 2
= BI p N1 − AN 2
dt The total number Level 3
Absorption of molecules is N: decays
fast and
dN1 N ≡ N1 + N 2 so is zero.
= − BI p N1 + AN 2
dt ΔN ≡ N1 − N 2
d ΔN
= −2 BI p N1 + 2 AN 2 2N2 = N − ΔN
dt
2N1 = N + ΔN
d ΔN
⇒ = − BI p N − BI p ΔN + AN − AΔN
dt
 3
Why Inversion is Possible 2
Fast decay

in a Three-Level System
Pump Laser
Transition Transition
d ΔN 1
= − BI p N − BI p ΔN + AN − AΔN
dt
In steady-state: 0 = − BI p N − BI p ΔN + AN − AΔN

⇒ ( A + BI p )ΔN = ( A − BI p ) N

⇒ ΔN = N ( A − BI p ) / ( A + BI p )

1 − I p / I sat
⇒ ΔN = N
1 + I p / I sat

Now if Ip > Isat, ΔN is negative!

Rate Equations for a 3
Fast decay
Four-Level System 2

Now assume the lower laser level 1 Pump Laser

also rapidly decays to a ground level 0. Transition Transition
So N1 ≈ 0 also. And ΔN ≈ − N 2 .
1
Fast decay
dN 2 0
As before: = BI p N 0 − AN 2
dt
dN 2 The total number
= BI p ( N − N 2 ) − AN 2 of molecules is N :
dt
N ≡ N0 + N2
Now, because ΔN ≈ − N2 N0 = N − N 2
d ΔN
− = BI p N + BI p ΔN + AΔN
dt
At steady state: 0 = BI p N + BI p ΔN + AΔN
 3
Why Inversion is Easy Fast decay
2
in a Four-Level System
Pump Laser
(cont’d) Transition Transition

0 = BI p N + BI p ΔN + AΔN 1
Fast decay
0
⇒ ( A + BI p )ΔN = − BI p N

⇒ ΔN = − BI p N / ( A + BI p )

⇒ ΔN = −( BI p N / A) / (1 + BI p / A)

I p / I sat
⇒ ΔN = − N
1 + I p / I sat

Now, ΔN is negative—always!
 Two-, Three-, and Four-Level Systems
It took laser physicists a while to realize that four-level systems are
best.

Two-level Three-level Four-level

system system system

Fast decay
Fast decay
Pump
Pump Laser Transition Laser
Transition Transition Transition
Laser
Pump
Transition
Transition
Fast decay

At best, you get

If you hit it very
equal populations. Lasing is easy!
hard, it lases.
No lasing.
What about the 3
Fast decay
saturation intensity? 2

I sat = A / B Pump Laser

Transition Transition
A is the excited-state relaxation rate: 1/τ
1
B is the absorption cross-section, σ, divided Fast decay
0
by the energy per photon, ħω: σ /ħω
ħω ~10-19 J for visible/near IR light
Both σ and τ
depend on the hω τ ~10-12 to 10-8 s for most molecules
molecule, the I sat = 10-9 to 10-3 s for laser molecules
frequency, and στ σ ~10-20 to 10-16 cm2 for molecules
the various states
involved. 1 to 1013 W/cm2

The saturation intensity plays a key role in lasers.

For example, when the intensity approaches (or exceeds) it, the
medium becomes less absorbing (N1 decreases).
Types of Lasers
Solid-state lasers have lasing material distributed in a solid matrix
(such as ruby or neodymium:yttrium-aluminum garnet "YAG"). Flash
lamps are the most common power source. The Nd:YAG laser
emits infrared light at 1,064 nm (1.064 µm).
Semiconductor lasers, sometimes called diode lasers, are pn
junctions. Current is the pump source. Applications: laser printers or
CD players.
Dye lasers use complex organic dyes, such as rhodamine 6G, in liquid
solution or suspension as lasing media. They are tunable over a
broad range of wavelengths.
Gas lasers are pumped by current. Helium-Neon lases in the visible
and IR. Argon lases in the visible and UV. CO2 lasers emit light in
the far-infrared (10.6 µm), and are used for cutting hard materials.
Excimer lasers (from the terms excited and dimers) use reactive
gases, such as chlorine and fluorine, mixed with inert gases such as
argon, krypton, or xenon. When electrically stimulated, a pseudo
molecule (dimer) is produced. Excimers lase in the UV.
The Ruby Laser
Ruby is a three-level system,
so you have to hit it hard.

Invented in 1960 by Ted Maiman

at Hughes Research Labs, it was
the first laser.
Dye Lasers

Dye lasers are ideal four-level systems, and a given dye will lase over
a range of ~100 nm.
A Dye’s Energy Levels

The lower laser level can be almost any level in the S0 manifold.

S1: 1st excited

electronic state
manifold

Pump Transition Laser Transitions

S0: Ground
electronic state
manifold

Dyes are so ideal that it’s often difficult to stop them from lasing in all
directions!
Dyes cover the visible, near-IR, and
near-UV ranges.
The Helium-
Neon Laser
Energetic electrons in a
glow discharge collide with
and excite He atoms,
which then collide with and
transfer the excitation to
Ne atoms, an ideal 4-level
system.
 Level populated by Nitrogen- The CO2 Laser
molecule collision
Excited electronic level
The CO2 laser operates
analogously.

Ground electronic level

Nitrogen is pumped, trans-
ferring the energy to CO2.

Internuclear
separation

The CO2 laser is the

most efficient laser ever
developed: ~30%.
 CO2 Laser in the
Martian Atmosphere
Emitted light

The atmosphere is thin

and the sun is dim, but
the gain per molecule is
high, and the path is
long.
Detuning from line center (MHz)
The Helium Cadmium Laser

The population inversion scheme in HeCd is similar to

that in HeNe’s except that the active medium is
Cd+ ions.

The laser transitions occur in the blue and the

ultraviolet at 442 nm, 354 nm and 325 nm.

The UV lines are useful for applications that require

short wavelength lasers, such as high precision
printing on photosensitive materials. Examples include
lithography of electronic circuitry and making
master copies of compact disks.
The Argon
Ion Laser

Argon ion laser lines:

Wavelength Relative Power Absolute Power

454.6 nm .03 .8 W
457.9 nm .06 1.5 W The Argon
465.8 nm .03 .8 W ion laser
472.7 nm .05 1.3 W also has
476.5 nm .12 3.0 W some laser
488.0 nm .32 8.0 W lines in the
496.5 nm .12 3.0 W UV.
501.7 nm .07 1.8 W But it’s very
514.5 nm .40 10.0 W inefficient.
528.7 nm .07 1.8 W
The Krypton Ion Laser

Krypton ion laser lines:

Wavelength Power
406.7 nm .9 W
413.1 nm 1.8 W
415.4 nm .28 W
468.0 nm .5 W
476.2 nm .4 W
482.5 nm .4 W
520.8 nm .7 W
530.9 nm 1.5 W
568.2 nm 1.1 W
647.1 nm 3.5 W
676.4 nm 1.2 W
 Diode Lasers
+ -
pn junction
First, consider a
photodiode, or
photo-detector.

If light impinges on the

A Backward Biased Voltage, or
negative bias, increases the
potential barrier between the p side
and the n side, thus preventing the
current flow through the p-n junction.
junction, it excites
electrons, which also
generates holes, so
current can flow, and it
does so in direct
proportion to the light
power incident on it.
Diode Lasers
In a laser diode or a LED,
the process is exactly the
reverse of a photodiode. A
positive bias is applied to a
pn junction, causing current
to flow.

As the electrons from the n-

type semiconductor flow into
the p-type semiconductor,
they combine with holes,
releasing energy in the form
of light. High pump current
and mirrors yield a laser.
Some Everyday Applications of Diode
Lasers

CD and DVD reading and

Laser Printer
writing
Diode-Laser Output vs. Pump Current

Different color plots

indicate different
temperatures and
operating
conditions.

These plots nicely illustrate the laser threshold and are typical of all
lasers.
A Laser in Space

Unstable star Eta Carinae:

The double-lobed structure

is the expanding stellar
atmosphere.

These anomalously
strong spectral lines have
been attributed to lasing
of atomic iron.
“If you hit anything hard enough, it’ll
lase.”

Exciting a medium with a

lot of energy will populate
many levels, including Pump
Transitions
high-energy ones.
Metastable
State
Then, as it decays to lower
energies, a long-lived
metastable state is bound
to be populated. Laser
Transitions
This will inevitably yield an
inversion and gain. And,
with a couple of mirrors,
laser oscillation. Energy Levels
Nuclear-Weapon-Pumped X-Ray Laser
So hit a medium with a 10 kiloton nuclear (fission) bomb
exploded in space and make an x-ray laser.

~70% of the nuclear device’s energy is black-body radiation at >107 ºK

(peak wavelength 0.04nm; 30kev) for <10ns.

Expect lasing at ~1kev.

There are no mirrors at this

wavelength, so only one
pass would be possible.

The lasers would collimate

the beams and be used to
shoot down missiles.

This is a very bad idea. It doesn’t actually work, and the resulting
space junk would prevent space travel for a long time.
The Edible Laser
Art Schawlow tried to make Jello lase.

He never succeeded.

He ended up eating the Jello.

Art Schawlow
co-inventor of the laser

Schawlow also liked to

note that, if he’d
emphasized “light
oscillation” rather than
“amplification,” the
“laser” would be known
as the “loser.”