Marine Auxiliary Machinery: Volume: 3:

Marine Pumps & Pumping Systems:

Marine Refrigeration & Air conditioning:
Marine Pumps:

1. Introduction:
Machinery pumping arrangements cover all pumping and piping systems required in order to enable the
ship to be operated safely and efficiently and provides for various functions. These include maintaining
essential services for the efficient operation of the main engine and ancillary units, e.g. fresh and salt
water cooling systems; lubricating oil systems; feed systems; heating services; bilge and ballast services
and fuel oil transfer systems in addition to domestic services and fire service.
The types of pumps that are used in association with the above-mentioned systems would be dealt with
under this topic.
A ship cannot function without the various pumping systems placed in or controlled from the machinery
spaces. The pumping systems are of major importance and they are many and varied. Some systems
supply coolant and lubricants to the main machinery, and without this supply the main propulsion
machinery will be quickly brought to a halt by safety devices in the control system. The machinery
would be badly damaged if safety devices did not function to bring it to a halt. This illustrates the
importance of machinery support systems, and the safety devices used to protect machinery in the event
of a pumping system malfunction.
An equally important pumping system is used to pump out loose water from cargo and machinery
spaces, which must be kept clear of water to prevent damage. In extreme cases, if loose water is not re-
moved it could eventually collect at some point where the stability of the ship would be adversely
affected and lead to capsize or sinking.
Machinery of either steam or internal combustion type requires clean fuel, free of water. The fuel
transfer system is used to bring fuel from the bunker storage spaces into settling tanks where water and
heavy dirty material are removed. In motor ships the fuel requires further purification treatment. This
treatment is carried out in the fuel cleaning or separation system.
When cargo operations are in progress the ballast system may be used for ballasting or de-ballasting to
maintain draught, trim, and a safe stability, and sometimes to keep hull stresses within safe limits.
Other systems supply feed water to boilers, cooling water to refrigeration machinery and allow liquid
cargoes to be discharged from deep tanks in ordinary dry cargo ships, or from the cargo tanks in crude
oil or liquid product tankers and liquefied gas carriers. Other system supply hydraulic fluid to the
steering gear, to the cargo pumping, system in chemical tankers, and to the control system for opening
and closing of ramps and doors on ferry boats and ‘ro-ro’ vessels, and so on. More systems supply the
creature comforts necessary to sustain life for passengers, crew, and officers sailing on the vessel and to
maintain the cargo in a safe and marketable condition.
From this it is easily understood that the various pumping systems in use play an important role in the
safe and economical operation of both merchant ships and naval vessels. It is necessary to understand
them to their fullest extent in order to obtain safe and economic ship operation.

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It is therefore an incumbent duty of every engineer officer on joining a vessel to locate the pumps
and valves controlling each separate piping system, together with their cross connections allowing
different systems to be combined or used in emergencies. Engineer officers should familiarise
themselves with the various parts of each pumping system. This will involve making a note of the
suction and discharge connections on each pump and tracing the piping runs both above and
below the engine room floor-plates.
Tracing pipelines or piping runs is facilitated if the pipes are painted or colour-banded with
distinguishing colours indicating the contents of the pipe. Knowledge of the contents of a pipeline is
necessary when making important decisions affecting the safety and protection of the ships personnel
before breaking pipe flanges and removing valve covers.

2. DEFINITION OF A PUMP:
A pump is a device used to lift a liquid or gas from a low level to a high level, to transport a liquid
or gas from one place to another.
To do this work it is usually driven by either a Steam engine, an Electric motor. Sometimes the
pumps are driven direct by a separate Internal Combustion Engine or the main engine or a
Hydraulic motor.

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PUMPS:

The function of a pump is to add to the pressure existing in a gas or liquid sufficiently:
 To produce velocity.
 To overcome friction.
 To overcome external pressure.

4. PUMP CARACTERISTIC:
Suction conditions:
The pump only adds to the energy of the system. The energy required to bring the fluid to the pump is
supplied by an external source. During the following discussion it is assumed that the fluid being
pumped is a liquid and that it is incompressible.

The diagram in page 3 shows the pressure head Hes acting on the liquid surface at the suction
inlet. The vertical distance of the pump centre HS from the surface of the liquid will affect the head
available at the pump and must be added algebraically to Hes. If the pump is below the liquid level then
HS will be positive; if it is above the liquid level HS will be negative. The pipe will have some frictional
resistance resulting in a loss of pressure head Hfs. A further head loss HV due to the velocity of the liquid
will also occur but, except for very high velocities, is negligible.

Providing that the sum of these head losses: HV + Hfs + HS is less that Hes, the suction condition at the
pump might be thought to be adequate. There are two further factors to take into consideration. These
are the vapour pressure of the liquid being pumped and the amount of remaining positive suction head
required at the pump suction to effect the designed delivery rate. This factor is known as the required
NPSH (Net positive suction head).

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Every liquid has pressure at which it will vaporise and this pressure varies with the temperature. If the
combination of temperature and pressure within the suction pipe is such that the vaporisation occurs, the
efficiency of the pump deteriorates. A condition can be reached when the pump will cease the function.
The vapour pressure H is usually shown as suction head loss.

The summation Hes + HS - Hfs - Hvs – Hvap is known as the available NPSH (net positive suction head). In
application to system and neglecting the velocity head the expression becomes:
Available NPSH = 10.2 (Pbar + Pes – Pvap) - Hfs + HS
P
Where:
P = Density of liquid at maximum operating temperature, Kg/liter.

Pbar = Barometric pressure at the pump, bar.

Pes = Minimum pressure on the free liquid level at the suction inlet (negative when under a vacuum),
bar gauge.

Pvap = Vapour pressure of the liquid at the maximum operating temperature, bar abs.

HS = Height of liquid free surface above centre line of pump (negative when level is below pump), m.

Hfs = Friction head losses in suction piping system, m.

In application, the available NPSH must always be greater than the required NPSH. The former may be
calculated knowing the details for the suction piping while the latter may be obtained from the pump
manufacture.

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The significance of vapour pressure is most easily seen when considering a pump drawing from negative
suction head (usually referred to as suction lift).
The theoretical suction lift of a pump at sea level with water at 15*C is 1.013 X 10.2 = 10.3 m, where
the barometric pressure is 1.013 bar (1atm) and 10.2 m is the head of water equivalent to 1 bar (1 bar =
105 N/m2 = 14.51 lb/in2). In practice the suction lift will exceed 7 m only under very favorable
conditions. This is because of friction loses in the suction pipe and because of the limitations of the
pump design. Any increase in water temperature above 15*C will have a detrimental effect on the
vapour pressure; e.g. at 50*C water will boil at an absolute pressure of 0.14 bar, so that the lift reduces
to 10.2 (1.013 - 0.14) = 9 m, drastically reducing the available NPSH. It follows that suction lift should
be as small conditions allow and that for water temperatures above about 75*C the suction head must be
positive or if this is impossible the suction pipe must be short, straight free from interference and the
speed of flow must be less than 1m/sec.
Discharge conditions:
Some of the energy fed into the pump will be dissipated, as heat the remainder will be converted into
pressure and fluid velocity. Some of the pressure head generated will be lost in overcoming the friction
of the discharge pipe Hfd some in the static head of the pipe system Hsd, and some in the pressure head
acting on the free surface at the terminal point Hed. There will also be a velocity head loss but as in the
case of the suction line, for most practical purposes this can be neglected.
Pump power:
The total work done by the pump, neglecting losses within the pump itself will be proportional to the
equivalent head difference between the points of suction and discharge. This is known as total head H tot:
Htot = Hfs + Hfd + Hyap + Hsd + HS;

The power absorbed by the pump P, then becomes:

Pa = Q x Htot x W
K
Where:
Pa = Power absorbed in (kW).
Q = Quantity delivered in liters/s.
Htot = Total head in meters.
W = Density of liquid-in gm/ml (1 for fresh water).
K = 101.9368 (102).
The input power P to the pump required from the prime mover is:

Pa x ______1________
PUMP efficiency

For an electrically driven pump, the power consumed is:

P x _____1______ X _______1________ (kw)

pump efficiency motor efficiency
Where the head available is small, the suction line, passages and valves are specially designed and of
large area to reduce the suction losses to a minimum.

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Generally speaking, suction heads required to be greater for high speed or large capacities that for low
speeds and small capacities.
Before liquid can flow into a pump, the air or vapour in the suction line must be evacuated sufficiently
to cause the liquid to flow into the suction chamber.
Some pumps (known as self-priming pumps) do this automatically when they are started. In others
special priming devices must be used to withdraw the air and lower the pressure in the pump sufficiently
to cause flow.
Friction losses:
The sum of these losses depends upon the sectional area and the internal condition of the pipes and
fittings, the velocity and viscosity of the liquid being pumped and the friction caused by bends, valves
and other fittings. Frictional resistance to the flow of water varies approximately as the square of the
velocity. Thus, if the frictional resistance of a condenser and system of piping is equivalent to a head of
5 m when 800 litres per second are passing, the frictional resistance would rise to 11.25 m with 1200
litres/s and to 20 m with 1600 litres/s.
The general law of frictional resistance due to the flow of water in a straight circular pipe running full of
water may be expressed accurately enough for practical purposes as:
Hm = KLV2 if R = area of pipe bore = D
2GR wetted perimeter 4
0r Hm = KLV2
2GD

Where:
Hm = Head loss (m).
L = Length of pipe (m).
V = Speed of flow (m/s).
D = Bore of pipes (m).
G = Gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 N/kg
To this must be added to the loss due to bends, equivalent to from 3 to 6 m of straight pipe, depending
upon the radius and due to fitting from which it can be seen that suction pipes, if not bell-mouthed, T-
pieces and elbows give rise to the greater losses.
Example:
Water flow 26 litre/s, static lift 20 m. The suction is through a strainer with bell-mounted entry, a foot
valve, 2 m of straight pipe 125 mm bore and a similar bend.

Suction loss (equivalent length).

Strainer 0.58 m
Foot valve 1.43 m
Straight Pipe 2.0 m
Bend 4.27 m
Total: 8.28 m.
From the particular pump table, the equivalent head loss is
1.21 x 8.28 = 1.13m.
30

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Delivery loss (equivalent length) taken from Table:

Bell-mouthed entry: 5.2 m.

Delivery valve: 1.43 m.
Non-return valve: 1.86 m.
Straight pipe: 15.25 m
Bend: 4.27 m.
Total: 28.01 m.

From Table: 1.21 x 28.01 = 1.13 m.

30
Total loss is 0.33 + 1.13 = 1.46 m. Add say 25% for future roughening of surfaces, 1.46 + 0.38 = 1.84,
to which must be added the static lift of 20 m or 21.84 in all. The figures in the pump table will show the
resulting power losses if a pipe system is complicated, tortuous and not generously dimensioned.
The pressure corresponding to 1 m of water is 0.098bar or 98bar. Conversely, the head corresponding to
1 bar is 10.17 m. It will be apparent that for practical purposes, these figures can be rounded to 0.1 or
100 mbar and 10 m respectively.
Drawings or prints are supplied with pumps by the manufactures, giving sizes and particulars of flanges,
positions of foundation bolts and other information necessary for the arrangements of pipe connections.
These must be exactly adhered to; it is little use installing a highly efficient pump if the power is
dissipated and increased by the use of unsuitable pipes and fittings, or by poor layout.
Definition:

1. Static suction head or lift: This is the vertical head through the liquid has to be raised or
the vertical height from the liquid level to the center of the pump, neglecting friction.
2. Static delivery head or lift: This is the vertical height from the center of the pump to the
delivery liquid level or the highest point in the delivery pipe.
3. Total static pump head: This is the vertical height from the suction liquid level to the
delivery liquid level or the highest point in the delivery pipe.
4. Total head of a pump: This is the pressure difference created by the pump between the
suction and the discharge branches, which is necessary to produce a given flow of water
through a pipe system (here all losses are taken into account).
5. Specific speed: This is defined as the speed in r.p.m at which an impeller would operate
if reduced proportionally in size so as to deliver a unit capacity against a unit total head
or it is the speed in r.p.m at which an impeller would operate so as to consume a unit
energy whilst delivering unit capacity. There is no direct connection between the
rotational speed of the pump shaft and the specific speed of the pump, eg; a large pump
of high specific speed may have a low shaft speed where as a small pump of low specific
speed could have a high shaft speed.
6. Duty point: When a pump is so regulated that its performance conforms as nearly as
possible to the specified conditions, it is said to be working at its duty point.
7. Design point: It is a point at which, when running at a particular speed, the pump works
at its maximum possible efficiency.

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5. CIASSIFICATION OF PUMPS:
Pumps are broadly classified into:
1. Positive Displacement pumps.
2. Dynamic pressure pumps.

1. Positive Displacement Pumps:

These pumps displace the liquid or gas from the suction side to discharge side by the mechanical
variation of the volume of a chamber or chambers. These pumps can be further subdivided into
reciprocating pumps or rotary pumps.
2. Dynamic Pressure Pumps:
These types of pumps are provided with an impeller or impellers. The rotary motion of the impeller
imparts centrifugal force to the liquid. Thus the liquid is moved from suction side to the discharge side.
The centrifugal pumps, Axial and mixed flow pumps fall under this category of pumps. These pumps
can also be called as ‘Roto’ dynamic pumps or kinetic pumps.

Positive Displacement Pumps:

Single-acting Reciprocating Pump:

Figure below shows a simple single-acting reciprocating pump, a hand-pump from which the water is
forced by the action of the piston. This illustrates the principle of all reciprocating pumps. As the handle
is forced down, water follows the plunger, and any water on top of the plunger is forced out. When the
handle is raised, the bottom valve seats and water is forced through the valve in the plunger. The
pumping cycle is called ‘single-acting’ because it makes one- suction and one- discharge stroke in one
reciprocating cycle.

The figures in the following pages show diagrammatically the various types of displacement pumps, the,
alternative methods of driving employed, their duties and the range of capacities for which the various
types are built.

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 Types of Pumps Used in a Ship:

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Ram Pump:

Connecting rod. Cross-head guide.

Ram or Plunger Pump:

A ram or plunger pump is a single acting reciprocating pump of simple design. It is normally driven
from some moving part of an engine.
It is in the form of a solid cylinder ram of either cast iron or bronze, working in a neck bush contained in
the open end of a cast iron or bronze chest in which a limited but uniform annular clearance is left
around the ram when the latter is at its innermost working position. The chest is cast with a facing to
which is attached the suction and delivery valve chest.
Common uses: In small ships for cooling water circulation and bilge pumping. Can be driven directly
from the main engine.
Double acting Reciprocating Pump:
The sketches below represent the working sequence of a double acting reciprocating. The principle is
common to all the reciprocating pumps.

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General working sequence:
It is assumed that the pump is already primed:
a) The inlet valve 1 is open due to the vacuum created on top of the piston and the liquid enters in.
The liquid occupies the space above the piston while the discharge valve ‘A’ remains closed.
b) The inlet valve 2 remains closed while the liquid below the piston is squeezed out of the
discharge valve ‘B’.

Figure on the right side shows the working of the pump when the piston moves upwards.
a) The inlet valve 1 remains closed while the liquid on top of the piston is being squeezed out
through the discharge valve ‘A’.
b) The inlet valve 2 opens due to the vacuum created by the upward motion of the piston. This
admits the liquid to the bottom portion of the piston. Now the discharge valve ‘B’ remains
closed.

The same sequence of operation continues and the pump gives a continuous discharge of the
liquid.

Line diagram of an Electric Motor Driven Reciprocating Pump:

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 Electric motor driven Vertical Reciprocating Pump:

Water end of horizontal displacement pump:

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 Electrical reciprocating pump drive arrangement:

Valve Chests and Valves:

Valve chests serve to connect the ends of the liquid cylinders of the pump by means of the valves to the
suction and discharge lines.
Valve chests should be:
1. Compact.
2. Arranged so that they do not increase the overall size of the pump.
3. Have devices for adjusting the lift of the valves.
4. Present the least possible hydraulic resistance to the flow of liquid in them.
5. Provide easy access to the valves for inspection, replacement and repair of the valve
parts.
Valve chests may be simple or combined depending upon the number of inlet and outlet connections
they have. Simple valve chests are usually connected to either the suction or discharge cavity while
combined-valve chests are connected to both cavities of the liquid cylinder.
The purpose of the valves is to connect the ends of the cylinder or to disconnect them from the suction
or discharge cavities of the valve chest at the proper times.
Valves may be of either the positive-action or self-acting type. The former are employed only on
special-purpose pumps and are actuated by valve gear whose operation is coordinated with piston travel.
Cocks or common slide valves are frequently used in place of positive-action valves.
Self-acting valves operate automatically at the corresponding positions of the reciprocating piston as
they are opened and closed by the pressure of the liquid being pumped. Simplicity in design and
dependability in operation have found self-acting valves wide application. The pump valves are housed
in the valve chests.

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The arrangement of the valves in the valve chest of a double-acting pump is shown schematically in
figures in pages below. The chest consists of a common discharge chamber, suction chamber and
separate chambers for the upper and lower ends of the pump cylinder, respectively.
The construction, dimensions, arrangement and material of the valves must ensure:
a) Tightness of closed valves.
b) Lifting and seating of valves without knocking.
c) Rapid lifting and seating of valves.
d) Low losses of head when the liquid passes through the valve or lifts it from its seat.
e) Resistance to corrosion by the liquid being handled.
Accurate fitting of the valve parts and careful lapping of the working surfaces on the valve disk and seat
are required to obtain tight valves which reduce volumetric losses, or slip.

Various Designs of Valves:

Disc Type Valves:

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 Leather or Rubber Valve: Ball Valve:

Quiet operation of valves without knocking is achieved by proper valve design, minimum possible
weight of the moving elements of the valve and the selection a proper lift. Quiet operation reduces valve
wear.
Pump valves may be:
1. Metallic made of bronze or various grades of steel.
2. Nonmetallic, made of leather, rubber, plastics or other pliable materials.
3. Composite, which are metallic valves with a non-metallic facing that provide tightness.

Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps:

Positive displacement rotary pumps have largely supplanted reciprocating pumps they are self-priming
and capable of producing high vacuum. A number of types have been developed having rotors of special
geometrical form. They give a steady flow but are less efficient than reciprocators because of the large
areas with running clearance exposed to the differential pressure between suction and discharge. Wear
increases the clearances with consequent loss of efficiency, especially when handling low viscosity
fluids.
All rotary displacement pumps show the same loss characteristic operating under cavitation conditions.
It is a characteristic of a rotary displacement pump that the liquid displaced by each revolution of the
pump is independent of the speed. Also, it is a characteristic of rotary pumps that a time-continuous
liquid seal of sorts is maintained between the inlet and outlet parts of the pump by the action and
position of the pumping elements and the close running clearances of the pump. Hence these pumps
generally do not require inlet and outlet (suction and delivery) valve arrangements as reciprocating
pumps do.
Types of Rotary Pumps:

The following types of pumps fall under this category.

1. Gear Pump.
2. Screw Pump.
3. Lobe Pump.
4. Vane Pump.

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Gear Pump:
This simplest type of rotary pumps is the spur gear pump. It consists of two meshing spur gears enclosed
in a casing. A close tolerance between the gears and the casing are important for the proper functioning
of this pump.

It is very important to maintain a fine working clearance between:

a) The axial end faces of the easing and gears.
b) The gear teeth in mesh.
c) The gear teeth tips and the casing.

Two gears in mesh rotate within a housing. One gear shaft is driven with an external power source and
the other idles. An inside view of this pumps is shown below to explain its working.
On the suction side the fluid flows into the casing when the gear teeth disengage. During the further
rotation of the gears the fluid occupies the space, between two adjacent teeth and carried over to the
discharge side. At the discharge side as they mesh, each tooth forces an amount of liquid, equivalent to
its own volume.

If the clearances are maintained small, this pump, can take air, and thus can take suction on the fluid
pumped. The viscosity of the fluid is unimportant in the functioning of this pump. Therefore, it is suited
for pumping fuel and lubricating oil. These pumps should not be run dry or else they will overheat and
seize up.

Key: 1. Spur Gear. 2. Casing. 3. End cover. 4. Bush Bearing. 5. Driving End. 6. Shaft Seal.

Assembled view of a Gear Pump:

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 Assembled section of Gear Pump:

The gear pump is also classified by the type of gears used, such as spur gears, helical gears or other
special gears such as Herring Bone type. The efficiency of these pumps depends upon the accuracy with
which the component parts are machined and meshed together. 1.

Spur Gear: Double Helical Gear:

The pumping unit consists of two gears cut either with double helical or straight spur gear teeth meshing
with one another and rotating in a cast iron easing. The rotors are normally of special steel and are
carried on stainless steel shafts. Alternatively, the gears may be cut solid with the shafts.
The rotor material may however be phosphor bronze if used with oil, which is liable to be contaminated
with water. There are no suction and delivery valves. Lubrication of shaft bushes or bearings is by the
oil being pumped. One of the rotor shafts extends through the easing and is connected to the driving
unit, which is usually an electric motor. The easing is sealed in way of extended shaft by a stuffing box.
An adjustable spring-loaded relief valve is fitted to the discharge side to protect against excessive
pressure.
As the gears rotate in the direction shown, oil is being trapped between the gears and the casing from the
suction side and carried over to the discharge side.

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 Line diagram of a Gear Pump:
Principle:
In the simplest form, two spur gears rotate in opposite directions within a easing, with very fine
clearances and trap the liquid flowing in between the teeth on the suction side and carry it around to the
discharge side. When the pump is primed, the fluid will flow in between the gear teeth just as it would
flow into the cylinder of a reciprocating pump when the bucket is on the suction stroke.
The pumping sequence in a rotary positive displacement pump includes three elementary parts:
1. Closed-to-outlet, open-to-inlet (CTO, OTI).
2. Closed-to-outlet, closed-to-inlet (CTO, CTI).
3. Open-to-outlet, closed-to-inlet (OTO, CTI)
For a good pumping action, the OTI volume should grow in size smoothly and continuously with pump
rotation, the CTO/CTI volume should remain constant in size with pump rotation, and the OTO volume
should shrink in size smoothly and continuously with pump rotation.

At no time should any fluid in the pumping chamber be open to both inlet and outlet ports
simultaneously if the pump is truly a positive displacement pump.
Now, if the gear teeth are made with a precise fit so that they mesh tightly with one another, a part of the
liquid is locked in the tooth space. Thus when the gears rotate, a high pressure is developed in the

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trapped liquid which impedes gear rotation and leads to a loss in power, additional load on the bearings,
spreading of gears and heating of the liquid. Providing a clearance known as the ‘backlash’, which is
usually 0.2 to 0.5 mm normal to the tooth profile, can eliminate this defect. Backlash is thus the amount
by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth on the pitch circle.
Measurement of backlash: To measure backlash, one of the gears is held tightly in place and then the
other is moved slowly back and forth. It could be measured by the help of a dial gauge or by feeler
gauges, where these can be inserted.

Reversible Gear Pump:

This is a gear pump, which has two suction valves and two delivery valves. This enables the pump to be
attached directly to a reversible engine. When the engine is running ahead, the oil enters the right-hand
suction valve and is trapped in the space between each tooth as the gears rotate, as shown by the arrows.
When a tooth enters the gap, the oil is forced out towards the left-hand delivery valve and so to the
outlet passage. If the engine is reversed, then the oil enters by the left-hand suction valve and leaves by
the right-hand delivery valve.

Section through Reversible Gear pump:

Screw Pumps:
Screw pumps are a special type of rotary positive displacement pump in which the flow through the
pumping elements is truly axial. The liquid is carried between the screw threads on one or more rotors
and is displaced axially as the screws rotate and mesh.
In all other rotary pumps, the liquid is forced to travel circumferentially, thus giving the screw pump
with its unique axial flow pattern and low internal velocities a number of advantages in many
application areas where liquid agitation or churning is objectionable.

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Screw pumps like any other rotary positive displacement pumps, are self priming and are always fitted
with a relief Valve on the discharge side.

Principle:

In screw pumps, it is the inter-meshing of the threads on the rotors and the close fit of the surrounding
casing, which creates one or more sets of moving seals in series between pump inlet and outlet. These
sets of seals act as a labyrinth and provide the screw pump with its positive pressure capability. The
cavities trap liquid at the inlet and carry it along to the outlet, providing a smooth flow. To balance the
hydraulic thrust, two pairs of screws are used. See figures below.

Screw Pump:

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Screw Pump Screws shown with fluid flow from suction at ends and discharge in the
middle this balances the hydraulic end thrust:

A Two-screw Displacement Pump:

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Screw Pump Uses:
Both double-screw pumps in which the screws are driven in phase by timing gears (Figure above) and
triple screw pumps, in which the centre screw is driven and the outer screws idle (Figure below) are
used at sea, especially for pumping high viscosity liquids such as oil and a variety of other liquid
cargoes. Since they are self-priming and able to pump liquid and vapour without loss of suction they are
particularly useful when draining tanks of high vapour pressure liquids. They are suitable for operation
at high rotational speed (units are in operation with speeds of 3500 rev/ min, delivering over 1000
litres/min) and can thus be easily matched with standard electric motors.

Sectional View.

Double-screw Pump with Timing Gears:

This type of pump (figures below) can be mounted both horizontally and vertically. Two intermeshing
screws rotating within a pump easing effect pumping. Each screw shaft has a right and a left hand screw,
which ensures axial hydraulic balance, they’re being no load imposed on the location bearing.
Metal contact is avoided by driving the screw shaft through hardened and ground timing gears. Once the
easing has been filled with liquid, the pump is self-priming and ready for operation. Displacement on
pumping takes place when the screws are rotated and liquid is drawn into the screws at the outer ends
and pumped inwards to discharge into the pump outlet branch, located about mid-length of the rotors,
without pulsation.

When pumps are installed for handling non-corrosive liquids of reasonable lubricity, it is normal
to find units with internal bearings. For handling more onerous liquids e.g. corrosive or abrasive
liquids, chemicals, and liquids with a lack of lubricity and/or high viscosity, designs incorporating
outside bearings are required. The latter can then be independently lubricated.

Inside bearing pumps are to be preferred when possible, to their outside bearing counterparts as they are
shorter, lighter and have only one shaft seal as against four; a separate timing gearbox is required also in
the outside bearing type.

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 Cut-away sectional view of a Double-screw Pump with Gears:

Line drawing of a Two-screw Pump:

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IMO Triple Screw Pump:
In the IMO triple screw pump only the centre screw is driven mechanically, via a flexible coupling. The
two outer screws are driven by the fluid pressure and act purely as seals. The screws work in a
renewable cast iron sleeve mounted in a cast iron pump casing. When the screws rotate, their close
relation to each other creates pockets in the helices; these pockets move axially and have the same effect
is a piston moving constantly in one direction. These pumps work well at high pressure and with high
viscosity fluids (up to 4000 centistokes). The axial thrust on the power rotor is balanced hydraulically,
that of the idlers by thrust washers.

IMO Triple Screw Pump:

Shaft Sealing;
In the double-screw pump, shaft sealing can be effected by either mechanical seals or by packed stuffing
boxes. In both cases, sealing is effected at the suction end of the pump, so that the seals are subjected
only to, low pressure or vacuum.
Selection of mechanical seals, sometime with higher extra cost, is necessary to ensure leak-free
operation of the pump, even under the most arduous service conditions. This is of paramount importance
when handling toxic or aggressive liquids. Provision is made for the mechanical seals to be cooled and
lubricated generally by the pumped liquid. Sometimes, however, external means are necessary.
Materials:
For the general range of liquids handled, cast iron is suitable for the casing and bearing housings; the
screw shafts are normally of high-grade carbon steel. Seawater pumps with bronze casings and stainless
steel screw shafts have a longer life. Materials having high corrosion-resistant qualities such as stainless
steel EN 58 J and Hastelloy may also be used in addition to the more common materials. Since the
screws are not in direct contact they will not be scuffed.
Relief Valves:

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Since screw pumps are essentially displacement pumps and will produce increasing pressure until
rupture or drive failure occurs, it is necessary to safeguard the pump, prime mover and its associated
pipe work in the event of a discharge line valve closure.

Thus the pumps are equipped with full flow relief valves capable of bypassing the entire throughput of
the pump. This is for safety purposes only, however, and should only operate for a short time otherwise
excessive liquid/pump temperature will result. The valve may be fitted with either manual or automatic
control to facilitate starting up under no-load condition. This is necessary where the discharge system is
under pressure, to avoid excessive starting torque (electrical load) and long run-up times.
Relief valves are also often fitted with automatic volume control valves, which control the output of the
pump in order to maintain either a constant pressure or vacuum at a specific point in the system, as in
diesel engine lubricating oil supply to ensure constant pressure at engine inlet irrespective of oil
viscosity.
Pre-heating:
When hot or viscous liquids are handled it may be necessary to preheat the casing of a pump already
filled with liquid. Means of heating are available, e.g. electric immersion heaters or a coil through which
low pressure steam or hot oil is circulated.
Eccentric Helical Rotor Pump:
This is a type of rotating displacement pump used mainly in domestic water service.

Key: 1. Suction and discharge pipe. 2. Stator of natural or synthetic rubber. 3. Rotor of stainless steel.

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 4. Rotor drive shaft. 5. Shaft with ball bearing
Section view of Helical Rotor Pump:

It consists of a screw-shaped stainless steel rotor, which rotates in a rubber stator having double internal
screw threads. During rotation, the rotor tightens against the stator and the enclosed fluid is displaced
axially through the pump. The centerline of the pump moves slightly radially during rotation. All cross-
sections of the rotor are circular. The radial movement of the rotor demands that it be driven through a
universal joint.
Lobe Pump:
These resemble the gear pumps in action and have two or more rotors cut with two, three, four or more
lobes on each rotor. The rotors are synchronised for positive rotation by external gears. Because the
liquid is delivered in a smaller number of larger quantities than in the gear pump, flow from the lobular
type pumps is not quite so constant as from the gear type.

Lobe pump (single lobe): Lob pump (multiple lobs):

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 Stothert and Pitt Rotary Pump:
The Stothert and Pitt rotary pump has two types known as the Three-Four and Seven-Eight (See figure
above). The pumping elements consist of an inner and an outer rotor, which rotate in a renewable liner
fitted in the pump body. The inner rotor is eccentric to the outer and is fitted to a shaft located by
bearings in the pump covers. Rotation of the inner rotor creates a pocket of increasing capacity between
the rotors on the rising side and a corresponding decrease on the falling side; displacement is thus
effected, and the pumping action draws the fluid into the pump through ports in the outer rotor while the
pocket is increasing in size and forces it out of the opposite side of the pump when the pocket is
decreasing. The normal range of these pumps covers pressures rising to 21 bar and capacities up to 400
tonne/hr; special designs have been made for pressures rising to 83 bar for use in connection with
hydraulic control. The Three-Four types are particularly suited for handling high-viscosity fluids and are
set to run at comparatively slow speeds, which usually call for the introduction of a gear between the
prime mover and the pump. The Seven-Eight types are to meet the requirements of high-speed
machinery, and operate efficiently at speeds around 720 rev/min when handling fluids in the lower
viscosity range.

Lobe Pump (Three lobe rotor type):

Sliding Vane Pump:
Sliding vane pumps use vanes that are held against the easing bore by centrifugal force when the rotor is
turned. Liquid trapped between two vanes is carried around and forced out at the pump discharge.

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 Flexible Vane Pump:

Internal (Vane-in-rotor) Pump:

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 Line diagram of Sliding Vane Pump:

Operating Principle:
The eccentricity between the shaft and rotor causes the chambers formed between the rotor and blades to
vary in size as the pump rotates (see figure below). The liquid entering the pump is guided into the ends
of the rotor and then back out through the discharge port.

There are four pumping sectors and the illustration shows how the sector increases and decreases in size
during rotation. Each sector in turn acts in the same manner, causing the continuous pumping action.

Unlike a conventional vane pump the blade tip is not rotating at high peripheral speeds against a liner
(which could cause rapid wear to the blade tip). The blades are gently sliding along a flat inside the
rotor, thus reducing wear and maintaining high volumetric efficiency.

‘JABSCO’ Flexible Impeller Pump:

This pump (see figure below) is self-priming and can be mounted either above or below the source of
fluid. It is simple in construction, inexpensive and its gentle pumping action effectively handles thin,
viscous and particle-laden fluids. Typical marine application includes cooling water re-circulation for
water-cooled air compressors and is also suitable for other low-rate, low-pressure, high viscosity uses.
Temperature range is from 0*- 90*C. The impeller is made of flexible synthetic rubber material and
works in a stainless steel housing.

‘Jabsco’ Pump:

Rotary Reciprocating (Variable delivery) Pumps:

These pumps as their name implies, have a rotary as well as a reciprocating motion. They are also
known as variable delivery pumps because the stroke of the pumps can be varied and as such can be
made to deliver different quantities of liquid as and when required.

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There are two types of variable delivery pumps:

1. The Radial Piston Pump, known as ‘The Hele-Shaw Pump’, where the movement of the pistons
relative to the cylinders is radial.
2. The Axial Piston Pump, known as ‘The Swash Plate Pump’, where the movement of the pistons
relative to the cylinders is axial.

Radial Piston Pump: Hele-Shaw Pump type:

Part construction of the pump is shown below. It consists of a fixed and stationary shafts around which
is mounted a cylinder body or block which is coupled to and driven by a constant speed unidirectional
motor.
The cylinder block has a number of radial cylinder bores machined in it. There are usually seven or nine
such bores. In the bores fit lapped plungers with gudgeon pins, which can move in and out of the
cylinder restricted by the slot length. (Slot slightly more than the pump stroke).

Line diagram of Part Construction of ‘Hele Shaw’ Pump:

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 Radial Piston (Hele Shaw type) Pump in Section:
The plungers and gudgeon pins have slippers fitted on them and these run in the annular groves of two
circular floating rings (one top and the other at the bottom). The circular rings are not rigidly fixed but
are free to rotate and move sideways on roller bearings. This reduces oil churning and frictional losses.
The sideways movement or the radial movement of the floating rings is given by the actuating rod or
spindle, which is connected to the receiver output through levers and links.
The stationary shaft carries a block, which has two parts one on top and the other at the bottom, which
act as the auction/delivery ports. The oil leaking past the plungers, shaft and body go to lubricate the
moving parts. The whole pump body is not full of oil. After lubricating the oil drains into the
replenishing tank. Usually an auxiliary oil pump (a gear pump) driven by the main pump drive is fitted
on the pump itself.
A low-pressure relief valve opens to return the auxiliary pump delivery back to the replenishing tank if
the main system is full. Thus this pump ensures the lubrication of all parts when the main pump is
running at no stroke and does not allow any air to enter the system.

Working Principle:

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Figure: 1:
The shaft with the auction/delivery block is stationary. When the motor runs it rotates the cylinder block
with it. When the centre of the block or shaft coincides with the centre of the floating rings, the plungers
rotate at a fixed radius from the centre that is there is no relative motion between the plungers and the
shaft and therefore no pumping action takes place.

Figure: 2:
Now if the floating rings are moved to the right as shown by figure 2 by the actuating or control rod the
centre of rotation of the plungers and slippers moves to 'A' which is eccentric to the shaft center ‘O’.
Thus as the cylinders rotates, the plungers are made to reciprocate in the cylinders.
During the period from 90* before TDC to 90* after TDC the plungers move inwards, that is perform
the pumping stroke, thereby making the top port the discharge port (Motion indicated by arrows).

For the remainder of the travel that is 90* before BDC to 90* after BDC the plungers move outwards
thereby creating a suction and making the bottom port as the suction port (see figure below).

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Figure: 3:
Here the actuating rod has shifted the floating ring to the left hand side thereby offsetting the centre of
the rings to B relative to the shaft center ‘O’.

Since the motor is unidirectional we find that in this cases during the period 90* before TDC to 90* after
TDC the plungers move outwards thereby making the top port as the suction port and during the rest
of the travel that is 90* before BDC to 90* after BDC the plungers move inwards thereby making the
bottom port, the delivery port.
Thus as the stroke of the plungers, depends on the movement of the slipper path horizontally and hence
the eccentricity therefore the pump is of the variable delivery type.

Also the direction of flow depends on the movement of the rings to the left or right of the central
position and such for a unidirectional rotation of the pump the flow is reversible.

Materials used in the ‘Hele Shaw’ pump:

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 1. Casing: Cast Iron.

2. Cylinder body: Ph. Bronze or Barrel.

3. Shaft: Stainless steel.

4. Plungers: Hardened steel. Well polished.

5. Slippers: Ph. Bronze.

Axial Piston pump: Swash plate pump:

The swash plate pump or axial piston pump is a variable delivery pump and the name is so given
because here the smash plate or the tilting box is moved or displaced in an axial plane and also the
plungers reciprocate in an axial direction.
Construction:
It consists of a revolving circular cylinder barrel or block which lute a number of cylinder bores, The
barrel/block is kept pressed against a valve plate which has segment shaped ports by a strong spring.
These segmented ports are of the same diameter as the cylinder circular ports and are connected to the
rams or steering gear cylinders by external pipes.

The cylinder barrel-driving shaft is splined and coupled to a unidirectional constant speed motor. The
splined shaft carries two universal joints, one driving the cylinder barrel and the other rotating a socket

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plate/ring, which is supported by a Michell pad bearing or roller bearings in a tilting box. The cylinder
barrel has seven, nine or eleven cylinders machined in it, which are parallel to the axis of rotation and
concentric with it. In each cylinder reciprocate a lapped plunger, which is connected by connecting rods
and ball joints to the tilting box or swash plate. This type of a pump always runs in a flooded
condition and the make up tank is always above the pump level.
Working:
The motor being a constant speed motor rotates the shaft, which along with it rotates the cylinder barrel
and the socket ring.
When the tilting box or awash plate - and therefore the socket ring is at zero position (vertical position
or perpendicular to the shaft) the cylinder barrel and the socket ring revolve in the same plane and the
plungers have no relative motion that is they do not reciprocate in the cylinder bores, resulting in no
pumping action.
Tilting the swash plate or the tilting box causes the socket ring to revolve at an angle to the cylinder
barrel. The plungers being linked to the ring by their connecting rods must then slide in the cylinder to
adjust themselves to the varying distance between the ring and the barrel. This distance changes from
maximum to minimum in one half revolution and thus the length of the stroke depends on the angle of
tilt of the tilting box.

Rotating components of a variable delivery axial piston pump:

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 Essential components of a variable delivery axial piston pump:

During the out ward suction stroke oil is drawn from the unit into the pump and is delivered to the
cylinders of the other side during the succeeding pressure stroke when the plungers move in the opposite
direction. Flow is reversed when the angle of tilt is reversed.

Donkin Variable Stroke Swash Plate Pump:

Reciprocating Steam Pump:

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There are numerous forms of such pumps, both horizontal and vertical, used for all duties on ships. The
reciprocating motion can be through connecting rod from electric motor drives or other forms, but still
one of the most common forms is the direct steam drive.
The Weir Steam Pump:
The steam end consists of a forged steel piston with either ‘Ramsbottom’ type plain spring rings or
Buckley type spring restriction rings, rings of cast iron with a vertical lateral clearance for the plain rings
of about 70μm and a butt gap clearance of about 140μm when fitted. The cast iron steam cylinder has
steam top and bottom from a bolted on valve chest which is provided with the required steam and
exhaust valve and drain cocks.

Simplex Steam reciprocating Pump section:

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 Weir Steam pump: Electrically driven pump using
similar pump arrangement:
Materials used for pumps operating seawater service:

Suction and delivery valves: Brass.

Bucket liner: Bronze.
Bucket: Bronze.
Bucket rings: Ebonite.
Valve chest Bronze.

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A lubricator for hand use is usually provided filled with cylinder oil and graphite, but for superheated
steam mechanical lubricators are usually used. A mechanical stroke counter is also sometimes fitted.
The steam piston is bigger in diameter than the bucket to allow the pump to work at lower steam
pressures than the discharge feed pressure (principle of differential areas) and as numerous sizes of
pump are used the given sizes and clearances quoted here are based on a 150 mm bore pump, bigger
pumps having proportionately larger clearances. A nickel steel piston rod and a brass or bronze bucket
rod connect by screwing into a main steel crosshead and are locked by a steel taper pin. The steel valve
gear levers have the fulcrum on a front stay and slide through a crosshead pin during vertical movement
of the crosshead. The steel valve gear rod works off a ball crosshead between fulcrum and main
crosshead, the lever movement butting against top and bottom adjustable nuts to transmit motion to the
valve rod.

The full stroke of the pump must be utilised as short stroking produces ridges in the working bores. To
adjust the strokes the valve spindle is screwed up until the piston is striking the top cover and then
screwed down and locked to allow the piston to approach to within say 12 mm of the end cover. The
process is repeated using the bottom nut and lock nut on the threaded spindle for the cylinder bottom.
The water end is of cast iron with a gunmetal bucket working in a brass or bronze liner (cast iron
throughout is used for oil pumps). The bucket usually has two grooves into which are fitted special
ebonite (or Tufnol) rings, the lateral clearance being about 220μm and the butt gap clearance about
800μm. The rings are cut and then heated in boiling water to make them flexible the butt gap being
adjusted by trying in the liner bore. When the correct butt gap is made the rings are cooled whilst sprung
open to 9 mm butt gap so that the ring when fitted has the necessary compression.

The double acting chamber has a twin unit valve chest at the front, each unit, one top and one bottom,
having a suction and discharge valve set. The valves are spring loaded from valve guard plates, smaller
old pumps usually employ flat brass plate “Kinghorn” type valves but modern larger pumps almost
always employ group valves. Such valves are small circular valves, about five or seven in number, in a
circular pattern, the valves being spring loaded from the guard plate. For heavy duty, say for example
hot feed water, etc, the valves and seats are of stainless steel and are of the flat-faced type. Each valve
chest is usually provided with a small sentinel type relief valve on the top covers.

It is of course a requirement that a relief valve is fitted in the discharge pipe irrespective of the cover
valves. The pump is also fitted with air pet cocks, drain plugs, air vessels, float control devices, suction
and discharge valve chests, etc., as may be required for its duty, horizontal and vertical types are
available for feed, oil fuel, ballast, bilge and service duties.

The Weir Type Valve Gear:

The valve spindle-driving rod is connected to a flat plain outside steam slide valve, which works on, and
is carefully bedded to, the flat back face of, a round shuttle valve, which distributes cylinder steam and
exhaust. The slide valve or auxiliary valve has a vertical motion and the shuttle valve has an axial
motion. The auxiliary valve is adjusted by liners so that with the auxiliary valve bolted up in place the
shuttle valve can be lightly tapped across by hand. The shuttle valve works at its ends inside hollow
bells, the bells being a smooth sliding fit over the shuttle.

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 Section through Weir’s pump steam shuttle valve:

The bells have a slot across their back face into which slots a tongue piece from the end cover, the
tongue piece can be rotated by a nut in the centre of the end cover (externally), which serves to turn the
bells. The tongue piece spindle has a pointer outside the end cover the pointer can be moved between
two stops by moving the adjuster nut. Rotation of the bell serves to vary the opening to the bypass port
so altering the quantity of extra steam supply. The inner face of the bell is bedded to an inner circular
web, provided with slot or slots cut in to allow steam to pass into the cylinder formed between shuttle
valve and bell at the end. With the end covers bolted up tight the bells should have a clearance of about
70μm to allow rotation of the bell by the adjuster nut when the pump is working.

The left hand pointer points up usually as it controls the pump upstroke while the right hand end
indicator will point down. The bells should only be used for starting the pump. When they are turned to
the open position (indicator to letter "O", cast on the end cover) steam can be admitted into the cylinder
at any point in the stroke. When the pump is started the bells may be closed by turning them to the shut
position (indicator to letter "S", cast on the end cover). In this way the expansive property of the steam
will then be utilised as cut off will take place at approximately ¾ stroke, this provides an economy. The
bells must not be left open during normal running.

It is essential for all reciprocating steam pumps to maintain valves and rings, etc., in good order
this is applicable particularly to the shuttle valve gear. Regular skilled examination and attention
can give efficient and reliable pumps.

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 Pump Valve chest in section: Pump Bucket with Rings:

Pump detached steam piston with rings:

‘Lost Motion’:
The steam valve is mechanically operated and its movement is dependent upon the motion of the piston
rod and the linkage of the valve gear. In order to ensure that the piston is always moving, “Lost motion”
is introduced into the valve gear. Lost motion is a means by which the piston can move during a portion
of its stroke without moving the steam valve. If the steam valve is out of adjustment, the pump will have
a tendency not to operate through its designed stroke. Increasing the lost motion lengthens the stroke and
if this is excessive, the piston will strike the cylinder head. Reducing the lost motion will shorten the
stroke and if this is excessive, it will cause the pump to short stroke, which will result in the loss in
capacity.

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 Steam pump slide valve lost motion adjustment sequence and valve seen in section:

Applications of Direct-acting Steam Pumps:

Direct-acting steam-driven pumps have the advantage of extreme flexibility in operation; they have an
infinitely variable capacity from no load to full load, and can be controlled manually or automatically
with ease. They are self-priming, and can handle mixtures of liquid and gas when necessary.

*****************************Kv********************************

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8. Centrifugal (Dynamic Pressure) Pumps:
Centrifugal Pump Theory:
Centrifugal pumps are distinguished from positive displacement pumps by their requirement of relative
velocity between the fluid and the impeller. Such a pump sketch is shown below.

Fluid enters the ‘eye’ of the impeller and flows radially outwards through passages in the impeller,
gradually increasing its linear velocity because of the impeller’s rotation.

Characteristic curve of a typical centrifugal pump:

The fluid leaves the impeller in a similar manner to sparks shooting from a Catherine wheel. The high
velocity fluid is collected in a specially shaped easing, where some of the kinetic energy of the fluid is
converted into pressure energy.

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Should further conversion be required, the fluid is passed to a diverging discharge nozzle. As the fluid
slows in this nozzle it loses kinetic energy, which, according to the energy equation, must be replaced by
a corresponding increase in potential energy.
The characteristic curve of a typical centrifugal pump is shown in the figure on page 41.
The centrifugal pump converts energy (external driving source) into kinetic energy in the fluid by giving
impulses to the fluid by impellers. A diffuser or volute converts most of the kinetic energy into pressure,
i.e. these machines use the basic law (Bernoulli's) of converting potential energy into kinetic energy and
vice versa.
The equation being:
Total energy (referred to unit weight of liquid) is
H = Z + P + V2
γ 2g
Where:
H = total head at a given point. P/γ = Pressure head. V2 /2g = dynamic or velocity head.
Z = height above datum. G = specific gravity (1 for fresh water).

Suction Lift:
Applying to pumps a principle learned in physics:
Maximum possible suction lift = Pressure acting an free surface
Specific weight of fluid

If the atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of fresh water is considered, it is found that the
theoretical maximum lift works out to 10.36 m, which is the height of the column of fresh water which
can be supported by normal atmospheric pressure. By the same argument it can be seen that the
maximum suction lift of mercury would be 0.76 m.
In practice, these theoretical maximum figures are very much affected by three factors:

1. The temperature and volatility of the fluid, which is being pumped. As the liquid approaches its
boiling temperature, under the reduced pressures in the suction pipe, vapour is given off which
reduces the suction exerted by the pump.
2. The pressure exerted on the free surface of the fluid. Clearly, special problems arise when fluid is
being pumped from low-pressure spaces, e.g. condensers. These have to be solved by placing the
pump at a level lower than that of the free surface of the fluid, which results in a positive suction
head. The same problem is solved in gas carriers by submersing the impeller at the bottom of the
cargo tank. Such pumps are called deep-well pumps. Alternatively, the whole pump may be
submerged in the fluid.
3. Friction losses at entrances, bend, and pipe in the suction system.
Comparison of Pumps: Suction lift:
Consider first the performance of a reciprocating pump. If the pump could create a perfect vacuum in the
barrel it should theoretically be able to lift cold fresh water from a height of 10.3 m above the suction
valve.
1.013 bar = 760mm Mercury ≈10.3 m water.
Thus the pump lift depends on the barometer reading (for vacuum attainable) and also the fluid pumped,
i.e., oil below a density of 1.0 will be capable of being lifted a greater amount.

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Also the fluid pumped should be cold, as warm fluids tend to vaporise and destroy the vacuum. In
practice a good reciprocating pump will lift cold water from about 8 m with a high barometer. As the
temperature of the fluid rises the suction lift decreases so that at 94*C the pump will not draw water.
Above this critical temperature water must be supplied from a head to increase the pressure on the
suction valve and prevent vapour lock.
The following figures give an indication of the above points:
Barometer: 750 mm Practical Lift: 7.5 m
Above figures are for cold water.
Temperature 64*C Practical Lift 3 m
Temperature 77*C Practical Lift 2.1 m
Temperature 94*C Practical Lift 0 m
Temperature 110*C Head required 3 m
Temperature 123*C Head required 6.7 m
Above figures are for 760 mm barometer reading.
Relationship between Head and Throughput:
From a mathematical consideration of the action of a centrifugal pump it can be shown that the
theoretical relationship between head H and throughput Q is a straight line (see figure below), with
minimum throughput occurring when the head is maximum. Because of shock and eddy losses caused
by impeller blade thickness and other mechanical considerations there will be some head loss, increasing
slightly with throughput. These, losses, together with friction losses due to fluid contact with the pump
easing and inlet and impact losses, result in the H/Q curve shown in the figure. The final shape of this
curve will vary according to the design of the pump. Depending on application centrifugal pumps can be
designed with relatively flat H/Q curves or if required the curve can be steep to give a relatively large
shut-off head.

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From the above figure, it can be seen that minimum power occurs when there is no flow and when the
discharge head is at its highest --- in other words when the discharge valve is closed. Since throughput
decreases as the discharge head is increased there is no necessity to fit a relief valve to centrifugal
pumps. It will also be noticed that the efficiency curve for the pump is convex which means that
maximum efficiency, occurs at a point somewhere between maximum and minimum discharge head and
throughput conditions.
In the case of a variable speed pump:
1. Head varies as the square of the speed.
2. Capacity varies directly as the speed.
3. Power varies as the cube of the speed since it is a function of head and capacity.
In the case of a constant speed pump:
1. Head varies as the square of the diameter.
2. Capacity varies as the diameter.
3. Power varies as the cube of the diameter.
Where the head in a given installation is known, the following formula will be found of use in
calculating the speed of the pump:
N= 95 H. C.
D
Where:
N = rev/min. D = diameter of impeller over blade tips in m. H = total head in m. C = Constant.
The value of C varies considerably according to the hydraulic design of the pump but is generally
between 1.05 and 1.2, the higher value being taken for pumps working considerably beyond their normal
duty, or for pumps with impellers having small tip angles.
Selection of Centrifugal Pumps:
This depends mainly upon duty and space available.
a) Duty points:
1. Flow and total head requirements. This will govern the speed of rotation, impeller dimensions,
number of impellers and type eg; single or, double inlet.
2. Range of temperature of fluid to be pumped. If suction capability is insufficient to accommodate
supply conditions due for example to high inlet temperature cavitation can occur.
3. Viscosity of the medium to be pumped.
4. Type of medium, e.g. corrosive or non-corrosive, this would affect the choice of material.
Although for salt and fresh water the difference is often just the casing.
b) Space points:
With vertically arranged pumps less floor space is required, this usually means that no hydraulic balance
is necessary, impeller access is simple and no pipe to be broken. Also the motor being above the pump
helps it to keep it clear of moisture. This arrangement also gives the best possible NPSH conditions.
c) Losses:
1. Entry losses: Caused by liquid streaming past the vanes into the impeller. This is especially
important as this loss has a direct bearing on the capability of the impeller. It can be kept low by
correct vane shape and finish.
2. Hydraulic losses: Caused by friction and turbulence in all passages and must be kept as low as
possible by a smooth finish and correct velocity distribution of flow.

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 3. Disc friction loss: Caused by the impeller walls rotating in the liquid. Can be kept low by
providing good machining or casting finish to the impeller walls and also by reducing the
volume of liquid between the impeller and the volute.
4. Leakage loss: It is across pressure differentials, eg; wear rings.
5. Stuffing box losses: To be kept low by providing correct number of packing and not screwing
the gland nuts too tight.
A characteristic curve for a centrifugal pump is obtained-by operating the pump at rated speed with the
suction open and the discharge valve shut. The discharge valve is then opened in stages to obtain
different discharge rates and total heads (can be measured by discharge pressure gauge, suction head
constant) corresponding to them. A typical curve is shown in the figure below.

Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curve:

Reciprocating and axial pump curves given for comparison:
Classification:
Centrifugal pumps can be classified as shown in the figure on page 42. A centrifugal pump consists of a
set of rotating vanes enclosed within a housing or casing and used to impart energy to a fluid through
centrifugal force. Thus, stripped of all refinement, the centrifugal pump has two main parts: a rotating
element, including impeller, shaft and bearing: and a stationary element, made up of the casing, and
stuffing box.
Impellers are classified by the major direction of flow with reference to the axis of rotation.
Thus, for example, centrifugal pumps have:
1. Radial flow impellers;
2. Axial flow impellers;
3. Mixed flow impellers, which combine axial and radial flow principles.

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The impeller is further classified as: single suction, with a single inlet on one side; or double suction,
with water flowing to the impeller symmetrically from both sides.
The mechanical construction of the impellers gives a further subdivision into: enclosed, with shrouds or
sidewalls enclosing the waterways; or open, with no shrouds.
If the pump is one in which the head is developed by a single impeller, it is called a single-stage pump.
Often the total head to be developed requires the use of two or more impellers operating in series, each
taking its suction from the discharge of the previous impeller.

Classification of Centrifugal Pumps:

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For this purpose, two or more single stage impellers can be connected in series, or all the impellers may
be incorporated in the single easing: the unit is then called a multi-stage pump as shown in the figure
below.
The mechanical design of the casing provides the added pump classification of axially split or radially
split, while the axis of rotation determines whether it is a horizontal or vertical unit. Horizontal shaft
centrifugal pumps are classified still further according to location of the suction nozzle, i.e. end, side,
bottom or top suction.

Section of a Multi-stage Pump:

In a single-suction impeller, the liquid enters the suction eye on one side only. As a double-suction
impeller comprises two single-suction impellers arranged back to back in a single casing, the liquid
pumped enters the impeller simultaneously from both sides, while the two casing suction passageways
are connected to a common suction passageway in a single suction nozzle.
For the general service, single-stage, axially, split easing design, a double-suction impeller is favoured
because it is theoretically in actual hydraulic balance and because the greater suction area of a double
suction impeller permits the pump to operate with less net absolute suction head.

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For smaller units the single suction impeller is more practical for manufacturing reasons, as the
waterways are not divided into two very narrow passages. It is also sometimes preferred for structural
reasons.
Classification of impellers according to their vane shape is naturally arbitrary, as there is much overlap
between the types of impellers used in different pumps. For example, impellers of single and double
suction pumps of low specific speed have vanes extending across the suction eye. This provides a mixed
flow at the impeller entrance, lower pick-up losses at higher rotating speeds but allows the discharge
portion of the impeller to use the straight vane principle. Pumps of higher specific speed operating
against low head impellers have double-curvature vanes extending across the vane surface; they are
therefore full “Francis type” impellers. The mixed flow impeller usually a single suction type is
essentially one half of a double suction, high specific speed ‘Francis vane’ impeller. In addition, many
impellers are designed for specific applications. For instance, the conventional impeller design with
sharp vane edges and restricted areas is not suitable for handling liquids containing solids.
A centrifugal pump has two main parts:
1. A rotating element, which is made up of an impeller mounted on a shaft.
2. A stationary element made up of a casing with inlet and outlet branches, stuffing box and
bearings.
The impeller is fitted with a number of vanes, which impart a centrifugal force on the fluid with in
the impeller causing it to move radially outwards from the suction eye or the center in to the
casing surrounding the impeller. Because of the outward flow of fluid, a void is formed in the
suction eye inducing a flow from the suction casing.
The fluid is discharged into the easing at a higher velocity and this velocity is converted into pressure
energy by means of the volute or by a set of stationary diffuser vanes surrounding the impeller
periphery. The former type is called a “volute pump” and the latter a “Diffuser pump” or “Turbine
pump”.
Types and Design of Centrifugal Pumps:
Figure below shows the main types of centrifugal pump and whilst there are many other kinds of
centrifugal pumps, they are usually hybrids of those shown.

Volute type: Diffuser type: Regenerative type:

The volute pump is the most common, being found in large numbers whilst the diffuser pump is met
mainly on high-pressure pumps, usually multi-stage, such as boiler feed. The regenerative pump is used
where a relatively high pressure and small capacity are required.

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A double inlet impeller and single impeller for comparison, together with a volute casing are shown
below.

Double eye inlet impeller: Single eye inlet impeller:

Overall view of Centrifugal Pump Design:

The impeller and volute casing design will depend on the required duty, e.g. head to lift, head to
discharge (pressure), quantity, etc. A typical centrifugal bilge pump would give an output of about 30 kg
of water in one second, 12 kW power, discharge up to 5 bar running at about 17 rev/s. The casing
usually has the suction and discharge branches arranged at the back, so impeller and spindle can be
removed from the front without breaking pipe joints. The discharge branch is usually on the pump centre
line so that the pump is not ‘handed’.

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The number of impeller vanes is not fixed but usually there are six to ten. The volute easing is like a
divergent nozzle, which is wrapped around the impeller and serves two main functions:
1. It enables velocity energy to be converted into pressure energy the degree of conversion is
governed mainly by the degree of divergence.
2. It accommodates the gradual increase in quantity of fluid that builds at discharge from the
circumference of the impeller. For the velocity to be constant the volute is made so that cross-
sectional pipe area increases uniformly from out water to throat.
If the discharge were choked or blocked then the pump would merely churn water so that the fitting of a
relief valve is not essential. A common fault for repair with these pumps is the increase of clearance due
to wear at the bearing rim (or wear ring) faces. This allows connection between suction and discharge so
drastically reducing efficiency. On the larger pumps these faces are often brass strips on liners secured
by countersunk screws, clearance adjustment is effected by adding further liners. On the smaller pumps
the faces are made by sealing rings, which are renewable.
In the smaller designs the shaft gland seal is by an ordinary stuffing box, water-cooled, usually
employing lead foil type packing. Great care must be taken on these packing, as they are very prone to
nip and score the shaft severely if not properly adjusted. For larger types rotary packing is used. This
consists of a fixed clamp ring on the shaft driving another ring cup, with packing rings on to the shaft,
through driving pins. Ring cup and rings are free to slide along the shaft under the action of axial springs
from the clamp ring. The cup ring presses on to a fixed ball ring, which in turn sits in a ball socket joint
in the back plate, which bolts to the pump casting. Grease lubrication is provided to the face between
ring cup and fixed ball ring, worked by spring or water pressure.
Impellers:
Impellers are classified according to the direction of flow in reference to the axis of rotation (see figure
below). Thus centrifugal pumps may have:
1. Radial flow impellers.
2. Axial flow impellers.
3. Mixed flow impellers, which combine radial and axial flow characteristics.

Radial flow impeller: Axial flow impeller: Mixed flow impeller:

The mechanical construction of the impeller gives a subdivision as follows:

1. Open, with no shrouds.
2. Semi-open or semi-closed.
3. Enclosed, with shrouds or sidewalls enclosing the waterways.

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Open with partial shrouds for strength: Semi-open type: Enclosed type:
Open type:
This type consists of nothing but vanes attached to a central hub for mounting on the shaft without any
form of sidewall or shroud. The disadvantage of this type is it s structural weakness. If the vanes are
long, then ribs or a partial shroud as shown in the figure above must strengthen them. This type of
impeller is used for small pumps or pumps handling abrasive liquids. The advantage is that it is capable
of handling suspended matter (solids) with minimum clogging.
Semi-open type:
This incorporates a shroud or an impeller back-wall as shown in the figure above. The shroud may or
may not have pumped out vanes (which are located at the back of the impeller shroud). This type is used
for a varied number of applications and the vanes at the back of the shroud help to reduce pressure at the
back of the impeller and also prevent foreign matter from collecting at the backside.
Enclosed type:
This is the most common type and is used for handling clear liquids and consists of shrouds or enclosing
sidewalls totally enclosing the impeller waterways from the suction eye to the periphery.
Number of Entries:
The centre of the impeller is called the “impeller eye”. The flow to this eye and relative to the shaft axis
may vary, i.e. if the liquid enters the impeller only from one side, then it is known as “single entry
impeller” and the pump is known as “single entry pump”.
But if the liquid enters from both sides, then it is called a “double entry impeller”. A double entry or
double suction impeller is, in effect, two single suction impellers arranged back to back in a single
casing.

Single entry impeller: Double entry impeller:

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Number of Stages:
If a centrifugal pump is such that the pressure developed is by a single impeller, then it is called a
“single stage pump”, and if two or more impellers are used, then it is known as a “multi-stage pump”. In
multi-stage pumps, the impellers operate in series, i.e. each taking its suction from the discharge of the
preceding impeller.

Vertical, single inlet, centrifugal pump:

The above figure shows diagrammatically a vertically arranged single inlet centrifugal pump. This is
arranged with the easing split vertically, one half have suction and discharge branches so that the
impeller and shaft can be removed without breaking pipe joints. The impeller has a single eye (inlet),
upward facing so that air locking is eliminated under operating conditions. Pressure in the space under
the impeller ensures hydraulic balance.

Wear Rings:
The impeller rotates between the easing walls of the volute or between the stuffing box head and the
suction head. The clearance between the impeller and the sidewalls allows a certain amount of water
slippage. This slippage increases with wear and to restore it to the original efficiency, both the impeller
and the side plate must be replaced. This would be very expensive and therefore a running joint is
provided. These running joints are known as “wear rings”. One ring is provided on the impeller shrouds
and the other, slightly larger in diameter, is fitted on the stationary housing of the casing. The clearance
between the two is called the “wear ring clearance”.

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 Single entry centrifugal pump:

Wear Ring Arrangements:

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The wear resistance of these rings is less than that of the impeller or the casing, and therefore, they wear
off faster. There are various types of wear rings and the selection of the most desirable type depends on.
The liquid being handled, the pressure difference across the leakage joint, the rubbing speed and the
particular pump design. One of the most common design of wear ring and its fitting is shown in the
figure above.
Volute Casing:
The easing is known as a volute easing because of its spiral shape. The casing section collects the liquid
discharged by the impeller and converts velocity energy to pressure energy. A centrifugal pump volute
increases in area from its initial point until it encompasses the full 360* around the impeller and then
flares out to the final discharge opening. The wall dividing the initial section and the discharge portion
of the casing is called the “tongue” of the volute or the “cut-water”.
Another type of casing is called the diffuser type, but the majority of single stage pumps are of the
volute casing type.
Casings may also be classified either: Axially or Radially.

Impeller Nomenclature:
Radial Thrust and Cavitation:

Radial Thrust:
When a volute easing pump is running at the designed capacity, uniform or near uniform pressures act
on the impeller as shown in figures below. But when the pump is running at other capacities, the
pressure around the impeller is not uniform and there is a radial reaction "F", and this is called radial
thrust.

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Designed capacity: Uniform casing pressure: Reduced capacity as such pressure not uniform:
So zero radial reaction: So radial reaction force ‘F’:

The graph below shows the typical change in this force with regard to pump capacity. The magnitude of
the radial reaction ‘F’ decreases from shut-off to design capacity and then increases again with over-
capacity in a single volute pump. With over capacity, the reaction is roughly in the opposite direction
from that with part capacity.

For any percentage of capacity, this radial reaction is a function of the total head, and of the width and
diameter of the impeller, Therefore a high head pump with large impeller diameter will have a much
greater radial reaction force at partial capacities than a low head pump with small impeller diameter.

In the case of a double volute or diffuser type of pump, the tendency for unbalance exists, but the
reaction is limited to a small are repeated all around the impeller and as a result, the individual reactions
cancel each other.

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Radial Thrust in Multi-stage Pumps:
While the majority of single stage pumps are of the volute casing type, both volute and diffuser casings
are used in multi-stage pump construction. Because a volute casing gives rise to radial thrust, axially
split multi-stage casings generally have staggered volutes so that the resultant of the individual radial
thrusts is balanced out.
Pre-rotation:
Improper entrance conditions in the volute casing causes the incoming liquid to spiral for some distance
ahead of the actual impeller entrance. This phenomenon is known as “pre-rotation” and is harmful for
the pump operation because the liquid enters the vanes at an angle other than that designed for, resulting
in a lower net effective suction head. To avoid this, a “radial fin stop piece” projecting towards the
centre is cast into the suction nozzle wall of the volute.

Cavitation:
Cavitation is derived from the word “cavity”, an empty space or a hollow space. It is caused by the
“boiling off” of a liquid at normal temperature and low pressure. It is worsened by the presence of
dissolved air, which is released when pressures are reduced.
If a liquid contains much dissolved air, then as the pressure is reduced (which happens when the pump
takes suction), the air comes out of solution and forms cavities or bubbles. Each cavitation bubble rows
from a nucleus to a finite size and is carried by the flowing liquid into a region of higher pressure, which
are the vanes of an impeller. Here, these bubbles condense and burst or collapse. Condensation takes
place violently and is accompanied by a tremendous increase of pressure, which has the character of
water hammering and also a rise in temperature.
Bubbles follow each other very rapidly and the bursting results in shock waves, which attack the metal,
causing cavitation pitting in the least resistant places. Erosion due to cavitation is a major problem and is
increased in high velocity situations.

Cavitation can develop under the following circumstances:

1. If the pump has to take suction from a great distance, i.e. if the suction head is too great.
2. If the normal discharge rate has been exceeded, i.e. the pump speed has been increased above
rated.
3. Improper shape of pump entry passages, or due to some obstruction in the inlet side.
4. When pump is handling liquids with low vapour pressures, such as LPG and LNG.

Effects of cavitation are:

1. The metal gets eroded and is seen as small pitting. The rate of erosion may be increased if the
liquid itself has corrosive properties.
2. Audible rattling or cracking sounds may be heard, which can reach a pitch of dangerous
vibrations.
3. Due to the flow disturbances set up, the entire performance of the machine may deteriorate; cg.
the head and efficiency of the pump may fill below acceptable value.

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Alternative explanation:
In pumps carrying liquids a phenomenon known as cavitation occurs. Low-pressure regions occur in the
flow at points where high local velocities exist. If vaporisation occurs due to these low-pressure areas
then bubbles occur, these expand as they move with the flow and collapse when they reach a high-
pressure region. Such formation and collapse of bubbles is very rapid and collapse near a surface can
generate very high pressure hammer blows which results in pitting, noise, vibration, and fall off in the
pump efficiency This phenomenon is not usually very pronounced in reciprocating pumps. Incipient
cavitation i.e. cavitation which is just beginning can occur when suction lift capability cannot meet
supply requirements and the output reduces until the two coincide. Under these conditions of operation
the pump runs noisily and cavitation damage can occur. By throttling the discharge, or reducing pump
speed, rough running of the pump and possible damage can be avoided.
Regions attacked by Cavitation:
1. At the starting stage, the collapse of bubbles terminates within the impeller passages.
2. In the fully developed stage, the main part of vapour bubble collapse is in the impeller itself and
the rest is carried out of the impeller into the diffuser ring and the volute easing, and sometimes
even to the next stage of the pump.
Axial Thrust:
The pressure generated by a centrifugal pump exerts forces on both its stationary and rotating parts. The
design of these parts balances some of these forces, but separate means may be required to counter-
balance others. Thus axial thrust is the accumulation of unbalanced forces on impeller acting in the axial
direction.

Thrusts acting on double suction impeller: Thrusts acting on single suction impeller:

Reference to above figures, the single suction impeller is not axially balanced, but the double suction
one is. In the single suction impeller, the resultant axial thrust is acting towards the suction end. In actual
practice, even the double suction impeller is not balanced and the reasons are:
1. The suction passages to the two suction eyes may not provide equal and uniform flow to the two
sides.
2. External conditions like an elbow located too close to the suction nozzle may cause unequal flow
to the two suction eyes.
3. The two sides of the discharge casing waterways may not be symmetrical.
4. Unequal leakage through the leakage joints, ie; wear rings.
Therefore,
Axial force or thrust is equal to the net pressure generated by the impeller multiplied by unbalanced
annular area.

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To eliminate the axial thrust in a single suction impeller, a pump can be provided with both front and
back wear rings to equalise thrust areas (see bottom figure).

Single suction impeller:

Pressure approximately equal to the suction pressure is maintained in a chamber located on the impeller
side of the back wear ring by drilling so-called “balancing holes” through the impeller. The leakage past
the back wear rings is returned to the suction area via these holes. However, in large single stage single
suction pumps, balancing holes are considered undesirable because leakage back to the impeller suction
opposes the main flow and thus creating disturbances. In such pumps, a piped connection to the pump
suction replaces the balancing holes.
If the shaft is vertical, i.e. vertical pump, it is so designed that axial thrust acts upwards to counter the
weight of the rotating components.
Another way to eliminate or reduce axial thrust in single suction impellers is by the use of pumped-out
vanes on the back shroud as shown in the figure below. The effect of these vanes is to reduce the
pressure acting on the back of the impeller.

Pump With Equal Thrust Area:

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To counter balance the remaining axial thrust, we use thrust bearings on every centrifugal pump. These
are normal ball or roller bearings, but are covered at the two ends with plates, which help to take up the
thrust.
Axial Thrust in Multi-stage Pumps:
Most multi-stage pumps are built with single suction impellers in order to simplify the design. To
counteract the axial thrust produced, there are two ways of arranging the impellers:
1. Several single suction impellers may be mounted on one shaft each having its suction inlet facing in
the same direction and its stages following one another in ascending order of pressure. The axial thrust
will then be required to be balanced by a hydraulic balancing device.
In this type of an arrangement the total theoretical hydraulic force or thrust acting towards the suction
end will be the sum total of the individual impeller thrusts. Thus to balance this, an hydraulic balancing
device is used and this can be of three types:
a) The balancing drum type.
b) The balancing disc type.
c) A combination of the above two.
2. An even number of single suction impellers may be used, one half facing in one direction to the
second half. In this way, the axial thrust of one half will be compensated by the thrust of the other half.
This type of mounting, back to back, is called “opposed impellers”.

Shaft and Shaft Sleeves:

The basic function of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques encountered in starting and
during operation, while supporting the impeller and other rotating parts. It must do this job with a
deflection less than the minimum clearance between the rotating and stationary parts.
The loads involved are:
1. Torque.
2. Weight of the parts.
3. Both the radial and axial hydraulic forces.
If a pump is to handle hot liquids, the shaft is designed to withstand thermal stresses and if it is to handle
corrosive liquids, the materials used should be corrosion resistant.
Pump shafts have to withstand erosion, corrosion and wear at stuffing boxes, leakage joints, internal
bearings and in-waterways, etc. To protect the shaft, and also to give it special properties, e.g. higher
resistance to wear, renewable sleeves are fitted on the shaft.
Stuffing Boxes:
Stuffing boxes have the primary function of protecting the pump against leakage at the point where the
shaft passes out through the pump easing. The sealing has two functions:
1. To prevent air leaking into the pump.
2. To prevent liquid leaking out of the pump.
Different arrangements can be provided and the design depends upon the operating conditions (pressure
or vacuum) and type of fluid being pumped (water, oil, toxic liquids, etc). Improved scaling efficiency
and life of seals is achieved by means of providing special arrangements, for cooling or lubricating the
packing and the shaft in way of the stuffing box.
In the ordinary stuffing box, the sealing between the moving shaft or shaft sleeve and the stationary
portion of the box is accomplished by means of rings of a semi-elastic packing material which is
compressed in place with the help of the stuffing box gland.

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Selection of packing material depends upon the type of fluid being pumped and the reliability required.
Packing materials wear the shaft in way of the stuffing box and care must be taken while selecting the
packing.
The actual scaling surface consists of the axial rotating surfaces of the shaft or shaft sleeve and the
stationary packing. In extreme cases, frictional heat causes damage to the packing and the shaft, and
therefore, a proper sealing cannot be effected.
If sealing of the stuffing box is desired, a “lantern ring” or a “seal cage” is used. This separates the rings
of packing into sections. The lantern rings or the seal cages are usually axially split for the ease of
assembling. Details are given in the figure below.

Pump stuffing box in section:

Changing Stuffing Box Packing or Gland Packing:

If leakage from the stuffing box of a pump is excessive, or the packing is badly worn, all the pickings in
the box should be replaced and not one or two rings as this will not seal effectively.
1. The right grade of packing should be selected first.
2. The gland nuts are to be unscrewed and the gland slid off on the shaft.
3. All old rings of packing to be taken out with the help of a screw hook and at the same time being
careful as not to scratch the shaft or shaft sleeve.

4. Note the location of the lantern ring or seal cage, if used, so that it can be fitted back in the same
place.

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 5. Clean the interior of the stuffing box so that the new rings can fit or slide in smoothly

6. Cheek the shaft sleeve for wear; if it is badly worn, then it has to be replaced.

7. Measure stuffing box bore, subtract the shaft diameter and divide by 2 to get the right size of
packing.

Right way to cut packing length in to rings: Right way to insert packing:

The staggered order of keeping packing opening in gland housing:

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 8. Measure the new packing by wrapping a length around a mandrel of the same diameter as the
shaft and cut as shown above. Cutting the packing this way will give you accurate and parallel
ends, which is very essential for sealing.
9. Roll the packing flat with a short length of pipe and lightly tap it with a hammer so that it will
slide in more easily.
10. Open the ring joints sidewise and slide it into place. This prevents distorting of the molded
circumference of the packing.
11. The joints of the packing rings should be staggered, for sealing purposes.
12. Replace the lantern ring in the right place.
13. Slide the gland back and screw up the nut hand tight.
14. Run the pump, allowing the stuffing box to fill up with fluid and let it leak out for some time.
The slowly tighten up the gland nuts symmetrically until the leakage stops.

Mechanical Seals:
Due to undesirable characteristics of a conventional stuffing box, especially when the leakage has to be
an absolute minimum and under high pressures, an entire different type of seal had been designed, with
wearing surfaces other than the axial surfaces of the shaft and the packing. This form of seal is called a
“mechanical seal” and has proved to be very suitable in almost all extreme conditions.
The design of mechanical seals may differ in various physical respects, but all are fundamentally the
same in principle. The sealing surfaces are located in a plane perpendicular to the shaft and usually
consist of two highly polished surfaces running adjacently, one surface being in contact with the shaft
and the other to the stationary portion of the pump. The polished and lapped surfaces, which are of
dissimilar materials, are held in continual contact by a spring, forming a fluid-tight seal between the
rotating and stationary members with very small fictional losses.
A mechanical seal is similar to a bearing in that it involves a close running clearance with a liquid film
between the faces of the two dissimilar materials. The lubrication and cooling provided by this film cuts
down wear, as does a proper choice of the seal face materials.

There are two types of mechanical seals:

1. The internal assembly, in which the rotating element is located inside the box and is in contact
with the liquid being pumped out.
2. The external assembly, in which the rotating element is located outside the box.

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 Unbalanced Seal Construction:
The pressure of the liquid in the pump tends to force the rotating and stationary faces together in the
inside assembly and to force them apart in the external assembly. Both types have three primary points
at which sealing must be accomplished:
1. Between the stationary element and the casing.
2. Between the rotating element and the shaft (or shaft sleeve).
3. Between the mating surfaces of the rotating and stationary seal elements.

Balanced Seal construction:

To accomplish the first, conventional gaskets or some form of a synthetic "O" ring are used, Leakage
between the rotating element and the shaft is stopped by means of "O" rings, bellows, or some form of
flexible wedges. Leakage between the mating surfaces cannot be stopped completely but can be held to
an insignificant amount by maintaining a very close contact between these faces.
There are two types of construction:
1. Unbalanced seal.
2. Balanced seal.
It is preferable on vertical pumps to have shaft sealing at the pump upper end only. This allows for
adjustment if soft packing is used. Observance of conditions for leakage if mechanically sealed.
Containment of liquid in the pump, over long idle periods aids wetting of bearings on start.

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 Mechanical seal:

Parts: 1. Seating ring. 2. Seating (stationary). 3. Seating (rotating). 4. Steel ring. 5. Spring retainer.
5. Bellows. 7. Spring. 8. Driving ring. 9. Spring retainer.

While the stationary seating (2) can be of bronze or stainless steel, the rotating seating (3) can be of
carbon, bronze or stainless steel, possibly with a monel or stellite surface.
It is important that cooling/lubricating liquid is led to mechanical seals from the lowest point on the
pressure side of the pump, to ensure that some liquid reaches them, even when priming. They must not
run in an air pocket and care must be taken to prevent ingress of foreign matter. Also, most mechanical
seals incorporate a carbon face and there is a possibility of electrolytic action. For these reasons, soft
packing has advantages in seawater pumps.

Materials:
The construction of the pump varies according to the purpose for which the pump is to be used.
1. Non-salt water pumps (potable, engine cooling water etc. but excluding boiler feed pumps):
High grade cast iron is used for the casings with bronze internals, the shaft material being either
bronze or stainless steel (18 Cr/ 2 Ni) the latter material giving the better wear life.
2. Seawater pumps: Examples: seawater pumps, ballast pumps, general service pumps, bilge
pumps. (These must, of course, also handle port, river and canal water.) It is normal to use all-
bronze pumps (zinc free), the casing being gunmetal or cast and machined bronze; the impeller
aluminium bronze (5 Fe/ 5.5 Ni) and the shaft material either stainless steel (EN57) for soft
packed stuffing boxes, nickel-copper alloys (suitably hardened) or EN58J (18/10/3 Cr/Ni/Mo)
under, mechanical seals or bearings. Sleeves and wear rings are of bronze or nickel copper
alloys, depending on the severity of service conditions. Stainless steel shafts and stainless steel
impellers for certain duties are becoming more appreciated.

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 3. Boiler feed pumps: Because of the high pressures and temperatures involved these invariably
have cast steel casings (0.25% carbon steel) with stainless steel shafts and impellers. Highly
rated turbo-driven pumps have 3% Ni-Cu-Mo forged alloy steel shafts.
4. Fresh water pumps: For fresh water services, cast iron is sometimes used for casings, but
bronze is the most common casing material for condensate and other low-pressure pumps.
Various grades of stainless steel are used for high-pressure boiler feed pump casings. Impellers
for low-pressure services are of bronze or nickel-copper alloys and are of stainless steel for
boiler feed service. Shafts for low-pressures are of carbon steel or stainless steel and of stainless
steel for boiler feed services. Sleeves and wearing rings are of bronze, nickel-copper alloys or
stainless steel depending on the severity of the service.

Wear Rings:
Wear rings for the casing and the impeller are always made of dissimilar grades of bronze and other
alloys and are of different hardness to provide the best wearing properties at close running clearances.
Bolts are usually made of bronze or nickel-copper alloys for low-pressure services and low alloy steel
for boiler feed pumps.

Air Handling and Priming of Centrifugal Pumps:

Because of roll and pitch, marine pumps at times have to handle very highly aerated water, even under
flooded suction conditions in only moderate weather; the amount of air can be sufficient to air-lock a
non-self-priming pump if the water inlets or suctions are not well-placed. Expansion of the air at the
pump entry and its subsequent compression in the pump, gives rise to noise similar to cavitation,
especially in positive displacement pumps, where compression is rapid. Also, it can be very destructive
of pump and pipe materials, by corrosion, erosion or both.
Pumps may be mounted above the level of the liquid to be pumped even though placed low in the ship,
and they must be equipped with means to create a vacuum in the pipeline. Some others must be similarly
equipped so that the maximum amount of liquid can be extracted from the tanks, bilges, etc. To achieve
this, the air handling facilities must be good.
As the velocity of the outer tips of the impeller of a centrifugal pump is relatively low, the suction effort
of the pump, when empty, rarely exceeds 12 mm water gauge and a centrifugal pump must be primed
with water, as it cannot exhaust the contained air as a displacement pump can. When the pump is placed
below the level of the water, as in marine circulating sets, the filling is effected by opening the injection
valve on the ship's side and the air-cock on the top of the pump casing. The pump is fully primed when
solid water emerges from the air-cock.

Air Handling Methods:

Air extraction on most pumps is required, especially on all bilge pumps. Early designs of circulating
pumps employed a steam ejector on the volute easing together with a steam jet into the easing to
condense and prime, or a direct water-priming valve. Later designs of centrifugal pump incorporated a
separate air-pump. In the first types the air is separated from the water in the suction chamber, it rises
and is withdrawn by the air pump via a float-operated valve. Twin single-acting air pumps are fitted,
driven by worm and wheel from the pump spindle, and are crank driven.

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The pumps are capable of operating flooded should the float gear break down but in normal operation
the flooded water suction closes the float valve and the air pumps idle. In the more modern designs
rotary types usually replace the reciprocating air pumps.
Types of air pumps are:
1. Recirculation of discharge. This is a very inefficient method.
2. Liquid ring primer (see figure below). This type is most frequently used. Its air handling
capacity is good, the extracted air being vented to atmosphere, although it can be used to pump
against pressure. It is used as a gas compressor and as an air exhausted.

Liquid Ring Primer unit:

Air gulps are quickly cleared, small air leakages and aerated water are continuously handled with out
fall in pump performance.
The liquid ring air pump consists of a bladed circular rotor shrouded on the underside, rotating in an
oval casing. Sealing water is drawn into the whirlpool casing through a make up supply pipe, The water
follows the periphery of the casing due to the centrifugal force Imparted to it by the rotor and the
“water-ring”, revolving eccentric to the blade recedes from and re-approaches the rotor boss twice in one
revolution, thus producing in effect a series of reciprocating water pistons between the blades.

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The inner edge of the water-ring forms the boundary of two eccentric cores round the rotor boss, while
the blades run full of water. See A and B in the figure below.

Liquid ring air pump:

Assuming the space between each blade to be a cylinder, then in one-half revolution the water is thrown
from F out to G and back again to F, constituting one suction and one discharge stroke and this occurs
twice in one revolution. It will be understood therefore, that if shaped suction and discharge ports are
provided in way of the path of the eccentric cores formed by the rotating water, air will be drawn
through the suction ports and expelled through the discharge ports, as each blade passes the ports. Such
ports are arranged in the stationary rotor plate fitted in the cover above the rotor.
In each revolution, therefore, the water recedes from the rotor boss drawing air through the suction ports
in the rotor plate into the eccentric cores of the water-ring, from whence it is forced through the
discharge ports in the rotor plate after the points of maximum throw-out at G have been passed and the
water re-approaches the rotor boss. A continuous supply of sealing water is circulated from the reservoir
to the whirlpool casing, and is discharged with the air back to the reservoir. (The air passes to
atmosphere through the overflow pipe.) This circulation ensures that a full “water-ring” is maintained,
and the cooling coil incorporated in the reservoir limits the temperature rise of the sealing water during
long periods of operation. The supply for the cooling coil can be taken from any convenient seawater
connection. About 0.152 litres/sec is required at a pressure not exceeding 2bar.
The reservoir has a cooling coil through which passes seawater and this cools the fresh water, which gets
heated due to the churning action of the air pump impeller.

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 Line diagram showing ‘Water ring” air pump principle:

Alternative explanation: The usual suction separating chamber and ball float are provided but the air
connection from the top of the ball float chamber is taken to the rotary air pump which is directly driven
by an extension of the motor spindle on top of the pump. The rotor revolves in a special variable shaped
chamber, which is supplied with fresh water from a reservoir in the air pump casing.
Due to the casing shape the water is made to flow from and towards the rotor centre during each
revolution. The water motion is utilised to act as suction and discharge for the air through appropriate
sets of ports. The air pump can be placed in or out of operation by a control cock on the front of the Air
pump casing. The principle of operation is referred to as the 'water ring principle'. Figure in page 61
shows this in simplified form. As the impeller vanes pass the suction port air is drawn in and trapped
between the water ring and the pump shaft. This 'slug' of air is carried around and delivered to the
discharge-port hence this pump is a positive displacement type. In some ship plants all the priming
connections for all pumps, etc., are led to a central exhausting system, this system under the operation
of auto compressors functions to give priming from a central control station to all units in the engine
room as required.
Dry ring primer: This type of a priming pump may be either the reciprocating or rotary type, but they
cannot accommodate mixtures of air and water Therefore, when this type is used, some sort of a
protective device must be incorporated between the centrifugal pump and the primer pump so as to
prevent water from entering the primer pump.
Ejector: If sized correctly these are effective but their efficiency is low. Priming ejectors work on the jet
principle, using steam, compressed air or water as the operating medium. The operating medium is fed
in as shown and as it passes into the divergent part, there is a fall in pressure, which sucks up the
medium to be pumped. If an ejector is used with a centrifugal pump, it is mounted at the base of the
pump near the suction eye.
Eccentric vane primer: Has good air handling but life can be short due to wear of vane tips and
jamming in slots.
Priming of Centrifugal Pumps: Rotary Air Extraction Pump:

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 Main Pump Under Priming Condition:
1. At the initial start of main pump, there is no discharge pressure - the spring keeps operating
piston towards "A" - thereby keeping friction clutch engaged.
2. Engagernent of friction clutch runs air extraction pump, which sucks air from the suction side of
the main pump and also water from the vessel.

Main pump under operation:

3. As the main pump fills up and discharge pressure builds up, water pressure acts at "A", pushing
operating piston towards "B", thereby disengaging friction clutch and thus cutting off the air
extraction pump.
4. The rotor casing is continuously cooled by a closed water circuit from the pump discharge round
the air pump jacket and returns to the pump suction.

Line diagram of the above priming system:

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Ejector Type:

Working system:
1. Pump starts but no discharge.

2. Pressure transmitter sends signal to pressure controller.

3. Controller sends signal to selector/transmitter relay.

4. Two output signals from selector/transmitter relay:

i) To open solenoid valve "B"
ii) To open solenoid valve "A"

5. Solenoid valve "B" allows air to flow through venturi.

6. Venturi or ejector creates vacuum and sucks up the air in the pump casing through solenoid valve
“A.

7. Pump fills up with water and discharges pressure builds up.

8. Pressure transmitter detects the increased discharge pressure and sends a signal, which in turn
closes solenoid valves “A” and “B”.

Central Priming System:

This system is often used when more than four pumps require priming facilities. It gives a large air
exhausting reservoir as well as a capacity greater than individual pumps can carry and the pump casings

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can be filled with liquid before starting. The air exhausting units can be of any type but are usually of
the liquid ring type. A typical schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. 65.

The advantages of this system are:

1. Lower initial cost or reduced capital cost.
2. Saving in total power since each pump does not have its own exhauster or priming unit operating
all the while the pump is operating.
3. Easier or simpler maintenance.
4. Automatic - takes care of any minor leaks that may be present in the suction side of a centrifugal
pump.
5. Very effective.
6. Easy to operate.

Out-line diagram of central priming system:

Operation:
Above shows diagrammatically a central priming system arranged to give automatic priming to four
pumps. The system can be used for as many pumps of the centrifugal type that would be used in an
engine room.
Water ring exhausters maintain a vacuum condition between pre-set limits in the vacuum tank. Opening
the priming cock, or solenoid-driven non-return valve, for a pump causes priming to take place. To
prevent water entering the vacuum tank after priming, float-operated ‘air release’ valves will
automatically close.

For essential services a solenoid valve would be fitted instead of a priming cock so that if the valve is
inadvertently left open, and due to mal-operation or a defect the vacuum in the tank is lost, air is not
drawn into the pump and its suction lost with possible serious consequences to plant.

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Two water ring type of exhausters mounted on top of a water supply tank are shown, one would act as a
stand by unit, but both could operate together in the event of heavy demand.

Line diagram of central priming system:

Some Applications Centrifugal Pumps:

Single entry type general-purpose pumps:

Used for salt and fresh water circulating, bilge and ballast etc; a typical configuration is shown in the
figure below. It will be noted that the impeller is suspended from the shaft and is not supported from
below. A neck bush provides lateral support. The eye of the impeller faces downwards, i.e. the inlet is
below the impeller. A renewable bush or wearing ring is located around the impeller boss, the design
clearance between boss and bush being such that liquid in the discharge volute does not return to the
suction side. In this design internal access for maintenance is via the top cover.
A distance piece is arranged in the shaft, which, when removed, permits impeller, shaft and cover to be
lifted out without disturbing the motor or the pipe work.
Figures in the following pages shows a different design of pumps intended for the same duties. The
impeller is arranged with its eye uppermost, the suction branch being elevated. This arrangement is
claimed to give better venting to eliminate any possibility of vapour locking. Another significant design

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difference is that the easing is split vertically so that the impeller and shaft can be removed sideways.
Again wearing rings are fitted to prevent leakage back to the suction. To prevent the wearing ring and
neck bush slipping around in the casing lips are provided which abut with the removable part of the
casing.

Single entry pump giving throughput of 425m3 /hr against heads of up to 54m:
Key:
1. Pump casing and cover. 2. Impeller. 3. Casing ring (bottom). 4. Casing ring (top). 4A. Locking pins.

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5. Pump spindle. 6. Coupling (motor half). 7. Gland. 8. Packing. 9. Lantern ring (split). 10. Neck bush
11. Water service pipe to stuffing box. 12. Motor stool. 13. Pump foot.

Pump for large pressure head with large diameter impeller:

Key:
1.Pump easing and cover. 2. Impeller. 3. Casing (bottom). 4. Casing ring (top). 5. Locking pins.
6. Pump spindle. 7. Coupling. 8. Gland. 9. Packing. 10. Lantern ring. 11. Neck bush.

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 12. Motor stool. 13. Bottom bush housing. 14. Bottom bush liner. 15. Water service pipe to bottom
bush. 16. Water service pipe to stuffing box. 17.Pump foot.

Key:
1. Pump casing. 2. Casing cover. 3. Impeller. 4. Casing ring. 5. Impeller locking screw. 6. Shims.
7. Mechanical seal. 8. Combined pump and motor shaft. 9. Screw jack. 10. Air release plug.
Single-entry pump with open-sided impeller:
Where a single entry pump is to be used to supply a greater pressure head an impeller of bigger diameter
is used (see figure above). In this particular model, which delivers up to 260 m3/hr at heads up to 84 m,
the easing is again split vertically and the impeller eye faces upwards. Because of the greater diameter of
the impeller however it has been considered necessary to add a lower guide bush. To ensure a flow of
water to the bottom bush a service pipe is arranged from the pump suction chamber to the bush housing.
Holes drilled close to the impeller boss connect the space above the bush housing with the suction
chamber.
A somewhat different design of single entry pump is shown in the figure above. In this pump the
impeller eye faces downwards but the impeller is open-sided, the bottom of the pump easing effectively
shrouding the vanes. This design allows the motor and cover of the pump to be hinged so that operation

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of a simple screw jack exposes all internal parts. A mechanical seal prevents water leakage or air
ingress. Such pumps are available for capacities of up to 260 m3/hr at head's of up to 91 m.
A double entry pump may be used for larger capacities. This pump is fundamentally a two single stage
impellers placed back to back (see figure below).

Figure below shows a two-stage pump, typical of a fire pump. It can readily be used for a double duty
of, say, bilge/fire, i.e. a lower head duty by pumping through the first stage impeller only and a higher
head duty when pumping through both impellers.

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 A two-stage centrifugal pump: Typical pump of a Fire pump:

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 Emergency Bilge Pump:

Emergency Bilge pump:

The function of this pump is to drain compartments adjacent to a damaged (holed) compartment. The
pump is capable of working when completely submerged. The pump is a standard centrifugal pump
fitted with reciprocating or rotary air pumps. The motor is enclosed in an air bell so that even with the
compartment full of water the compressed air in the bell prevents water-gaining access to the motor. The
motor is usually direct current operated by a separate remote controlled electric circuit, which is part of
the vessels emergency essential electrical circuit. The pump is designed to operate for long periods
without attention and is also suitable for use as an emergency fire pump. This design is particularly
suited for use in large passenger vessels giving outputs of about 60 kg/s.

Axial Flow Pump:

When large capacity, wide variation of low lift head at constant speed, conditions has to be met the
horizontal or vertically arranged axial-pump is the most suitable.
An axial flow pump is one in which a screw propeller is used to create an increase in pressure by
causing an axial acceleration of liquid within its blades. The velocity increase is then converted into
pressure by suitably shaped passages in the propeller and in the outlet guide vanes.
Axial flow pumps are often placed in the same class as centrifugal pumps although centrifugal force
plays no part in the pumping action. As can be seen from figures in page 71, the H/Q and working
efficiency characteristics of these pumps are somewhat different from those of centrifugal pumps.

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 Head/quantity curves at constant speed of axial-flow and centrifugal pumps:

Working efficiency of axial-flow and centrifugal pumps where the head varies
within large limits:
Drawn in each case for constant speed the curves show:

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 1. The axial pump power decreases as the delivery increases while the centrifugal pump has a rising
absorbed power with delivery although there is a marginal fall off beyond normal duty.
2. The axial pump retains reasonable efficiency over a wider head range.
3. At zero discharge the absorbed power of the axial pump is much greater than at normal duty - the
pump needs to be unloaded at lower than normal throughputs or the pump motor must be over-
rated.
There are three other features of the axial flow pump not indicated by the graph but of particular
importance in their application. These are:
1. Under low head, high throughput conditions- e.g. 2.5-6.2 m head and 2800-9500 m3/h as
commonly required by main condensers - an axial flow pump will run at a higher speed than an
equally matched centrifugal pump, i.e. it can be driven by a smaller motor.
2. The pump will idle and offer little resistance when a flow is induced through it by external
means.
3. The pump is reversible.

This combination of characteristics makes the axial flow pump ideal for condenser circulating duties,
especially in conjunction with a scoop injection (a system whereby the motion of the ship under normal
steaming conditions is sufficient to induce a flow through the idling pump and the condenser).
In addition its reversibility and high throughput make it ideal for heeling and trimming duties.
The pump is efficient, simple in design and is available in a wide range of capacities. It can if required,
be reversible in operation (a friction clutch between motor and pump would be required) and is ideally
suited to scoop intake for condensers as it offers very little resistance when idling.

Line diagram of an Axial Flow Pump:

The above figure shows such a pump. Its casing would be cast iron or gun metal; impeller, aluminium
bronze; guide vanes, gunmetal - these guide water without turbulence to the discharge; pump shaft,
stainless steel with solid and flexible couplings driven, if low head, by a relatively small prime mover at
higher speeds than a comparable centrifugal pump. A water-cooled thrust of the tilting pad type is
requited because of the considerable thrust generated (consider a propulsion system).
The mechanical seal is water-cooled, as is the composition bush for the shaft. The latter is via the multi-
leaf filter, in the case of condenser circulating, because of the possible ingress of sand.

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Mixed flow pumps, part centrifugal part axial; pump for cargo duty with cryogenic carders is shown
below.

Turbo-driven Axial flow pump:

Perspective view of impeller:

It is fitted, in this case, with a scroll (or screw) type of inducer to reduce N.P.S.H. (Net positive suction
head) requirement and eliminate the need for a stripping pump. Only one stage is shown in the diagram,
in practice two or more vertically arranged stages would be used operated by the prime mover on the
deck whilst the bell mouth suction at the bottom of the tank and the pump casing act as a long discharge
pipe.
When used for seawater circulation the pump will normally have a gunmetal casing; for heeling and
trimming applications it is more usual to find pumps with cast iron casings. Impellers are of aluminium
bronze, guide vanes of gunmetal and the shaft is of stainless steel, with a renewable stainless steel sleeve
in way of the bush.

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Inducers:
These are sometimes fitted to centrifugal pump impeller shafts at suction. Their purpose is generally to
ensure the supply of fluid to the impeller is at sufficient pressure to avoid cavitation at impeller suction,
or it enables the pump to operate with a lower net positive supply head. Different types are used scroll,
screw or propeller.
The propeller (like a stub-bladed fan) inducer is fitted to super-cavitating pumps; i.e. pumps where the
cavitation occurs between the inducer and the impeller. Such pumps can operate at about one third of the
net positive supply head normally required for conventional centrifugal pumps and they are suitable for
LPG and LNG carriers.
These pumps are very prone to cavitation especially at inlet to impellers and it may be advantageous to
reduce the suction lift to prevent the formation of bubbles due to low-pressure regions, incorrect
attention to this point may cause severe cavitation and very poor pump performance.
Starting of Pumps:
Reciprocating Pumps:
When started for the first time, the pump will work irregularly for several strokes because the whole
pipe system will be full of air. Pumps should therefore be flooded with the liquid they are to handle,
which prevents seizure or wear, especially when priming a long suction line.

Example: To start an electrically driven reciprocating bilge pump, proceed as follows:

1. Check lubrication.
2. Open the water-end valves, suction and discharge. Never start the pump with stop valves shut.
3. Open air vent cock: intermittent liquid discharge or air indicates the pump is not primed.
4. Observe suction and discharge pressure gauges for operating condition of pump.

For suction gauge:

a) If pressure is approximately 76cmHg vacuum, there is probably a
blockage in the suction line, eg; choked filters, causing a vacuum in the
system.
b) If pressure is zero, system is air-locked, eg; holed pipes, strainer cover
joints leaking, etc.
c) If pressure is between 10-40cmHg, pump is operating normally, with
liquid below pump level (eg; engine room bilge wells). If pressure is
positive, pump is also operating normally, with liquid above pump level
(eg; sea water suction).

For discharge pressure gauge:

a) If pressure gauge shows immediate rise to maximum of scale or is very high, there is
blockage is the discharge line, eg; discharge valve not opened. Relief valve would have
lifted.
b) If pressure gauge pointer is fluctuating widely, air vessel or chamber has little or no air.
c) If pressure is zero, there is no discharge.
d) If pressure is between 1.0 to 3.0 bar, and is steady, pump is operating normally Liquid
should issue from the air vent cock.

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Centrifugal pumps:
A centrifugal feed pump must not be operated unless it is fully primed. The pump casing should be filled
before starting; the suction pipe and pipe branch to the discharge stop valve must also be full.
Priming the pump:
1. If the water enters the pump suction by gravity, priming is unnecessary and the pump will remain
full of water when shut down. To fill the pump, open the small air-valve on the top of the pump
easing, until water commences to flow, then shut the air-valve.
2. If the pump is operating with a suction lift, it may be primed either from an independent water
supply or from the discharge line, or by means of a vent connection or exhauster, which will
evacuate the pump and suction piping of air.

Starting the pump:

1. Cheek lubrication/sealing oil or water.
2. Cheek that pump glands are properly packed and adjusted.
3. Open suction valves and air-cocks. After all air has escaped, close the pump air-cock.
4. When the pump has reached the correct speed, open the discharge valve. For propeller-type
pumps, it is preferable to start with the discharge valve open, as otherwise an excessive discharge
head may be developed.
5. Cheek all gauges to see that a proper pressure is being developed.
Electrically driven Pumps:
Before putting power on to the motor for the first time, or after long periods, of idleness, it is advisable
to test insulation resistance and to raise it if necessary, by drying out.
When starting, note by the first movement of the shaft if the direction of rotation is correct. If it is not,
the wiring to the motor must be altered.

Curing Troubles of Centrifugal pumps:

Failure to deliver water:
First, make sure the pump is primed.
Possible causes:
1. The discharge head is too high, or the suction lift is too high. It should not be more than 4.7 m at
29.4*C.
2. There may be insufficient speed; the pressure or head at the periphery of the impeller depends
upon the tip speed.
3. Other faults to look for are an air leak in the suction line, or a broken or plugged-up impeller.
4. The direction of rotation of the impeller should also be checked.
Pump will not prime:
If the pump does not prime, the most probable cause is an air leakage of some sort:
1. If there is a leakage at the pump gland, the gland should be adjusted and the recess filled with oil
or the stuffing box re-packed.
2. All joints should be checked for a leak in the pump or suction pipe.
3. Make sure that the delivery valve is not open.
4. The priming pump float gear, if fitted, should be removed and examined to ensure that the filter
protecting the float valve has not become choked, nor the ball disconnected, allowing the spring
to close the valve.
5. In bilge applications a frequent reason for failure to prime is a faulty bilge suction valve.

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Failure to build up pressure:
If the pump fails to build up adequate pressure, or to discharge water when the discharge valve is
opened, the following checks should be made:
1. Make sure that the pump is primed; that all air has been expelled through the air-cocks on the
pump casing, and that all valves in the suction line are open.
2. Start the pump again, and if the discharge pressure is still not normal, stop the pump and find the
exact cause of failure. It may be that the speed is too low, or that there is air in the water.
3. The impeller may be damaged or the wear rings worn, or some other mechanical defect may
require attention.
Insufficient capacity:
As with complete failure to deliver water, cheek first the whole pump arrangement:
1. The total dynamic head may be higher than that for which the pump is rated, or the suction lift
may be too high.
2. Check also the temperature of the water and the speed of the pump.
3. If the above are correct, then the most probable cause is that the impellers have become partially
obstructed or choked with dirt from the bilges or pipes.
4. Other possible causes are air leaks in the suction or stuffing boxes, defective packing or worn
wearing rings.
5. If there is low output with abnormally high vacuum reading, the probable causes are that there is
an obstruction in the suction line, such as the blind joint, choked strainer, valve or mud-box
filter.
Pump loses water after starting:
Check the suction lift and the temperature of the water. A leaky suction line may be suspected.
Pump vibrates:
If the alignment of the pump is correct and the foundations secure:
1. It is probable that the impeller has become partially clogged so that the balance is disturbed.
2. There may also be mechanical faults, such as worn bearing, a bent shaft or eroded impeller.

Maximum Vacuum Test:

Where pumps have suctions to positive suction heads, e.g. sea suction on a bilge pump or general
service pump:
1. Open sea-suction valve.
2. Start the pump and bring it to normal speed.
3. Open the sea-discharge valve.
4. Close sea-suction valve.
5. Open suction valve to an empty compartment until the vacuum has fallen away and then close
the valve. The pump vacuum should rise rapidly to 64.5 mbar or more, if the air pump is in
satisfactory condition and the pump is free from air leakage.
6. Stop the pump. The vacuum should be retained if the pump is airtight.
If the pump is not airtight, stop the pump, readjust the pump gland and fill the recess with oil. Make a
further test, and if no difference in performance occurs the gland is not at fault.
If the pump-casing joints are quite airtight and the suction valve properly shut, the fault is then
attributable to a faulty air pump, a leaky non-return valve, a choked basket strainer or a detached float,
which can be easily checked by removing the float-gear distance piece. Remove the non-return valve
cover plug and grind in the valve with fine abrasive paste.

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With the pump running, and the air-pump suction pipe disconnected, note the pull exerted by the air
pump upon a hand placed over the suction branch of the air pump. This will indicate if the air pump is
pulling up the required vacuum. If the air pump is found to be in order, open the pump suction valve and
the discharge valve, and, with all other individual bilge or tank sections closed on the line, ascertain the
maximum vacuum which can be obtained in the main-line suction when the pump is operating. The
pump should be watched for overheating in the water end under prolonged run when not pumping, and if
necessary, a fresh supply of water admitted by opening the sea-suction valve for a few minutes.

If the vacuum fails to rise, then the defect is due to excessive air leaks in the suction piping through bad
joints, badly packed valve spindles or valves left open or leaky. If the vacuum rises satisfactorily, open
the suction valve of the tank or bilge to be pumped and watch the vacuum gauge. If the vacuum falls
away suddenly and fails to recover, lock for a leak in the tail pipe above the water level in the tank. If
the vacuum remains higher than that required to overcome the static lift, and the pump fails to deliver,
there is a chokage in the suction pipe, which can be readily ascertained. A choked impeller will show
little or no increase in vacuum after the pump is primed and a low motor current value.

It should be remembered that, although the air pump will continue to operate pulling water from the
suction system via the float valve, it is not desirable to operate the unit under these conditions. Should
the water be constantly discharged by the air pump, it is probable that the float valve is dirty or requires
to be lightly ground in.

Overhaul of Reciprocating Pumps:

Group Valves:
In many pumps brass ‘Kinghorn’ valves are fitted. These should be examined to see whether any
cupping has taken place. If it has, the valves should be inverted or replaced.
If the seats have been eroded, they should be either scraped by hand, or if the erosion is too deep,
skimmed in a lathe. Where group valves are of the mitre type, the valves and valve-seats should be
examined and the valves ground in as necessary to make them perfectly tight. In general, the lift of
valves should be the minimum, which will give satisfactory operation. Greater lifts than necessary
increase wear and tear.
Pistons are commonly iron castings or steel forgings having two piston ring grooves in each of which
two rings are fitted: the rings are usually hammered cast iron, i.e. hammered on the inner surfaces to
give spring. The pistons have running clearances varying with diameter, from 0.5 to 1.5 mm; ring
clearances in the grooves should be as small as will allow them to float freely and the gaps, again
varying with diameter, from 0.25 mm to 1.0 mm, the gaps being diametrically opposite. These
dimensions are not critical but excessive increases are undesirable. In time ridges form at the limits of
ring travel, making it impossible to fit piston rings with a reasonable gap. Re-boring is then necessary
and the fitting of oversize pistons and rings.
Gland Packing:
The packing in the stuffing boxes in water and steam ends should be carefully fitted and maintained in
good condition.

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Pump Barrels:
In examining a pump for overhaul, the condition of the pump barrel itself is important. Some wear is
inevitable and in time this leaves ridges at the limits of ring travel. In order to avoid excessive wear and
breakage of the rings, and to maintain pump efficiency, the ridges should be removed.
Where the wear in the pump barrel is less than 5mm, the unworn end portions should be bored out
parallel. Should the wear exceed this, the complete pump barrel should be bored out, and a new bucket
fitted to support new ebonite rings of the new diameter. If the wear is bad enough to warrant a new liner,
the makers should be consulted, as the work is difficult and requires a press for inserting the liner.

Overhaul of Centrifugal Pumps:

Impeller Clearance:
In order to keep the water under pressure in the volute from returning to the suction, the impeller of a
centrifugal pump has to be fitted close to the casing. Both wear and erosion may occur and the
clearances increase. In order to return to the original clearance, renewable wearing rings or bushes are
fitted. The side clearance of die impeller should be checked, and if it is found to be excessive, it is time
to fit new wearing rings.
The casing and impeller should be examined to see that no portion has worn unduly thin. Diffuser blades
showing wear or erosion at the tips should be cut back until they are at least 2.4 mm thick at the points,
and dressed to give a slightly rounded nose. Facing rings, if eroded where adjacent to diffusers, should
be replaced.
Shaft:
The shaft should be carefully examined, especially the stuffing-box area, and if excessive wear has taken
place, the quality of the packing used should be investigated and a larger amount of lubricant used while
running. A temporary repair with plastic white metal tinned on can be made to a shaft worn at the
stuffing box area.
Bushes and Bearing:
Whenever the pump casing is opened the clearance of the various bushes, which prevent leakage from
one element to another should be measured for excessive wear. If the bearings are worn down
excessively, renewal of the bushes is necessary. They should be remetaled and bored out.
Stuffing-boxes:
As the life of the shaft depends to a very great extent on the quality and treatment of the packing, it pays
to maintain the stuffing box in good order and to re-pack from time to time, especially where there is grit
in the water. It is advantageous to run with a full stuffing box, as by this means the intensity of pressure
on the packing is reduced and consequently the frictional resistance and wear on the shaft.
In re-packing a stuffing box, see that the packing is fitted so as to give uniform thickness all around the
shaft sleeves. An excess of packing on one side of the shaft will result in deflection of the shaft and
frequently in shaft breakage. In fitting new packing, the stuffing box should be packed loosely and the
gland set up lightly, allowing a liberal leakage in the case of stuffing boxes subject to pressure above
atmospheric. Then, with the pump in operation, tighten the gland in steps so as to avoid excessive
heating and possible scoring of shafts or shaft sleeves.
A slight drip is necessary from the gland in order to provide it lubrication for the packing. Excessive
pressure should not be applied to the glands to prevent excessive leakage. If it is found that leakage from
the gland is excessive, the correct procedure is to re-pack the stuffing box at the earliest opportunity.

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Hydraulic Balance:
Every six months and after an overhaul, it is advisable to check the balance piston clearance of the pump
where such a device is fitted. As manufactured, the total clearance within the balancing device is 0.25
mm. The pump axial clearance may increase due to wear, which may be caused by the erosive action of
solid matter in .the feed water or by contact between the rotating and stationary faces of the balancing
device during the first few revolutions when starting up.

*********************************Kv*************************************
Reference:
1. Marine and offshore Pumping and piping systems by Mr. J. Crawford.
2. Marine Auxiliary Machinery by Mr. D.W. Smith.
3. Pump application Engineering by Mr. G. Tyler and Mr. P.E. Hicks.
4. Pumping Systems by Professor S.G. Christensen.
5. Instruction manual of pump manufacturers.
End of Notes on Pumps. Kv/BE (Marine Engineering) Cadets/July 2003.

Marine Pumping/ Piping Systems:

Introduction:
The object of this section is to give an outline of a ship's pumping and piping arrangements so that the
purpose of some of the numerous pipes, valves, cocks and fittings found in the cargo and machinery
spaces of the average vessel may be appreciated. By pumping and piping arrangements we mean the
systems required for Bilge, Ballast, oil & water transferring duties. Reference is made in the notes
from time to time to “The Rules”; this refers to certain requirements, which must be complied
with to the satisfaction of the various Classification Societies such as Lloyds' Register of Shipping,
Bureau Veritas, American Bureau of Shipping. For specific and detailed requirements, reference
should be made to the Rules and Regulations of the appropriate Classification Society.
Systems for specialized ships will not be dealt with here through special-requirements for passenger
ships will be mentioned as appropriate.
Inspection of Pumping and Piping Arrangements:
When an engineer first joins a ship, a quick look round the machinery space will soon show him the
essential features of the main propulsion engines and the auxiliary machinery.
The pipe connections situated above the engine room floor plates can be examined and traced without
undue difficulty, provided each system of piping is dealt with separately until that system is thoroughly
understood. A good plan is to keep a reference book in which diagrammatic sketches of each system can
be made. A similar procedure can be adopted in regard to the under-floor pipes, but here more difficulty
will be encountered unless the owners have adopted the practice of painting each pipe system a
distinctive color.
The builders' plans of the piping arrangements are usually available to all the engineers, and a
preliminary look at these plans will be of great assistance. The plans give a good impression of the
layout of the machinery, and form a valuable check on the engineer's own observations, but it must be
borne in mind that in an old vessel alterations and additions may have been made.
When tracing under-floor pipes, it is dangerous to leave a floor-plate or access hatch off in a dark or
narrow passageway, unless a portable lamp is placed besides the opening to give warning to passers-by.

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When crawling under floor-plates to trace pipe lines, it frequently happens that obstructions such as
auxiliary seating or groups of pipes prevent one from following a pipe without having to come up above
the plates and attempt the search further on. In such cases the pipe should be marked with chalk before
leaving it, since it is not always easy to pick out the pipe under consideration when it is viewed from a
different position.
Note: Particular attention should be paid to the positions of all remote controls for valves and various
items of the machinery since in general these are provided for use in an emergency.
Bilge Pumping System:
In order to understand the bilge system it is first necessary to learn the arrangements of the various
compartments in the vessel.
Figure on page 2 shows in outline the arrangement for an average cargo vessel. Air and sounding pipes
are also shown and we shall refer to these in due course.
General Arrangement:
A satisfactory pumping plant is to be provided in all vessels capable of pumping from and draining any
compartment when the vessel is on an even keel and either upright or listed 5 degrees. For this purpose
wing auctions will often be necessary, except in narrow compartments at the ends of the vessel.
Arrangements are to he made whereby water in the compartment will drain to the suction pipes.

Bilge Pumping System Plan in Engine Room:

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 General Arrangement of Bilge Pumping System:

In the case of dry compartments, the suctions are, except where otherwise stated, to be branch bilge
suctions, i.e. suctions connected to a main bilge line. Cofferdams, duct keels and tunnels, if fitted,
should be provided with bilge suctions led to the main bilge line.

Efficient means are to be provided for draining water from all tank tops and other watertight flats.
Ejectors or hand pumps may drain peak tanks, chain lockers and decks over peak tanks.
The steering gear compartment and other enclosed spaces above the aft peak tank may be drained by
hand or power pump suctions, or by means of scuppers led to the tunnel. All such scuppers must be
fitted with self-closing cocks having parallel plugs situated in well-lighted and visible positions.

If, however, the compartment above the aft peak extends below the light load water line, the suction
should be led to the bilge main in the normal manner.
In passenger ships, the installation is to permit draining any watertight compartment under all
practicable conditions after a casualty, whether the ship is upright or listed.

Integrity of Watertight Subdivision:

The lines and their accessories are to be so arranged as to prevent intercommunication of compartments,
which are to remain segregated from one another, or accidental communication of the compartments
with the sea.

Bilge Pipes in Way of Double Bottom Tanks:

Bilge suction pipes are not to be led through double bottom tanks if it is possible to avoid doing so.

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 Bilge System: Tanker:

Arrangement of Cocks and Non-Return Valves used in bilge system:

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 Bilge System: Engine Room of Cargo Ship.

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 General Pumping Arrangement:

Bilge Suction in Cargo Holds and Machinery Spaces:

Bilge Suctions in Cargo Holds:
Ships with double-bottom:
In the holds of ships with a double-bottom, bilge suctions are normally to be provided in the bilges on
each side aft. Where the double bottom plating extends to the ship's side, the bilge suctions are to be led
to wells placed at the wings. Where the double-bottom plating slopes down to the centerline by more
than 5*, an axial well fitted with a suction is also to be provided. Efficient means are to be provided to
facilitate the flow of water to the suctions.

Ships without a double-bottom:

Where there is no double-bottom, bilge auctions are to be provided in the holds at the after end and on
the centerline where the rise of floor exceeds 5* at the after end on each side in other cases. Additional
auctions may be required if, due to particular construction such as the presence of watertight floors or
keelsons, the water within the compartment cannot be entirely drained by means of the auctions
provided above.
In ships having only one hold, and this over 30 m in length, bilge suctions are to be fitted in suitable
positions in the fore and after sections of the hold

Bilge Suctions in Machinery Spaces:

Typical Bilge System for Vessels with machinery amidships and aft of Amidships:

The principal features of this system are the main bilge line, to which the bilge suctions from the various
compartments are connected, and two bilge pumps arranged to draw from this line and direct from bilge
suctions in the machinery space. In addition, there is an emergency bilge suction from the
machinery-space, commonly called the bilge injection, led to the main circulating pump or to the
cooling water pump sea inlet line.

In general, one branch and one direct bilge suction are fitted on each side of the machinery space.
The direct bilge suctions should be of a size not less than that of the main bilge line in the
machinery space.

The bilge suctions are to be located so that it is possible to drain the water contained in these
compartments by at least two suctions, not including emergency suctions, when the ship is on an
even keel and is either upright or has a list of up to 5*. One of these suctions is to be a branch bilge
suction, e.g. a suction connected to the main bilge line, and the other is to be a direct bilge suction,
i.e. a suction led direct to an independent power pump.
If the tank top is of particular design or shows discontinuity, additional suctions may be required.

Machinery space with double bottom:

Where the double bottom extends the full length of the machinery space and forms bilges at the wings, it
will be necessary to provide one branch and one direct bilge auction at each side.

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Where the double bottom plating extends the full length and breadth of the compartment, one branch
bilge auction and one direct bilge suction are to be led to each of two bilge wells, situated one at each
side.

Machinery space without double bottom:

Where there is no double bottom and the rise of floor is not less than 5*, one branch and one direct bilge
auction are to be led to accessible positions as near the center-line as practicable.
In ships where the rise of floor is less than 5*, and in all passenger ships, additional bilge suctions are to
be provided at the wings.

Typical bilge system diagrams for the machinery space of general cargo ships are indicated on pages 89
and 90.

In passenger ships, the drainage arrangements are to be such that machinery spaces can be pumped out
under all practical conditions after a casualty, whether the ship is upright or listed.

Bilge system for vessel with machinery aft:

Where the engine compartment is located aft, suctions are normally to be provided on each side at the
fore and aft ends of the compartment.
It is difficult to legislate for the actual positioning of the various bilge suctions in the machinery space,
and many cases have to be decided on their merits.
Figure on page 89 is a typical bilge diagram for the machinery space of a medium size oil tanker.

Separate machinery spaces:

Where the machinery space is divided by watertight bulkheads to separate the boiler room(s) or
auxiliary engine room(s) from the main engine room, the number and position of the branch bilge
auctions in the boiler room(s) or auxiliary engine room(s) are to be the same as for cargo holds.
In addition to these branch bilge suctions, at least one independent power pump direct bilge suction is to
be fitted in each compartment.
In passenger ships, each independent bilge pump is to have direct bilge suction from the space in which
it is situated, but not more than two such suctions are required in any one space. Where two or more
such suctions are provided, there is to be at least one suction on each side of the space.

Emergency bilge suction in machinery spaces:

This is commonly called the bilge injection but it should be explained that the term bilge injection
is misleading, since it is actually a bilge “ejection”.
Emergency bilge suction is to be provided in each main machinery space. This suction is to be led to the
main cooling water pump from a suitable low level in the machinery space and is to be fitted with a
screw-down non-return valve having the spindle so extended that the hand wheel is not less than 460
mm above the bottom platform. Emergency bilge suction valve nameplates are to be marked “For
emergency use only”.

In Motor-ships, the bilge injection should be the same size as the suction branches of the cooling water
pump and in ships with steam propelling machinery, the suction is to have a diameter of at least two
thirds that of the pump suction.

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Some motor ship owners are not keen on fitting a bilge injection to the salt water cooling pump,
contending that there is a possibility of oil from the bilges being deposited on the internal cooling
surface of the engine cooling system, thereby impairing the transfer of heat to the cooling water. To
meet this objection, the Rules allow an alternative to a bilge injection in the form of an emergency bilge
suction led to the largest available power pump which is not already fitted with a direct bilge suction
having the same size as the suction branch of the pump. If this is a self-priming pump the direct bilge
suction on the same side as the emergency suction may be omitted. This alternative arrangement is
illustrated in figures on pages 87 and 89.

Size of Bilge Suction Pipes:

Main Bilge Line:
The diameter, dm, of the main bilge line is to be not less than required by the following formula, to be
nearest 5 mm, but in no case is the diameter to be less than that required for any branch bilge suction:
dm = 1.68 √ L(B +D) + 25 mm.

Where: dm = internal diameter of main bilge line (mm). L = Rule length of ship (meters).
B = Rule breadth of ship (meters). D = Moulded depth to bulkhead deck (meters).
In addition, dm is not to be less than the diameter prescribed for any branch suction.

Branch Bilge Suctions to Cargo and Machinery Spaces:

The diameter, db, of branch bilge suction pipes to cargo and machinery spaces is to be not less than
required by the following formula, to the nearest 5 mm, but in no case is the diameter of any auction to
be less than 50 mm:
db = 2.15 √ C(B+D) + 25mm.
Where:
db = internal diameter of branch bilge suction (mm). C = length of compartment (meters).
db -is not generally to be less than 50 mm and may not exceed 100 mm.

Direct Bilge Suctions (other than emergency suctions):

The direct bilge suctions in the machinery spaces are not to be of a diameter less than that required for
the main bilge line.

Bilge Flexible Hoses:

The internal diameter of the bilge flexible hoses, if provided, is to be at least equal to the diameter of the
bilge main; however it needs not to exceed 100 mm.

Bilge Suctions From the Tunnels:

The bilge suctions from shaft tunnel wells are not to be less than 60 mm in diameter. In ships up to 60 m
in length, this diameter may however be reduced to 50 mm.

Scuppers in Aft Spaces:

Any scupper provided for draining aft spaces and discharging to the tunnel is to have an internal
diameter not less than 35 mm.

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Pumps on Bilge Service:
Number of Pumps:
For ships other than passenger ships, at least two power bilge-pumping units are to be provided in the
machinery space. In ships of 90 m in length and under, one of these units may be worked from the main
engines and other is to be independently driven. In larger ships both units are to be independently
driven.
However, for small ships or ships having a restricted navigation zone, a hand pump may be accepted in
lieu of one of the power pumps. The maximum suction height of hand pumps is normally about 7.3 m.
Each unit may consist of one or more pumps connected to the main bilge line, provided that their
combined capacity is adequate. A bilge ejector in combination with a high-pressure seawater pump may
be accepted as a substitute for an independent bilge pump.
Priming of Pumps:
The bilge pumps required by the Rules are to be self-priming ones. In particular, centrifugal pumps are
to be fitted with efficient priming means, unless a special arrangement is made to ensure the priming of
pumps under normal operating conditions.
There are various types of rotary displacement pumps available and some of these have excellent self-
priming characteristics. Further, either because of the rolling action of the working parts, or the use of
special materials, or both, they are able to give years of good service as bilge pumps. Pumps of gear
wheel type are not, in principle, considered suitable for bilge service. They may have a moderate suction
lift when new, but the abrasive action of bilge water can quickly impair their efficiency.
Centrifugal pumps generally are designed to be self-priming, but there are cases where ordinary non
self-priming type centrifugal pumps are fitted in conjunction with a centralized priming system. This
consists of a suitably constructed tank, which is maintained automatically under a vacuum by air
exhausting units, with connections led to the tank from each of the pumps concerned. Each pump can be
put into communication with the vacuum tank by means of a control valve and, in addition, a special
float-operated priming valve is provided to ensure that the liquid with which the pump is being primed
will not be carried over to the vacuum tank. Further, a non-return valve may be fitted in the discharge
branch to prevent entry of air from that side of the pump while it is being primed. Such an arrangement
is acceptable provided there are not less than two air exhausting units and the whole system is
thoroughly tested and proved satisfactory under working conditions.

Pump Duties:
The bilge pumps may also be used for ballast, fire or general service duties of an intermittent nature, but
they are to be immediately available duty when required.
These pumps together with the lines to which they are connected must be fitted with the necessary
devices to that there is no risk of entry of water or of liquid fuel in the holds or in the machinery
compartments.
Note that pumps, which are normally in continuous operation on other services, such as salt or
fresh water-cooling systems, cannot be accepted as bilge pumps.

The bilge system is to be so designed as to be able to work while the other essential installations of
the ship, specially the fire-fighting installations, are in service.

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The operation of any pump must not be affected by the simultaneous operation of other pumps
and the isolation of any pump for examination, repair the operation must be made possible
without impeding the operation of the remaining bilge pumps.

Additional Requirements for Passenger Ships:

All passenger ships are to have at least three power pumps, one of which may be driven by the
propulsion engine. Where the criterion of service as derived from the Rules of the “International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974”, is not less than 30, one additional independent power
pump is to be provided.
The bilge pumps are to be, as far as possible, located in separate watertight compartments so arranged or
situated that these compartments will not be readily flooded by the same damage. If the engines and
boilers are in two or more watertight compartments, the bilge pumps are to be distributed out of these
compartments as far as possible.
On ships 91.5 m or more in length or having a criterion of service of 30 or more, the arrangements are to
be such that one at least of the bilge pumps can be used normally in case of flooding. This condition will
be considered as fulfilled if:
a) Either if one of the required pumps is of a reliable submersible type having its source of
power above the bulkhead deck.
b) If the pumps and their sources of power are so arranged throughout the length of the ship
that, under any flooding which the ship is required to withstand, at least one pump in an
undamaged compartment will be available.
Location of bilge main:
The bilge main is to be so arranged that no part is situated nearer the side of the ship than B/5,
measured at right angles to the center line at the level of the deepest subdivision load line, where B
is the breadth of the ship.
Where any bilge pump or its pipe connection to the bilge main is situated outboard of the B/5 line,
then a non-return valve is to be provided in the pipe connection at the junction with the bilge
main. The emergency bilge pump and its connections to the bilge main are to be so arranged that
they be situated inboard of the B/5 line.
Prevention of communication between compartments in the event of damage:
Provision is to be made to prevent the compartment served by any bilge suction pipe being flooded, in
the event of the pipe being severed, or otherwise damaged by collision or grounding in any other
compartment. For this purpose, where the pipe is at any part situated nearer the side of the ship than B/5
or in a duct keel, a non-return valve is to be fitted to the pipe in the compartment containing the open
end.
Capacity of Pumps:
Each bilge-pumping unit (or bilge pump in the case of passenger ships) is to be connected to the main
bilge line and is to be capable of giving a speed of water through the Rule size of main bilge pipe of not
less than 2 m/s.
The capacity of each bilge pumping unit or bilge pump is to be not less than required by the following
formula:
Q = 5.75 dm2
103

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Where: Q = Capacity in m3/h.
dm = Rule internal diameter of main bilge line (mm).
In ships other than passenger ships, where one bilge pumping unit is of slightly less than Rule capacity,
the deficiency may be made good by an excess capacity of the other unit. In general, this deficiency is to
be limited to about 30 percent. Obviously there must be a lower limit; otherwise the pumping capacity of
the ship would be seriously impaired in the event of the larger unit being out of commission either
through breakdown or use of some other essential service.
Note:
The term “bilge pumping unit” usually means one pump, but either unit may consist or more than one
pump provided the combined capacity of all the pumps is not less than the total Rule capacity. For any
vessel one should check the Rules prevalent at the time of construction or at the time of repair or
replacement.
Bilge System Fittings:
Prevention of Communication Between Compartments:
The arrangement of valves, cocks and their connections is to be such as to prevent the possibility of one
watertight compartment being placed in communication with another, or of dry cargo spaces, machinery
spaces or other dry compartments being placed in communication with the sea or with tanks. For this
purpose, screw down non-return (S.D.N.R) valves is to be provided in the following fittings:
a) Bilge valve distribution chests.
b) Bilge suction hose connections, whether fitted direct to the pump or on the main bilge
line.
c) Direct bilge suctions and bilge pump connections to main bilge line.
In small ships, cocks are preferred to valves, and to obtain effective isolation of the sea or the ballast line
from the bilge lines "L" ported or open bottom single-ported cocks are used. With cocks, however, there
is always the danger of a flow-back through the pump either from the overboard discharge connection at
the ship's side or from the discharge of another pump, so direct bilge suctions should be fitted with non-
return valves, whether a cock is fitted at the suction branch of the pump or not. Cocks may be a source
of danger if the correct type is not used (See figures on page 89, 97 & 98).

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In arrangement (a) the use of a “T” ported cock instead of an “L” ported cock or an open-bottom cock
having one port in the plug, could lead to the direct admission of the sea to the bilges. Cases of flooding
due to this arrangement have been known and can be avoided if either of the arrangements shown in (b)
and (c) are adopted. Fig. (d) shows a suitable arrangement when three suctions are led to one cock.
Non-return Valves on Hold Bilge Suctions:
These valves are required by the Rules to be fitted at the open ends of bilge pipes in cargo holds where
the pipes pass at some point in their length through a deep tank. In addition, they are often fitted at the
owners' request or, in the case of a passenger ship, to comply with the “Regulations of the International
Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)”.
These valves should be of an approved type, which does not offer undue obstruction to the flow of
water. Figure in page 89, two types which are acceptable is shown and it will be appreciated that the aim
in each case is to ensure that, as far as possible, the valve will not become choked with such foreign
matter as may be found in bilges.

To bilge suction branches.

Bilge Group Valve Chest:

Isolation of Bilge System:
Bilge pipes, which are required for draining cargo or machinery spaces are to be entirely distinct from
sea inlet pipes or form pipes which may be used for filling or emptying spaces where water or oil is
carried. This does not, however, exclude a bilge ejection connection, a connecting pipe from a pump to
its suction valve chest, or a deep tank suction pipe suitably connected through a change-over device to a
bilge, ballast or oil line. Also, in the case of deep tanks and cargo holds which may be used for either
water ballast or dry cargo, provision is to be made for blank flanging the water ballast filling and suction
pipes when the tank or hold is being used for the carriage of dry cargo, and for blank flanging the bilge
suction pipes when the tank or hold is being used for the carriage of water ballast. Change over devices
may also be used for this purpose. When blank flanges are used, it is always preferable to employ the
“spectacle” type, so that it can be seen at glance whether the pipeline is open or closed. Examples of
change over devices for tank chests are shown below.

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 Changeover device for tank chests:

Changeover device for tank chest (Dome type):

Arrangement and Control of Bilge Valves in Passenger Ships:

If there is only one system of pipes common to all the pumps, the necessary cocks or valves for
controlling the bilge suctions are to be capable of being operated from above the bulkhead deck. Where
in addition to the main bilge system, an emergency bilge system is provided, it is to be independent of
the main system and so arranged that a pump is capable of operating on any compartment under
flooding conditions; in that case, only the valves necessary for the operation of the emergency system
need be capable of being operated from above the bulkhead deck. Remote operators may be of the
hydraulic, pneumatic or reach-rod type.

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The controls of all cocks and valves, which can be operated from above the bulkhead deck, are to be
clearly marked and provided with means to indicate whether corresponding valves are open or closed.

Machinery Space Suctions - Mud Boxes:

Suction for bilge drainage in machinery spaces and tunnels, other than emergency suctions, are to be led
from easily accessible mud boxes fitted with straight tail pipes to the bilges and having covers secured in
such a manner as to permit their being expeditiously opened or closed. Strum boxes are not to be fitted
to the lower ends of these tail pipes or to the emergency bilge suction.
The ends of bilge flexible hoses, if provided, are also to be fitted with strainers. Mud boxes are to be
fitted between the pumps and the suctions to machinery compartments and to shaft tunnels, as well as
between the pumps and the bilge collecting boxes. They are to be so installed as to be readily accessible
their covers are to be readily removable.

Hold Suction - Strum Boxes:

The open ends of bilge suctions in holds and other compartments outside machinery spaces and tunnels
are to be enclosed in strum boxes having perforations of not more than 10 mm diameter whose
combined area is not less than twice that required for the suction pipe. The boxes are to be so
constructed so that they can be cleared without breaking any joint of the suction pipe.

Bilge Wells:
Bilge wells are to be formed of steel plates and are to be not less than 0.15 m3capacity. In small
compartments, steel bilge hats of reasonable capacity may be fitted.
In passenger ships, the wells constructed in double bottoms are not to extend downwards more than
necessary; the depth of the well is, in no case, to be more than the depth of the double bottom at the
centerline minus 457 mm. In addition, these wells are not to extend below an horizontal plane passing
through the point of intersection with the frame line amidships of a transverse diagonal line inclined at
25* to the base line and cutting it at a point one half the ships molded breadth from the middle line. The
wells provided at the aft end of shaft tunnel may however, extend to the outer bottom.
Tail Pipes:
The distance between the foot of all bilge tail pipes and the bottom of the bilge or well is to be adequate
to allow a full flow of water and to facilitate cleaning.
Location of Fittings:
Bilge valves, cocks and mud boxes are to be fitted at, or above the machinery space and tunnel
platforms. Where it is not practicable to avoid the fittings being situated at the starting platform or in
passageways, they may be situated just below the platform, provided readily removable traps or covers
are fitted, and nameplates indicate the presence of these fittings.
Slip Joints:
The bilge lines are to be so designed and pipes so fixed as to permit a normal expansion of the various
parts. For this purpose, slip joints may be provided on bilge pipes. However, in deep-tanks intended to
contain ballast water, fresh water, liquid cargo or fuel, and where no pipe tunnels are provided, slip
joints are not to be installed on bilge suctions but, if necessary, appropriate expansion bends may be
fitted.

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Bilge Level Alarm System:
High level in certain bilge wells in the engine rooms not subjected to a permanent watch is to actuate an
alarm; the location of the bilge level sensors is to be such that the tank tops are kept dry of liquid
overflow from the bilges.
Where automatic starting of the bilge pumps is provided, an alarm is to be given in case of too frequent
or too long operation. Consideration is also to be given in this case to the relevant regulations retained
by the “International Convention for the Prevention of the Sea Pollution by Oil”.

Water Ballast System:

The purpose of the ballast system is to provide for the distribution of seawater ballast throughout the
ship under varying load conditions. The loading on the hull and the trim of the ship are affected by cargo
loading and unloading, bunkering, fuel oil transfer and fuel consumption. The ballast system is used to
compensate for all these operating conditions.

Water Ballast Suctions and Flooding Arrangements:

The provision of sea water for ballasting in double-bottom compartments and other ballast
compartments is to be ensured by a line which is entirely distinct from the line used for draining cargo
holds, main and auxiliary engine and boiler spaces (except as otherwise provided for deep-tanks).

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Separate systems are necessary to enable the pumps to work simultaneously on both services and to
prevent the ingress of water from the sea or from ballast tanks into dry compartments.

The bilge and ballast mains are to have separate control valves at the pumps. The ballast suctions are
arranged in groups of chests, and the ballast main line, which links them up, is used for both filling and
discharging (see figure on page 91). Ballast suction and discharge pipes are to be permanent pipes made
in readily removable lengths with flanged joints and are to be efficiently secured in position to prevent
chafing or lateral movement. Suitable provision for expansion is to be made, where necessary, in each
range of pipes.
If not contained in pipe tunnels, the parts of ballast pipes passing through compartments intended to
contain fresh water, liquid fuel or liquid cargo are also to have reinforced thickness and are to consist
either of a single piece or of several pieces assembled by welding, by reinforced flanges or by devices
deemed equivalent for the application considered. Suctions in water ballast compartments are to be so
positioned that the provision of seawater can be suitably realized in the normal operating conditions of
the ship. Usually, auctions are located at the after end of each tank.
Ballast main piping which runs fore and aft, outboard of a line located within 20% of the molded beam,
is to have to open ends of the pipes in each compartment controlled by valves in the tank operable by
reach rods from above the freeboard deck or by hydraulic or pneumatic operated remote control in
manned machinery spaces.
Controls for ballast valves:
An approved method is to be provided to ensure that ballast valves in tanks are kept closed at all times,
except when ballasting; otherwise the control system for the remote-operated valves is to be designed to
allow the valves to close in the event of damage to or failure of the control system. Remote control of
bilge and ballast valves is to be clearly marked at the control station and means are to be provided to
indicate whether the valve is open or closed.
Deep-tanks:
The deep-tanks intended to contain either ballast water, or liquid fuel or cargo, or dry cargo, are to be
drained as cargo holds. Blind flanges or appropriate change over devices (see figure on page 89) are to
be provided on the various lines supplying these spaces in order to prevent any mishandling.
Blanking arrangements for deep tanks:
When a deep tank is intended to carry water ballast, oil fuel or dry cargo, the Rules require provision to
be made so that suctions not appropriate to the contents of the tank may be blanked off.
Quite often an arrangement similar to the figure shown below is proposed.

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It being assumed that if a spectacle flange is fitted in the bilge line, and a change chest is provided for
the oil fuel and water ballast lines, then everything would be in order. Further consideration will show
that, when the hold is carrying dry cargo, only one of the connections to the change chest can be blanked
and that tank will, therefore, still be connected to either the oil fuel line or the water ballast line. To
correct matters it would be necessary for a spectacle flange to be fitted in the combined oil fuel/ water
ballast connection, so that both these lines are isolated from the tank when dry cargo is carried.

Blanking arrangements:

Above figures show better arrangements in as much as they are foolproof and considerably lessen the
work of changing over the connections.

Fore and after peaks:

Where the peaks are used as tanks, a power pump auction is to be led to each tank. The Rules require
that the collision bulkhead be not to be pierced below the bulkhead deck by more than one pipe for
dealing with the contents of the forepeak. The pipe is to be provided with a screw-down valve capable of

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being operated from an accessible position above the bulkhead deck, the chest being secured to the
bulkhead inside the forepeak. An indicator is to be provided to show whether the valve is open or
closed. However, where the forepeak is divided into two compartments the collision bulkhead may be
pierced below the bulkhead deck by two pipes (i.e. one for each compartment).
In ships other than passenger ships, the valve may be fitted on the after side of the collision bulkhead,
without remote control, provided that the valve is readily accessible under all service conditions and the
space in which it is located is not a cargo space.

Attachment of Valves to Watertight Plating:

Valve chests, cocks, pipes or other fittings attached direct to the plating of tanks, and to bulkheads, flats
or tunnels which are required to be of watertight construction, are to be secured by means of studs
screwed through the plating or by tap bolts, and not by bolts passing through clearance holes.
Alternatively, the studs or the bulkhead piece may be welded to the plating.

Ship-side Valves:
All sea inlet and overboard discharge pipes are to be fitted with valves or cocks secured direct to the
shell plating or to the plating of fabricated steel water boxes attached to the shell plating.

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 Ballast System for Bulk Carrier.

These fittings are to be secured by bolts tapped into the plating and fitted with countersunk heads, or by
studs screwed into heavy steel pads fitted to the plating. The stud holes are not to penetrate the plating.
Distance pieces of short, rigid construction and made of approved material, may be fitted between the
valves and shell plating. Distance pieces of steel may be welded to the shell plating.

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Sea inlet and overboard discharge valves and cocks are in all cases to be fitted in easily accessible
positions and so far as practicable, are to be readily visible. Indicators are to be provided local to the
valves and cocks, showing whether they are open or shut. Provision is to be made for preventing any
discharge of water into lifeboats. The valve spindles are to extend above the lower platform.
Gratings are to be fitted at all openings in the ship’s side for sea inlet valves and inlet water boxes. The
net area through the gratings is to be not less than twice that of the valves connected to the sea inlets,
and provision is to be made for clearing the gratings by use of low-pressure steam or compressed air.

Shipside Sea Chest and Sea Suction Valve Chest Line diagram:

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 Sea Suction Valve and Valve Seat Arrangement:
Ballast Tank Air Pipes:
Any tanks having connections to power pumps are required to have air pipes with a total cross-sectional
area 25% in excess of that of the filling pipes and are to be not less than 50 mm bore. They are generally
to be fitted at the opposite end of the tank to that at which the filling pipes are placed and/or at the
highest part of the tank and they are to be led to above the bulkhead deck.
Nameplates are to be affixed to the upper ends of all air (and sounding) pipes.
Air pipe closing appliances:
Closing appliances are to be fitted to tank air pipes and these are to be of a type, which will prevent
excessive pressure coming on the tanks.

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Also, provision is to be made for relieving vacuum when the tanks are being pumped out, and for this
purpose a hole about 10 mm in diameter in the bend of the air pipe, or in a suitable position in the
closing device, is generally acceptable. Wood plugs and other devices, which can be secured, closed are
not to be fitted at the outlets.
Operation of Ballast System:
The rate of which ballast tanks are to be filled or emptied is usually a matter for the owners to decide in
relation to the needs of the vessel's particular trade. Generally, it is preferable to “run” the tanks up from
the sea and finish off by pumping to ensure that the tanks have been completely filled or “pressed-up”. It
is always advisable to slow down the pump when a tank is nearly full and to arrange for someone to
keep a watch on the tank in order that word can be passed to the man at the pump when the tank is full.
When pumping tanks, care must always be taken that the plugs or other closing appliances fitted to the
ends of the tank air pipes are first removed, in order to avoid serious damage to the structure of the
tanks, especially deep tanks and peak tanks.
It is not always appreciated that damage to the structure of a tank may be caused by failure to remove
positive (i.e. non-automatic) closing appliances, such as plugs or canvas covers, on the air pipes to the
tank when pumping out especially when pumps of the “bucket type” are used which are capable of
creating a considerable vacuum in the tank.
Some ships have two ballast lines, a clean ballast line and a dirty ballast line. The clean line serves
tanks, which are used either exclusively for water ballast or in some cases for water ballast alternatively
with fresh water. The dirty ballast line is connected to tanks, which are used for the carriage of water
ballast alternatively with oil.

Sketch for hold drainage well:

Engine room drainage hatbox:

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 Sounding tube pressure balance hole:

Isolation of deep tank suctions:

Combined change over and blank flanging device for deep tank suctions:

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 Connection for deep tanks:

a) Cargo Tank Suction Lines:

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 b) Duct Keel Suction Line for VLCC:

Valves, Valve Arrangements and valve lids or clacks:

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 Gate Valve:

Globe Valve:

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 Butterfly Valve:

Pipe Fittings:

Compression ring coupling (Dresser):

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 Bulkhead Pieces:

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 Expansion Bend ‘Omega’ Loop Type:

Pipe Expansion Gland:

Expansion Bellow:

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 Rubber Expansion Bellows for Water service:

Thrust Compensated Expansion Bellows:

Piping Expansion in double bottom tanks:

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Some important Piping Systems in Ships Shown in Line Diagram:

Heating Service for Fuel storage Tanks:

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 Fuel Cleaning System:

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 Condenser Cooling System:

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 Main Engine Sea Water Cooling System:

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 Jacket Cooling System:

Central Cooling System:

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 Main Engine Lubricating Oil System:

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 Diagrammatic Arrangement of Aerobic Sewage Treatment Plant:

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 Domestic Fresh Water System:

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 Domestic Hot Water System:

Cooling Water Systems:

Provision is to be made for an adequate supply of cooling water to the main propelling machinery and
essential auxiliary engines, also to the lubricating oil and fresh water coolers.
In case of main steam turbine installations, a sea inlet scoop arrangement may replace the main
seawater-circulating pump.
Standby Supply:
Provision is also to be made for a separate supply of cooling water from a suitable independent pump of
adequate capacity.
The following arrangements are acceptable, depending on the purpose for which the cooling water is
intended.
1. Where only one main engine is fitted, the standby pump is to be connected ready for immediate
use.
2. Where more than one main engine is fitted, each with its own pump, a complete spare pump of
each type may be accepted.
3. Where a sea inlet scoop arrangement is fitted, and there is only one independent condenser
circulating pump, a further pump, or a connection to the largest available pump suitable for
circulation duties, is to be fitted to provide the second means of circulation when the ship is
maneuvering. The pump is to be connected ready for immediate use.
4. Where freshwater cooling is employed for main and/or auxiliary engines, a standby fresh water
pump need not be fitted if there are suitable emergency connections from a sea water system.
5. Where each auxiliary is fitted with a cooling water pump, standby means of cooling need not be
provided. Where, however, a group of auxiliaries is supplied with cooling water from a common
system, a standby cooling water pump is to be provided for this system. This pump is to be
connected ready for immediate use and may be a suitable general service pump.

Selection of Standby Pumps:

When selecting a pump for standby purposes, consideration is to be given to the maximum
pressure, which it can develop if the overboard discharge valve is partly or fully closed and, when
necessary, condenser doors, water boxes, etc., are to be protected by an approved device against
inadvertent over-pressure.
Where cooling water pumps can develop a pressure head greater than the design pressure of the
system, they are to be provided with relief valves on the pump discharge to effectively limit the
pump discharge pressure to the design pressure of the system.

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Often, the second means for engine cooling consists of a satisfactory connection to a general service
pump of sufficient capacity.

Note: The main circulating water system on most ships is simple and easily seen and understood. The
same cannot however, always be said of the standby arrangements. All ships' engineers should,
therefore, make sure that they clearly understand the steps necessary to bring the emergency supply into
operation. Where a suitable general service pump is arranged to carry out the standby duty the
connections are likely to be fairly obvious. Emergency connections from the salt to the fresh water-
cooling system are, however, often made in the most unexpected positions, and even on a diagram it is
sometimes difficult to trace the path of the emergency supply.

Sea inlets:
Not less than two sea inlets are to be provided for the pumps supplying the seawater cooling system, one
for the pumps supplying the sea water cooling system, one for the main pump and one for the standby
pump. Alternatively, the sea inlets may be connected to a suction line available to main and standby
pumps.
It should be noted that not less than two low sea inlets are required for cooling water purposes, and they
should be independent of each other - an arrangement in which, the main and standby cooling water
pumps can only draw from two inlet valves which are attached to a single sea chest is not acceptable.
Sea water circulating pumps are generally connected to a common suction line led to low sea inlet
valves on opposite sides of the engine room. If the vessel is engaged on a trade, which necessitates the
navigation of shallow muddy rivers, it is usual for one or two high inlet valves to be fitted in addition to
the low inlets. Alternatively, raising the low inlets to a point in between the normal low and high
positions sometimes gives a compromise. This is acceptable provided that they are situated where they
will be submerged under all service conditions.
The auxiliary cooling water sea inlets are preferably to be located one on each side of the ship.
All shipside sea inlet valves and sea inlet boxes are fitted with gratings. The grating bars should lie in a
fore and aft direction evenly spaced with a gap between the bars of about 25 mm.
Strainers:
Where sea water is used for the direct cooling of the main engines and essential auxiliary engines, the
cooling water suction pipes are to be provided with strainers which can be cleaned without interruption
to the cooling water supply. This applies also the standby circulating water to the engine.
Miscellaneous:
Means are to be provided to ascertain the temperature of the circulating water at the return from each
engine and to indicate that the proper circulation is being maintained. Drain cocks are to be provided at
the lowest point of all jackets and a relief valve is to be fitted in the main line to the jackets to prevent
excessive pressure.
Also cocks are to be installed at the highest points of the pipes conveying cooling water to the water
jackets for venting of accumulated air.
If the ship is arranged for navigation in ice, it is possible that connections are provided from the cooling
water overboard discharge line to the main and auxiliary cooling water sea inlets, these connections
enable warm water to be discharged to the sea inlets to clear any ice, which may have collected.
Materials:

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The materials used for cooling systems are to be such as to limit the effects of galvanic corrosion and
erosion considering the circulation speeds adopted.
The most efficient method to diminish corrosion is to reduce the surface areas of the materials that come
into contact with the seawater. In practice this means a short line form the seawater suction through the
pumps and cooler and back outboard.
Central Cooling:
Figure in the next page shows a suggested cooling water arrangement for a motor-ship, indicating these
connections. It will be observed that all seawater supply is drawn from a single sea suction line having
inlets on both sides of the ship. This pipe should be of generous size, while the continuous demand for
water will assist in keeping the inlets free.

The isolating valves on the inboard side of the strainers will enable warm water to be discharged through
either of the sea inlets if it is necessary to clear ice, whilst the other sea inlet maintains the supply.

Motor Ship Cooling Water System:

Over 90 per cent of the bigger new-buildings today are equipped with a central cooling system.
Obviously, the deciding factor for the ship-owner is whether the lower maintenance cost of this system
outweighs its higher capital charge.
In the seawater section, the same principles apply as for the conventional seawater system, the main
point being that the maximum permissible seawater outlet temperature should be about 470C. This
minimises the quantity of seawater required.

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The freshwater section is divided into low and high temperature parts. The low temperature circuit
comprises coolers, etc, for combustion-air, lubricating-oil for engine and gearbox, air compressors, air-
conditioning plant, etc. The temperature of the fresh water at the inlet of the various coolers in the LT
circuit must come as close as possible the temperature of the sea; a difference of 4*C will be a good
average. In tropical conditions, with an outboard water temperature of maximum 32*C, this implies an
inlet temperature of 36*C at the freshwater section.
The high temperature circuit is intended for the direct cooling of various engine parts at temperatures of
70*C to 80*C.
Figures below shows a complete central cooling system in which all components are cooled by fresh
water. The system can be divided into three main parts: (1) sea water circuit, (2) high temperature (HT)
circuit and (3) low temperature (LT).

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 Centralized cooling system with separate low temperature and high temperature
circuits:

Advantages of Central Cooling System:

Provided that chemical treatment is maintained correctly, corrosion will be eliminated in the fresh water
system. Pipes, valves and coolers in contact with only fresh water, can be of cheaper materials. The
constant temperature level of the cooling water means that control of engine coolers is easier. The
number of seawater inlet valves is reduced together with the filters that require cleaning.

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 Central Cooling System:
Fire and Wash Deck System:

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 Ship’s Fire Main:
Fire and Wash Deck System:
The system (See figures above) serves as a fixed fire extinguishing installation, using seawater as the
medium. It also provides the ship with a system to wash the decks and anchors.
1. Water is supplied by two (2) independently powered pumps, which are also used for ballast and
general service.
2. Pumps discharge to a minimum of two (2) engine-room hydrants, and through an isolating valve
to the deck main.
3. The isolating valve serves to maintain supply from the emergency fire pump to deck hydrants in
the event 6f damage to the engine-room piping.
4. A drain is provided at the lowest position (may be in engine room) of the deck main, so that it
can be emptied in cold weather. This prevents freezing and subsequent damage to deck pipe-
lines.
5. The pumps may be centrifugal or positive displacement types. Positive displacement pumps
must have by-pass relief valves fitted to prevent pipeline being subjected to greater than designed
pressure.

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 Diagrammatic Arrangement of Sprinkler, multi-spray and drencher System:

The above figure shows a typical sprinkler system. This incorporates a number of sprinkler heads, which
are supplied with water under constant pressure, and so arranged that every part of each space requiring
protection be adequately covered. Each head has a glass or quartzoid bulb, which retains a diaphragm
seal in the outlet of the water pipe.

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This bulb is partially filled with a special fluid so arranged that a rise in temperature in the compartment
concerned will cause the liquid to expand. When the liquid has expanded and entirely filled the space,
the bulb being unable to withstand further pressure, bursts, the and water flows from the sprinkler.
The usual temperature at which the bulb bursts is 155*F but special bulbs are available to burst at 79*C
and 93*C (175*F and 200*F) for operating in hotter parts of the ship. Under the specific pressure of 5.5
to 8.3 bars (80 to 120 lb/in2) maintained in the reserve tank by air pressure the water from the sprinkler
is deflected upwards and out- wards and broken into a fine spray by the serrated edge of the sprinkler
base and will adequately cover a floor area of 12 m2 (169 ft2).
As the pressure falls to the lower figure, the saltwater pump starts automatically. Each installation is,
divided into convenient sections, generally containing not more than 200 sprinkler heads and each
section has a control valve. When a sprinkler head comes into operation water pressure lifts the non-
return valve thereby gaining access to the annular ports normally covered by the valve face. This allows
pressure to build up in the alarm system and operate the trip switch, causing the alarm to sound on the
bridge and indicate the section concerned. For testing purposes a small valve is incorporated, and when
this is opened it allows the same flow through the valve as a sprinkler head and confirms that the alarm
system is in good order. This method may also be used to give the alarm if a small fire is discovered
before the sprinkler heads come into operation.
The control valve must be open at all times except when sprinkler heads are being replaced so it is either
locked open or has an electric alarm to show if it is inadvertently shut. The system is charged initially
with fresh water to prevent corrosion, but the pump naturally supplies seawater so that when the system
has, been operated it must be drained, flushed through and refilled with fresh water.
The system should be tested each week and to avoid contaminating the standing fresh water charge with
seawater each time, a drain valve is fitted in the pump discharge line. By opening this valve and shutting
the cock at the pressure operated switch and the pump discharge valve, the pump can be allowed to cut
in automatically as required and discharge to the bilges.

A: Oil Fuel Piping System:

A: Oil Fuel Tanks and Bunkers:

1. Position of oil Fuel Bunkers and Tanks: The requirements for ship construction will have to be
complied with particularly as regards the installation of cofferdams, the separation between oil
fuel bunkers or tanks and the other spaces of the ship, and the protection of these tanks and
bunkers against any abnormal rise in temperature. In particular, oil fuel tanks and bunkers are not
to be situated immediately above boilers or in positions where they could be submitted to high
temperatures.
2. Tank Scantlings: The scantlings of oil fuel bunkers and tanks forming part of the ship's
structure will be determined form the Rules for the hull construction.
3. Separate Oil Fuel Tanks: In general, the minimum thickness of the plating of service, settling
and other oil tanks, where they do not form part of the structure of the ship, is to be 5 mm, but in
the case of very small tanks, the minimum thickness may be 3 mm. For rectangular steel tanks of
welded construction, the plate thicknesses are to be not less than those indicated in the table
below.

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The dimension given in the table for the breadth of the panel is the maximum distance allowable
between continuous lines of support, which may be stiffeners, wash-plates or the boundary of the tank.
Where necessary, stiffeners are to be provided, and if the length of the stiffener exceeds twice the
breadth of the panel, transverse stiffeners are also to be fitted, or alternatively, tie bars are to be provided
between stiffeners on opposite side of the tank.
4. Hydraulic Tests of Fuel Bunkers and Tanks:
Fuel tanks are to be tested by a head of water equal to the maximum to which the tanks may be
subjected, but not less than 2.5 m above the crown of the tank.
5.Valves on Deep Tanks and their Control Arrangements:
Every oil fuel suction pipe from a storage, settling and daily service tank situated above the double
bottom, and every oil fuel leveling pipe within the boiler room or engine room, is to be fitted with a
valve (or cock) secured to the tank. If the valves are installed on the outside of the tank, they are not to
be of cast iron. In the engine and boiler spaces, such valves are to be capable of being closed locally and
from positions outside these spaces, which will always be accessible in the event of fire occurring in
these spaces. Instructions for closing the valves are to be indicated at the valves and at the remote
control positions. Note that individual control of the outlet valves should be provided. These valves
should not be operated by a single control, which operates a number of valves. Also, failure of the
remote control for these tanks should not cause the valve to fall shut since this could possibly hazard the
ship, e.g. failure and closing of the oil fuel supply to the engines in a restricted seaway.
Every oil fuel suction pipe, which is led into the engine and boiler spaces, from a tank situated above the
double bottom outside these spaces, is to be fitted in the machinery space with a valve controlled as
stated above, except where the valve on the tank is already capable of being closed from an accessible
position above the bulkhead deck. Where the filling pipes to deep oil tanks are not connected to the
tanks near the top, they are to be provided with non-return valves at the tanks or with valves fitted and
controlled as stated above.

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 Oil Fuel System:

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6. Water Drainage From Settling Tanks:
Settling tanks are to be provided with means for draining water from the bottom of the tanks. However,
if settling tanks are not provided, the oil fuel bunkers or daily service tanks are to be fitted with water
drains.
Open drains for removing the water from oil tanks are to be fitted with valves or cocks of self-
closing type, and suitable provision is to be made for collecting the oily discharge.

7. Steaming-out Connections:
Whilst on the subject of fittings for oil fuel tanks mention must be made of the steaming-out connection.
In most cases this connection consists of a permanent pipe led from a convenient point on the tank
heating steam line to a valve secured to the side of the tank. This valve should be of S.D.N.R. type, and
in addition, a spectacle flange should be fitted so that the connection can be blanked off again after use.
These precautions would be adequate if the blank were re-inserted after use, but experience has shown
that this is not always done, nor is the valve always of the S.D.N.R. type.

It is considered that either of the following arrangements would be superior to that of the above:
1. The use of a valve and spectacle flange fitted in an accessible position, from which a pipe is led
into the top of the tank, or:
2. Provide a S.D.N.R. valve on the side of the tank, which can be connected by a flexible hose to
another valve at a suitable point on the steam line. After use the hose is removed and special
caps, secured by chains, can then be screwed on to the open ends of the valves. It is most
unlikely that the hose would be left in position and, once the connection was broken, there would
be no possibility of oil fuel entering the steam system.

8. Temperature of Oil Fuel in Tanks:

Whilst there are no Rules regarding the upper temperature limits for oil fuel in tanks, it is desirable for
tanks built into the ship’s structure that the temperature should not exceed 48*C. Higher temperatures
are in order for daily service or settling tanks, which are not part of the ship's structure. In such cases it
is considered that the margin between the temperature of the oil and its ascertained flash point should be
not less than 10*C.
The flash point (Closed cup) of oil-fuel for use in ships classed for unrestricted service is, in
general, not to be less than 60*C. For emergency generator engines a flash point of not less than
43*C is permissible.
Thermometers for recording the temperatures should be provided for the tanks, but thermostatic control
is not required.

9. Sounding Arrangements for Tanks:

Oil fuel bunkers and tanks are to he provided with devices to ascertain the level of the fuel. The
soundings are to be taken as near the suction pipes as practicable and they are to be led to safe and
accessible positions above the bulkhead deck. The only permitted exceptions are the short sounding
pipes fitted in the machinery space.

10. Short sounding pipes: In machinery spaces and tunnels where it is not always practicable to extend
the sounding pipes as mentioned, short sounding pipes extending to readily accessible positions above
the platform may be fitted to double bottom tanks.

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 Short sounding pipes to oil fuel tanks are to be fitted with cocks having parallel plugs with
permanently attached handles, so loaded that, on being released, they automatically close the cocks.
As a further precaution against fire, such sounding pipes are to be located in positions as far remote
as possible from any heated surface or electrical equipment and, where necessary, effective shielding
is to be provided in way of such surfaces and/or equipment.
In passenger ships, short sounding pipes are permissible only for sounding cofferdams and double
bottom tanks situated in the machinery space and are in all cases to be fitted with self-closing cocks.
Sounding pipes are normally to be straight. If it is necessary to provide bends in these pipes, the
curvature is to be as small as possible to permit the ready passage of the sounding apparatus. Where
it is necessary to provide bent portions for sounding pipes, these portions are to have reinforced
thickness and be suitably supported. Striking plates of adequate thickness and size are to be fitted
under open-ended sounding pipes.
The internal diameter of sounding pipes is not to be less than 32 mm.
Where, for ascertaining the level in certain compartments, bent (elbow) sounding pipes pass through
other compartments, such an arrangement will normally be accepted only if the compartments
passed through are cofferdams or are intended to contain the same liquid as the compartments
supplied by the sounding pipes. Such an arrangement will not normally be admitted for passenger
ships, unless there is no risk of compromising the integrity of subdivision. Sounding devices of
approved type may be used in lieu of sounding pipes for sounding tanks.
11. Level indicator Systems:
Level-indicator systems are to be of robust construction and suitably protected.
In general terms, the apparatus falls into one of the three following categories:
a. Gauge glasses.
b. Float indicating gear.
c. Contents gauges.
The general attitude regarding level gauges on fuel tanks is that failure of a sounding device or over-
filling of a tank must not permit release of fuel. The glasses of any level indicator fitted on such
tanks or bunkers are to be made of heat-resisting material and are to be efficiently protected against
shock. Such level indicators are to be fitted with self-closing cocks at their lower ends as well as at
their upper end if the latter is below the maximum liquid level.

12. Float indicating gear:

In most designs, the wire, which is attached to the float passes through a hole in the top of the tank,
and it is possible for leakage to take place at this point should the tank be overfilled. In one particular
case such leakage resulted in the loss of the ship by fire. To prevent leakage the wire should be as
close a fit as possible in the hole, and an overflow pipe should be fitted to the side of the tank near
the top so that the underside of the top plating is not subjected to pressure.

13. Contents gauges:

These gauges may be accepted provide they are of an approved type and are found satisfactory when
tested after installation on board the vessel. Like all instruments, however, they are liable to
malfunction at times, and for this reason a sounding pipe is usually provided as an alternative means
of ascertaining the level of oil in the tank. Such a sounding pipe should be fitted with a self-closing
cock with a parallel plug.

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 14. Down-comer Pipes from Daily Service and Settling Tanks:
The regulations of some countries require that means are to be provided for rapidly emptying the
daily service and settling tanks, situated in the upper part of the machinery space, in the event of fire
in this compartment. Naturally, space must always be available into which the oil can be discharged,
and it is sometimes proposed that the cofferdam in way of double bottom tanks under the machinery
space should be used for this purpose. This space will require suction led to the oil fuel main or to
the transfer pump so that the oil can be removed after the emergency.

15. Air Pipes:

Air pipes to oil fuel tanks, cofferdams and all tanks, which can be pumped up are to be led to the
open. The open ends of air pipes are to be situated where no danger will be incurred from issuing oil
or vapor when the tank is being filled.

16. Gauze diaphragms:

The open ends of air pipes to oil fuel tanks are to be furnished with a wire gauze diaphragm of un-
corrodible material, which can be readily removed for cleaning or renewal. In wire gauze
diaphragms at air pipe openings the area of the clear opening is to be not less than the cross-sectional
area required for the pipe. Air pipes may serve as overflow pipes for oil fuel tanks provided they
terminate in a safe position in the open above the bulkhead deck. However, with this arrangement, in
the event of a tank being over-filled, there is always the possibility of oil being deposited on the
deck.

17. Overflow Pipes:

Overflow pipes are to be provided, if necessary, in order to prevent, during filling operations, an
overload greater than that corresponding to the test pressure prescribed for the compartments. The
overflow pipe is to be led to an overflow tank of adequate capacity or to a storage tank having a
space reserved for overflow purposes. Overflows from settling and service tanks are generally to be
led back either to the fuel bunkers, or to an overflow tank of appropriate capacity. A sight glass is to
be provided in the overflow pipe to indicate when the tanks are overflowing or, alternatively, an
alarm device is to be provided to give warning either when the tanks are overflowing or when the oil
reaches a predetermined level in the tanks.

18. Design of overflow systems:

Where overflows from tanks intended to contain the same liquid or different ones are connected to a
common main, provision is to be made to prevent any risk of intercommunication between the
various tanks in the course of movements of liquid when emptying or filling. Arrangements are to be
made so that a compartment cannot be flooded from the sea through the overflow in the event of
another compartment connected to the same overflow main being bilged. For this purpose, the
openings of overflow pipes discharging overboard are generally to be placed above the load
waterline; they are to be fitted where necessary with non-return valves on the plating, or any other
device of similar efficiency. Where deep-tanks, which can be used to contain liquid cargo fuel or dry
cargo are connected to an overflow main, arrangements are to be made so that liquid or vapors from
other compartments cannot enter these deep-tanks when carrying dry cargo. Overflow systems are to
be so arranged as to be self-draining when the ship is on an even keel. The overflow pipes must not
be fitted with valves or cocks, which can prevent over flow taking place.

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 The internal diameter of overflow pipes is not to be less than 50 mm. In each compartment, which
can be pumped up, the total cross-section of the overflow pipes is not to be less than 1.25 times the
cross-section of the corresponding filling pipes.

The above figure shows a typical overflow system. The individual overflow pipe from each tank should
rise to a point close to the bulkhead deck before joining the appropriate main. The mains should be
situated well above the deep load waterline and increase in size from each end to a point where down-
comer pipes are led to the overflow tank.

Oil Fuel System Common Breather Pipe:

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 19. Overflow arrangements for daily service and settling tanks:
In larger ships there may be several service and settling tanks, each provided with a separate
overflow system which, in many British-built ships, is led to an overflow tank in the lower part of
the machinery space, alarm devices being fitted in the overflow pipes (figure on page 137). An
alternative arrangement, with regard to service/settling tanks, is to provide a common breather pipe
in conjunction with an overflow system from these tanks. Figures on the previous page shows an
arrangement, which could be considered acceptable.

20. Fuel Transfer and Filling:

The fuel-oil pumping arrangements are to be distinct from the other pumping systems as far as
practicable, and the means provided for preventing dangerous interconnection in service are to be
thoroughly effective. In particular, the transfer system together with its accessories are to be so
arranged that oil fuel cannot enter compartments the structure of which does not allow them to be
filled with oil fuel or compartments intended to contain drinking water or boiler feed water. The oil
fuel main is usually a single pipeline with branches led from convenient points to the various groups
of valves controlling the tank auctions.

Oil Fuel System:

A typical arrangement is shown above and it will be seen that since the filling pipe is connected to
the oil fuel main this is really a combined auction and filling main, the tanks being emptied and
filled through the same connections.
In passenger ships and in quite a number of cargo ships, arrangements are made for transferring oil
fuel from one tank to another' in order to assist in trimming the ship. In its simplest form, the
arrangement can be as shown in a figure below (page 139).

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 The sluice valve ‘E’ is normally kept shut, and when transferring oil fuel from aft to forward, the
suction valve ‘B’ and the discharge valve ‘D’ are opened and valves ‘A’ and ‘C’ are kept shut. In the
reverse direction, i.e. from forward to aft, valves ‘A’ and ‘C’ are opened and ‘B’ and ‘D’ are shut.

21. Transfer Pumps:

Where a power-driven pump is necessary for transferring oil fuel, a standby pump is to be provided
and connected ready for use, or alternatively, emergency connections may be made to one of the unit
pumps or to another suitable power-driven pump. This does not necessarily mean that there must be
two transfer pumps. If a motor-ship burns heavy oil in the main engines and diesel oil in the
auxiliaries, it is quite likely there will be a separate transfer pump for each system. The suction and
discharge side of these pumps can be cross-connected and isolating valves or spectacle flanges may
be fitted if it is desired to keep the system separate. In an emergency the blanks can be changed
enabling either pump to take over all transfer duties. The essential feature about a standby transfer
pump is not that it should be able to undertake all the duties of the working pump, but that it should
be able to draw oil from any of the storage tanks and discharge it to the service or settling tanks in
sufficient quantity to keep the machinery working.

22. Transfer Arrangements - Passenger Ships:

In passenger ships, provision is to be made for the transfer of oil fuel from any oil fuel storage or
settling tank to any other oil fuel storage or settling tank in the event of fire or damage. This in
reality requires separate suction/ filling lines to each tank.

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 23. Filling Arrangements:
Filling stations are to be isolated from other spaces and are to be efficiently drained and ventilated.
Provision is to be made against over-pressure in the filling pipelines, and any relief valve fitted for
this purpose is to discharge to an overflow tank or other safe position.

24. Alternative Carriage of Oil Fuel and Water Ballast:

Where it is intended to carry oil fuel and water ballast in the same compartments alternatively, the
valves or cocks connecting the suction pipes of these compartments with the ballast pump and those
connecting them with the oil fuel transfer pump are to be so arranged that the oil may be pumped
from any one compartment by the oil fuel pump at the same time as the ballast pump is being used
on any other compartment. This arrangement is a requirement of the Rules unless the service or
settling tanks have a capacity sufficient for at least 12 hours normal running without replenishment.

Change Over Arrangement:

In British practice a change over chest having a dome and blank is usually employed. The above
figure shows such a chest. It will be readily appreciated that if the foregoing arrangements are to be
effective, there should be a separate change over chest for each tank. The figure in the next page
shows an arrangement adopted more or less as a standard by Scandinavian shipbuilders.

The suctions from dual-purpose tanks are led to cock chests by means of which the tanks can be
connected to either of the two lines and two pumps are arranged to draw from and discharge to these

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 lines. One of the pumps is primarily a ballast pump and the other an oil fuel transfer pump, but the
ballast pump can serve as a standby to the transfer pump.
With this system there are no tedious blanking arrangements and oil fuel can be drawn from and
pumped into any one of the storage tanks should this be required.

Oil Fuel Transfer System Cock Chest:

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 The cock chests, however, do not give the same security against accidental mistakes as do the
change-over type of valve chest as shown in the figure above and it might be well to provide a
locking plate to fit over the cocks to prevent any unauthorized interference with these change cocks.
The ballast lines to these tanks are bound to become coated with oil fuel and it is always desirable
for these ‘oily’ ballast lines to be isolated from ‘clean’ ballast lines. In many cases the ballast pump
used for pumping out this contaminated ballast water can discharge overboard through an oily water
separator so that any oil fuel present may be recovered and pollution of sea avoided.

25. Deep Tanks for the Alternative Carriage of Oil, Water Ballast or Dry Cargo:
In the case of deep tanks which can be used for the carriage of oil fuel, cargo oil, water ballast or dry
cargo, provision is to be made for blank flanging the oil and water ballast filling and suction pipes,
also the steam heating coils if retained in place, when the tank is used for dry cargo, and for blank
flanging the bilge suction pipes when the tanks are used for oil or water ballast. If the deep tanks are
connected to an overflow system, the arrangements are to be such that liquid or vapor from other
tanks cannot enter the deep tanks when dry cargo is carried in them.

B: Oil Fuel Pipes, Pumps and Fittings:

1. Low Pressure Pipes: Transfer, suction and other low pressure oil pipes and all pipes passing
through oil storage tanks are to be made of cast iron or steel, having flanged joints suitable for a
working pressure of not less than 7 kgf/cm2. The flanges are to be machined and the jointing
material is to be impervious to oil. Where the pipes are 25 mm bore or less, they may be of
seamless copper or copper alloy, except those which pass through oil storage tanks. Oil pipes
within the engine and boiler spaces are to be fitted where they can be readily inspected and
repaired.

2. Heated Oil Fuel pipes: Pipes conveying heated oil under pressure are to be of seamless steel or
other approved material having flanged or welded joints, and are to be placed in sight above the
platform in well lighted parts of the boiler or engine room. The number of flanged joints is to be
kept to a minimum. The flanges are to be machined, and the jointing material, which it to be
impervious to oil heated to 150*C, is to be the thinnest possible, so that the flanges are
practically metal-to-metal. The scantlings of the pipes and their flanges are to be suitable for a
pressure of at least 14 kgf/cm2 or for the design pressure which ever is the greater. Oil fuel
pressure pipes are to be led, wherever practicable, remote from heated surfaces and electrical
appliances and switchboards, but where this is impracticable, any detachable pipe connections
are to be at a safe distance from them or effectively shielded with suitable drainage arrangements
and the pipes are to be led in well-lighted and readily visible positions.

3. Passage of Pipes Through Particular Compartments: Unless pipe tunnels are provided, no
fuel pipe is to pass through boiler feed water tanks, fresh water tanks or liquid cargo tanks.
Likewise, boiler feed water; fresh water or liquid cargo pipes are not to pass through liquid fuel
tanks unless contained within pipe tunnels.

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Fuel Pumps:
1. Control of pumps: The power supply to all independently driven oil fuel transfer and pressure
pumps is to be capable of being stopped from a position outside the space which will always be
accessible in the event of fire occurring in the compartment in which they are situated, as well as
from the compartment itself.
2. Relief valves on pumps: All pumps, which are capable of developing a pressure exceeding the
design pressure of the system, are to be provided with relief valves. Each relief valve is to be in
close circuit, i.e. arranged to discharge back to the suction side of the pump and to effectively
limit the pump discharge pressure to the design pressure of the system.
3. Pump connections: Valves or cocks are to be interposed between the pumps and the suction and
discharge pipes, in order that any pump may be shut off for opening up and overhauling.

Control Valves or Cocks:

1. Valves or cocks controlling the various suctions are to be located close to the bulkhead where the
suctions enter the machinery spaces and wherever practicable directly over the gutter-way in way
of deep and settling tanks.
2. Valves, cocks and their pipe connections are to be so arranged that oil cannot be admitted into
tanks, which are not structurally suitable for the carriage of oil or into tanks, which can he used
for the carriage of fresh water.
3. All valves and cocks forming part of the oil fuel installation are to be capable of being controlled
from readily accessible positions, which, in the engine and boiler spaces, are to be above the
working platform.
4. Every oil fuel suction pipe from a double bottom tank is to be fitted with a valve or cock.

Relief Valves on Oil Heaters: Relief valves are to be fitted on the oil side of heaters and are to be
adjusted to operate at a pressure of 3.5 kgf/cm2 above that of the supply pump relief valve. The discharge
from the relief valves is to be led to a safe position.
Heating Coils: When heating coils are fitted, and oil leakage into the returns could contaminate the
boiler feed water, provision is to be made to detect this leakage by running the returns from the heating
coils to an inspection tank or other approved oil detector before being led to the boiler feed system.
Temperature Indication: Tanks and heaters in which oil is heated are to be provided with suitable
means for ascertaining the temperature of the oil. Some Classification Societies require thermometers to
be fitted in the main suction lines of transfer and service pumps.
Drip Trays and Gutter-ways:
Oil tight drip trays or gutter-ways of ample size having suitable drainage arrangements are to be
provided for oil tanks, which do not form part of the hull structure and at pumps, valves and other fitting
where there is a possibility of leakage.
Valves should be located in well-lighted and readily visible positions. Suitable drainage arrangements
usually means that, with the exception of the smaller variety which can be readily cleaned out, drip trays
should be drained to an oily bilge or to an oil drain tank provided for the purpose.
It is sometimes proposed to lead the drain from a drip tray under a separate oil fuel tank into the
overflow pipe from the tank. This is regarded as bad practice, as it is possible for the overflow pipe to
become chocked or partially choked by waste or other foreign matter from the drip tray.

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This might lead to overflowing oil backing up into the tray and descending on to heated surfaces of the
machinery below.
Oily Bilge Suction:
Oily bilge suctions may be led to a separate oily bilge line terminating in a master valve at the transfer
pump or other suitable pump. They should not be connected to the oil fuel main, it being obvious that if
foreign matter is lodged under a valve lid, as frequently happens with oily bilge valves, oil fuel will flow
back into the bilges when the line is subjected to a head of oil, either through the opening of a deep tank
valve or when filling from deck.

C: Oil Fuel Supply to Boilers and Diesel Engines:

1: Oil Burning Units:
a) Where steam is required for the main propelling engines, for auxiliary machinery for
essential services, or for heating of heavy fuel oil and is generated by burning oil fuel
under pressure, there are to be not less than two oil burning units, each unit comprising a
pressure pump, a suction filter, a discharge filter and a heater.
b) The installation is to be so arranged that the fuel supply may normally be ensured when
any one of the pumps and any one of the heaters are out of action due to damage or
repair.
c) The pumps of oil fuel burning units and the oil fuel heaters are to be provided with relief
valves leading back to the suction of the pumps or to any other place considered
satisfactory.
d) The double filters are to be of an appropriate type and such that one of the elements may
be cleaned while the other operates. Note that the filters should be duplicated,
irrespective of the type fitted.
e) The discharge of heating fluids from fuel heaters is to be led to an observation tank,
which will allow a check to be made that the said fluids are not polluted by oil fuel before
entering the feed system of the boilers.
f) For auxiliary boilers, a single oil-burning unit may be accepted, provided that alternative
means, such as an exhaust gas boiler or composite boiler, are available for supplying
steam for essential purposes.
g) A starting-up oil fuel unit, including an auxiliary heater and hand pump, or other suitable
starting-up device, which does not require power from shore, is to be provided.

2: Burner Arrangements:
a) The burner arrangements are to be such that a burner cannot be withdrawn unless the oil
fuel supply to that burner is shut off, and that the oil cannot be turned on unless the
burner has been correctly coupled to the supply line.
b) The short joining lengths of pipes to the burners from the control valves at the boiler may
have cone unions, provided these are of robust construction.
c) Flexible hoses of approved material and design may be used for the burner pipes,
provided that spare lengths, complete with couplings, are carried on board.
d) Drip trays are to be fitted at the furnace mouths to intercept oil escaping form the burners.

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3: Quick-closing Valve:
a) A quick-closing master valve is to be fitted to the oil supply to each boiler manifold, suitably
located so that the valve can be readily operated in an emergency, either directly or by means of
remote control, having regard to the machinery arrangements and location of controls.
b) It is often thought that the valve should necessarily be of a type capable of being controlled from
outside the machinery space. This is not the case, as the valve is only intended for local operation
in an emergency. It may be an ordinary valve having a spindle with a very coarse thread to
permit rapid closing. Alternatively, a lever-weighted straight-through cock could be used, the
lever being normally in the 10 o'clock position with the cock open and in the 2 o'clock position
when closed.
4: Spill Arrangements:
Provision is to be made, by suitable non-return arrangements, to prevent oil from spill systems being
returned to the burners when the oil supply to these burners has been shut off.
5: Gravity Feed:
In systems where oil is fed to the burners by gravity, duplex filters are to be fitted in the supply pipeline
to the burners and so arranged that one filter can be opened up when the other is in use.
6: Steam Connection to Burners:

1. Steam purging of oil fuel burners is not uncommon on modern high-pressure boilers; sometimes
they may be hand operated or, alternatively, there may be an automatic system.
2. Where burners are provided with steam purging and/or atomizing connections, the arrangements
are to be such that oil fuel cannot find its way into the steam system in the event of valve
leakage.
3. However, it has been known for oil fuel to enter a low-pressure steam system due to faulty/sticky
non-return valves in the common pipe length. In the circumstances, it is considered that a drain
valve should be fitted in the steam line before it joins the common fuel steam supply line to the
burners. The drain valve should be interlocked with the steam control valve in such a manner
that when the steam valve is closed the drain valve will be opened and vice-versa. The drainpipe
is to be led to a readily visible and safe position where no danger could occur in the event of
leakage from the pipe. In the case of automated purging systems, the oil fuel and steam purging
supply valves may also require to be so interlocked.

7: Oil Fuel Supply to Main and Auxiliary Engines:

a) The suctions of engine fuel pumps are to be so arranged as to prevent the

gathering of water and sludge likely to accumulate after decanting at the lower
part of service tanks.
b) Two or more filters are to be fitted in the oil fuel supply lines to the main and
auxiliary engines, and the arrangements are to be such that any filter can be
cleaned without interrupting the supply of filtered oil fuel to the engines.
c) Where main engines are supplied partly or totally, with oil fuel, which has to be
heated, arrangements are to be made so that the engine can still operate if one
oil heater is out of action.

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8: Booster Pumps

a) Where an oil fuel-booster pump is fitted, which is essential to the operation of the main engine, a
standby pump is to be provided.
b) The standby pump is to be connected ready for immediate use but where two or more main
engines are fitted, each with its own pump, a complete spare pump may be accepted provided
that is readily accessible and can easily be installed.

9: Piping of I.C. Engines:

The joints of the discharge pipes of fuel pumps to injectors are to be metal to metal; the couplings are to
be of the conical type or of any other type having a similar efficiency under normal operating conditions.

10: Shielding of High Pressure Fuel-oil Piping:

a) On all main and auxiliary engines having a cylinder bore of 250 mm and above, the high
pressure fuel-oil injection piping is to be effectively shielded and secured to prevent fuel or fuel
mist from reaching a source of ignition on the engine or its surroundings.
b) Suitable arrangements are to be made for draining any oil-fuel leakage and for preventing
contamination of lubrication oil by fuel oil.
c) If flexible hoses are used for shielding purpose, these are to be of an approved type. When the
peak-to-peak pressure pulsation in return piping exceeds 20 kg/cm2, shielding of this piping is
also required.
d) In the case of unmanned engine rooms, such pipes are to be shielded and secured irrespective of
the cylinder bore size.
***************************************Kv***************************************

D: Piping Materials:

The various factors considered when making a choice of material for use in a piping system are the
corrosion resistance of the pipe material to the liquid it will carry; the allowable liquid velocity of the
liquid being moved in the material under consideration; and the strength of the pipe material and the
thickness of material required to withstand the internal pressure in the pipe. The weight of the system
and the possible use of suitable plastic coatings on cheaper pipe materials, are also considered together
with the initial cost of the system and expected maintenance costs. If the pipe is used in a steam system
subject to high temperature and pressure, special creep resistant alloy steels must be used.
For seawater services, galvanised mild steel, copper, aluminium bronze, and copper nickel alloys are
commonly used.
Sections of pipe-work made up of different material must be avoided because seawater acts as an
electrolyte and will cause wastage of one of the materials.
Copper nickel alloys are increasingly used. Copper nickel alloys are hard and resist scouring or erosion.
They have a high tensile strength so may be made thinner than copper and aluminium bronze, lowering
the weight of the piping system.

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One disadvantage is that the required thickness of the pipe is such that it has little resistance to damage
if small tools and lifting gear such as spanners, wrenches, and shackles are allowed to drop on the pipe.
The indent formed in the surface of the pipe can set up cavitations and bubble impingement damage,
leading to later leakage down- stream of the interference to the water flow.
Plastic coated pipe may also be used for seawater service. In some cases the piping and the flanges are
completely encapsulated in plastic. This protects both the inside and outside surfaces from corrosion.
The allowable velocity of a fluid is lower than for copper nickel alloys so larger diameter pipes must be
used to handle water at the same flow rates. Plastic coated steel pipes for sea water systems are therefore
heavier than copper nickel systems. Plastic coated seawater piping systems are, however, the lowest in
total cost. Experience over more than 20 years of usage shows that they last the life of the ship without
renewals or other repair cost.
Ballast systems often use steel pipes, which may or may not be galvanised. Plastic coated steel piping is
also used and usually lasts the life of the ship.
Cooling water systems using distilled water invariably use steel piping, but when this is used the water
must be treated to protect the pipe from corrosion. In other cases copper may be used. Lubricating oil
systems also use steel piping.
Domestic fresh water systems may use plastic piping for the supply lines to the various locations in the
accommodation. The connections from the supply lines to taps and faucets are often made from small-
bore copper tubing.
Drinking water supply lines are often made of plastic materials or copper. Normal cast iron and
spheroidal graphite cast iron are also used for some piping systems.

E: SAFETY:
Constant vigilance must be exercised in ships' machinery spaces to prevent accidents and injury to
personnel carrying out their duties. If vigilance and care are exercised, by thinking about the hazards of
various operations, accidents can be prevented.
Staff are at risk when opening up steam valves and putting steam into steam lines. The hazard such as
water hammer should be avoided. It is easily avoided by opening up the drain connections on the piping
and allowing trapped water to drain completely out of the piping before the steam valve is opened. The
steam valve should be opened slowly so that any steam condensed when the pipe is being warmed
through can drain off before any accumulation occurs. After the piping is warmed through properly the
steam valve may be slowly opened and afterwards the drain may be closed.
In some high-pressure steam systems bypass lines are fitted around steam valves. The steam lines should
be drained before opening up the bypass valve. The bypass valve should then be used to warm the steam
line through before opening up the main steam valve.
Some steam valves in high-pressure steam lines are similar to gate valves. When steam pressure is
behind the valve the friction created on the wedge makes opening the valve very difficult. When the
pressure is balanced on both sides of the valve by using the bypass, only a small amount of friction is
present and the valve is easily opened.
Opening up valve covers and flange joints during disassembly operations next to, or near, a live steam
section of the system is also a dangerous operation if not carried out correctly. Normally, drain
connections on steam lines should be used to ensure that there is no pressure present in the line. A cold
line must not be regarded as an indication of an absence of pressure.

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It may contain condensate backed by live steam. Safe practice requires each nut on the studs fastening
the cover in place to be slackened a very small and equal amount in the first instance. By closing the
valve onto its seat, the cover should be lifted, and the cover joint will be broken. If a pressure exists
above the valve, its presence will be heard immediately. If a pressure exists below the valve and the
valve is opened very slightly, the existence of pressure will also be heard immediately. By working
carefully in this manner accidents can be avoided.

There are many cases on record of the disastrous consequences of removing all the cover nuts on a
valve and the operative being killed by scalding when the gasket or joint gave way and allowed the
cover to be blown off the valve body.

In a similar manner, if pipe flange bolts are being removed with burning gear, a new bolt should replace
each old bolt as it is removed. The replacement should be tightened before burning out the next bolt.
After the old bolts are all removed, the flanges may then be broken under full control in the same way as
when removing a valve cover from the valve body; by slackening off each new bolt an equal and very
small amount before using wedges to separate the flanges. If the steam line is for high temperature and
pressure steam, every care must be taken to ensure that bolts of the correct grade material are used when
finally making up the joint.
Painting pipelines in enclosed machinery spaces requires adequate ventilation during the time paint is
being applied and during the drying or curing period. Failure to adequately ventilate the space has lead
to operatives being asphyxiated. The fumes given off from some paint solvents are also found to be
toxic.

Any enclosed space such as a double bottom tank, duct keel, pipe duct, peak tanks or similar space
must be properly ventilated before entry is allowed.

These enclosed spaces may have an atmosphere depleted of oxygen through the absorption of oxygen by
steel during rusting. Another source of danger may be the presence of carbon dioxide due to organic
material rotting. One sad case involved the cleaning of bilge lines and the removal of grain from bilge
piping in a pipe duct following the discharge of a grain cargo. Some of the grain was left in the pipe duct
and remained there for some time after the duct entry doors were replaced. Some time later the duct was
opened and people who entered were asphyxiated.
Enquiry showed the grain when rotting had given off carbon dioxide and left the space unsafe for entry
because there was insufficient oxygen present in the pipe duct to support life.
After properly ventilating an enclosed space nobody should enter the space without another person
standing by outside to call for further assistance if the person inside the space experiences difficulties.
The person standing by should not enter the tank to render assistance but should call other people to give
aid as necessary.
Accident enquiries show that many people are injured through falls from spaces where handrails,
gratings or floor plates have been removed. If any danger is created when equipment is removed from
areas where there is normally free access, the area where the danger exists must be roped off making
access difficult. Notices should be posted at engine room entrances calling attention to the danger.

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Safety helmets should be worn when working in a ship's engine room when repair work, dismantling
engine parts, using lifting gear and the like are in progress. Safety shoes with steel toecaps should also
be used when safety helmets are being worn.

It is essential that valves on fuel tanks should be operated at the tank, and from the remote position, at
weekly intervals. Extended spindle universal couplings and shaft bearings should be lubricated regularly
to ensure that they work easily, and do not seize up in the bearings. Wire cables on self-closing valves
should be protected with oil to prevent wastage by corrosion, and pulleys supporting the cables should
also be lubricated. These tests are best carried out as part of the fire drill exercise at the same time as the
testing of fire pumps. The test should be recorded in the engine room ‘Log book’ and a copy of the entry
given to the Master for inclusion in the official log.
Chemical solvents, degreasing fluids, and inhibited, acid de-scaling liquids must all be used with
extreme care. The instructions regarding their use must be studied and any safety recommendations
strictly complied with; particularly with regard to protection of the eyes and skin. Special ventilation
requirements when using industrial solvent and cleaners must also be strictly complied with.

****************************Kv******************************
Reference:
6. Marine and offshore Pumping and piping systems by Mr. J. Crawford.
7. Marine Auxiliary Machinery by Mr. D.W. Smith.
8. Pump application Engineering by Mr. G. Tyler and Mr. P.E. Hicks.
9. Pumping Systems by Professor S.G. Christensen.
10. Instruction manual of pump manufacturers.
**********************End of Pumping System************************

MARINE REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING.

NOTES FOR B.E (MARINE ENGINEERING) CADETS:
Prepared by: Prof. K. Venkataraman. CEng; FIMarE; MIE.

1. Introduction: In ships, refrigeration is used to protect the food products and to provide
comfortable living conditions. In a ship built solely for refrigerated cargo the valve of the
produce, which could be lost in the event of serious failure of the refrigerating machinery, may
well exceed the value of the ship. Refrigeration is therefore, of prime importance.
2. What is Refrigeration? Refrigeration is a process of removing heat from a substance and lowers
the temperature of the substance below its surrounding atmospheric temperature and maintaining
its temperature at the required sub atmospheric level. The heat removed from the said substance
is passed on to another space or substance.
3. Why Refrigeration is Necessary? In short refrigeration is necessary to prevent the foodstuff
from getting spoiled. From the refrigeration point of view foodstuff are mainly divided into two
groups.
a. “LIVE” food: Fruits, vegetables etc. are alive and do breathe for their existence, even
after they are picked off from the trees.
b. “Dead” food: Fresh or frozen meat, chicken etc.
Live Products:
The refrigeration helps preserve the live products by the following effects:

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 1. Delays the ripening process of fruits.
2. Delays the onset of moldiness.

The ripening process of fruits is purely a chemical reaction. Such a chemical reaction proceeds more
slowly at reduced temperatures. For a fall of 10*F (5.5*C) the reaction is halved.
Dead Products:
Refrigeration is able to preserve the dead products by:
1. Preventing or delaying the development of microorganisms (mould, yeast and bacteria).
2. Retarding the oxidation, of fats.
Microorganisms are neither plants nor animals. They need water for existence. They consume food and
discard the remainder. This rejected remainder is toxic. Oxidation of a fat adversely affects flavour and
hence render it unfit for consumption.
Freeze Drying:
In the previous paragraph it is mentioned that water is necessary for the microorganisms. If we remove
the moisture they would die. That is why we could still see that “drying” is practiced as one of the
methods of preservation. It is very effective to freeze under vacuum. This is called freeze-drying.

Application of Refrigeration on Board Ships:

Refrigeration in Ships:

Refrigerants: The working substance in a refrigeration system called “Refrigerant”.

Primary Refrigerant: A primary refrigerant is the medium, which is used in a thermodynamic cycle to
remove heat from a low temperature region and convey it to a high temperature region. It undergoes
change of physical state during its working cycle.

Secondary Refrigerant: A secondary refrigerant is a substance, which transfers heat by conduction and
convection. It does not undergo a change of physical state during its working cycle.

Desired Properties of a Refrigerant:

1. Operating pressures should be low enough that lightweight material will contain the refrigerant.

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 2. But the pressure should be preferably above the atmospheric pressure so as to prevent air from
entering the system in the event of leak.
3. Low freezing point is desirable.

4. Volume of refrigerant gas need to be pumped per ton of refrigerating effect should be low.
5. It should have a high thermodynamic efficiency. Thermodynamic efficiency is the ratio between
heat abstracted by the refrigerating machinery and the heat equivalent of the power supplied the
compressors.
6. It should not be flammable or explosive.
7. It should not be toxic.
8. The tendency of a refrigerant to leak should be low, and the detection of leak should be easy.
9. For good heat transfer viscosity should be low, thermal conductivity high.
10. It is preferred that there should not be a chemical reaction between the refrigerant and the
lubricating oil.
11. It should be available at a cheaper price.

List of some common Refrigerants:

1. Carbon Dioxide.
2. Ammonia.
3. Freon 12 (R12).
4. Freon 22 (R22).
5. Freon 502 (R502).
PROPERTIES OF FREON REFRIGERANTS:

Chemical formula. CC12F2. CHC1F2 Mixture of 49% CHC1F2+

51% of C2C1F5.
R – 12. R- 22. R – 502.
Disch. Pressure. (Bar) 7.4 12.0 13.1
Suc. Pressure. (Bar) 1.8 3.0 3.5
Ref. Cap. KJ/s. 318 571 561
Power. KW. 89 170 188
Ref. Effect. (Ratio) 1.0 1.55 1.7
Boiling Point. - 29.8*C - 40.8*C - 45.4*C
Comp. Ratio. Moderate. High. Higher.
Cooling of Compressor No. Yes. Yes.

Properties of refrigerant. CO2 NH3

Discharge pressure. (Bar). 72.0 11.7
Suction pressure. (Bar). 23.0 2.4
Critical temperature. 31*C 133*C
Specific enthalpy of vapour at 15*C (KJ/Kg)
48.9 112.4
3
Specific volume of vapour at 15*C (mm /kg)

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 16.9 509

Industrial Refrigerants:
Carbon Dioxide: Until 1945 carbon dioxide was the most common marine refrigerant. However, it has
not been installed in new ships since 1959, but reference is made to it as it is still encountered on older
ships. Its main disadvantage is the very high pressure involved, necessitating very rugged compressors
and heavy gauge pipe-work and pressure vessels.
Ammonia: Ammonia has never been a popular refrigerant for marine use owing to its irritant and
toxic properties in the event of a leak. However, it does have cost advantages for large installations
operating at low temperatures e.g. fish factory vessels. Any engineer posted to an ammonia plant is
advised to make his first job a check that all pressure relief devices (bursting disc or pressure relief
valves) are correctly installed and piped to atmosphere, so that in the event of their relieving an excess
pressure there will be no escape of gas into the machinery space.
Refrigerant 12: Historically, Refrigerant 12 was the first of the halogenated hydrocarbon refrigerants
to become widely available at reasonable costs. It ousted carbon dioxide in the marine field as it
permitted the use of lower pressure systems and simpler compressors. Its behavior with oil facilitates
lubrication. With the use of lower temperatures it has the disadvantage that evaporator pressures fall
below atmospheric.
Refrigerant 22: The development of lubrication arrangements and its initial higher cost held back the
introduction of Refrigerant 22 in place of Refrigerant 12. However it is now the most common
refrigerant for a wide range of temperatures, including low temperatures, - 41*C (- 42* F) being possible
without negative evaporator pressures.
Mono Chloro Di Fluro Methane: R22: It is a synthetic refrigerant specially developed for
refrigeration installations that need a low evaporating temperature. One example of this application is in
fast freezing units which maintains a temperature of –29*C. (-20*F) to –40*C (-40*F). It has also been
used successfully in air conditioning units and common household units. The operating pressures of R22
are such that it is not necessary to operate at below atmospheric pressures in order to obtain these low
temperatures. Water is more soluble in R22 than R12 by a ratio of 3 to 1 (19.5ppm by weight). Because
of its affinity for water, more dessicant is needed to dry R22. it has good solubility in oil down to –9*C
(16*F). The oil will begin to separate at this point. Because it is lighter than the refrigerant it will collect
on the surface of the liquid refrigerant. Leaks may be detected with a halide torch or an electronic leak
detector. R22 miscible with oil in the condenser but in the evaporator cold conditions there are two
Liquid layers; the top mostly oil and the bottom mostly refrigerant.
Refrigerant 11: This is a very low-pressure refrigerant, and large volumes of it have to be circulated
for a given duty. These properties make it particularly suitable for large air conditioning installations,
where only modest temperature drops are required and centrifugal compressors can be used. Its high
coefficient of performance gives a significant saving in horsepower for large installations.
Refrigerant 502: Refrigerant 502 was introduced commercially in the early 1960’s and is
particularly suitable for so-called “hermetic” compressors, i.e. compressors in which the reciprocating
compressor and its motor are contained within a gastight shell. This construction eliminates rotating
shafts penetrating the compressor easing and reduces the risk of leaks. However, it does mean that the

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refrigerant vapour is drawn over the electrical windings of the motor, and in this respect Refrigerant 502
has the advantage that it attacks the electrical insulating materials far less than other refrigerants.

Also, for a given refrigerating capacity, a larger weight of vapour passes through the motor and the
temperature rise during compression is less. Both of these factors help to reduce temperatures within the
hermetic shell.
Secondary refrigerants:
A secondary refrigerant is one, which is used as a heat transfer medium, with a change of temperature
but no change of state. The secondary refrigerants used in marine plants to day are brine and
trichloroethylene.
Brine is a mixture of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and water, and has a specific gravity associated to
temperature shown in the table below. In refrigerated brine systems, severe corrosion can occur causing
valves to jam open or shut, and pipe failure leading to loss of brine. To prevent corrosion the brine
should be maintained slightly alkaline (Ph 8.5 to 9.5) by the addition of an inhibitor, e.g. sodium
chromate or dichromate.

(Note: Specific gravity is measured using a hydrometer marked directly in specific gravity or marked in the Twadell or Beaume scales).

One such inhibitor is ‘Nalfleet brine treatment liquid’, a blend of chromate inhibitors, together with an
alkaline buffering agent which generally eliminates the need to supplement the treatment with additions
of caustic. Ideally the brine Ph should be maintained in the range 8.5- 9.5 and the concentration of
sodium chromate is based on the principle that the yellow colour of the chromate ion is a measure of its
concentration. The colour is measured using a Lovibond comparator and chromate disc 4/35, in
accordance with the chemical manufacturer’s test procedure.
Brine is normally used for temperatures down to – 34*C, below which it is extremely viscous resulting
in unacceptable pumping losses. Brine is bitter to taste and will contaminate foodstuffs. Calcium
chloride flakes readily absorb moisture to form a corrosive substance, so must be stored in sealed
containers in a dry place. As a safety precaution, eye protection and gloves should be worn when
handling caustic soda or hydrochloric acid and great care must be exercised when mixing calcium
chloride, as the chemical reaction generates a considerable amount of heat. Do not use small plastic
containers to mix brine.
Tricholoroethylene:
Tricholoroethylene is used for temperatures down to –73*C. The gas, which is both toxic and heavier
than air, has a maximum permissible concentration in air of 200ppm. Trichloroethylene acts as a solvent

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to most, synthetic rubbers and jointing materials. It is non-flammable and non-toxic. The liquid is both
heavier than, and immiscible with, water, so any water in the system will freeze at temperatures below
0*C.

Refrigerants and the environment:

Scientific evidence shows that the release of CFC refrigerants into the atmosphere is harmful to the
environment. CFCs released into the atmosphere are broken down by photolysis to release chlorine
atoms, which catalytically destroy ozone, the stratospheric gas that acts as a filter of ultra violet light
from the sun. Scientists predict that increased UV light on earth as a result of ozone depletion will,
amongst other possible consequences, cause skin cancer, interfere with immune systems, and harm
aquatic systems and crops.
Furthermore, CFCS, along with other ‘greenhouse gases’, inhibit the release of heat radiated from the
earth, thereby contributing to global warming. Scientists predict that if the average global temperatures
continue to increase, the mean sea levels will rise, with catastrophic consequences in certain areas of the
world. To protect the global environment, an international agreement, the Montreal Protocol, signed in
1987, controls the use and production of CFC refrigerants and other ozone depleting substances
throughout most of the world. It currently mandates that the production of the CFC refrigerants R11,
R12 and R502, be to be phased out by 1997.
CFCs are characterised under the Montreal Protocol according to the extent to which they damage the
ozone layer. The most damaging CFCs are given an ‘ozone depletion potential’ (ODP) of 1, and all
other CFCs are then assigned an ODP between 0 and 1, according to their destructive potential relative
to the most damaging CFCs. Likewise, CFCs are assigned a ‘global warming potential’- (GWP)
compared to baseline R11. The ODP and GWP values of the refrigerants used in marine refrigerating
plants are listed below.

Refrigerant. ODP GWP

R11 (CFC) 1.0 1.0
R12 (CFC) 0.98 3.05
R502 (part CFC) 0.23 5.1
R22 (HCFC) 0.05 0.365
Ammonia 0.00 0.00

Alternative refrigerants:
Despite the considerable efforts being made to find suitable alternatives for R12 and R502, the choice is
currently limited to R22, ammonia (R717) and R134a. R22 will continue to be the first choice for all
new marine installations and is currently seen as a possible alternative for R12 in new refrigerated
container systems. Environmentalists who claim that its contribution to the ozone depletion problem
may be increasing are questioning the long-term use of R22. Ammonia (R717) is receiving serious
consideration as an alternative to CFC and HCFC refrigerants.
It has an ODP and CWP of 0, and can be used in certain marine installations provided that the required
safety precautions are taken. As an added safety precaution, it has been recommended that ammonia be
used only in indirect systems with secondary refrigerants.
R134a has been developed as an alternative for R12. Containing no chlorine, it has an ODP of 0, and a
GWP one tenth that of R12. It suffers a drawback in being unsuitable for use with mineral oils, and is
expensive. Synthetic oils have been developed but they too are expensive.

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At present R134a is considered to be an acceptable refrigerant for small systems (below 5hp), operating
at high evaporating temperatures and low condensing temperatures.

Reduction of CFC and HCFC emissions:

CFCs and HCFCs only damage the environment if they are released into the atmosphere. It is therefore
important that refrigerating systems are operated and maintained in accordance with the manufacturers’
instructions, particular attention being paid to the reduction of leaks, and the elimination of deliberate
emissions. A large percentage of the annual production of CFCs and HCFCs is used to replace losses
from existing systems. The reduction of refrigerant leaks is there- fore crucial to the prevention of
further environmental damage, and will also result in improved plant reliability, and lower operating
costs.
Systems should be routinely leak tested, with special attention being paid to pipe joints, shaft seals,
valve glands, etc. The operation of the plant should also be monitored by keeping routine logs of
pressures, temperatures, refrigerant charge etc., enabling any signs of refrigerant loss to be quickly
detected.
Elimination of deliberate emissions High pressure refrigerant gases should not be used for cleaning the
finned surfaces of air cooled condensers or air coolers, and R11 should not be used as a cleaning agent
for flushing out systems after a hermetic compressor motor burn out. Other methods more effective and
less damaging to the environment, are available. In carrying out repairs, the refrigerant charge should be
pumped into the system receiver, or other suitable container, and not discharged to the atmosphere.
Contaminated refrigerant should be stored in a container for recycling or safe disposal.

Contaminants:
Moisture:
The various refrigerants have different water solubility characteristics. For example, ammonia (R717)
can hold large quantities of water in solution, whereas the CFC and HCFC refrigerants have much lower
solubility limits, which decrease as their temperatures are lowered. If the moisture present in a
refrigerating system exceeds the amount that the refrigerant can hold in solution it will exist as free
water. At temperatures of 0*C or lower, the free water will freeze into ice in the refrigerant control or
evaporator, restricting the flow of refrigerant. To avoid freeze-ups, the moisture content in low
temperature CFC and HCFC refrigerant systems must be maintained at a very low level.
A further effect of moisture in a system is to form corrosive compounds, which may cause the
following:
1. Pitting and other damage to valves, valve seals, bearing journals and other polished surfaces.
2. ‘Copper plating’ and staining of valve seats etc.
3. Premature fatigue failure of compressor valve springs and reed plates.
4. Deterioration of the lubricating oil, and the formation of metallic and other sludges which tend to
clog valves and oil passages, etc.
5. A break down in the electrical motor winding insulation of hermetic compressors.
To prevent moisture related problems:
a) The system should be gas tight and dried thoroughly by evacuating it, before being
charged with refrigerant.
b) Drier units should be fitted in the liquid line, before the refrigerant control, in all
refrigerant systems with the exception of ammonia.

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 c) The system should be inspected regularly for leaks and maintained gas tight to prevent
the ingress of moisture-laden air, or water from a water-cooled condenser, oil cooler, etc.
d) When adding oil to the compressor, only clean oil from an airtight container should be
used.

Oil:
In refrigerating systems some oil is always carried over from the compressor into the condenser by the
refrigerant gas, from where it is carried by the liquid into the evaporator. The presence of oil in the
circulating refrigerant reduces the heat transfer capacity of the various heat exchangers, the problem
being greatest in the evaporator, since oil becomes more viscous and tends to congeal at low
temperature. To prevent oil related problems, the operation of the oil separator and oil rectifier (if fitted)
should be checked regularly to ensure oil is being returned to the compressor lubrication system. The
amount of oil added to the lubrication system should also be strictly monitored; an excessive amount
indicates that oil is being trapped in the evaporator or suction line.
Ammonia (R717) is not oil miscible, so in ammonia systems the oil carried over by the compressor
separates out and, as it is heavier than the liquid refrigerant, accumulates at the bottom of the condenser
and evaporator. These vessels are usually fitted with drain points and should be kept drained of oil.

Air and non-condensable gases:

The presence of air and other non-condensable gases is detrimental to the efficient operation of a
refrigerating plant, as these gases collect in the condenser, and so increase the condensing pressure.
Abnormally high condensing pressures cause overheating of the compressor, excessive discharge
temperatures, losses in compressor capacity and efficiency, excessive power consumption and possible
overloading of the drive motor. If air and other non-condensable gases are present, the saturation
temperature, corresponding to the condenser pressure, will be considerably higher than the temperature
of the liquid refrigerant. To prevent these problems, the system should be inspected regularly and, if
found to contain air, must be purged and the leak found and repaired. In some plants, automatic purge
units are fitted which operate continuously. These units should be carefully monitored, as their operation
is a prime indication of the air leakage into the system.

Solid particles:
The presence of solid particles in refrigerating systems can cause problems by blocking the control
valves and damaging the compressor’s bearings and other rubbing surfaces. To avoid these problems it
is important to take stringent precautions when carrying out repairs, or during the installation of a new
plant. The open ends of pipes, tubes and valves should be plugged to prevent particles of dust, metal
filings; solder and weld spatter entering the system.
As an added precaution, it is good practice to fit a cloth filter in the compressor’s suction strainer. The
filter should be inspected after a few hours operation and replaced and this process repeated until no
further particles are trapped. The cloth filter must not be left in the system, as it will restrict the
refrigerant flow.

Fundamentals of Refrigeration and The vapour Compression System:

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Refrigeration:
Refrigeration is the process of cooling by the transfer of the heat. Heat is a form of energy and is
indestructible so if heat is removed from a space or substance to cool it to a temperature below that of
it’s surrounding, the heat removed must be discarded to some substance at a higher temperature where it
is of no consequence.

Since heat will not flow freely from a body at a low temperature to another at a higher temperature, it is
necessary to expend mechanical work, heat, or electrical energy from an external source to achieve it.
Refrigeration thus depends on thermodynamics, heat transfer and fluid flow for its practical
achievement. The withdrawal of heat to accomplish the desired degree of refrigeration requires the use
of any one of several refrigerating processes. Each of these depends upon the use of a substance called
the refrigerant, which can readily be converted from a liquid into a vapour (evaporation), and also from
a vapour into a liquid (condensation), within a reasonably narrow range of pressures.
The refrigerant, if first stored as a liquid under pressure, then allowed to flow at reduced pressure
through an evaporator coil in the closed system, will withdraw heat from its surroundings during the
evaporation stage. The heat so absorbed is removed from the refrigerated area when the vapour returns
to that portion of the refrigeration equipment designed to cool down and compress it again to the liquid
state for re-use.
The two main refrigeration systems in commercial use are the absorption system and the vapour
compression system. Most marine refrigerating plants are of the vapour compression type.

Vapour compression system:

The basic principles of the vapour compression system are as follows:
1. A fluid requires and absorbs large quantities of heat when it changes state from a liquid to a
vapour. The heat absorbed during this process is called the latent heat of evaporation.
2. The temperature at which a fluid evaporates or condenses depends on the pressure existing at the
interface between the vapour and the liquid. This temperature is called the saturation
temperature. For example, in a steam boiler operating at 10 bar above atmospheric pressure,
water boils at 185*C. Conversely, in a vacuum chamber operating at pressure 0.5bar below
atmospheric, water boils at 82*C.
3. A vapour or a gas can be liquefied by compression and cooling. This process is called
liquefaction. The property, which makes the vapour compression system an economic
proposition, is that any vapour or gas can be liquefied and recycled by suitably compressing it to
a sufficiently high pressure and then cooling it. If this were not the case, no refrigerant other than
air or water could be used economically, and neither air nor water is ideal for a number of
reasons.

Vapour compression cycle:

The vapour compression cycle takes place in a closed system, comprising a compressor, a condenser, a
liquid receiver, an evaporator, and a flow control or expansion valve, interconnected by discharge, liquid
and suction lines. The liquid refrigerant, e.g. R22, is stored at high pressure in the receiver. The liquid
flows from the receiver through the liquid line to the flow control, which regulates the rate of flow to the
evaporator to suit the rate of evaporation. As it passes through the flow control, the pressure of the liquid

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is reduced to the evaporating pressure, so that the saturation temperature of the refrigerant entering the
evaporator is below that required in the refrigerated space. Note that as it passes through the flow
control, a portion of the liquid evaporates instantly (flash gas) in order to reduce the temperature of the
remaining liquid to the evaporating temperature. The liquid-vapour refrigerant mixture then flows
through the evaporator, where it extracts heat from the refrigerated space, and changes to a dry saturated
vapour at approximately the same temperature and pressure as that at which it left the flow control.

The evaporating pressure is maintained constant by the action of the compressor, which removes vapour
from the evaporator at the same rate as that at which it is formed. In practice, the control system
regulating the refrigerant flow is designed to ensure that the vapour leaving the evaporator is slightly
superheated, thus ensuring that the compressor handles only dry vapour.

Flow diagram of a simplified vapour compression system using R22 refrigerant:

In the compressor, the temperature and pressure of the vapour are raised by compression. The com-
pressed vapour flows through the hot gas discharge line from the compressor into the condenser, using
water or air as the cooling medium. The vapour in the condenser first gives up its superheat as it is
cooled from the discharge temperature to the saturation temperature corresponding to the condensing
pressure, and then gives up its latent heat as it condenses back to a liquid. The liquid then flows from the
bottom of the condenser into the receiver, thereby completing the cycle. When its temperature is below
the condensing temperature, it is said to be sub cooled.
The cycle described above, and shown in the figure above, can more easily be depicted on a pressure-
enthalpy (P- H) or Mollier diagram, given on page 159 below.
Line A to B represents the change from high to low pressure, or expansion process (from 11.92 bar to
1.32 bar). Line B to B1 represents the amount of liquid ‘flashed-off’ in the expansion valve cooling the
remaining liquid. Line B to C represents the evaporation process at constant saturation temperature and

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pressure in the evaporator (-35*C and 1.32 bar). At point C the refrigerant is a dry saturated vapour. Line
C to C1 represents the superheat absorbed by the dry saturated vapour (from –35*C to –25*C). Line C1
to D represents the compression process. Line D to E represents the superheat given up by the vapour in
the condenser (from 90*C to 30*C). At point E the refrigerant is a dry saturated vapour.
Line E to F represents the condensation process at constant saturation temperature and pressure (30*C
and 11.92 bar). At point F the refrigerant is a saturated liquid. Line F to A represents the sub cooling of
the condensed liquid (from 30*C to 20*C).

P – H diagram of a simplified vapour compression system:

Refrigerating effect: The amount of heat absorbed by each unit mass of refrigerant as it flows through
an evaporator is known as the refrigerating effect, and is equal to the difference between the enthalpy of
the vapour leaving the evaporator and the enthalpy of the liquid at the flow control.
Thus, for the system shown in the figure above, refrigerating effect,
qE = hc1 – hA = 398.3 – 230.3kj/kg = 168.0 Kj/kg.

Refrigerating capacity: The rate at which a system will absorb heat from the refrigerated space or
substance is known as the refrigerating capacity, and is expressed as:
Refrigerating capacity, QE = m x qE kj/s; where m = mass flow of refrigerant through the evaporator
(kg/s). For the system shown above to achieve a specified refrigerating capacity of 150 Kw, say, the
required masow rate is:
m QE = 150kj/s = 0.94 kg/s.
qE 160kj/kg.

Compressor capacity: The capacity of a compressor must be such that it removes the vapour from the
evaporator at the same rate as that at which it is formed. If the capacity is too small the excess vapour
will accumulate in the evaporator, causing the pressure and saturation temperature to rise. Conversely, if

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too large, it will remove the vapour from the evaporator too rapidly, causing the pressure and saturation
temperature to fall. To maintain a specified operating condition, a compressor must have a swept
volume equal to the volume of vapour formed in the evaporator per unit time (m3/h).

For the above system to maintain constant operating conditions and produce the required refrigeration
duty would require a compressor with a swept volume: V = m x v m3, where v = specific volume of the
vapour at the compressor suction inlet, m3/kg, and v at –25*C and 1.32 bar = 0.18m3/kg.
I.e. V = 0.94 x 0.18 x 3600 = 609 m3/h.

Heat Of compression: The energy input from the compressor motor to raise the pressure of the vapour
to the required condensing temperature is known as the heat of compression, and is equal to the
difference between the enthalpy of the vapour at the compressor outlet and inlet.
Thus for the example heat of compression, WC = hD – hC1 = 470 – 398.3 kj/kg 71.7 kj/kg.

Condenser duty: The rate of heat transfer from the refrigerant in the condenser to the cooling medium
is known as the condenser duty, and is expressed as, Qc = m x qc kj/s (Kw), where qc, the total heat
rejection, is equal to the refrigerating effect plus the heat of compression. Thus for the system shown:
Qc = m (qE +Wc) = 0.94(470 – 230.3) Kw = 225.3 Kw.
Coefficient of performance: The ratio of refrigerating effect to the heat of compression is known
as the coefficient of performance (CoP). Thus for the system,
CoP = hC – hA = 168.0 = 2.34.
1 .
hD – hC 71 7
**********************************Kv*************************************

Equipments:
Refrigeration Compressors:

Types:
1. Reciprocating compressors.
2. Screw compressors.
3. Centrifugal compressors.
4. Hermetic compressor.

Reciprocating compressors:
This is ideal for refrigerant plant having small displacement and high condensing pressure. As the valve
area is limited it is uneconomical for low-pressure refrigerant. Economical in manufacture and durable.

Construction:
Nowadays most of the reciprocating compressors are arranged in ‘V’ or ‘W’ configuration. One such
Type of compressor is explained below:
Most manufacturers use an iron casting for the crankcase and cylinder housing, although one
manufacturer employs an all-welded construction. The pistons may be aluminium or cast iron, and the
crankshaft of steel or cast iron. The suction and discharge valves may be of spring-loaded ring plate
type, or reed valves (end clamped or free floating) depending on compressor size. Most valve assemblies

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have spring-loaded safety heads to prevent damage in the event of slugs of incompressible liquid
refrigerant, or oil, entering the cylinders (See sketch below).

Ammonia (R717) and R22 compressors are some times fitted with water-cooled jackets around the
upper parts of the cylinders to prevent excessively high discharge temperatures. The use of water-jackets
also improves the efficiency of the compressor. Open type compressors are fitted with shaft seals which
normally consist of a spring loaded, self-lubricated hard carbon ring, bearing onto a steel collar, the seal
to the crankshaft or crankcase housing being provided by synthetic rubber gaskets. Shaft seals are a
common cause of leakage, and should be regularly inspected and leak tested. If fitted correctly and kept
lubricated with uncontaminated oil, a shaft seal will give trouble free service.

Key: 1. Gland housing cover. 2. Stationary Seal. 3.O-Ring. 4. Joint. 5. Gland Housing. 6. Rotating
Seal. 7. Wedge Ring. 8. Multiple Springs. 9. Seal retainer. 10. Buffer ring. 11. Locating pin.
12. Distance piece. 13. Mills pin.

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 Shaft Seal:

Shaft Seal Sketch:

Large compressors are generally provided with an unloading system, which enables the compressor to
start easily with no vapour pressure load in the cylinder, permitting the use of electric motors with low
starting torques. Unloading is effected by holding the suction valves open, or by opening a bypass valve
between the discharge and suction sides during starting. The unloading mechanism may be actuated
hydraulically, mechanically or by solenoid valve.
The unloader system may also be used for capacity control by successively cutting in or out cylinders or
cylinder groups. This may be controlled manually or automatically. Other methods of capacity control
include varying the compressor speed, and ‘hot gas bypass’, which involved passing a proportion of the
discharge gas from the compressor directly to the evaporator, bypassing the condenser. Compressors are
sometimes fitted with crankcase heaters as a safeguard against oil foaming. The heater keeps the oil
warm during standstill periods, thus preventing refrigerant vapour migrating from the evaporator and
condensing in the crankcase.
If liquid refrigerant is allowed to accumulate in the crankcase, it will vaporize at start-up and cause
foaming of the oil, which results in an increased amount of oil being pumped out of the compressor, and
loss of oil pressure. In extreme cases, oil foaming may also result in a total loss of the oil from the
crankcase, and in slugs of incompressible liquid refrigerant and oil entering the cylinders, causing severe
damage to the pistons, valves, connecting rods and crankshaft. Liquid refrigerant may also be carried
over from the evaporator into the crankcase through leaking or wrongly set refrigerant controls. Such
controls should be adjusted or replaced.
Two stage reciprocating compressors:
As a rule, two stage or compound compressors are used in preference to single stage compressors in
plants where the difference between the condensing and evaporating temperatures is of the order of 50K
to 60K.
Two-stage compression combined with intermediate cooling has the following advantages:
a. Lower cylinder pressures, hence lower bearing loads and wear.

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 b. Lower discharge gas temperatures, preventing oil decomposition and
valve damage.
c. Increased volumetric efficiency.

Two-stage compressors may comprise separate low pressure (LP) and high pressure (HP) single- stage
compressors, connected in series, or single compressors with LP and HP cylinders in one housing.

Key: 1. Stationary sleeve. 2. Spring. 3. Connecting rod. 4. Gudgeon pin. 5. Piston. 6. Suction inlet.
7. Suction strainer. 8. Suction valve. 9. Unloading gear pin. 10. Moving sleeve. 11. Suction valve guard.
12. Spring disc assembly. 13. Delivery Valve cage. 14. Delivery valve assembly. 15. Cylinder liner. 16.
Cylinder cover. 17. Delivery manifold. 18. Delivery Outlet. 19. Oil feed to unloading gear. 20.
Crankshaft. 21. Oil pressure relief valve. 22. Oil Pump. 23. Manual capacity reduction control. 24. Oil
filter. 25. Oil filter cover. 26. Plug. 27. Oil strainer. 28. Oil heater boss plug. 29. Connections for oil
differential Pressure switch. 30. Safety disc cover. 31. Oil level sight glass. 32. Crankcase. 33. Suction
stop valve. 34. Suction strainer assembly.

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 Multi Stage Reciprocating Compressor:

Screw compressors:
The figures at the bottom show the rotors of a screw compressor. The essentials being a male rotor with
4 lobes, which meshes with a female rotor with 6 lobes. It is difficult to explain the workings of the
compressor from a drawing – even transparent plastic models fail to fully clarify it. To follow the gas
path through the compressor one may start at the inlet port; as a passage between the lobes of the female
rotor pass this port a “gulp” of gas is drawn in. As the rotor continues to turn, a lobe of the male rotor
progressively fills up the space, which is available for gas between the female lobes; the gas is forced
forward axially and compressed in the ever-diminishing space available to it, until it escapes from the
outlet port.

Screw Compressor: Section through rotors:

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 SCREW COMPRESSOR:

To obtain efficient compression and pumping, leakage of gas between the lips of the lobes and the
easing must be minimized. This is achieved by keeping clearances small and by injecting oil to ensure
continuity of the oil film. The oil also serves as a coolant to remove some of the heat of compression,
thus reducing the operating temperature. The necessity for small clearances is one of the factors that so
far have restricted the manufacture of small compressors. Allowing for manufacturing tolerances, one
cannot just scale down the diameter of the rotors and easing whilst, still maintaining the same ratio of
clearance to diameter.
With deliberate oil injection, the oil passes out with the compressed gas in far larger quantities than with
reciprocating compressors, where any oil carried out is only the accidental seepage that passes the piston
scraper rings. Oil separators on compressor discharge thus have to be far larger in capacity than for other
types of compressor. The capability of the screw compressor to pump out oil also means it can pump out
liquid refrigerant, should this be drawn in with the suction gas. Whilst it is not suggested that this should
be allowed to happen, if it does so due to some part of the refrigerant circuit malfunctioning, the results
are not as damaging as they can be with reciprocating compressors. Rotors are designed with different
length/diameter ratios to vary the compression ratio according to the refrigerant to be used, and to the
temperature difference required. Although designed in this way for optimum efficiency at one
compression ratio, the compressor is versatile and can work over a range of temperature differences.
Compressors are invariably driven by single speed A.C. motors and, to allow the capacity to be varied,
sliding sleeve valves are used, which have the effect of bringing the outlet port back along the axial
length of the rotor towards the inlet port. The control is progressive down to about 10 per cent of full
output, and is not confined to steps as occurs with unloading cylinders of reciprocating compressors.
With some types of evaporators and screw compressors there is a tendency for oil to accumulate in the
evaporator when running for long periods at very low capacity. This oil can be recovered by a brief
period of operation at full capacity. The screw compressor is not as fully developed as reciprocating
compressors. Early screws used gearing to link the rotors. This was dispensed with as it was found that
with large quantities of oil injected, it was satisfactory to drive only the male rotor and to let the female
rotor idle round. Present developments towards smaller and faster rotating screws involve the
reintroduction of gearing and the elimination of oil injection.

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Oil pumps have usually been driven from the screw shaft or provided as independent unit with their own
electric motors.
However, at its present stage of development the screw compressor is fulfilling the hopes that it would
prove to be a more reliable unit than the reciprocating compressor and one needing less routine
maintenance. (A reciprocating compressor with reed valves can be regarded as a form of fatigue testing
machine for the material of the reeds. The springs of plate valves also have a limited life). Classification
societies will consider up to 25,000 hours running before a full survey for screw compressors compared
to 10,000 hours for reciprocating compressors.

Advantages of Screw Compressor:

1. Unaffected by load variation.
2. Oil injection extends the working range.
3. Vibration free operation.
4. Continuous capacity control from 100% to 10%.
5. Period between successive overhauls can be extended.
6. Due to faults in line, if the Freon is drawn in, it will pass through with out damaging the
compressor.

Disadvantage:
1. A large and efficient oil separator is needed due to injection of oil.

Centrifugal Compressors:
For marine use centrifugal compressors are found only on air conditioning duties, as they are not
flexible enough for the range of operating conditions necessary for cargo operations. However some
adjustment of capacity is needed even for air conditioning duties, and one of the best ways of reducing
capacity is by the use of adjustable inlet guide valves. Other methods include use of a damper valve in
the suction pipe, speed variation, or “hot gas bypass” which involves a portion of the discharge gas from
the compressor directly to the evaporator, bypassing the condenser.
If the capacity control is a correctly engineered automatic system, it will always keep the compressor
with in a satisfactory range. If capacity control is manual then care must be taken not to set the control at
too great a deviation from the design optimum. If this is not done there is a possibility of stalling the
blades of the compressor with consequent surging or Vibration.
Efficiency of multi-stage compressors is improved if the liquid refrigerant is expanded in several stages,
the “flash” gas from each stage being returned to the appropriate stage of the compressor. The
entrainment of liquid refrigerant in the suction gas can be disastrous, the mechanical effects being
similar to water entering a steam turbine. To guard against this, flooded evaporators for use with
centrifugal compressors incorporate spray eliminator plates within the evaporator shell

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Key: 1. Pinion/ high-speed gear. 2. High-speed ump. 3. Thrust bearing. 4. Low speed shaft.
5. High speed shaft. 6. Low speed gear. 7. Main bearings. 8. Low speed pump. 9. Impeller.
10. Vanes. 11. Pre-rotation vane linkage. 12. Shaft seal. 13. York flex coupling.
Centrifugal compressor:

Advantages: Elimination of rubbing surfaces, piston rings, valve gears etc; with consequent reduction
in maintenance. No internal lubrication is necessary; therefore oil carry over is not a problem.
Disadvantages: Cannot be designed to operate efficiently over a wide range of compression ratios. So
not preferred for cargo duties. Use of electric drive for large centrifugal compressor can cause difficulty
due excessive starting currents, so these compressors are often driven by steam turbine.
******************** ***********************
Kv

Hermetic Compressor and Semi-hermetic Compressor:

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 Hermetic Compressor (Sectional Elevation):

Semi-hermetic Compressor (Cross section):

A ‘Semi-hermetic’ compressor is illustrated above. The compressor end of the unit is basically the same
as a ‘V’ or ‘W’ compressor driven by a separate motor. To avoid the use of a gland seal, an A.C.
induction motor is arranged within the shell, all gas-tight with the compressor easing. With this
arrangement the mechanical end of the unit can be stripped for overhaul in the usual manner.

A weakness of the design is that if a motor burns out, contaminated oil and refrigerant can be circulated
round the system before the machine stops. To guard against this, it is usual to provide motor protection
in the form of a temperature sensor mounted in the motor windings. Oil pressure cutouts are essential
and should be checked periodically. Semi-hermetic compressors for use at sea are seldom of more than
22Kw (30hp) and a complete unit is carried as spare. In the event of a unit failing, special large filters
(known as burn-out filters) are fitted on the compressor suction and kept in place until contamination

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from the burnout is removed. After a burnout all oil must be removed and replaced as far as practicable,
and it may be necessary to break open pipe-work for cleaning.
For small power compressors, fractional horsepower up to about 2-3Kw (3hp), the most reliable unit
available is the fully hermetic unit (See sketch above). These units are assembled in specially clean
workshops with very small tolerances for working clearances. If such units break down at sea there is
seldom any point in opening the shell; a complete new unit should be fitted. Manufacturers usually
guarantee this type of unit for 5 years. Burnout procedures apply as with semi-hermetic compressors.
Both hermetic and semi- hermetic units are very reliable in themselves, but in view of the bum-out
possibility, which does not present a major problem with other types of compressor, particular attention
should be paid to the rest of the refrigeration circuit components to prevent moisture entering the system
or oil being lost. Either possibility may precipitate motor failure.
Compressors could be driven direct driven or belt driven. If the electric motor drives the refrigerator
compressor through a belt drive, the advantage of belt drive is as follows:
a. Reliable and cheap.
b. Little or no lubrication is needed.
c. Simple speed reduction.
d. Accuracy of alignment, not as demanding as with the gear type.
e. More compact compared to the gear type where the reduction gear occupies
much more space.
f. Less vibration than gear drive.

COMPRESSOR MAINTENANCE:
To ensure trouble free operation, it is important that the initial start-up procedures, the maintenance
procedures and intervals between periodic services are all carried out in strict accordance with the
manufacturer’s instruction manual. As a general rule the following components require periodic
examination and maintenance.
1. Reciprocating compressors:
b) Suction and delivery valves.
c) Top and bottom connecting rod bearings or bushes.
d) Pistons, piston rings, cylinders or cylinder liners.

2. Screw compressors: Condition of the rotors.

3. Centrifugal compressors.
a) Condition of shaft labyrinth seals.
b) Condition of impellers.

All compressors:
a. Suction strainer.
b. Oil pump, strainer, filter etc., and checking the quality of the oil.
c. Oil cooler.
d. Drive coupling, belts or gearbox.
e. Pressure switches and thermostats.

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 f. Capacity control or unloading mechanism.
g. Condition of bearings.
h. Shaft seals.
i. Oil heater and associated controls.
Oil Systems:
The primary function of oil in a refrigeration compressor is to lubricate the bearings and other rubbing
surfaces. It is also required to:
a. Seal the clearance spaces between the discharge and suction sides of the
compressor.
b. Act as a coolant, removing the friction heat from the rubbing surfaces and, in
the case of screw compressors, part of the heat of compression from the
discharge gas.
c. Actuate capacity control mechanisms, and in the case of screw compressors,
load the balance pistons.
d. Dampen the noise generated by the compressor.

The oil for all these purposes is supplied from the crankcase or separate reservoir, and circulated under
pressure by a pump or, in the case of some screw compressors, by the pressure difference existing across
the compressor. Oil strainers and filters are fitted to prevent solid particles damaging the compress or
and oil pump, and sludge blocking the system. As a protection against too low an oil pressure, a
differential pressure switch is fitted. If the oil pressure drops, the unit stops the compressor after a
certain time has elapsed.
Small reciprocating compressors below 7.5Kw are generally splash lubricated. In the splash method of
lubrication, oil in the crankcase is thrown by the crank throw or eccentric rig up onto the cylinder walls,
bearings and other rubbing surfaces.
Oil Separators:
Some oil is always carried over with the compressed gas and must be removed. This is:
a. To prevent it entering and fouling the internal surfaces of the evaporator and other heat
exchangers.
b. To ensure its return to the crankcase or reservoir, preventing failure through the shortage
of oil.
Oil separators are placed in the line between the compressor and condenser, and consist of a vessel fitted
with internal baffles and screens. The separation of oil is mechanical, the slowing down and change of
direction of the gas/oil stream throwing out the oil. The oil separated from the gas collects in the bottom
of the separator and is returned to the crankcase or receiver through an automatic regulating valve.

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 Oil Separator:

Oil coolers:
The function of oil coolers is to remove the friction heat absorbed by the oil in lubricating the various
rubbing surfaces and, in the case of screw compressors, heat from the compressed gas. Oil coolers may
be shell and tube, or plate heat exchangers, water or refrigerant cooled, and are designed to maintain an
oil outlet temperature of the order of 50*C.

Refrigeration Oil:
Lubricating oils for refrigeration compressors are selected for their suitability with the different
refrigerant, compressor type and the plant’s operating temperatures.
Refrigeration oils should possess the following properties:
a. Good chemical stability. There should be little or no chemical reaction with the
refrigerant or materials normally found in the system.
b. Good thermal stability. They should not form hard carbon deposits at hot spots in the
compressor (such as valves or discharge ports).
c. Low viscosity. This is the ability of an oil to maintain good lubrication properties at high
temperatures and good fluidity at low temperatures, i.c. to provide a good lubricating film
at all times.
d. Low wax content. Particularly important in the case of CFC and HCFC plants, operating
at low evaporating temperatures, as separation of wax particles from the refrigerant-oil
mixture may cause problems by blocking expansion and regulating valves.
e. Low pour point. Ability of the oil to remain in a fluid state at the plant’s lowest
evaporating temperature. The pour point is particularly interesting in relation to oils used
in ammonia (R717) plants, as oils with a low pour point are easier to drain from the
plant’s low pressure side.
f. Moisture free. Any moisture added with oil may cause corrosion, and in the case of CFC
and HCFC refrigerants would form as ice in a choked expansion or regulating valve.

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When adding oil to a compressor, or doing an oil change, it is therefore important that only the specified
in the manufacturer’s operating manual is used. The oil must be clean and have no moisture content. Oil
should always be stored in tightly sealed containers, in a warm place, to ensure it does not absorb
moisture from the atmosphere. It is important that the procedures given in the compressor-operating
manual for changing and topping-up the oil are strictly followed.
Condensers:
The purpose of a condenser is to extract the total heat flow of the installation, which comprises the heat
flow through the insulated surfaces, together with the heat extracted from the produce, and that
introduced by fans, pumps and compressor drive motors etc.; a process which changes the high pressure
refrigerant gas into a liquid.

Diagram of water flow through condenser:

Key:
A) Water outlet. B) End cover (cast iron neoprene coated or gun-metal). C) Joint (Neoprene).
D) Tube plates (stainless steel clad cast iron or brass or gum-metal). E) Air purges. F) Branch for safety
disc. G) Gas inlet. H) Gas baffle. J) Tube support basic (stainless steel). K) Vent connection.
L) Air cock. M) Drain cock. N) End cover. O) Joint. Q) Tubes (aluminium brass or cupro-nickel).
R) Liquid outlet. S) Water inlet.
Shell and tube condenser (4-pass type):
Shell and tube condenser: This is the standard type of condenser used in marine plants, with sea water
circulating through the tubes, and refrigerant condensing in the shell (See figure above).
Marine shell and tube condensers are designed to resist corrosion, erosion or fouling. A typical shell and
tube condenser for R22 has aluminium-brass tubes threaded to increase cooling surface; these are
expanded into copper alloy clad mild steel tube plates. Cast iron, cast bronze or mild steel end covers
may be employed, and the water velocity is chosen to resist erosion. Corrosion plugs of iron are often
fitted in the end covers to reduce the attack of seawater on the non-ferrous materials. To avoid erosion,
the water velocity through the tubes should be kept below 2.5 m/s.
An air purge connection is fitted on top of the shell to facilitate the purging of air and other non-
condensable gases. In ammonia plants, oil drain connections are also fitted to the bottom of the shell.

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Maintenance of Shell and Tube Condenser:
In general the following work should be done at regular intervals.
1. To prevent fouling of the inside of the water tubes with scale or marine growth, which reduces
the heat transfer capacity of the condenser, the tubes should be cleaned by ‘rodding’ through
with special brushes. Alternatively, a ready mixed inhibitive scouring acid can be used, with
subsequent neutralization. Such agents must be suitable for use with the tube materials, and
applied in strict accordance with the chemical manufacturer’s instructions.
2. The tubes and end cover should be inspected for wasting, caused by erosion and corrosion, and,
where fitted, the corrosion plug should be replaced as required.
3. The water leaving the condenser should also be refrigerant leak tested regularly, to check for
leaks between the water tubes and refrigerant side.

Air-cooled condenser:
This type of condenser is fitted in refrigerated containers and is also used in other small marine plants.
The condenser consists of a finned tube coil encased in a metal housing with one or more fans to provide
air circulation. The tube and fins are generally of copper.
Maintenance of Air-cooled Condenser:
In general, the following work should be done at regular intervals.
1. To prevent the accumulation of dirt between the fins, which reduces the heat transfer capacity of
the condenser, the fins should be cleaned regularly by brushing or by blowing clear, using air or
a water jet.
2. The tubes and fins should be inspected for damage, corrosion and refrigerant leaks. Damaged
fins should be straightened by means of a ‘fin comb’.
3. The lubrication, bearing alignment, and running temperature of the fan motors should be
checked.

Evaporators:
An evaporator is a heat exchanger in which liquid refrigerant is turned into gas, removing heat from the
refrigerated space or product in the process.
Brine coolers In marine plants shell and tube evaporators are normally used for cooling brine, or other
secondary refrigerants, and may be operated with either flooded or dry expansion refrigerant flow (See
figure below). When the evaporator is operated ‘flooded’, the brine is circulated through the tubes and
the refrigerant is contained in the shell. The maintenance of a correct working level of refrigerant in the
shell is necessary to prevent either liquid carry over, or excessive superheat. The behavior of oil return
from this type of evaporator is affected by the duty, e.g. with R22 there is a tendency for oil to collect
after prolonged running on light duties. This oil can be retrieved by a brief run at higher duties.

When the evaporator is operated ‘dry expansion’, the refrigerant is expanded in the tubes and the brine is
circulated through the shell. In this of evaporator, the tubes are finned internally to increase heat
transfer. The so-called ‘inner-fin’ evaporator offers a more compact design, simplifies oil return, and
permits the use of simpler refrigerant flow controls.
The construction of both evaporators is similar, with steel shells and tubes of steel or aluminium brass.

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 Sectional view of shell and tube type brine cooler with liquid sub-cooling heat exchanger:

Sectional view of inner-fin type brine cooler:

Maintenance:
As shell and tube evaporators are subject to low pressure, and do not suffer from the corrosive action of
seawater, as do condensers, they are generally a trouble-free item. Sources of trouble are most likely to
be due to external atmospheric corrosion, particularly if parts are insulated, and the vapour seal is
damaged permitting the ingress of moisture.

Air cooler batteries:

Air cooler batteries comprise finned tube coils encased in a metal housing and at least one fan to
circulate air over the coils. The coolers may be operated with either direct expansion or flooded
refrigerant flow. In secondary systems, refrigerated brine is pumped through the coolers.
In large coolers steel tubes and fins, galvanized externally for protection against corrosion, form the
coils. In small coolers copper tubes and fins form the coils.
When operating at temperatures below O*C, air coolers dehumidify the air causing frost to collect on
the surfaces of the coils. This restricts heat transfer and air flow, thus reducing the cooling capacity of
the cooler, and must be removed.

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The various methods of frost removal are as follows:
Hot gas defrosting:
Hot gas defrosting uses the hot gas discharged from the compressor to defrost coolers. In large marine
installations with multiple coolers, the hot gas is fed directly from the compressor discharge line into the
outlet of the cooler to be defrosted. The defrosting process condenses the hot gas, and the resulting
liquid condensate flows out of the cooler through the inlet header, bypassing the regulating valves to the
receiver. During the defrost cycle, the cooler on defrost is isolated from the main liquid supply line and
suction line by automatic control valves.
Hot brine defrosting:
In secondary systems, it is usual to circulate hot brine through the coolers. The brine is supplied from a
separate hot brine system, comprising a heater (steam or electrically heated) and circulating pump.
During the defrost cycle, the cooler on defrost is isolated from the cooling system, by automatic control
valves.
Electric defrosting:
Electric heating elements, inserted between the tubes, are used to defrost air coolers.
The drain trays and lines fitted under the coolers to collect the defrost water are also heated during the
defrost cycle in order to prevent re-freezing of the water.
The defrost cycle may be initiated either manually or by an automatic device. The fans are stopped
during the defrost period to prevent the heat of defrost and water being blown into the refrigerated space.
The maintenance procedures for air cooler batteries are the same as for air-cooled condensers.
Surge drums or accumulators:
In some flooded evaporator systems, the liquid refrigerant is circulated from a refrigerant reservoir
called a surge drum to the various coolers by means of pumps or by gravity. The liquid in the coolers
boils, and the resultant gas/liquid mixture returns to the surge drum where the excess liquid is separated
from the gas. The gas then passes to the compressor by a separate suction connection, and the liquid is
recirculated.
The liquid level in the surge drum is maintained constant by a low-side or high-side float control.

Auxiliary equipment:
Heat exchangers.
The functions of a heat exchanger are:
a) To sub-cool the liquid refrigerant and increase the efficiency of the plant.
b) To superheat the suction gas and reduce the risk of slugs of liquid refrigerant entering and
damaging the compressor.
Heat exchangers are fitted in the suction line between the evaporator and compressor. The liquid/ gas
mixture from the evaporator is superheated by the warmer liquid refrigerant from the condenser when
passing through the heat exchanger. The heat transfer process sub-cools the liquid refrigerant, which
results in a reduction of flash gas in the liquid line and an increase in refrigerating capacity.
Filter driers:
The function of filter driers is to remove moisture from all refrigerant systems, with the exception of
those using ammonia (R717), which has a high tolerance for moisture. Foreign particles, sediment, and
the products of oil breakdown are also filtered out.

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The filter driers are fitted in the liquid refrigerant line from the condenser to prevent moisture and other
contaminants entering and blocking the expansion valve.

1. Gauge connection. 2. Cover. 3. Joint. 4. Withdrawing handle. 5. Spring.

1. Distance piece. 7. Division plate. 8. Felt washers. 9. Gauze plates. 10. Casing
11. Inlet connection. 12. Oval flange. 13. Charging connection. 14. Center bolt
15. Drying agent. 16. Retaining sleeve. 17. Outlet connection.
Refrigerant drier:

Filter driers contain a desiccant, which is a moisture absorbing substance which will eventually become
saturated with moisture and have to be replaced. Two widely used desiccants are silica gel and
molecular sieves. Where rechargeable units are fitted, the desiccant can be removed and the drier easing
refitted with a fresh charge. The commonest drying agents used are silica gel and activated alumina,
both of which can be reactivated by heating to 140*C (286*F) for a number of hours.
Burn out filter driers are used to cleanse a refrigerant system after a hermetic compressor motor burns
out. They contain a charge or core, which absorbs and holds the acids and other contaminants produced
by the chemical decomposition of the refrigerant and oil, and the breakdown of the motor winding
insulation.
Vacuum pumps:
Water can be removed from a system that has been opened up to the atmosphere by the use of a vacuum
pump prior to the reintroduction of refrigerant. It should be realized that the main reason for using the
vacuum pump is to remove water vapour and not the air, which could be blown from the condenser
more easily. A pressure of about 2 mm Hg should be obtained with the pump. On disconnecting the
pump and leaving the system closed this pressure should hold for 12 hours. If the pressure increases
there is either a leak in the system, or liquid water in the system is evaporating.

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If the system is gastight, repeated use of the pump would remove all water vapour so that the pressure is
maintained when the pump is disconnected. In very cold weather artificial warming of the room housing
the refrigerant system will aid drying.
In the event of serious water contamination, e.g. if a sea water condenser tube fails and admits water into
the gas system, prolonged use of the vacuum pump will prevent trouble in the future. If this preliminary
drying is skimped, replacement and recharging of driers may be necessary for months until all moisture
is finally removed.
Sight glasses:
These are fitted so that the refrigerant flow may be observed. A full glass indicates that the system is
fully charged, a stream of bubbles indicates a partially charged system, and rapid frothing of the liquid
indicates a shortage of refrigerant. Moisture indicating sight glasses have a colour indicator which
changes colour when the moisture content of the refrigerant exceeds the critical value. The colour
indication is reversible; changing back to the original colour when replacing or recharging the filter drier
has dried the plant.

Refrigerant Flow Controls:

Refrigerant flow controls are fitted to ensure that the correct volume of liquid refrigerant flows into the
evaporator, and to maintain a pressure differential between the high and low-pressure sides of the
system. Correct functioning of these controls is essential to the efficient operation of the system, as the
effects of a faulty control are cumulative and can soon cause complete failure of the equipment.
Flow controls have small orifices in order to effect the desired pressure reduction. They are prone to
choking from any dirt in the system and are always protected by fine filters, which should always be
cleaned if any blockage is suspected. As the expansion valve is the first point in the refrigerant circuit at
which the temperature falls, if the plant is operating at temperatures below O*C any moisture in the
refrigerant will freeze out, and the ice may choke the expansion valve.
A further situation, which can cause erratic performance of a flow control, occurs if it is made to
perform outside its ‘normal’ operating range. A flow control has to be sized correctly for a given
application to obtain optimum performance. A refrigeration plant has to operate in different climates, so
to produce various ranges of cold temperatures a wide variation in refrigerant flow through the valve is
called for. To provide this flexibility of operation, some plants are provided with more than one flow
control. Sometimes two valves are used in parallel, or a larger valve is brought into use for large flows.

Hand expansion valves:

The simplest type of flow control is a hand-operated needle valve. This valve does not react to changes
in load conditions, and must therefore be re-set manually in order to prevent either starving or
overfeeding of the evaporator. These valves are used mainly as auxiliary flow controls, installed in
bypass lines.

Thermostatic expansion valve:

The thermostatic expansion valve is designed to provide an ample supply of liquid refrigerant to dry
expansion evaporators, ensuring high heat transfer under varying load conditions, without allowing
liquid to pass into the suction line and enter the compressor. The operation of a thermostatic expansion
valve is based on maintaining a constant degree of superheat at the evaporator outlet.

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The construction of a typical thermostatic expansion valve is shown in the figure below. The
thermostatic element, comprising the bulb and capillary tube, is usually charged with the same
refrigerant as the system.
To ensure the correct operation of the valve, the bulb must be securely clamped to the suction line, in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

Thermostatic Expansion valve:

With reference to the above figure, the operation of the thermostatic expansion valve is governed by the
interaction of three forces:
Pb: Bulb pressure on the upper side of the diaphragm, tending to open the valve, where Pb, is the
saturation pressure of the refrigerant in the bulb, corresponding to the temperature of the gas at the
evaporator outlet.

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Po: Evaporator pressure on the lower side of the diaphragm, tending to close the valve, where P o is the
saturation pressure of the refrigerant at the evaporator inlet, and ∆p is the pressure drop between the
evaporator inlet and outlet.
Ps: Pressure exerted by the regulating spring, tending to close the valve. The spring tension, set by the
regulating spindle, controls the degree of superheat; a typical superheat value is 4*C to 6*C.
At any constant operating condition, these forces are balanced and pb = po + ps.
If the superheat starts to rise, the bulb pressure increases, pb > po + ps , and the valve is moved in the
opening direction, admitting more liquid and restoring the constant operating condition. If the superheat
falls, pb < po + ps, and the valve is moved to the closing position, reducing the supply of liquid.
In practice, to achieve the desired degree of superheat at the evaporator outlet, dry expansion
evaporators require up to 20 per cent of their cooling surfaces to be available to superheat the gas, the
precise area varying with demand.
Where thermostatic expansion valves are required to operate with evaporators, which are subjected to
large pressure drops, additional control is introduced by incorporating a pressure equalizing connection.
This connection eliminates further increase in the superheat temperature to compensate for the reduction
in pressure, and so allows an increase in the effective area of the evaporator.

Sketch for Thermostatic expansion valve:

Maintenance:
Once a plant is correctly set up, the superheat setting rarely needs adjustment. If a thermostatic
expansion valve appears to be malfunctioning, one should first look for dirt or ice in the valve, and then
the plant should be checked for leaks to ensure that the refrigerant charge is correct. Only after carrying
out these checks should any adjustments be made, and then only in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
Electronic expansion valve system:
The system is designed to provide precise, rapid and remote control of the liquid supply to dry
expansion evaporators, in response to the temperature differential between the evaporator outlet and
inlet.

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This provides accurate control, which allows maximum pressurize of the evaporator surface (high
degree of filling), and a rapid response to changes in evaporator load. It is also unaffected by changes in
condensing pressure, which allows the use of lower pressures in cooler climates, and hence reduced
compressor power consumption.
The system shown below comprises three main components: expansion valve with electric valve
actuator; electronic controller; and two plutonium 1000ohm temperature sensors. The expansion valve is
opened and closed by the actuator, which replaces the thermostatic element of the TEV. The actuator
comprises a pressure reservoir, which holds a given amount of liquid, an electric heating element, and a
negative temperature coefficient sensor (measuring resistance with negative coefficient). During normal
operation the heating element keeps the liquid in the actuator at such a temperature (pressure) that stable
equilibrium between the evaporator pressure under the diaphragm, and pressure in the actuator over the
diaphragm is maintained.

Line Diagram of Electronic Expansion valve:

Operation:
The measured temperature differential (S2 – S1) is compared in the controller with the required
temperature differential (set on the controller). If the measured value deviates from the set value, power
to the heating element is changed to cool or heat the actuator. The pressure in the actuator changes
slightly, causing the valve to move in an opening or closing direction, increasing or restricting the liquid
supply, to restore the required temperature differential. The proportional integration (PI) regulation of
the controller ensures that the measured value (S2 – S1) does not deviate from the set value on variations
in load, evaporating pressure, sub-cooling, and pressure drop across the expansion valve. In the event of
a malfunction, the system should be checked in accordance with the operating manual.

Evaporator pressure regulators:

The function of an evaporator, or ‘back’ pressure regulator, is to prevent the pressure, and therefore the
saturation temperature, of the refrigerant vapour in the evaporator from falling below a required
minimum value. The regulator is fitted in the suction line between the evaporator and compressor.
Spring operated regulators, which open when the evaporator pressure rises and close when the pressure
falls below the set minimum value are used. The regulators are designed so that the pressure in the
suction line has no effect on the operation of the valve.

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In large installations, electronic temperature regulators are used to provide precise control of the air
temperature in refrigerated cargo spaces, or water temperature in a water chiller, by regulating the
evaporator pressure and hence the temperature.
The system, shown by a sketch below consists of:
1. Main evaporating pressure regulating valve.
2. Motorised pilot valve.
3. Electronic controller and temperature sensor.
The main regulating valve is opened and closed by the pilot valve, which regulates the pressure on top
of the piston in the main valve by means of a spring-loaded diaphragm.
The spring force can be changed by the electric motor, which is able to move a pushrod up and down via
a gear rack. In more modern plants, an electric actuator replaces the motor.

Electronic temperature regulator system:

Operation:
The temperature sensor measures the temperature of the cooled air leaving the evaporator. The
registered temperature is continuously compared in the controller, with the pre-set reference
temperature. As soon as a differential occurs between the measured and required temperatures, the
controller sends electric impulses to the motor, which moves the spindle of the pilot valve up or down.
If, for example, the air temperature rises the motor will move the spindle up. The spring force will
decrease, the pressure on top of the piston of the main valve will increase, and the valve will move open
slightly. As a result, the evaporator pressure and temperature will decrease, the capacity will increase
and the air temperature will fall again.
In the event of a malfunction, the regulating system should be checked in accordance with the operating
manual.
Level control valves:
These valves are used in connection with flooded coolers or evaporators to ensure that the liquid level
remains constant, the valves being controlled by a float arrangement in the evaporator or condenser. The
simplest control of this sort is a direct acting, ball float valve.

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For flooded evaporators, e.g. shell and tube evaporators with refrigerant in the shell, the expansion valve
are automatically controlled to maintain a constant liquid level in either the evaporator or condenser.
The simplest control of this sort is a direct acting; float-controlled valve is shown in the figure above.
When liquid is condensed, it flows into the float chamber and the valve opens to allow passage to the
evaporator. To prevent “gas locking” occurring as some of the liquid refrigerant in the float chamber
evaporates, a vent pipe is fitted to the evaporator. This vent pipe has to incorporate a capillary tube, or
very small orifice, to prevent excessive flow: faulty operation of this type of valve can be caused by
blockage in this vent pipe.
For larger plants the pilot operated float valve as shown below is often used.

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This has the mechanical advantages of a servomechanism in that a small float movement allows high-
pressure gas to act on the piston of the valve and magnify the movement. Blocked vent pipes or particles
of dirt in the piston assembly can cause sticking.

An alternative servomechanism sketch is shown above. The liquid level is measured and converted to an
electric signal, which is fed to an electric controller. In turn this then transmits a signal to operate a
pneumatic valve. This system is less susceptible to dirt or blockage than others detailed above, but it is
dependent on reliable operation of the electronic circuitry.
In larger plants electronic float switches are generally used.

A typical electronic liquid level control system is shown in the above figure:
It comprises:
1. An electronic controller. 2. An expansion valve with electric valve actuator. 3. A float switch as
shown below.

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 Float Switch:
Operation.
When the liquid in the receiver moves up or down, the float, A, moves a rod through a magnetic core, B,
causing a signal to be transmitted to the controller. This signal is compared with a reference setting on
the controller. Depending on the variation in liquid level, the controller sends more or less power to the
heating element in the actuator. The pressure in the actuator changes slightly, so that the valve moves in
the opening or closing direction. In the event of a malfunction, the system should be checked in
accordance with the operating manual. Float switches are also used to activate solenoid valves, and as a
safeguard against high or low liquid levels by activating visible or audible alarms.
Crankcase pressure regulators:
The function of this regulator is to protect the compressor motor against overload when the pressure in
the evaporator is above the normal operating pressure for which the motor was selected, e.g. on start up
after long standstills, or after defrost periods.
The regulator comprises an adjustable spring- loaded valve, which is fitted in the suction line ahead of
the compressor.
Solenoid valves.
The solenoid valve is a servo-controlled electromagnetic valve, which provides automatic opening and
closing of liquid and gas lines.

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In the above figure, when the coil (3) is energised, the pilot orifice (4) is opened, and the diaphragm (1)
moves into the open position (vice versa when the coil is de-energised).
A bunt-out coil, a damaged diaphragm, or blockage by dirt, will cause the valve to malfunction.
Whilst thermostatic expansion valves aim to control superheat directly, level control devices do not.
Obtaining the correct superheat with the latter depends on the correct total charge of refrigerant ensuring
that the controlled liquid level is, in fact, producing the desired superheat. For this reason liquid level
controlled plants are sometimes quite sensitive to the charge being correct, and it becomes essential to
vary the charge according to variations in duty.

SAFETY CONTROLS AND DEVICES:

Safety cut outs.

Most of these controls are electric switches, actuated by bellows movement via amplifying leverage. The
bellows move in response to pressure changes transmitted from the sensing point via a connecting tube.
Electronic switching devices activated by pressure transducers are also used.

High-pressure safety cutout:

This is used to protect against too high a discharge pressure, which will overload the compressor and
may damage components. The controls is usually set to cutout and stop the compressor motor at a
pressure of about 90% of the maximum working pressure of the system. Some controls restart the
compressor automatically on drop in pressure; others have a manual reset mechanism.

A) Bellow. B) Pressure pipe connection. C) Guide washer. D) Catch.

E) Catch spring. F) Switch arm. G) Spring contact. J) Main spring.
K) Screwed spindle for adjusting pressure.

Low-pressure safety cutout:

This is used to protect against too low a suction pressure, which usually indicates a blockage or loss of
refrigerant. The control is normally set to stop the compressor at a pressure corresponding to a saturation
temperature 5*C below the lowest evaporating temperature. In some small plants, it is also used as a
temperature control, stopping and starting the compressor to maintain the desired pressure and hence
temperature.

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Oil pressure safety cutout:
This is used to protect against too low oil pressure in forced lubrication systems. It is a differential
control, using two bellows. One side responds to the low side pressure, and the other responds to the oil
pressure. The oil pressure must always be greater than the low side pressure for the oil to flow. If the oil
pressure fails, or falls below a minimum value, the control stops the compressor after a certain time has
elapsed.

Thermostats:
Thermostats are temperature-controlled electric switches, which can be used for both safety and control
functions.

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When fitted to compressor discharge lines, they are set to stop the compressor if the discharge
temperature is too high. Thermostats are also used to control the temperature in a refrigerated space by
cycling the compressor ‘on and off’, or by ‘opening and closing’ a solenoid valve in the liquid line.
Three types of element are used to sense and relay temperature changes to the electrical contacts.
1. A fluid-filled bulb connected through a capillary to a bellows.
2. A thermistor.
3. A bi-metal element.
The above controls should be set in accordance with the plant’s instruction manual, and should be
checked regularly for refrigerant leaks from the bellows and connecting tubes. The electrical contacts
should be examined for signs of wear and arcing.
Pressure relief devices:
Refrigeration systems are designed to withstand a maximum working pressure (MWP) which, if
exceeded as a result of fire, extreme temperature conditions, or faulty electrical controls, may cause
some part of the system to explode. To prevent this, compressors and pressure vessels are fitted with a
pressure relief device.
There are three types of relief device:
1. Spring-load relief valves, which are set to open at the MWP and close when the pressure drops to
a safe level. Relief valves must not be interfered with while in service, and must be locked or
sealed to prevent unotherised adjustment.
2. Bursting discs, which comprise thin metal diaphragms designed to burst at a pressure equal to the
MWP.
3. Fusible plugs, which contain a metal alloy, which will melt when the temperature in the system
corresponds to the MWP.
Generally, the discharge from a. relief device is vented direct to the atmosphere. In some plants,
however, devices protecting components on the high-pressure side are arranged to discharge to the low-
pressure side of the system.

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS:
COOLING ARRANGEMENTS IN PROVISION ROOMS:
GRID SYSTEMS.
Grid systems with pipes on bulkheads and deckheads are nowadays only used for small chambers,
forced air circulation being almost universally preferred. The reason for this is that the air circulation
system is more flexible- being suitable for live cargoes requiring ventilation, such as fruit, and inert
frozen cargoes. There was a time when grid systems were preferred, particularly for carriage of carcases
of chilled beef hung from rails, where weight loss was less with grids than air circulation. With modern
packaging and the extensive use of plastic sheet liners, weight loss is not of such importance.
Two precautions are necessary to obtain satisfactory temperature control with grid cooled provision
chambers. Firstly packages must be clear of the actual grids to leave room for natural convection air
current. Secondly, it is necessary to defrost at regular intervals, even though this means temporarily
emptying the storage space.
FAN AND BATTERY SYSTEMS: PROVISION ROOMS:
Direct expansion coolers made into a unit with air circulation fan and condensate tray, all ready for
ceiling mounting, are standard equipment today.

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Rates of air circulation are about 60 times an hour based on the empty capacity of the space, and no
ducts are fitted. Defrosting is usually carried out by electric heater elements located in amongst the tubes
of the battery, although hot gas is sometimes used. Points to note are as follows:
a. Commodities must not be stowed so close to the unit that they stop air
circulation; in particular, the air blown out from the front of the unit must be
allowed an unimpeded flow over the deckhead of the storage space.
b. Heater elements should be checked for water-tightness of cable/ heater joints.
c. Electrically heated tapes should be used on drainpipes from condensate trays in
rooms, which are kept below freezing point; in frozen rooms, drains from trays
must pass out through the deck and be trapped in the warmer atmosphere below.
It is useless to terminate such a drain over a space scupper in the cold room
since water from defrosting refreezes at the scupper and chokes it with ice.
d. The timing of defrost cycles, whether manual or automatic, should be checked
periodically to ensure that time for complete defrosting, but no more, is allowed.
e. Alarms, which are fitted so that anyone accidentally locked inside a room can
summon help, should be tested at least weekly.
The main components of a direct expansion provision room plant are shown in the figure below. Back
pressure valves are fitted in the suction lines from chilled rooms together with water coolers, which limit
the lower level of temperature in these units when one compressor is serving both them and frozen
temperature rooms.

Provision Room plant system:

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 Line Diagram of Provision room plant:

FAN AND BATTERY SYSTEMS: CAPGO SPACES:

Whether the batteries are of the direct expansion or brine circulated type, the design of the air circulation
system is the same. The main features of a direct expansion plant are the same as those already
described for provision rooms.
For conventional plant there are generally three common forms of air circulation, as shown in the
following figures. The overhead air delivery system as shown in the figure below is the least susceptible
of air openings by incorrect cargo stowage. Its ducting network is more expensive to install than other
systems.

The figures in the next page show upward air movement from gratings over the deck.
Gratings of plywood or aluminium have been developed which are capable of bearing the weight of
forklift trucks for cargo handling. High rate of air circulation are usually provided—say 80 air changes
per hour and the system is eminently suitable for cargoes such as bananas with high heat production.
Figure above shows upward air movement from air delivered from openings all along the shipside. This
system is intermediate between the other two in that it is more tolerant of faulty cargo storage than the
grating system, but not as tolerant as the delivery upwards from deck grating system.

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 Air circulation system: Delivery from overhead ducts:

Air circulation system: Delivery upwards from deck gratings:

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 Air circulating system: Delivery at deck level at shipside:
Container Ships Carrying Refrigerated Cargo is of two basic types:
One those in which each container is fitted with its own small refrigeration plant, and two, those in
which containers are provided with openings in the front wall through which cold air is circulated from a
duct system permanently installed on the ship. Air circulation arrangements for the second type of
system are shown in the above figure. Compressed air operated couplings are used to link the ships ducts
with the containers (See figure page 191).
An elementary but some times forgotten, essential with the couplings is to ensure that they are all
retracted in a vertical stack of containers before either lifting or lowering a container.

Extending coupling between container and ship’s air duct:

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 Air circulation system for container ship:

The principals of refrigerating plant, commonly used in marine installations are those, which cool
directly, i.e. by ‘direct expansion’ (DX), and those, which employ a secondary refrigerant (brine).
DX systems are considered to be cheaper to install and run than brine systems, and in recent years they
have gained popularity as their reliability and accuracy have improved. Consequently, some very large
reefer vessels of over 760,000 ft3capacity built in 1990, have been fitted with direct expansion systems
using R22 as a refrigerant. The weight of refrigerant in the DX system is however, several times greater
than in a brine system, which is, on the other hand, more bulky.
The principle of operation of the DX system is illustrated in the sketch on page 192.

Direct expansion system:

The refrigerant vapour from the air coolers is compressed to a higher pressure in order to raise the
boiling point of the refrigerant to such an extent that it will liquefy again in the condenser. The vapour
passes through the oil separator, where oil is separated and returned to the compressor crankcase and the
vapour flows to the condenser. Seawater flows inside the tubes of the shell and tube condenser, and
removes the heat from the hot vapour, which liquefies. The liquid drains to the receiver, passes through
the filter drier, is sub-cooled in the liquid cooler, and expanded in the thermostatic expansion valve into
a low pressure liquid and vapour before entering the air coolers.

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The air circulated in the cargo chamber passes through the air cooler. The liquid refrigerant vaporises,
reducing the temperature of the air outlet by 3-5*C, depending on the type of cooler and the air velocity
across it, the temperature of the chamber and the refrigerant entering the cooler. The air delivery
temperature is controlled by a temperature sensor, which regulates the refrigerant supply to the cooler by
closing or opening the solenoid valve in the liquid line, depending on the demand. More precise control,
to within ± 0.2% of the preset delivery temperature value, can be achieved using a computer connected
to the electronic expansion valves, and temperature probes fitted in the refrigeration suction line at the
air delivery, as illustrated under electronic valve expansion system.

*************************Kv****************************

INDIRECT (BRINE) SYSTEMS:

Refrigeration plants using a “secondary refrigerant” are usually fitted for large installations. The
secondary refrigerant is a liquid, which is cooled in the refrigeration machinery room and pumped
around the ship to batteries in each cargo space. The main advantages of this arrangement compared to
direct expansion are:
a. The primary refrigerant is only present in the machinery space, and the
risk of loss by leakage more readily controlled.
b. Difficulties of oil recovery from evaporators half a ship’s length away
from the compressors are avoided.
c. The brine system is more easily controlled to give accurate temperature
control, if a manual system, less skilled operators are required., if an
automatic system, simpler automatic controls can be used.
d. Greater flexibility in simultaneously carrying cargoes at different
temperatures in different spaces is possible.

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Calcium chloride/brine is the commonest secondary refrigerant used for cargo ships, water is used for air
conditioning installations (with suitable safeguards to prevent its freezing) and trichlorethylene is used
for very low temperature installations, such as fishing trawlers. The evaporators (brine coolers) pumps
and distribution valves on cargo ships are usually located together within an insulated brine room, to
provide ease of access and to eliminate the need for insulating individual items and pipes. Entering a
brine room for the first time can be bewildering and consulting the brine diagram of a complex
installation may at first increase the bewilderment. However, the system is basically very simple, the
complexity arises from duplication of components and alternative cross-connections.
Figure given below illustrates the development of a brine system.

CALCIUM CHLORIDE/BRINE TABLE:

Specific Gravity: HydrometerReading: Freezing Point of Freezing Point of
(Twaddell): Solution: *C: Solution: *F:
1.20 40 -21 -6
1.21 42 -23 -9.5
1.22 44 -25 -13
1.23 46 -27 -17
1.24 48 -30 -21.5
1.25 50 -32 -26
1.26 52 -35 -31
1.27 54 -38 -37
1.28 56 -42 -44
1.29 58 -51 -60

Reference to figure on page number 194:

Figure (a) is the basic diagram with one cargo space battery circulated with brine from one evaporator,
in a closed circuit with a head tank to allow for expansion and contraction of the brine.

Figure (b) shows the addition of headers, which enable a number of spaces to be served.

Figure (c) shows the addition of a second evaporator, air vent pipes have also been added at this stage.

Figure (d) shows the addition of a third pair of headers served by a brine heater and third pump, so that
any battery can be individually defrosted by circulating the warm brine. Also introduced is a brine
“injection” cross connexion from the delivery of pump No. 1 to the suction of pump No. 2. Brine
injection is used so that evaporator No. 1 can assist evaporator No. 2 when No. 1 is set to deliver brine at
a lower temperature than No. 2. A further refinement of this injection is the by-pass arranged across the
inlet and outlet of evaporator No. 2 so that the cooling of the brine circulating in No. 2 system can be
achieved entirely by injection if desired.
In practice, there also has to be a brine make-up tank, in which solid calcium chloride is dissolved, for
topping up the system. An overflow connexion from the head tank, a safety pressure relief line from the
brine heater, and a sighting connexion to which the return from any space can .be diverted, are all
arranged to terminate over this make up tank.

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The system in (see figure on page 195) incorporates three brine evaporators (or chillers), three
circulating pumps and one brine mixing pump, the steam heater, the brine making and balance tanks, the
brine delivery and return manifolds with valves, called the brine regulating stations, and the brine
injection valves.
The system is entirely filled with brine and solely connected to the atmosphere through the balance tank
placed at the highest point of the system. Such a system is known as a closed system.
The pumps circulate the brine from the evaporators through the delivery regulating station to the air
cooler and back via the suction station to the evaporator. The brine temperature can also be regulated
automatically by the use of brine injection, which has an accuracy of ± 0.1*C. The evaporators,
however, can produce brine at different temperatures.

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Defrosting is achieved by circulating the warm brine from the brine heater to the air coolers and back to
the heater. Steam is usually preferred as a heating media, but electrical heaters are sometimes used.
The brine regulating stations and pumps are usually located in a separate insulated room above the
engine room, which may also accommodate the brine evaporators. The brine expansion tank is equipped
with a level switch, which allows for a low level alarm.
Calcium Chloride/Brine:
The density of the brine solution used has to be increased as the minimum temperature to be used
decreases. In using the hydrometer, the brine sample should be at 15*C (60*F) as the instrument is
calibrated for use at this temperature.
In the absence of air, calcium chloride is not corrosive (steel brine pipes remain in good condition
internally, but steel brine head and make-up tanks suffer severe corrosion at the brine/air interface).
However, it is desirable to keep the brine slightly alkaline, with Ph between 8.0 and 8.5. If found to be
acid (e.g. litmus test papers), caustic soda should be added. A further anti-corrosion procedure is to
include an additive in the brine solution, sodium dichromate being suitable. Unfortunately, there is no
simple method for determination of sodium dichromate concentration, and a sample of brine should be
sent ashore for analysis at least every six months when this treatment is being used.
Brine heaters contain steam-heated coils within a shell through which brine is circulated. When warm
brine is required for defrosting, the steam should be put on first and the brine flow restricted by first
cracking the inlet brine valve until the brine has risen in temperature to above (0*C/32*F). An initial
high flow rate of cold brine can cause freezing of the steam condensate with subsequent blockage. A
brine temperature of 43*C (110*F) is suitable for defrosting.

Indirect brine system:

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The system above incorporates three brine evaporators (or chillers), three circulating pumps and one
brine mixing pump, the steam heater, the brine making and balance tanks, the brine delivery and return
manifolds with valves, called the brine regulating stations, and the brine injection valves.
The system is entirely filled with brine and solely connected to the atmosphere through the balance tank
placed at the highest point of the system. Such a system is known as a closed system.
The pumps circulate the brine from the evaporators through the delivery regulating station to the air
cooler and back via the suction station to the evaporator. The brine temperature can also be regulated
automatically by the use of brine injection, which has an accuracy of ±0.1*C. The evaporators, however,
can produce brine at different temperatures. Defrosting is achieved by circulating the warm brine from
the brine heater to the air coolers and back to the heater. Steam is usually preferred as a heating media,
but electrical heaters are sometimes used.
The brine regulating stations and pumps are usually located in a separate insulated room above the
engine room, which may also accommodate the brine evaporators. The brine expansion tank is equipped
with a level switch, which allows for a low level alarm.
**********************Kv*******************************
Reefer Vessel.

Modem fully refrigerated vessels, or reefers as they are frequently called, are completely flexible
multipurpose vessels, suitable for carrying any refrigerated cargo, palletized or in bulk, all over the
world. The reefer must have a sufficient capacity to pre-cool bananas, citrus and deciduous fruit, even
meat if required, and be able to maintain a range of temperatures from –30*C to 13*C, some at close
tolerances, in different temperature zones. They must also be able to carry most general cargoes on their
return voyages. The reefer must provide facilities to carry integral containers on deck and be able to
handle a 40 ft loaded container (30 tons weight) using her own fast operating cranes. The typical speed
of a modem reefer is 19-20 kn. The speed of unloading is of paramount importance and to facilitate fast
unloading of cargo, large wide hatches or side loading designs are very popular. It is claimed that a
medium size ‘pallet friendly’ reefer of 3000 pallet capacity can be unloaded in 8 hours. The speed of
unloading bulk cargo, i.e. bananas, etc., is achieved by fitting side ports in the upper decks and hatches
in the remainder for conveyors and escalators.

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 Cargo holds and containers arrangement on a modern reefer:

The main features of a modern, 45,000ft3 reefer vessel are as follows:

1. Four holds with 4 or 5 cargo decks, each with the same clear head of 2.2m to mininmize lost load
space when storing standard pallets (1.2m long x 1.0 m wide x 2.1 m high maximum). These
decks are arranged usually in eight airtight temperature zones, with the air coolers placed along
the bulk- heads serving one or sometimes two decks. Variable speed fans are placed above the
coolers forcing air through, under the grating then vertically from bottom to top through the
cargo and back to the coolers in so called ‘ductless systems’.
2. The square shape of the holds prevents pallets from crashing at sea and improves the air- flow
through cargo, thus minimizing short circulation of air. In the forward end of the vessel, where
the sides of the holds may have a flare, inflatable bags or sliding shutters are used.
3. Obstruction free decks and strengthened metal or plywood gratings enable forklift trucks to work
with pallets.
4. Wide hatchways, which facilitate easy handling of palletized cargo (six pallets or more can be
discharge simultaneously), and side ports and/or deck hatches for banana elevators.
5. Four fast cranes able to handle a 40 ft container laden, for example, with frozen meat.
Space for eighty or more integral containers on the weather deck, and space for fork lift trucks and pallet
cages.
Air circulation and refreshing:
Between 90 and 120 air changes of the net volume per hour is usually provided in holds. Such volume
flow guarantees good and uniform cooling rate of palletized and bulk cargo and allows for imperfect
storage. This air rate will be reduced on completion of cooling down and when frozen cargo is carried.
Air refreshing rates to remove carbon dioxide, ethylene and other volatiles, can be two or three air
changes per hour. In order to precool hot outside air some ships are also fitted with air-to-air heat
exchangers.
Refrigeration machinery.
In recent years most reefers have been fitted with 3 or 4 identical prefabricated package units
incorporating double screw compressors with variable volume ratio to secure optimum efficiency at high
as well as at low suction temperatures. Reliability of the installation and freedom from maintenance,
where possible, is the prime object of the owner. In some cases surplus refrigeration capacity for various
duties, which a plant is expected to fulfill, has been more generous than ever before. Allowance is
usually given for deterioration over a period of time, possible inefficient operation and higher than
designed ambient and sea water temperatures in the Gulf ports in summer.

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 Ductless air circulation system:

Detail of shipside and deck insulation:

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Insulation:
Traditionally, cargo spaces of reefers have been insulated with rock wool or fiberglass slabs on shipsides
and bulkheads and high-density polyurethane slabs on decks and tank tops. Timber supports, suitably
protected against rot, are placed between steel structures and inner face lining, such as aluminium,
stainless steel, PVC or marine plywood to eliminate heat bridges.
In recent years, the trend was to apply sprayed ‘in-situ’ polyurethane to ribbands, corners and
complicated areas to reduce the heat transfer. In some modern designs polyurethane is sprayed on steel
sides and frames before glass-wood slabs are pinned to the sides. These slabs are covered by mesh wire
and sprayed with polyurethane again to a thickness of 50 mm before plywood lining is applied. Such an
arrangement should prevent glass wool from setting down and getting wet in the event of damage to or
inefficient lining and vapour barrier.
In other designs, polyurethane is simply injected between the shipside and plywood lining, or
prefabricated polyurethane panels 60-100 mm thick are fitted with mineral wool between the frames. In
installations where mineral wool is not fitted, pressure equalising valves are applied to prevent the
panels’ collapse in the event of rapid cooling of chambers or temperature fluctuation in the void space
between the panels and shipside.
An overall coefficient of heat transfer for a modem reefer vessel, regardless of the type of insulation
fitted varies between 0.45 to 0.52 W/m2 *C, with a tendency towards the lower figure.

MARINE CONTAINERS:
Although refrigerated containers first made their appearance in the early 1930s, they were neither
standardised nor inter-model and it was only in the late 1960s that ship design permitted the
transportation of large numbers of refrigerated containers in any one vessel. The late 1960s and early
1970s were a period of marked development in methods of carrying refrigerated as well as general
cargoes in containers, as is witnessed by the numerous patents taken out, particularly in the USA and the
UK. The success of these developments was evident in the spread of refrigerated containerisation around
the world, and the affect on the design of both the containers and the vessels carrying them.

The advantages of containerisation are simple and obvious:

a. The conversion of marine transportation from a labour intensive to a
mechanized industry.
b. The avoidance of multiple handling of cargo and the ability to transfer between
alternative modes of transport without physically handling the cargo.
Container types:
Two basic types of refrigerated containers were developed for use in the international reefer trade:
1. The insulated box connected to the ship’s central plant and a cold air circulation system
sometimes known as an isotherm container, or porthole container.
2. The insulated box incorporating its own ‘plug-W refrigeration unit’ within the standard module
usually known as an integral container.
Both types comply with ISO 149212, as revised in the 1987 edition, which endeavours to establish
universally accepted standards for containers.

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The containers most frequently found in practice are 2Oft (6.097m) or 4Oft (12.19m) long, 8 ft (2.4m)
wide and either 8 ft or 8.5ft (2.56m) high.

Early containers were insulated with polystyrene and lined with glass-fibre reinforced plastic covered
plywood, but recently the trend has moved to rigid polyurethane with a metallic lining such as
aluminium or steel plate. Occasionally, stainless steel is also used. The insulation thickness of the walls
and overhead is 75mm and that of the floors and doors 100 mm, giving an overall insulation heat
transfer coefficient of approximately 27W/*K for an ISO 2Oft container.
The container floor usually consists of T-sections and the air circulation may be either from bottom to
top or vice versa, the former being more popular with porthole containers. Some integral containers are
fitted with a symmetrical airflow system. In this system the air is admitted along the entire length of one
side of the container with extraction from the opposite side, thus guaranteeing an efficient and uniform
temperature distribution. The overall weight of a container and its cargo is restricted by regulations in
the UK and other countries, and is effectively limited to a gross of about 20 tonnes. The weight
restriction virtually fixed the overall length of 20 ft (6.097m) for containers loaded with butter and meat,
conforming to the standard container of the day. When loaded with frozen lamb in carcasses, chilled
meat in cuts, or fruit, container loads vary from about 9 to 13 tons, thereby giving some support to the
case for using 40ft (12.19m) containers, although the same overall weight restrictions apply when
traveling on the road.

The integral container will have an independent refrigeration unit which enables the container operator
to carry cargoes in the temperature range –25*C to +20*C. These units are mostly electrically driven
and are plugged in to appropriate power points on shore or onboard ship. Nowadays, a number of units
are compact enough to allow for a removable diesel alternator set to be fitted when the container is
traveling on the road, or sited in areas where a suitable 3- phase power supply is not available.
Although this type of container has become highly developed over the past 20 years, the basic principles
have remained much the same, the main improvement coming through improved fans and electrical
gear, temperature controls etc.

A typical specification for a 20 ft integral container operating in the Far East service would be as
follows:
Electrical supply: 380 ─ 46OV, 50 or 60 Hz.: Power consumption: 5 ─ 6 Kw.
Ambient temperature: + 40*C: Container temperature: + 20*C to ─ 25*C:
Temperature control: +0.25*C in range ─ 4*C to 10*C, +0.5*C in remainder of range.
Internal air circulation: 60 changes per hour at an internal load resistance of about 10mm water gauge.
Temp. Difference evaporator to air delivery: ─ 8*C at a container temperature of ─ 18*C.
Fresh air changes: At lest 1 per 4 hours: CO2 sampling: Yes: Condensers: Finned copper or coated
alloy if air-cooled: Electric defrosting: 3Kw heaters plus tray and drain:
Compressor: 3.7 to 5.6Kw semi-hermetic 1500 or 1750 rev/min depending on frequency.
Evaporator fan: Propeller 1800 m3/h, 1Kw power consumption.
Condenser fans: As for evaporator fans.
Alternator output: 12.5 – 15Kw to allow for locked rotor currents of minus 60  65 A.
There have been a number of variations on the above design, the most popular being a dual compressor
system with either hermetic or semi-hermetic compressors.

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 ***********************Kv*******************************

REEFER CARGO SPACE PREPARATION AND CARRYING PROCEDURES:

Up to this point the items dealt with, have been of strictly “engineering” nature. However, the ship
owner’s obligation with regard to cargo under international law is “The carrier shall properly and
carefully load, handle, stow, carry, keep, care for and discharge the goods carried” (Hague rules). Whilst
the division of responsibility on board may be such that the fulfillment of all of the above obligations
does not rest with the engineers responsible for running the refrigeration plant, it is suggested that time
will be well spent by engineers checking some of the items which follow. In terms of enlightened self-
interest it will pay an engineer to check that cargo is correctly stowed rather than to spend a whole
voyage trying to eliminate a warm pocket of cargo caused by faulty stowage. Preparation of cargo
spaces should start immediately the previous refrigerated cargo has been discharged. Spaces must be
swept clean, paying particular care that no damaged fruit from broken cartons remains to form a nucleus
for mould formation. Fans should be run and the space ventilated to dry up any atmospheric
condensation formed on opening up the space for discharge of cargo. If fruit has been carried ozone
generators, if fitted, should be run in the empty spaces for as long as is practicable before the space is
required for cargo. If a general cargo is carried before the next refrigerated cargo, the space must again
be swept clean after discharge of general cargo. If there is any mould growth apparent at this stage the
affected areas should be washed down with a 0.2 per cent solution of sodium orthophenylphenate, or a
dilute solution of one of the proprietary fungicides specially prepared for use in food stores. After this,
fans should again be run to dry out the space. The insulation of the cargo spaces should be examined for
any obvious damage. The source of any wetness in insulation should be traced, e.g. choked scupper or
leaking pipe buried in insulation. Provided the source of the water is traced and further leakage
prevented, any remaining dampness of insulation in the cargo spaces need not cause concern, as it will
dry out when refrigeration commences. All gaskets on doors, hatch covers should be examined. All
drains and bilges should be examined and proved clear, and U-bends in drains sealed with brine. A
typical termination of a drainpipe in a bilge well is shown in the figure below.

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Other types incorporate a neoprene ball, retained by a wire cage, in place of the non-return flap. Certain
designs of mechanical hatch covers incorporate gutter-ways and scuppers around the coamings and these
must also be kept clear.

If time permits, spaces should be closed up and cooled down to a few degrees below carrying
temperature before loading of cargo commences. During loading, random cheeks should be made of
temperatures of cargo being shipped and then recorded in the refrigeration logbook. The tolerance which
is allowed before cargo is rejected as being too high in temperature is a matter to be negotiated between
the shipping company and the shipper, and is not one on which universal rules can be laid down.
However, it can be pointed out that cargo which can be ‘block stowed’, i.e. stowed without any air
spaces between individual packages when presented at carrying temperature, may require an open
dunnaged stow if loaded above carrying temperature.
Stowage of cargo should be such that there is adequate space for air circulation. On ships not fitted with
permanent floor gratings, dunnage must be laid oil the deck to maintain an air passage under the cargo.
Inspection of the air circulation arrangements will readily indicate whether this dunnage should be laid
fore and aft or athwart ships. It is most important that dunnage is laid to suit the air system, and not laid
at right angles to the correct direction.
In ships classed with Lloyds, permanent battens are fixed to bulkheads to ensure that there is an air
space. On non-classed ships it may be necessary to install temporary battens as the loading proceeds. It
is important that cargo is not loaded to too great a height in the space. At least 5 cm (2in) clear air space
should be left between the top of the cargo and the deckhead, with more clearance in way of air duct
openings at the shipside or bulkheads to be sure they are not obstructed.

Maintenance of correct temperature:

Firstly, the required carrying temperature must he known. This should generally be laid down in writing
from the shipper to the ship, as slight variations in temperature may be required for the same commodity
from different sources, or for the same commodity and same source at different times of the year. No list
of carrying temperatures is given here, as it is too important a matter to be left to a standard list. For
general guidance and as a rough check that any written instructions are sensible, it should be
remembered that – 8*C (18*F) is the temperature below which frozen foods are safe from bacterial and
fungal attack leading to rotting and spoilage. Lower temperatures may be asked for, but no temperature
above – 8*C (18*F) should be considered for frozen foods.

Fresh fruit being carried chilled (as distinct from quick frozen packages) must never be frozen. The
sugar in fruit juice depresses its freezing point a few degrees below that of pure water, 0*C. To be safe,
air delivery temperatures for fruit should never be allowed to drop below – 2*C (28*F).
Most deciduous fruits carry satisfactorily at just above their freezing point. Most tropical and subtropical
fruits require higher temperatures as lower temperatures can interfere with and permanently arrest their
normal ripening process even though they are not frozen.

Even when a written instruction as regards temperature has been received by the ship, there remains a
possibility of a communications breakdown so that the wrong message gets to the engineer setting, the
temperatures. Cargoes have been carried for whole voyages at the wrong temperature just because
somebody misread an instruction. Two people should check final temperature setting independently.

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To maintain a given space temperature, the brine temperature (or suction temperature in the case of
direct expansion plants) should be brought as low as necessary but no further.

The refrigeration capacity of any compressor decreases as its suction temperature falls, and so
temperatures should not be taken lower than necessary to obtain the best efficiency from the compressor.

On older vessels there may be occasions when space temperatures are too high in the tropics and all the
refrigeration plant is working to capacity, but is just not powerful enough to hold down the temperature.
With modern ships this situation is most unlikely. If a space temperature is higher than it should be, then
a reduction in brine temperature will bring it down. The only time a space may have to remain above
required temperature is in the case of fruit when the air delivery temperature reaches the minimum
permitted to prevent injury. This delivery temperature must be maintained regardless of space
temperature.

General rules as to the brine temperature required to achieve a given space temperature cannot be laid
down. The heat load on the battery of a space varies according to the nature of the cargo, and other
cargoes adjacent to it. A chamber being operated in isolation, and carrying a fruit which is evolving
considerable heat, will require a lower brine temperature than would be required to maintain the same
temperature in the space if filled with non-heat producing cargo and surrounded by other spaces at the
same temperature. As an indication of the importance of this effect, “lively” fruit may double or even
treble the load on a cooling battery compared to inert cargo.

Table below gives a guide to Heats of Respiration of Fruits.

*Grapes are left on the vine until fully ripe, and produce little heat and carbon dioxide.
Watch keeping duties:

On ships, which carry watch keepers for the refrigeration plant, a standard drill should be developed for
the items, which are checked by the engineer on taking over his watch. Modern techniques tend to
eliminate watch keepers, the necessary automated controls and alarms being incorporated into the plant
to allow this to be done with safety. On ships where the engine room is periodically unmanned, there

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must be a routine of inspection before the commencement of each unmanned period. The pattern for
such an inspection can well follow that used when taking over a watch.

A typical drill for a fully refrigerated cargo ship is summarized below this is laid out to suit a
particular engine room layout and would be modified to suit different installations:

No: Item: Cheek Procedure:

1. Temperature indicators, recorders or data Cheek all space temperatures correct and no
logger: air delivery Temperatures below minimum.
2. Compressors, fans, pumps: Cheek no failure alarms in alarm condition.
3. Domestic refrigeration Chambers. Check temperatures.
4. Domestic compressors. Check gauge readings, no obvious leaks, and
oil level in crankcase is correct. Check full
flow of liquid refrigerant in sight glass.
5. Brine head tank. Cheek level normal.
6. Drier for compressed air For pneumatic Feel twin cylinders-one should be hot, one
controls. cold.
7. Reducing valve for compressed air. Check gauges before and after valve.
8. Brine pumps. Cheek that pressures and amps normal.
Examine glands for any leakage.
9. Main compressors. Turn auto cleaner hand-wheel. Cheek oil
level gauge readings and superheat. Examine
for obvious leaks.
10. Condenser circulating pumps. Cheek that pressures and amps normal.
Examine glands for any leakage.
11. Condensers and piping. Cheek by water pressure gauges that water
flow satisfactory. Check refrigerant liquid
temperature. Examine for obvious leaks.
12. Sight glass in refrigerant Liquid line. Cheek that full flow of liquid.
13. Refrigeration blackboard. Consult for any special instructions.

The use of a blackboard (Item 13) is recommended for instructions, which arise from time to time, but
not daily, for example defrosting, or alterations in required space temperatures.
The completion of the refrigerator Logbook should be the last task of a watch keeper before going
off duty, to ensure that he is leaving all temperatures in order.
Spare gear and stores:
The importance of ordering up any spare gear needed to replace parts used during a voyage, and
replacement refrigerant and calcium chloride, in good time must be stressed. A reasonable amount of
spare ‘Freon’ (Refrigeration gas) to carry is sufficient for a complete charge of one machine. Some 5 to
10 tons of calcium chloride are usually carried, depending on the size of the installation. This amount of
calcium chloride is far in excess of any normal voyage consumption but is carried to guard against a leak
developing in an inaccessible brine lead when the ship is loaded. If such a leak arises it is essential to

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have enough calcium chloride on board to allow repeated daily make up of the brine, which is being lost
throughout the remainder of the voyage. Spare gear should be examined once a voyage to make sure that
packaging and anti-corrosion protection are adequate.
********************Kv**********************
Marine Auxiliary Machinery: Volume: 3:
Notes Prepared By: Prof. K. Venkataraman. CEng; FIMarE; MIE.

MARINE AIR CONDITIONING:

Introduction.
A progressive improvement in shipboard envirorirnent has been one of the factors most appreciated by
ships’ personnel over the last 30 years. The enlightened ship owners, of today realize the advantages of
providing the whole crew with a working and off-duty environment that was originally reserved for the
first class passenger.
Today, air conditioning is considered essential to the comfort of those on board ship. Mechanical
ventilation alone is incapable of reducing the compartment temperature and humidity below the level of
the ambient air conditions, no matter to what extent the rate of air change is increased, or the amount of
air circulated. Hence, for the comfort of personnel, the equipment must include, a means of cooling the
air and controlling moisture content.
A comfortable condition depends mainly on the temperature and humidity of the air, but also on air
movement, air freshness and purity.

Ventilation:
Ventilation in general is defined as supplying air by natural or mechanical means to an enclosed space.
Air quality must also be maintained to provide a healthy, comfortable environment. Air may
also be required for the cooling and/or operation of machinery.

Air conditioning:
In its true sense, covers the complete process of controlling the physical and chemical properties of an
enclosed atmosphere within the limits required for human comfort. As regards marine applications
this can be interpreted as control of temperature, humidity and air movement by the proper
regulation of heating, cooling and air distribution, complete with adequate filtration processes and
the introduction of water vapour when necessary to increase humidity.

This can be generalized further to define the purpose of air conditioning to provide an atmosphere
in which the human body carries out its metabolism with the least possible effort.

Physiological factors.
The designer and user of an air condition plant must be aware of the physiological factors involved. Man
is a constant temperature ‘machine’ (or heat-engine-), the deep tissue being maintained at 37*C in a
healthy person. The body can maintain its temperature over a wide range of environmental conditions by
shivering, perspiring, etc., together with sensible use of clothing and variation of physical activity.

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However the body only functions at full efficiency over a comparatively small range of conditions. The
body as “comfort” senses this. Individuals differ in their comfort requirements depending on age, sex,
race, degree of acclimatization, etc. (See figure given below).

Body heat balance:

The human body operates within and interacts with its environment – gaining beat from, and dissipating
heat to, the surroundings.

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Heat may be gained through direct radiation from the sun or hot object or by conduction from direct
contact with a hot object. Heat generation occurs in the cells throughout the body (metabolism) and the
circulatory system carries this heat to the skin, where it is released by convection, radiation, evaporation
and conduction:
Convection: The body heats air close to the skin, which then rises to be replaced by cooler air.

Radiation: The body radiates heat directly to any cooler surface not in direct contact.

Evaporation: Evaporation of water from the skin is a major means of heat rejection. There are two
modes by which the body wets the skin; diffusion (or insensible evaporation) and sweating. Heat is also
lost through respiration.
Body-cooling by Evaporation: Removal of heat from the body by evaporation of water from the skin is
a major means of heat rejection (about 40%). Diffusion, or insensible sweating, is a constant process,
while sweating is controlled by the bodies thermoregulatory system, which activates the sweat glands.

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The above figure shows typical magnitudes of heat rejection at various temperatures. At low values of
air humidity the body can relatively easily lose ‘heat by evaporation, but this is reduced as humidity
increases.

Conduction:
Direct heat transfer by touching cooler surfaces. The total heat produced by the body varies, with
activity, 115 W to 440 W, and its ability to shed this heat (and hence the feeling of comfort) depends on
four environmental factors:
1. Air temperature.
2. Temperature of surrounding surfaces.
3. Air humidity.
4. Air velocity (movement).
Therefore, for comfortable conditions produced by air conditioning, attention must be given to control of
these four factors. Of course, the amount and type of clothing and the expected activity level will
interact with these factors but conditions acceptable to the majority must take priority in specifying a
system. (Individual needs may be catered for by separate room temperature control).

Psychrometry.
One of the primary functions of an air conditioning plant is to maintain the amount of moisture in the air
between set limits, so to fully understand the nature of the air conditioning process; knowledge of
“psychometry” is required. Psychometry is the study of the thermodynamic properties and behavior of
air and water vapour (moist air).

Definitions:
Dry bulb temperature (d.b.): The temperature as recorded by an ordinary thermometer, which is not
affected by radiation.
Wet bulb temperature (w.b.): For moisture to evaporate from a surface (e.g. the skin) a relatively large
amount of heat energy is required known as “latent heat” or ‘enthalpy of evaporation’. This heat is
drawn from the surroundings and causes the surface to be cooled. If a thermometer bulb is covered with
a wetted (saturated with water) fabric such as cotton and exposed to moving air, the
rate of evaporation will depend on the dryness of the air and, as the heat energy required for this
evaporation comes from the bulb, this results in a lower temperature reading than if the bulb was dry.
The difference between the wet bulb and the dry bulb readings is therefore a (indirect) measure of the
humidity (moisture content) of the air.
The higher the wet bulb temperature relative to the dry bulb temperature, the more moisture is present in
the air. For saturated air both wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures will be the same.

Wet and dry bulb thermometers are often combined in an instrument called a “Psychrometer”.

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 Wet and dry bulb thermometer:

Relative Humidity (R.H.):

The ability of the air to hold water vapour is dependent on its temperature; at higher temperatures the air
will be able to hold more water vapour than at lower temperatures. When the maximum is reached at a
given temperature, the air is said to be saturated, or have a relative humidity (R.H.) of 100%.

R.H. is thus defined as:

100 x Mass of water vapour in unit volume of air.
Mass of water vapour to saturate same volume (at d.b. temperature).

Note: Above definition is sufficient for own purposes but a strict thermodynamic definition is, “Ratio of
partial pressure of water vapour in the air to partial pressure exerted when the air is saturated at same
d.b. Temperature”.
The most reliable way to measure relative humidity in air-conditioned spaces is to use a wet and dry
bulb thermometer. When this instrument is whirled around, the air movement causes evaporation of
water from the moist wick, which is depressed in temperature compared to the dry bulb. In saturated air,
both thermometers read the same temperature: in less than saturated air, then the drier the air the bigger
the depression of the wet bulb thermometer reading.
A psychrometric chart is shown in the next page. On this sheet vertical lines represent dry bulb
temperatures, and dotted lines relative humidity. To obtain the relative humidity from a pair of wet and
dry bulb temperatures, the point of intersection of the lines of constant wet and dry bulb temperatures is
marked on the chart, and the line of relative humidity passing through this point is the required relative
humidity.
The indicated area in this figure defines the so-called “comfort zone”, i.e. the range of air conditions (in
still air) in which most people feel comfortable when sedentary. By “most people” is meant a very high

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proportion of people – tests in controlled environment chambers have shown that people generally agree
well with one another as to what is comfortable.

Psychrometric chart:

The four points defining the extreme corners of the comfort zones are:
1. 20*C (68*F) and 70 per cent R.H.
2. 27*C (80*F) and 70 per. Cent R.H.
3. 22*C (72*F) and 40 per cent R.H.
4. 29*C (84*F) and 40 per cent R.H.
The extent of the comfort zone emphasizes the importance of relative humidity-thus 29*C (84*F) does
not feel too warm if the relative humidity is down to 40 per cent, but 22*C (72*F) will feel too cold
unless the relative humidity is above 40 per cent.
As well as providing conditions within the comfort zone, ship air conditioning plants must be operated
at such a level that there is no excessive temperature difference inside and outside. Passengers using sun
decks are liable to sense “cold shock” on re-entering the accommodation if the air conditioning
temperature is too low. Few years ago, a limit of 5*C (9*F) for the dry bulb temperature drop was
common, but over the years, this figure has tended to increase.
Reverting to air velocity, which as stated above, should be, unimportant in well-designed systems-it is
found that passenger complaints of draughts are as common as complaints of uncomfortable
temperatures.
A degree of air movement past the body, which is unnoticed under heating conditions, and which may
even be welcome under natural ventilation conditions, is felt as an unpleasant draught when the air
stream is cooler than the surroundings.

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There is a design compromise involved here. To achieve a given degree of cooling either large amounts
of slightly cooled air, or smaller amounts of colder air can be supplied. If the air supply is too cold, then
there are excessive temperature differences between areas of the room close to the air inlets and
elsewhere; this is avoided by using higher rates of air circulation, but hopefully not so high as to cause
draughts. The correct design of air circulation systems, and in particular the type and sitting of air inlet
distributors, is the key to successful air conditioning. The usual rate of air circulation in each room lies
between 6 and 12 air changes per hour.
Comfort:
In each environmental situation the organism loses a certain quantity of energy due to the emission of
sensible heat by convection and radiation and to the emission of latent heat by respiration. The quantity
of emitted heat depends on the temperature and humidity of the environment, physical condition of the
individual, his activity, etc.

Recommended indoor temperatures for crew comfort:

The human being has a natural ability to adapt within certain temperature limits. The graph above gives
recommended indoor temperatures in relation to the ambient for the crew of merchant ships, in order to
avoid thermal shock in summer in particular. A number of different air conditioning systems are
installed on vessels today, some with individual temperature regulation in cabins, some without. It is
likely that for a middle size vessel in the worldwide trade, a single duct system with local reheating
would be chosen.
Statutory Requirements:
National Standard Requirements for Marine Air Conditioning:
Country. Outside R.H. Inside R.H. Total heat
removal.
*C R.H. % *C R.H. % Kcal/kg air.
UK. (DOT) 32 78 29 50 7.0
Germany. 35 70 29 50 8.6
Sweden. 35 70 29 50 8.6
Norway. 35 70 29 50 8.6
India. 35 70 28 50 9.5
Poland. Tropics. Tropics. 25 –23 60 – 40 11.4

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 For U.K. the DOT minimum standard for high ambient is 29*C d.b; with 50% R.H. The DOT high
ambient conditions are 32*C and 78 R.H; but owners may, within the limits of economy, adopt a higher
design standard.
Ambient conditions for design purpose:
Port. Dry Bulb: *C. Wet Bulb: *C. Relative Humidity (%)
Bahrain. 42 33 52
Hong Kong. 33 28 68
Kuwait. 45 31 35
Jeddah. 42 30 40
Beirut. 33 26 57
Lagos. 34 28 62
Karachi. 39 30 50

Comparison of statutory requirements:

Items: UK. Sweden. Germany. India.
Summer ambient. 32*C & 78% RH. 35*C & 70% RH. 35*C & 70% RH. 35*C & 70%RH.
Summer maintained. 29*C &50% RH. 29*C & 50% RH. 29*C & 50% RH. 28*C & 50% RH.
Winter ambient. -- 1*C -- 15*C -- 15*C ----
Winter maintained. 21*C 22*C 22*C ------
Recirculation permitted. Yes. NO To Max. 20%. To Max. 50%.
Max. Air changes/h. (Cabins). 6 3 10 4
Max. Air change/h. (Pub.rms). 8 5 15 6
Individual temperature control NO NO Yes. NO
requirement.
Stand-by required (standard). NO NO NO YES.

All air conditioning units to be installed in a vessel must be designed, manufactured and installed as per
the above statutory regulations pertaining to the sip’s port of registry and also to the classification
society regulations.

Air conditioning systems fall into two main classes:

Individual unit systems in which each room contains its own small refrigeration plant and fan and air
cooler and central systems, where larger refrigeration machinery units are installed and their output
distributed about the ship by a variety of means.
Self-contained units are noisier than central systems, require more maintenance and have been found to
have a relatively short life (about 7 years).

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 Key: 1. Evaporator. 2. Fan. 3. Hermetic compressor. 4. Condenser.
Individual unit system:

The single duct system only allows for adjustment of temperature in each room by the occupant
manually controlling the air volume admitted. It is thus less flexible than any of the other systems which
allow individual temperature control, at least of sections of the ship if not of individual rooms.
With ducted systems, the modern tendency is to use “high velocity” in the air ducts with fans generating
up to 2550 mbar (250 mm H2O) pressure compared to “low velocity” systems with fans generating
about 520 mbar (50 mm H2O). This tendency helps installation as the size of ducts is reduced and
prefabricated standard ducts can be used, but it incurs the heavier running costs of more powerful fans.
Air terminals lined with sound insulation material are necessary to reduce the noise passing into the
room with high velocity systems.

Self contained unit:

A typical marine pattern self-contained unit is shown below. Air circulation is usually effected by means
of a centrifugal fan, for quiet running, and a direct expansion cooler served by a hermetic compressor.
Water-cooled condensers are used. As these contain small water passages choking develops rapidly with
direct seawater circulation and a better method is to circulate with fresh water, itself cooled in a sea
water/fresh water heat exchanger.
Control is on/off by a thermostat sensing the temperature of air returning to the unit.

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 Marine self-contained air conditioning unit:

Key: 1.Chilled water/air heat exchanger. 2. Fan. 3. Pump. 4. Evaporator. 5. Compressor.

6.Condenser.
Central System: Chilled water distribution: (Used in Reefer ships):
Air handling unit (AHU):
The outside and recirculated air (50% or above) is mixed in the section of the unit fitted with dampers. It
is then filtered and passes through preheaters and humidifiers in winter (cold) conditions, or through an
air cooler in summer (warm) conditions. The fan distributes the conditioned air via a low velocity duct
to cabins, which are fitted with reheaters.

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Hot water, or steam is used for heating, and chilled water or refrigerant for cooling purposes. The
rectangular or spiro-ducts are insulated and connect the air handling unit with the cabin units fitted with
reheaters.

Refrigerating plant:
The refrigerating plant may utilize either a centrifugal or screw compressor (with the latter currently
more popular), a shell and tube condenser, a liquid receiver and a shell and tube evaporator for chilled
water. Air coolers may be fitted in the air-handling units. R22 is used exclusively as refrigerant. The
plant may be fitted with a microprocessor-based control, to increase efficiency and reliability of
automatic operation at sea.

Single air duct central system:

Twin air ducts central system:

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 Single duct system with local reheating:

*********************************Kv*********************************
Kv/AMET/Frig/May 2003.

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 Note: Left unit to be insulated after installation: Right unit factory finished:
Central air conditioning unit:

Thermostats:
All types of thermostats are found in air conditioning systems, direct acting, pneumatic, electrical and
electronic. In themselves, they are all satisfactory instruments, but the results they achieve are dependent
on the correct setting of their sensing elements. Even the site for a direct acting thermo- stat to control
one single berth cabin must be chosen with care if it is masked behind curtains, or too far away from the
air inlet control will be too sluggish.
The correct location for a thermostat to control a block of cabins is more difficult to find. One can pick
on a “typical” cabin but if the occupant opens his porthole he can upset the whole block. Another
possibility is to site the thermostat in the alleyway of the block of cabins. This position may be affected
more by an open door or draught in the alleyway than by the temperature of the cabins. Yet another
possibility is to site the thermostat in the recirculation air trunk, carrying air back from the
accommodation to the unit. If the recirculation grille is close to an outside door, this position too can be
affected by outside air temperature when the door is open, rather than by cabin temperature.
The large public room, say a lounge used for dancing, may be impossible to control satisfactorily by one
thermostat. If one thermostat is placed, say on a pillar, in the dancing area it will sense a temperature
higher than the average in the room and cause air to be delivered which will be too cold for the comfort
of those sitting around the edge of the room. Similarly, a thermostat sited at the edge of the room may
leave too high a temperature in the central area. The only satisfactory arrangement for such rooms is to
have different controls for different parts of the room.

Filters:
Filtering the air before it passes over the cooling coils is necessary to prevent atmospheric dirt,
particularly funnel smuts, entering the accommodation and also to prevent the cooling coils, which have
closely pitched fins becoming choked on the airside. The protection of the coils calls for filtering of
recirculated air as well as fresh air, as the circulating air picks up fluff from carpets and blankets.

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Filters are either washable or disposable. A washable type still in use consists of brass wool retained in
galvanized steel frames. These are cleaned in boiling water and detergent and dipped in an oil bath
before re-use. Modern washable types are of foamed plastic, again requiring washing in hot water and
detergent, but suitable for re-use without oiling after drying. Disposable types of filters are glass or
mineral wool (either in mattress form or corrugated sheet form) in cardboard frames, which fit into
metal racks on the unit. There is little to choose between the different types in terms of efficiency of dirt
collecting or in life between cleaning or renewal. Present economic considerations and reduced manning
on ships favor the disposable type.
Air Diffusers:
To deliver cooled air into cabins the simplest method is a “punkah louver” or grille blowing air out from
a bulkhead just below ceiling level. More uniform temperatures and freedom from draughts are obtained
from a diffuser fitting mounted centrally in the ceiling. These diffusers, shown in the next page are
designed to deliver the air in a blanket over the ceiling, and if this is coupled with extract of exhaust air
at floor level a good distribution of air is obtained. They are made in circular and rectangular types, the
larger versions of which are also used for public rooms. The rectangular type, if sited close to a
bulkhead, can cause discomfort to anyone sitting close to the bulkhead, as shown in the figure. Circular
diffusers are not so, bad in this respect, but with both circular and rectangular types it is sometimes
necessary to fit a blanking baffle over a section of the periphery to prevent draughts in a particular
direction.
Thermometers.
On passenger ships it is not advisable to have either thermometers or thermostats with calibrated scares
mounted in cabins. They provide too ready a topic for conversation and perhaps unfavorable
comparisons between one cabin and another.

Ceiling diffuser:

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 Rectangular ceiling diffuser too close to bulkhead causes draughts:
General Operation of Air Condition Installation:
For an installation with a central refrigerating plant, the operation of the compressors, condensers and
associated controls is generally for cargo plants as previously described. The first essential in operating
the air-cooling appliances throughout the ship is to have all thermostats correctly set and correctly
functioning. In extreme weather conditions, either hot or cold, control of the plant usually presents few
difficulties. The capacity of many installations is such that under tropical conditions nearly all control
valves move to the fully open position; although automated control has been lost, internal conditions are
by and large acceptable. Control difficulties arise in intermediate weather conditions when there is a call
for only a small amount of cooling. The worst case is when part of the ship, say inboard cabins against
the engine room, require cooling and other parts, say exposed upper cabins, require warming. Only well
zoned systems, or those with a good reheat installation can cope with this condition. For this
intermediate condition, thermostats must be correctly set by trial and error. It is found that a uniform
setting of say 21*C (71*F) throughout the ship is not satisfactory, but slight variations of a few degrees
up or down are needed to suit particular regions of the ship. Unfortunately, these variations in thermostat
setting are not always the same for the cooling and heating condition and frequent resetting may be
needed for a ship repeatedly passing from cold to warm weather.
The control problem is eased if the chilled brine (or water) of systems using chilled liquid circulation is
held at about 13*C (55*F) in the intermediate weather conditions and lowered progressively to about
5*C (41*F) as tropical weather conditions are approached. If a thermostat is found to be unduly
influenced by opening doors, or some other local effect, it may well be advantageous to experiment in
resetting it.

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When air-cooling is in use it is good practice to keep all portholes, windows and doors shut. On
passenger ships, some public announcement requesting that this be done is worthwhile. However,
insistence on compliance with the request should not be too emphatic. Certainly a port open, which
happens to be adjacent to a thermostat can throw temperatures out over the entire region controlled by
the thermostat, but most ports are not adjacent to thermostats and the individual passenger who wishes
to open a port may be allowed to do so. It should not have a large effect on a well-designed system.
The communication channel, which must be quick and definite on passenger ships, is from bedroom
stewards to the engineer in charge of air conditioning. On no account should a bedroom steward be
allowed to fob off a passenger complaint instead of reporting it. In addition to attending promptly to any
passenger complaints, a wise precaution for an engineer to take is, to go through accommodation and
public rooms periodically recording wet and dry bulb temperatures. Keeping a log of these readings then
serves to identify any malfunctioning of the installation as soon as it arises, and if all is in order it exists
as evidence to refute any unjustified complaints.
The quantity of cooled air delivered by an air conditioning unit should balance the sum of the quantity of
air recirculated to the unit and the quantity mechanically exhausted. If this balance is not correct in a
public room there will be a draught whenever the door is open (and through any gap in the door fitting
when it is shut). An exception to this rule is the dining room, which should be over supplied so that there
is a flow of air from the dining room to the galley. This flow must be affected by the galley exhaust
sucking the air out of the dining room not by over pressurizing the dining room as this would spread
food smells out of the room into the accommodation. The correct balance between supply and exhaust
fans should be checked periodically. Even with filters fitted ducts can become partially blocked and fan
performance can fall off to upset the balance. On older ships it may be that the capacity of the cooling
installation is not adequate to provide the temperature drop which is now required. If this is the case
thermostats should nevertheless be set to aim at keeping as steady a temperature as possible. The
practice of cooling down public rooms before they are occupied to have a little “cold in hand” can cause
cold shock to people first entering the room, and complaints when the temperature subsequently rises. A
steady, albeit higher temperature is to be preferred. On older ships, temperature maintenance can be
made easier by increasing the ratio of recirculated to fresh air. Most air conditioning units have dampers
for adjusting this ratio and the effect of these can be extended after they have reached full travel by
partially blocking fresh air inlets. Care must be taken not to reduce the fresh air so that stuffiness or
smells arise.

Maintenance:
The importance of maintenance cannot be over emphasised.
Experience has shown that most problems with marine refrigerating plant involve refrigerant short- age
caused by leakage. In those cargo holds where frozen or chilled cargo below 5*C is carried; it is
necessary to keep air coolers free from frost. Cleaning of filters is also important.
In cases where equipment of different kinds is opened up, neither air nor moisture must enter the
refrigeration system, as either will cause trouble, e.g. in the form of increased condensing pressure. To
avoid moisture, filter driers are installed in CFC and HCFC plants. Some are small, throwaway filters,
and others have exchangeable drying agents. When filters that can be serviced are fitted, it is
recommended that packings of a size to suit the filters available on board be procured. Suitable packing
size is also relevant to compressor oil, which easily absorbs moisture.

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If there is moisture in the plant, this is indicated by the formation of copper plating. Copper plating
arises in two stages:
1. Copper is dissolved in the oil.
2. Copper is precipitated on metal surfaces.

The first stage occurs in the presence of water, whereas the second may occur with no water present. It
is usually assumed that there is a direct correlation between water and copper plating.
To prevent copper plating, it should be emphasised that:
a. The system should be clean.
b. The system should be dry.
c. The system should be free from air.
d. The working temperature should be kept down.
e. The drying agent should be changed every time any part of the system is
opened.
f. This also applies when charging with oil or refrigerant.
g. Oil should not be filled from vessels that have not been tightly closed.

In CFC and HCFC systems, it is sometimes difficult to return the oil, which continually circulates in the
system to the compressor. The various reasons for this are:
1. The oil level drops quickly at the start. This may be due to refrigerant being dissolved in
the oil. At evaporation the oil is drawn with the refrigerant into the system. Fill the
system with a small quantity of oil, as the ejected oil will gradually come back.
2. The oil level drops slowly because:
a. The plant is operated at lower evaporating temperature than usual or the
refrigerant charge is too small.
b. Refrigerant leakage in the system, by which the level in the evaporator has
become too low.
c. Condensing temperature is too low, by which the oil rectifier is not
supplied with a sufficient amount of heat; the minimum condensing
temperature should be maintained.
d. The cooling demand is too low, so the gas velocity becomes too low and
the oil remains in the system.

A leakage-free refrigerating plant does not consume any oil. The oil which has disappeared from the
crankcase or oil separator is always somewhere in the system.
In those plants with piston compressors which have oil separators, the shut-off valve in the oil return line
should always be kept closed for about ½ hour after compressor start in order to avoid the carriage of
condensate from the oil separator to the crankcase.
In those cargo-refrigerating plants where brine serves as the heat transfer medium, it is of great
importance that the correct brine specific gravity for the required cargo temperature is maintained. When
bananas only are transported for nine months or more, for example, some ship owners or operators
reduce brine specific gravity to save on power consumption by pumps. If this specific gravity is not
checked, functional problems may occur when the frozen cargo is carried.

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Maintenance can be divided into daily maintenance, periodic and planned maintenance. Daily
maintenance should be done every day to avoid unpleasant surprises. Periodic and planned
maintenance should be done according to the suppliers’ instructions and your own planning based
on experience over time and your ship’s working area.

Daily maintenance:
The daily maintenance for a R22 installation should be completed as follows:
1. Cheek that condensing pressure and evaporating pressure are correct, and that the oil pressure
drop across the oil filter is within the specified range.
2. Inspect the compressor unit and cheek that there are no abnormal noises or vibrations.
3. Check the discharge and suction temperatures, and the oil temperature. Discharge temperature
depends on refrigerant and compressor type, e.g. for a reciprocating compressor, using R22, the
maximum discharge temperature is 130*C; for a screw compressor, the maximum is 105*C.
Suction pipe temperature must always be higher than suction pressure recalculated to
temperature. How much higher depends on type of system and type of compressor. A guide
value is approximately 10*C, but 20*C may sometimes be tolerated. Oil temperature is also
different for different compressors but should not be more than 30*C over room temperature.
The highest allowable oil temperature is approximately +60 *C. oil temperature must never be
below room temperature. At a lower temperature R22 liquid accompanies the suction gas to the
compressor. The oil temperature follows the suction pipe temperature and can be increased with
higher superheat of suction gas.
4. Check the oil level.
5. Check the tightness of the shaft seal. Oil leakage can be tolerated whereas gas leakage cannot be
tolerated.
6. If an oil separator is installed, check that oil is returned to the crankcase, and that the oil return
line is warmer than the crankcase.
Periodic maintenance:
Periodic maintenance depends on operation time and is different for different types and makes of
compressors. One manufacturer requires the following:

For reciprocating compressors; 1450—1750 rpm:

1. At every 5000 hours of operation:
a) Check operating valves and replace damaged or worn out parts.
b) Change oil and clean crankcase, oil level sight glass and oil strainer.
c) Check unloading mechanisms and replace o- rings and cuff rings. Clean strainer for
capacity control system.
d) Inspect cylinders for scratches and seizures and also pistons if there is damage in the
cylinders.
e) Check function of monitoring devices.
2. At every 10,000 hours of operation:
a) Replace operating valves.
b) Inspect bearing surfaces.
c) Check piston ring gap.
For cargo refrigerating plants, the maintenance prescribed by the classification societies has to be added.

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For screw compressors:
1. For every 1,000 hours of operation cheek the function of monitoring devices.
2. For every 2,500 hours of operation:
a) Cheek alignment of compressor-motor.
b) Clean all filters.
c) Lubricate the bearing of electric motor.
3. For every 5,000 hours of operation the bearing of the oil pump must be checked.
4. For every 10,000 hours of operation.
a) Change the oil.
b) Check the elastic coupling between compressor and motor. If cracks are present in the
rubber the coupling has to be replace
5. For every 40,000 hours of operation, disassemble, the compressor for total overhaul and
replace axial bearings.

The following general service measures should be performed in order to obtain optimal operating
results.

Leak detection:
Refrigerating plants must be gas-tight to prevent refrigerant leakage and air entering the low-pressure
side when under a vacuum. Systems, which have been modified, or opened to the atmosphere during
repairs, must be pressure tested for mechanical strength and leaks before charging with refrigerant.

Pressure tests:
Pressure tests are normally carried out pneumatically. In the case of CFC and HCFC refrigerant plants,
the test medium should be dry oxygen-free nitrogen. Commercial quality nitrogen or air may be used in
ammonia plants. Water or other fluids must not be used as a test medium. The plant’s compressors must
not be used to pressurize the plant.
Prior to testing, any item that may be damaged by over pressure should be isolated from the system. All
solenoid, pressure regulating check or other control valves should be opened and the circuit checked so
that the system can be pressurized. Relief valves should be removed and the openings capped or
plugged. The compressor stop valves should also be closed during pressure testing.

Typical test procedure:

1. Do a strength test by filling the entire system with the test medium and gradually increasing the
pressure until the test pressure, equal to 1.5 times the maximum working pressure of the system,
is obtained. This pressure should be maintained for about 10 minutes. As a safety precaution, all
personnel must be evacuated from the area of risk while the system is being strength tested, and
the nitrogen or air cylinders must be fitted with both a pressure regulator and relief valve.
2. Reduce the pressure to the maximum working pressure and hold for a period of 24 hours, during
which the existence of leaks may be indicated by a fall in pressure in the system. Any suspect
joints, welds, seals, etc. should be leak tested using a solution of soapy water. Each joint, etc.,
must be examined thoroughly for signs of air bubbles, which indicate a leak. After sealing any
leaks, pressurize the system again with the test medium and some refrigerant as a trace gas, and
repeat the leak test using an electronic leak detector, etc.

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 It is imperative that all leaks are found and sealed before the system is charged with refrigerant, as
even the tiniest of leaks can result in the loss of the whole refrigerant charge.

Leak detection equipment:

Electronic leak detectors:

Electronic leak detectors are the most sensitive and accurate method of leak detection. There are many
instruments for detecting CFC and HCFC refrigerants and ammonia on the market. The most commonly
employed operating principles are the semi-conductor, ionization or corona formation, and infrared
detection.
The detector contains an internal pump that draws air into a probe, or tube. If refrigerant gas is present in
the sample, the electrodes in the sensing element generate a current, and an output signal is obtained. In
modern refrigerated cargo installations, leak detection sensors fitted in the holds and machinery spaces
activate audible and visual alarms located in the control room in the event of a refrigerant leak.
Leak detector torch Leak detector torches are used to locate leaks of CFC and HCFC refrigerants. This
method is based on the colour of a flame that surrounds a glowing copper element. The flame turns blue-
green if the air being consumed contains the refrigerant.
These torches should only be used in well-ventilated spaces and must not be used to search for
combustible gas leaks.

Sulphur candles:
The lit candles indicate the presence of ammonia gas by giving off a cloud of dense white smoke.

Litmus, or other indicating papers:

The paper, when wet, indicates the presence of ammonia gas by change in colour, e.g. red litmus paper
turns blue.
Routine Inspections Leak detection should be carried out every 1,000 hours of operation, special
attention being paid to brazed joints, welded joints, gaskets, flanges, valve sterns, compressor shaft
seals, and areas where there are signs of an oil leak. The high-pressure side of the system may easily be
tested with the plant running, but it may be necessary to stop the compressor, and allow the pressure in
the low-pressure side to rise sufficiently. The amount of refrigerant in the system should also be strictly
monitored as a drop in level may indicate the presence of a leak.
In the event of a major leak, the initial leak test should be made using the soap bubble method.

Safety:
To prevent the risk of being overcome by fumes during leak testing, never enter an unventilated area
alone. A second person should always be in attendance in the entrance to the area.

Refrigerant charging:
In refrigerating plants, refrigerant may be lost through leaks or when carrying out repairs. When such
losses occur the plant must be charged with refrigerant. It is imperative that the correct refrigerant is
added to the plant, as charging with the wrong substance could cause an explosion or other accident.

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Pre-charging procedures:
Refrigerating plants must be free of all contaminants before being charge with refrigerant. Systems,
which have been modified or opened to the atmosphere during repairs, should be flushed through to
remove solid particles, and evacuated to remove moisture and non-condensable gases.
Flushing:
1. Fit a fine mesh filter or sock in the strainer in the compressor suction inlet.
2. Charge the system with the pressure test medium, and run the compressor to circulate the gas
through the system. To prevent blockages, the expansion valve and other regulating controls with
small orifices must be bypassed.
3. Stop the compressor at intervals and clean the filter, repeating this procedure until no particles
are found.

Drying by evacuation:
This method of removing moisture is based on the fact that the boiling point of water decreases with
falling pressure. In the course of evacuation, any water or ice in the plant will evaporate, and is carried
away by the vacuum pump.
1. Connect a vacuum pump to the system using a short length of large bore pipe, and open all
valves in the system (expansion valves, solenoid valves, etc., may have to be jacked open).
2. Evacuate the system to a pressure of 6mm Hg or less. If possible, carry out the evacuation at
ambient temperatures above 10*C.
3. Close the line between the system and the vacuum pump. The pressure in the system may not
rise more than 2mm Hg within five minutes. A rise of more than 2mm Hg indicates the presence
of water, and/or a leak. Where water is present, the system will be colder than its surroundings.
4. Cheek for water and/or leaks, carry out any repairs, and repeat the evacuation procedure until the
pressure rise is less than 2mm Hg. When this is achieved the system is free of moisture and non-
condensable gases and ready for refrigerant charging.
Charging procedures:
Refrigerating plants should not be overcharged with refrigerant, as this may overload or damage the
compressor. To ensure that the correct amount is added, the refrigerant should be weighed during
charging.
Large plants:
In large plants, the liquid refrigerant is decanted from the cylinder into the system via a charging valve
on, or just after, the receiver, or after the expansion valve.
Procedure:
1. Connect the cylinder to the charging valve, (cylinders without internal dip tubes must be
inverted) and purge the line of air. Ammonia cylinders have internal ‘gooseneck bends’, and
must be laid horizontally with the valve spindle facing upwards.
2. Open the charging and cylinder valves, and run the compressor.
3. Allow the liquid to flow into the system. If liquid is charged without a compressor running, the
cylinder must be slightly warmer than the system.
Note the following:
a) Liquid refrigerant must never be charged directly into the compressor suction.
b) Ensure that properly tested charging hoses are used, and that non-return valves are fitted
when charging into the high-pressure side of the system.

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Small plants:
In small plants refrigerant gas is drawn into the system, via a ‘back-seating’ service valve in the
compressor suction line.
Procedure:
1. Connect the cylinder to the charging valve. Ensure that the cylinder is standing upright to prevent
liquid carry-over, and that the charging hose is purged of air.
2. Open the charging valve and ‘crack’ open the cylinder valve.
3. Run the compressor to draw the refrigerant gas into the system. The suction pressure should be
maintained just above atmospheric by regulating the cylinder valve.
If the refrigerant capacity of a plant is not known, or when filling a partially charged plant, the system
should be approaching full charge when:
a. The refrigerant flow in the sight glass becomes a full stream without bubbles.
b. The liquid level gauge on the receiver shows one third full.

Condensers:
The condensers are far too often neglected. Anti corrosion plugs, for example, should be inspected for
the first time after the plant has been in operation for three months. Further inspections should be carried
out when judged necessary. Anti-corrosion plugs may not be worn out more that two-thirds of their
thickness.
Once a year, the tubes should be cleaned with a tube brush in order to remove deposits, which would
cause a high condensing pressure. The gaskets must be glued to the condenser end plate with good
contact. If the partition wall gasket is not properly installed, there is a risk that it will ‘blow’, leading to
an excessively high water velocity and to damage to the tube plate. Such damage can be repaired, if
discovered in time, using ‘Prestolite’ or a similarly commercially available compound. The water
velocity should not exceed 2.5 m/s. It is essential that due attention be paid to the above points in order
to ensure that both the condenser and the shell-and-tube evaporator will have a long service life. If a
tube has become defective, it does not have to be replaced immediately. Up to 10% in each flow
direction can be plugged, without jeopardizing the effect of the apparatus.

Oil coolers:
Screw compressors may be equipped with water-cooled oil coolers. These must be cleaned at regular
intervals to keep the oil temperature within the prescribed limits. Cleaning is best done with tube
brushes, but if the oil coolers are severely fouled, they may also be cleaned chemically using a solution
of hydrochloric acid. The oil side is cleaned with a grease solvent. The suction strainer is made of fine-
gauge steel gauze, which can be washed in white spirit.

Filter and driers:

The various filters in the plant must be checked at regular intervals. This applies to the entire system
(water side, refrigerant side, oil system, and air side). It is difficult to specify how frequently this should
be done but, as a guideline, the check should be performed at least in conjunction with checking the
compressor. The desiccant in the drier filter must be replaced whenever the plant has been opened and,
in more severe cases of moisture, be checked and changed several times until the plant is dry. When it is
not known how much moisture there is in the plant it is best to evacuate it. Moisture in the CFC and
HCFC plant can cause copper plating or problems with the expansion valve, which freezes up.

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Sight glass:
There must be a sight glass in some form in all plants. Gas bubbles in the sight glass are a direct
indication of a shortage of refrigerant and this always results ultimately in a shortage of oil.

Defrosting:
Another task, which may be regarded, as maintenance is to keep frost deposits on provision and cargo
refrigerating plants under control. Frequent defrosting assures that the plant will cause few problems.
The plant will need a minimum of care and maintenance if it is kept:
a. Free of moisture.
b. Free of impurities.
c. Free of Freon leaks.
d. Free of frost.
The need for defrosting arises when operating with cargo temperatures close to 0*C. The rise of delivery
air temperatures in cargo chambers under normal operating status of the entire cooling plant would be
the first indication of the frost build up on the air cooler coils. Visual examination of the cooler should
confirm that the frost is excessive of 4 mm or above.
As the frost builds up the overall heat transfer coefficient between air and refrigerant will be reduced,
and the compressor suction pressure may gradually decrease resulting in a loss of refrigeration capacity.
A heavy frost on the coil will also reduce the airflow through the cooler and the number of air changes
in the cargo chambers. It is therefore very important that defrosting by one of the methods described
above is always carried out at the correct time interval. The defrosting procedure is normally performed
manually, but some modern installations make provision for automatic commencement and termination
of defrosting. The sequence of events during a typical hot gas defrosting procedure in a DX system is
shown below.

In brine systems, hot brine at approximately 40*C is pumped from the steam brine heater to the coolers
being defrosted. Regardless of the system, it is important that the cooler fans are not started before the
air cooler coil temperature is reduced, by circulating low temperature brine or refrigerant, and the
defrosting cycle is completed as quickly as possible.
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 REFRIGERATING MACHINERY DEFECTS AND THEIR REMEDIES:
Symptom or Difficulty.
1. Too high a delivery pressure.
2. Too low delivery pressure.
3. Too low a suction pressure.
4. Compressor stopping too
often (on high pressure switch).
5. Compressor starting and
stopping too often (on low
pressure switch).
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Cause.
1. Air or non-condensable gas in
the system. 2. The cooling water
is too warm or an insufficient
quantity is passing through the
condenser. 3. Mud or scales
block the condenser tubes. 4.
Too much liquid R12 or R22 in
the receiver and some liquid in
the condenser.
1. Too much cooling water
to the condenser.
2. Cooling water exceptionally
cold.
3.Liquid R12 or R22 is coming
back from the evaporator.
4. Leaky delivery valve.
1. Blockage in liquid pipe,
expansion valve or suction
filters.
2. Too little refrigerant.
3.Too much oil circulating in the
system.
4. Incorrect adjustment of the
expansion valves.
1. Insufficient water flowing
through the condenser (blocked
condenser tubes).
2. High pressure switch set
incorrectly.
3. The system is over charged
with refrigerant.
1. Evaporator coils (air coolers)
frosted.
2. The filters for liquid
refrigerants, suction strainers or
filters for expansion valves
blocked/chocked.
3. The delivery valves of the
compressor leaking.
Remedy.
1. Purge the foul gas from the
condenser.
2.Inspect and clean the water
valve and water filter, and make
sure that the water valve is
opened wide enough.
3. Clean the condenser tubes.
4. Drain off the excess R12 or
R22 in an empty cylinder.
1. Regulate the water supply.
2. Reduce the water supply.
3. Adjust the expansion valve
and check that the phials are
fastened correctly.
4. Remove the cylinder cover,
inspect the valve plates and
piston rings; renew them if
necessary.
1. Evacuate; remove; inspect
and clean filters.
2. Charge with more R12 or
R22.
3. Inspect to see whether oil has
accumulated anywhere in the
system.
4. Set the expansion valves to
feed more refrigerant.
1. Find out from cooling water
system the reason for
insufficient flow. Clean
condenser tubes.
2. Adjust the high pressure
switch to switch off at correct
pressure and test.
3. Reduce the liquid refrigerant
from the system.
1. Defrost the evaporators.
2. Clean all filters.
3. Inspect and clean the valves
or renew them if necessary.
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 Symptom or Difficulty.
6. Compressor working
continuously.
7. Noise from compressor.
8. Oil disappearing from the
crankcase.
9. Oil not returning to
crankcase.
10. Compressor refusing to
start.
11. Motor starts but stops soon
again.
12. Too high a suction pressure.
13. Leaking from the cylinder
cover packing.
Kv: 07/04:
Cause.
1. Lack of refrigerant, R12 or
R22.
2. Compressor delivery valves
leaking very badly.
1. Foundation bolts not tight
enough hence vibration.
2. Too much oil circulated,
causing oil knocking.
3. Liquid hammer in the
compressor because
unevaporated refrigerant R12
or R22 is being sucked back to
the compressor.
4. Phials out of place or loose.
1. Too much liquid refrigerant
coming back to the compressor.
2. Leaking piston rings or worn-
out cylinder liners.
1. The oil return line from the
oil separator to the crankcase is
blocked.
2. The coil of the solenoid valve
in the oil return pipe is burnt
out.
1. High-pressure switch off or
fuses burnt out.
2. Main switch not closed.
1. Too little oil in the
compressor.
2. The oil pressure switch is out
of order.
1. Too much liquid refrigerant is
being fed through the
expansion.
2. Leaky suction valves.
1. Oil knocking.
Remedy.
1. Inspect for leaks/rectify and
charge with refrigerant.
2. Remove cylinder covers
inspect the valves. If leaking,
repair or renew them.
1. Tighten the bolts.
2. Check the oil level.
3. Close the expansion valves a
little.
4. Inspect the phials.
1. Correct the expansion valves
so that the suction pipes on the
compressor do not become
frosted.
2. Renew the piston rings and if
necessary the pistons and
cylinder liners.
1. Clean the filter before the
solenoid valve.
2. Change the coil and test.
1. Adjust high-pressure switch
or insert new fuses after
correcting the cause.
2. Close the switch.
1. Charge with oil and get it to
correct level.
2. Repair or replace the switch
and test for operation.
1. Adjust the expansion valves
and check the phials.
2. Remove the cylinder covers,
check all the valves, repair or
renew and test.
1. See whether liquid refrigerant
is being sucked in to the
crankcase.
2. Check oil level and the
manual expansion valves are
closed.
234 of 246
 Symptom or Difficulty.
14. Moisture condensation on
cylinders and crankcase or
frosting of the crankcase.
Cause.
1. Compressor sucking in wet
refrigerant vapour.
Remedy.
1. Make sure that the expansion
valves are set correctly and that
the manual expansion valves are
closed.

************************************Kv***********************************
SAFETY:
It is necessary to draw attention to the potential hazards that could be encountered during installing,
operating and maintaining the refrigeration plant. It must be emphasised that these notes are not
exhaustive, and are principally intended to draw attention to the most important points for consideration.

Mechanical hazards:
Personnel should be aware at all times that refrigeration systems contain liquids and vapours under
pressure. Suitable precautions must be taken when opening any part of the system to guard against the
pressure hazard. Compressors must be operated within their design parameters, and should never be
used as vacuum pumps or for compressing air. Personnel must not start the compressor until they have
taken steps to verify that:
a. Guards on coupling, belts drives, and fans are in place, and other personnel are not in positions
that might be hazardous when the plant is in operation.
b. The compressor discharge stop valve is open.

Opening up part of the system will necessitate the loss of a certain amount of refrigerant to atmosphere.
It is essential that the amount of refrigerant, which escapes is kept to a minimum, and appropriate steps
are taken to prevent hazardous concentrations of refrigerant accumulating. Under certain conditions,
liquid refrigerant at low temperature may be present. Contact with this liquid must be avoided.
When dismantling the compressor for maintenance, inspection or repair, the method of pumping out and
opening up described in the operation manual should be followed with care.
When it is necessary to open up the compressor, e.g. when cleaning the oil pump suction strainer or
changing the oil filter, caution must be exercised as the lubricating oil will contain a certain amount of
refrigerant which will be released when subjected to atmospheric conditions.
Personnel stopping a plant must ensure that they do not shut pipeline stop valves in such a way as to trap
cold liquid refrigerant between valves. If this precaution is not observed, hydraulic expansion of the
liquid will take place as the temperature rises, and eventually cause the liquid pipe or valves etc. to
fracture due to the great pressure that will build up.

Electrical hazards:
The electrical power used in this equipment is at a voltage high enough to endanger life. Before carrying
out maintenance or repair procedures, persons concerned must ensure that equipment is isolated from
the electrical supply and tests made to verify that isolation is complete. Whenever possible, precautions
must be taken to prevent the circuit being inadvertently energised, i.e. withdraw the mains fuses, or, if
this is not practicable, place a warning notice over the mains switch.

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When the supply can not be disconnected, functional testing, maintenance and repair of the electrical
units is to be undertaken only by persons who are fully aware of the risk involved and who have taken
adequate precautions to avoid direct contact with dangerous voltage.

Chemical (primary refrigerants) hazards:

Refrigerants RI 2, R22, R502 and R717 (ammonia), are the substances in general use:
Refrigerants R12, R22, R502, etc. CFC and HCFC refrigerants, although not considered to be toxic, are
damaging to the environment. For this reason refrigerant must not be allowed to escape into the
atmosphere. Transfer into approved containers using a refrigerant recovery unit if necessary.
Contaminated refrigerant must not be reused: instead transfer it into special recovery vessels for return
to the refrigerant supplier for possible recycling.
CFC and HCFC refrigerants can present a danger to life by excluding air. Inhalation of very high
concentrations of the vapour, even for short periods, must be avoided since this may be dangerous and
can produce unconsciousness or prove suddenly fatal due to oxygen deficiency. The refrigerant vapour
is, heavier than air, and in static or poorly ventilated situations maybe slow to disperse. Anyone
suffering, from the effects of inhalation of the vapour should move, or be moved, to the open air. The
use of adrenalin or similar drugs to aid recovery must be avoided.
Care must be exercised before entering any area where the presence of high vapour concentration is
suspected. The vapour will displace air upwards out of cargo chambers, ships' engine rooms, etc., and
tend to collect at deck level and in pits and trenches. Should accidental escape of the refrigerant occur
indoors, adequate fan assisted ventilation must be used to disperse the vapour, preferably by extraction
at ground level, before entering the area. When any doubt exists it is recommended that breathing
apparatus should be worn.
These refrigerants are non-flammable, but refrigerant vapour coming into contact with temperatures of
316*C (600*F) and above (burning cigarettes, gas burners, electrical heating elements, etc.), will
decompose to form phosgene, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride. These compounds have
extremely harmful physiological effect on human beings, as well as being highly corrosive, causing
rapid break down of electrical and mechanical equipment. Naked flame and smoking must be prohibited
in the presence of refrigerant vapour, and refrigerant must be purged from pipes or vessels before
carrying out cutting or welding operations.
As these refrigerants can, under certain conditions, create hazardous concentrations in enclosed spaces it
is essential that systems are maintained gas tight. Approved methods of leak detection only should be
used. If a halide test lamp is used, remember that the heating or combustion effect will produce toxic by-
products, which could be dangerous if inhaled.
Liquid refrigerant in contact with the eyes or skin will cause freezing and injuries similar to a burn, thus
it is essential when loosening a connection on any part in which refrigerant is confined, for goggles to be
worn to protect the eyes. Care must be taken when opening pipes or vessels, which may contain liquid.

Ammonia (R717):
Ammonia is normally considered to be the most dangerous of the primary refrigerants and has inherent
material and physiological hazards. A limited range of ammonia/air mixtures (16-27% ammonia by
volume) can be ignited by flame and an explosion may result.

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Ammonia must not be allowed to come into contact with iodine, bromine, chlorine, hypochlorite or
mercury; there is an explosion hazard in each case.
Anhydrous ammonia must be treated with respect. It is not a cumulative poison, but, because of
ammonia's high affinity to water, the immediate harmful effects of exposure are as follows:
Vapour Low concentrations may cause only irritation and discomfort: high concentrations can destroy
body tissue. The action is more pronounced on moist tissues of eyes, nose, breathing passages, and moist
areas of the skin may be burned by high concentrations. Liquid in this form ammonia can cause severe
burning of the skin and eyes. As the eyes are particularly delicate organs, even small amounts of
ammonia can be harmful. The full effects of ammonia on the eyes may not be apparent for 8-10 days
but, ultimately, blindness may result. Because even low concentrations of ammonia gas constitute a
health hazard, it is essential that systems be maintained gas tight.
Maintenance procedures must not be carried out unless adequate ventilation has been provided to avoid
risk of explosion and physiological harm. Naked flames must not be permitted in the area. The pungency
of ammonia will usually warn personnel against remaining in locations where dangerously high
concentrations of vapour exist. Personnel must not be permitted to work without wearing a gas mask,
even for short periods, in a concentration, which causes any discomfort to the eyes or affects breathing.
When a line containing ammonia is broken, do not rely solely on an isolation valve for protection, but
use a blank flange as well. Rubber gloves and goggles must be worn. Gas masks suitable for protection
against ammonia must be immediately available, preferably already worn. All vessels and pipelines
should be thoroughly purged of ammonia before starting operations likely to produce sparks or flames
like welding/cutting. In addition, precautions should be taken to prevent a dangerous build up of
ammonia vapour during these operations. Exits and gangways and engines rooms where ammonia is
used or stored must be kept clear and unobstructed to ensure that they can be rapidly vacated in the
event of a serious escape of ammonia. If a leak occurs, open all doors and ports leading to the open air to
accelerate ventilation.
Gas masks fitted with canisters suitable for use with ammonia must be kept available for emergencies,
and personnel must be trained in their use. For rescue work in high concentrations of ammonia, self-
contained breathing apparatus (transparent, rubber type) rubber boots and gloves are essential. Gas
masks are effective only for relatively short periods and in low concentrations of gas only. Under no
circumstances whatsoever should ammonia be discharged into drains, scuppers, or over- board when in
port.

Transfer and storage of refrigerant:

When adding refrigerant to the plant, it is essential that the content of the cylinder be verified to prevent
charging with the wrong substance, which could cause an explosion or other accident.
Contaminated refrigerant must be returned to the manufacturer for possible recycling. On no account
should it be reused or discharged into the environment. Refrigerant containers must be disconnected
from the system immediately on completion of transfer of refrigerant. Cylinders must not be overfilled.
Frequent determination of the weight of refrigerant must be made and the permissible quantity of
refrigerant for the cylinder never exceeded. The permissible weight is calculated from the equivalent
water capacity, which is stamped on the cylinder. Substitution of the system refrigerant charge for
another refrigerant must not be made without the approval of the authority concerned, the manufacturer,
the installer or other competent person, and the user.

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Notices detailing the safety precautions to be taken, and preferably illustrating emergency first aid
treatment, should be displayed in areas where refrigerant is used or stored.
Spare refrigerant must be stored in approved containers, and the quantity held in the plant room limited.
Cylinders and drums of refrigerant must be treated with care. Above all:
a. Keep away from heat.
b. Do not drop.
c. Ensure that blanked connections are tight.
d. Never attempt to check the contents of a refrigerant cylinder by ‘smell’.

*********************************Kv***********************************

First Aid:
Injuries caused by R22:
Frost-bite:
Direct contact with liquid refrigerant may result in frostbite, due to the rapid evaporation of the liquid.
Refrigerants are not usually caustic. Eye injuries Refrigerant vapours are not usually harmful to the eyes.
However, should liquid refrigerant squirt directly into the eyes, ensure that the injured person is taken to
hospital or a doctor immediately. Avoid rubbing the eyes.
The following first-aid should be administered. Drop the eyes with sterile mineral oil (refrigerating
machine oil or liquid paraffin) and then rinse thoroughly with water. If the irritation continues, rise the
eyes with a weak boric acid solution.

Fainting:
There is a risk of suffocation, due to lack of oxygen, if a large quantity of refrigerant escapes into a
poorly ventilated room. Take the affected person immediately out into the fresh air, and loosen close-
fitting clothes. Artificial respiration should be given immediately and continued until an expert can
administer pure oxygen. Rinse the affected area thoroughly with water. An inhalator should be used
immediately.

Injures caused by R717 (ammonia):

Breathing problems due to inhalation of ammonia vapours.
The patient should be moved to a heated room where he must lie down with head and shoulders slightly
raised. Loosen clothing on the upper part of the body to relieve coughing and help the patient to breath
more easily. Pure oxygen is necessary if the patient has inhaled a large amount of ammonia gas. The
patient must also be kept calm and quiet. Unconscious persons must never be given water or other liquid
to drink. If the patient is conscious, water or orange juice diluted with sugar and glycerine may be given.

Eye burns.
Raise the eyelid and rinse the eyeball thoroughly with water for at least 15 minutes. If the patient is in a
great deal of pain, treat the eyes with a few drops of castor oil or another pure and neutral oil
(refrigerating machine oil).

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Skin burns:
Rinse thoroughly with water, for at least 15 minutes, before removing clothes if necessary. Never cover
burnt area with clothing, bandages, oil or liniment. A doctor should treat the injured person as soon as
possible.

Swallowing liquid ammonia:

Give the affected person plenty of water to drink, preferably a mixture of vinegar and water (1 part
vinegar to 5 part water). Milk, perhaps with the addition of a raw egg, also has a neutralizing effect.

*****************************Kv*********************************

CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY REQUIREMENTS:

Classification rules gave general satisfaction to all the interested parties and ensured that the
refrigeration machinery, its installation onboard and the installation arrangement were of a quality and
adequacy to give confidence in the successful carriage of the produce and for other services they are
intended for.
Rule requirements:
In order to maintain its RMC notation, any classed refrigerated cargo installation must undergo
satisfactory periodical surveys as follows.
Annual survey:
This is required at intervals of 12 months after the date of initial classification. Its purpose is to establish
that the condition of the installation as a whole is satisfactory and the machinery is operating reliably
and may be expected to continue to do so for the ensuing 12 months.
With a view to minimising interference with operational commitments, the survey requirements have
been framed to avoid any opening up or dismantling unless the ship's records or external examination
indicate the presence of some fault requiring attention. In general, refrigeration machinery with electric
motors, air coolers and piping, insulation of cargo chambers, low temperature pipes and thermometers
will be subjected to a visual inspection. The voyage logs will also be examined.

Special survey:
This is to confirm the findings of examinations at the annual surveys by opening up plant and
machinery every five years for the purpose of establishing that no concealed defects have
developed. In general, refrigeration compressors operate under favorable conditions and are inherently
reliable. It will be necessary to open up the compressors, shell and tube condensers and evaporators,
examine carefully air coolers, pressure vessels and piping, and to remove some insulation from the
refrigerant pipes to verify that it has not been affected by external corrosion. The cargo chambers' lining
and insulation may be required to be removed for inspection purposes and foamed ‘in situ’ polyurethane
may be checked for shrinkage and absorption of water. Mineral wool does have a tendency to settle
down in service and evidence must be seen that this is not the case on the inspected vessel.
‘Condition of Class’ may be recommended when objects are found which cannot receive immediate
attention, but which do not jeopardize the operation of the installation for the required duty.

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Loading port survey:
This may be carried out at any time on one or more chambers to certify their condition prior to loading
of a refrigerated cargo. The chambers must be clean and free from odour, and fitted with thermometers
in working order. The electrical generating plant is inspected and refrigeration machinery is seen in
operation. The temperature of each cargo chamber subjected to survey is noted and entered on the
Certificate.
Loading port surveys are not mandatory and do not imply that the temperatures noted are necessarily
suitable for the cargo which is to be carried. Nevertheless they clearly protect the interest of the ship-
owner, the cargo owner and the underwriter.

REGULATIONS:
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA):
Since the early part the 20th century, sustained low temperature has been used as an effective method for
the control of the Mediterranean and other tropical fruit flies. If infested fruit is continuously exposed to
temperatures of 2.2*C or below for a sufficient period of time, so the various insects can be killed
effectively. The USDA has developed procedures so that this cold treatment quarantine method can be
effectively applied to fruit while in transport.
USDA requires 'adequate' refrigeration, insulation and temperature control, but does not give a detailed
specification. Equipment must be classified under the rules of an internationally recognised
classification society, and there are special requirements for checking the calibration of the temperature
recording system, which has to be accurate to ± 0.15*C in the range –3*C to +3*C. The number of
sensors required depends on the compartment volume, from a minimum of 4 for spaces up to 283 m3 up
to 10 for a space of 1981 m3-2830 m3. In containers, a return air sensor and two pulp sensors are
sufficient, but these must be at prescribed positions in approved equipment, and must be connected to
approved temperature recorders.
All maintenance, repair and checks carried out on the equipment must be recorded in the work logbook.
Correction tables for the temperature sensors must be kept in the work logbook.
Cold treatment temperature requirements depend on the species of fly to be controlled. Full details are
given in the USDA PPQ Treatment Manual, with maximum permissible pulp temperatures of 2 .22*C. In
each case there is a range of alternative times and temperatures, and as an example the range for
‘Ceratitis capitata’ (Mediterranean fruit fly) is as follows.

Necessary time: Days. Maximum temperature. *C.

10 0.00
11 0.55
12 1.11
14 1.66
16 2.22

For this treatment, it must be emphasised that if the pulp temperature exceeds the limit at any time, the
whole quarantine period has to start again, e.g. in port. Alternatively, it may be possible to use an
alternative fumigation treatment at port of entry.

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Perishable Product Export Control Board (PPECB):
The PPECB requirements drafted by the South African Authorities apply to fruit and vegetables
exported in containers. They require that the set air temperature within the container should not vary by
more than 1*C. This may, depending on the container type and temperature difference between cargo
and ambient, necessitate an increase in the air circulation rate from, say, 40 to 60 changes of air per hour
within the container.
An additional requirement is to maintain the relative humility within the container at a high level, which
PPECB defines as the temperature difference between the air leaving the air cooler and the surface
temperature of the air cooler. This is essentially a water vapour pressure difference with its lower limit
depending on the surface area of the cooler and its upper limits largely governed by water conditions at
the surface of the particular fruit at the prescribed storage temperature.
Similar requirements apply to fruit and vegetable cargo transported on board reefer vessels.
***************************Kv********************************
References and Acknowledgments:
1. Refrigeration machinery by Mr. J.R. Stott. C.Eng., FIMarE.
2. The Institute of Marine Engineers publications.
3. Refrigeration machinery manufacturer’s manuals.
********************************

Question Bank for Marine Refrigeration and Air Conditioning:

1. Write short notes on the following:
a) Refrigeration.
b) Live products.
c) Dead Products.
d) Freeze Drying.
2. Explain in detail primary refrigerant and secondary refrigerant and desired properties of a
refrigerant.
3. Give in detail all the properties of any three common refrigerants used in marine compressors.
4. Write in detail regarding secondary refrigerant. Your answer should indicate the refrigerant
selected, its character, the way it is used and its merits and demerits with respects to the other
refrigerants.
5. What are the four main contaminants that could enter the refrigeration system? Explain in detail
how each one enters the system, the problems they create, how they are removed and how to
avoid them.
6. Draw a line diagram of a Vapour Compression Cycle Refrigerating plant and describe its
operation with all relevant pressures and temperatures.
7. What are the four types of compressors used in marine refrigeration system? Describe each in
brief and give their advantages and disadvantages.
8. Sketch and describe a shaft seal arrangement that is generally fitted in a reciprocating
compressor.

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 9. With regard to a reciprocating refrigerator compressor:
a) Sketch the mechanical shaft seal showing its component parts and how it is
lubricated.
b) Describe the sealing arrangement stating what materials you would use for the
component parts.
c) State why the seal is fitted and what factors can cause its failure.
d) What is the effect on the environment of the release of refrigerants into the
atmosphere?
10. Sketch and describe a screw compressor and give its advantages and disadvantages wit respect to
other types of compressors.
11. Describe a centrifugal compressor as fitted to marine air-conditioning system. Give its merits and
demerits with respect to other units.
12. What are the two types of drives used for driving refrigeration compressor. Give in detail the
advantages and disadvantages of these types.
13. Explain in detail 8 important section points of a refrigeration compressor you will check during
its maintenance and overhaul.
14. What are the functions of lubricating oil system if a refrigeration system and explain in detail
why oil separators are fitted in the system.
15. Explain in detail the 6 important properties of refrigeration system lubrication oil.
16. Explain the maintenance one should carry out on a shell and tube refrigeration condenser.
17. What maintenance you will carry out on an air-cooled condenser.
18. Describe in detail 3 main methods of removal of frost from an evaporator coil.
19. Sketch and describe a drier unit as fitted to a refrigeration system and explain why it is fitted.
20. Sketch a thermostatic expansion control valve as fitted in a refrigeration system, labeling the
component parts. State where the valve is located in the refrigeration system.
21. Sketch and describe an electronic expansion valve as fitted in a refrigeration system. Label all
the components and explain its operation.
22. Sketch and describe an evaporator liquid level control valve. Explain its function in detail.
23. Sketch and describe the high pressure cut out for a refrigeration unit. If the refrigeration
compressor has cut out due to operation of the H.P. cut out; State the possible causes.
24. With reference to refrigeration systems:
a) Explain what happens in the condenser and evaporator.
b) Explain why the refrigerant temperature changes from one side of the expansion
valve to the other.
c) With reference to the thermostatic expansion valve, explain what is meant by
the term Superheat setting.
25. Reference to the safety controls as fitted to a marine refrigeration plant explain in detail the
functions of the following:
a) Solenoid valve.
b) High-pressure safety cut out.
c) Oil pressure safety cut out.
d) Thermostatic expansion valve.
e) Low-pressure cut out.
26. Sketch and describe a provision room refrigeration plant as fitted to a bulk-carrier.

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 27. Sketch and describe a cargo space refrigeration system using direct expansion system (DX
system). Label all the components fitted in the system.
28. With respect to indirect cooling system explain the following in detail:
a) Explain ‘Secondary refrigerant’.
b) Give all the advantages and disadvantages of this system over direct expansion
system.
c) Role of calcium chloride/brine in this system.
d) Role of specific gravity of the fluid to temperature maintainable.
29. Sketch and describe an indirect brine system suitable for a large reefer ship.
30. Describe in detail the procedures you will take as an engineer on a reefer vessel the space ready
for carrying reefer cargo.
31. With reference operation of reefer space write short notes on the following:
a) Maintenance of correct temperature.
b) Spare gear and stores required.
c) Preparation of space before loading.
d) Maintenance of logbook.
32. Write in detail the watch keeping duties of an engineer on a reefer ship pertaining to refrigeration
plant and maintenance of correct temperatures.
33. Give 10 important items of checks procedures one have to check and record while keeping watch
on a reefer/domestic refrigeration system.
34. With regards to air conditioning on board ship:
a) What is a wet and dry bulb hygrometer and how can it be used to obtain a
measure of the humidity of air.
b) How does it assist in maintaining the good health of the crew and the efficiency
of the ship?
35. With regards to air conditioning on board ship:
a) Explain what a psychrometric chart is, and how it is used.
b) What would you regard as a reasonable effective inside temperature and relative
humidity in accommodation spaces?
c) Discuss good house keeping practice in order to reduce the hazard to health
from the Legionella bacterium.
36. Draw a block diagram for a fully automated accommodation air conditioning unit.
a) Label the component parts and indicating the directions of airflow.
b) Explain why the unit includes means of dehumidification and humidification.
c) A chart is used for ensuring that accommodation conditions are within the so-
called comfort zone what useful information does the chart give.
37. During a period when, the air conditioning unit is providing accommodation heating and outside
air temperature is very low, problems can occur. State causes and remedies for:
a) Drying effect of the air causing discomfort.
b) An unusually large amount of condensation forming on outside bulkheads.
38. With the aid of a simple sketch explain the operation of a basic air conditioning unit. With
reference to your sketch explain the following:
a) How the problem of increase in humidity of cooled air is over come.
b) How the discomfort caused by the excessive drying effect of heated air is
overcome.

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 39. For a vapor compression refrigeration machine state how each of the following faults are
indicated and how they are remedied:
a) Air in the system.
b) Moisture in the system.
c) Undercharge.
d) Overcharged.
40. Give reasons for refrigeration system oil dropping slowly or quickly in a CFC or
HCFC system. What are the methods you will take to correct the above situation?
41. Write in detail 6 important maintenance checks you will make daily on a R22
refrigeration system.
42. With reference to periodic maintenance for a reciprocating refrigeration compressor,
write in detail the maintenance you will carry out after 24 hours, 5000 hours, 10,000
and 40,000 hours running.
43. In order to obtain optimal operating results what maintenance you will execute on a
refrigeration screw compressor after 1000 hours, 2,500 hours, 5000 hours, 10,000
hours and 40,000 hours.
44. How would you execute system pressure test on a CFC or HCFC refrigerant system
lines and equipments. Give in detail all the possible procedures.
45. Explain in detail how you will conduct leak detection test on refrigeration plant?
a) You should give all the type of leak detectors.
b) You should describe the separate tests carried out for various types
of refrigerants.
46. Describe in detail how you would charge a large refrigeration plant:
a) When the plant has been opened out and completely overhauled.
b) When the plant is running but found under charged.
47. Describe how you would charge a small refrigeration plant.
48. Write short notes with regards to maintenance of the following refrigeration
equipments:
a) Condensers.
b) Oil coolers.
c) Filters and driers.
d) Control systems.
49. With reference to symptom or difficulties found in a running refrigeration plat,
explain in detail their causes and remedy:
a) Too high delivery pressure.
b) Too high suction pressure.
c) Compressor starting and stopping too often on low-pressure switch.
50. With reference to symptom and difficulties found in a running refrigeration plant
explain in detail their causes and remedy:
a) Too low suction pressure.
b) Too low delivery pressure.
c) Compressor stopping too often on high-pressure switch.
51. In a running refrigeration system compressor if the lubricating oil disappears from the
crankcase or not returning to crankcase;
a) What would be the causes in each of the above two cases.
b) How would you rectify the above defects?

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 52. Write in detail the causes and remedy for the following defects in a refrigeration
plant.
a) Compressor motor stars but stops soon.
b) Compressor working continuously without cutting out.
c) Heavy frosting on the compressor crankcase.
53. Pertaining to safety with regards to refrigeration machinery write in detail the
following:
a) Mechanical hazard.
b) Electrical hazard.
c) Chemical hazard.
54. How would you handle the storage and transfer of spare refrigerants on board ship?
55. With regards to following accidents in the refrigeration space how would you render
first aid?
a) Frostbite caused by R22.
b) Fainting in machinery space.
c) Injures caused by ammonia vapour.
d) Eye burns.
e) Skin burns.
56. Reference to the Marine Refrigeration system Explain in detail the purpose of
following equipments:
a) Thermostatic expansion valve as fitted to a fish room refrigeration system.
b) Low pressure cut out as fitted to the same system.
57. Explain in detail the ‘Hot Gas Defrosting’ method as used in Marine Refrigeration plant.
58. Explain in detail why such safety controls are fitted to a refrigeration compressor:
1. Low pressure cut out switch.
2. High pressure cut out switch.
59. Explain in detail with suitable sketch an ‘Oil Separator’ as fitted to a Marine refrigeration
system.
60. Explain where and why ‘Hermetic and Semi-hermetic’ compressors are used on a ship?
61. Explain with a simple sketch the working principle of Reciprocating compressor used in Marine
refrigeration system.
62. Explain what are Alternative Refrigerants and write short notes on them.
63. What are the problems caused with the presence of solid particles and non-condensable gases in
the refrigerants circulating in the system?
64. Explain with a simple line diagram the shell and tube condenser (4 Pass type) used for R22
refrigerant in a Marine refrigeration system and detail the maintenance that is required for it to
function trouble free.
65. Explain the construction of an air-cooled condenser as fitted to a marine refrigerated container
and detail the maintenance required for this unit.
66. With respect to indirect cooling system explain in detail what is ment by ‘Secondary
Refrigerants’. Give all the advantages and disadvantages of this system over direct expansion
system.
67. With respect to indirect cooling system explain the following in detail:
1. Role of calcium chloride/ brine in this system.
2. Role of specific gravity of the fluid to temperature maintainable.
68. With reference operation of reefer space write short notes on the following:
1. Maintenance of correct temperature.
2. Maintenance of logbook records.

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 69. With reference operation of reefer space write short notes on the following:
1. Preparation of reefer space before loading.
2. Spare gear and stores required for effective operation.
70. Sketch and describe a bilge arrangement fitted in a reefer compartment for removal of washed
water or condensate drains.
71. With the aid of simple sketch of a ship’s provision room refrigeration plant explain in detail how
you would put the plant in working condition after complete re-tubing of the condenser unit.
72. While watch keeping on board ship, it is observed that the refrigerated room temperature is rising
and the compressor is running with out cutting off. On preliminary inspection it is found that the
unit have sprung a leak and large quantities of air or humidity have entered the working system.
Explain with a line diagram how this leak is detected, the system problem rectified and put back
in normal operation.
73. On newly erected marine refrigeration plant or a fully overhauled and surveyed plant explain in
detail how pressure-testing procedure is carried out.
74. Explain in detail what are the leak detection equipments available for various refrigerants as used
on a ship. Explain also how they are used to detect leaks.
75. Explain in detail what is meant by ‘Drying by Evacuation’ pertaining to refrigeration machinery
maintenance.
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Reference Books:

1. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning – Mohan Prasad.

2. Running and Maintenance of Marine Machinery – Edited by J. Cowley.
The Institute of Marine Engineers Publication. London. United kingdom.
3. Marine Refrigeration and Air-conditioning – Srivastava.
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End of Auxiliary Machinery: Volume: 3: Notes:
Kv/BE/AMET/07/2004.

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