ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 2: ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL
CONCEPTS
Ecology
- studies the interaction between living
organisms and their environment.
- seeks to understand
interdependency of conditions and their
environment.
- Provides information on how people can
benefit from ecosystems and sustainably
used Earth’s resources.
ECOLOGICAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Organisms > Species (Population) > Biotic
Community > Ecosystem > Biosphere
Organisms
- basic unit of ecology.
- encompasses both living and nonliving
organisms.
- DOMAINS OF LIVING ORGANISMS:
Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya.
- PROKARYOTES: single-celled organisms;
lacks nucleus or organelles surrounded
by a membrane; includes both archaea
and bacteria.
- EUKARYA: can either be uni or
multicellular; possesses nucleus and
organelles.
- FOUR KINGDOMS OF EUKARYA: protista
(protists), fungi, plantae, animalia
- these kingdoms and domains differ in the
way they obtain foods.
Species or Population
- SPECIES: group of organisms with the
same gene pool.
- POPULATION: group of organisms of the
same species residing in a specific
geographical area.
Community
- group of populations of different species
interacting ang living in a specific
geographical location.
Ecosystem
- ecology’s functional unit, including living
organisms and their physical
environment.
- one or more communities of living
organisms interacting with
environment.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Biotic Components - living organisms.
Abiotic Components - non-living sector; includes
sunlight, temperature, wind, water, soil, etc.
Biosphere
- earth’s zone of life
- consists of earth’s ecosystems and the
parts where life could thrive.
- encompasses lithosphere, troposphere,
the and hydrosphere.
- LITHOSPHERE: outer layer of Earth where
geological processes occur.
- TROPOSPHERE: atmosphere’s lowest layer
where weather phenomena and
atmospheric conditions happen.
- HYDROSPHERE: all earth’s water.
MAJOR ORGANISM GROUPS
Viruses - tiny infectious agents carrying genetic
material enclosed in a protein coat.
Bacteria - single-celled microorganisms lacking a
nucleus and often have a rod-like structure.
example: Escherichia coli found in human
digestive system.
Fungi - heterotrophic organisms with chitin-
based cell walls. example: yeasts, molds,
mushrooms, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Algae - photosynthetic organisms, both uni and
multicellular. Example: Spirogyra found in
freshwater habitats.
Macrophytes - visible aquatic plants like water
lilies; essential components of aquatic
ecosystems.
Protozoa - single-celled eukaryotic
microorganisms, motile and heterotrophic in
nature. example: Amoeba proteus.
Rotifers - multicellular animals with a wheel-like
structure. example: Brachionus plicatilis.
Microcrustaceans - tiny aquatic crustaceans.
Example: Daphnia magna.
Macroinvertebrates - larger invertebrate animals
often used as indicators of water quality.
example: mayfly nymphs and stonefly larvae.
Fish - vertebrate animals that reside in aquatic
environments.
ENERGY FLOWS IN ECOSYSTEM
Energy Capture and Use: Photosynthesis and
Respiration
- sunlight: primary source of all earth’s energy.
It is trapped by plants using their chlorophyll
and is converted to chemical energy
their through PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
o ARTIFICIAL PHOTOSYNTHESIS: sunlight is
captured using engineered cell systems
and is converted to electrical energy.

o Chlorophyll serves as the antenna that
captures the sunlight.
o Oxygen is an essential by-product of
the process.
- RESPIRATION: reverse of photosynthesis.
o chemical energy produced via
photosynthesis is released for other
organisms’ utilization.
o redox reaction is exemplified in
respiration, and it can be expressed
through two half cells: oxidation of
carbon and reduction of oxygen.
o Oxidation of carbon: carbon donated or
loses 4 electrons.
o Reduction of oxygen: oxygen gained 4
electrons.
o AEROBIC RESPIRATION: oxygen is used as
the electron acceptor.
o Strict aerobes are bacteria that rely on
oxygen as electron acceptor.
o Strict anaerobes cannot tolerate oxygen.
o There are facultative microbes that can
switch between aerobic and anaerobic
processes based on the availability of
oxygen.
o In the absence of oxygen, other
compounds are utilized as electron
acceptors in the process called
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION.
o ANOXIC RESPIRATION: when nitrate is the
electron acceptor; in wastewater.
o FERMENTATION: an anaerobic process
that does not need other substances as
electron acceptors. In the process, the
organic compounds act as a donor and
receiver of electrons.
o METHANOGENESIS: a type of
fermentation wherein the by-product is
methane.
TROPHIC STRUCTURE IN ECOSYSTEMS
Carbon is the backbone of life; it allows
formation of organic molecules that are vital for
the structure, function, and energy process of
living organisms.
Organisms are categorized based on how they
obtain carbon.
AUTOTROPHS acquire their carbon from organic
materials. It means “self-feeding,” and this
includes organisms that can produce their own
food.
ORGANIC MATTER is the carbohydrates and
other organic materials produced during
photosynthesis.
HETEROTROPHS means “other feeder”. They
obtain carbon from organic matters.
BIOMASS is the quantity of organic matter
present at a given time. PRODUCTIVITY is the rate
at which biomass is produced.
PRIMARY PRODUCTION is the photosynthetic
generation of organic matter.
SECONDARY PRODUCTION is when organic
matter is produced by non-photosynthetic
organisms.
TROPHIC STRUCTURE is the feeding structure in
ecosystem. It is composed of abiotic and biotic
components.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE TROPHIC STRUCTURE
Producers (autotrophs)
- capable of generating their own food
- other organisms higher up in the food
chain rely on them for sustenance.
Consumers (heterotrophs)
- rely on other organisms for food.
- PRIMARY CONSUMERS (herbivores):
depend on the producers for their food.
- SECONDARY CONSUMERS: can either be
a carnivore or an omnivore; rely on
primary consumers for food.
- TERTIARY CONSUMERS: can either be a
carnivore or an omnivore; depend on
secondary consumers for sustenance.
- QUATERNARY CONSUMERS: eagles or killer
whales; feed on tertiary consumers.
Decomposers
- bacteria and fungi
- derive nutrients from decaying organic
matter.
- assist in recycling nutrients in the
ecosystem.
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY TRANSFER
Energy transfer between organisms are
governed by the 1st and 2nd law of
thermodynamics.
First Law (Law of Conservation of Energy)
- energy cannot be created nor destroyed
but can only be transformed from one
form to another.
- in an ecosystem, no living organism is
capable of generating its own energy.
- plants can only create their own food by
utilizing the energy from the sunlight.
- it also implies that the total energy in an
ecosystem is constant and is just
converted to different forms.
Second Law (Law of Entropy)
- there is a natural tendency for energy to
be lost or waster during transfer.
- losses of energy occur during the process
due to respiration.
- the energy level decreases as we go up
the trophic level.
TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND ECOSYSTEM AND
HUMAN HEALTH
BIOCONCENTRATION happens when an
organism directly obtains or absorb a chemical
from its environment.
BIOACCUMULATION can happen through both
bioconcentration and ingestion of
contaminated food.
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR (BCF) assesses the
quantity of a chemical present in an organism
compared to the amount it takes in directly from
the environment. Often utilized for evaluating the
buildup of substances in aquatic organisms
directly from water. High BCF suggests that a
substance can efficiently gather in aquatic
organisms, which raises concerns about its
potential to enter the food chain and affect
higher trophic levels. Organisms with high fat
content generally exhibit greater BCF values.
BIOACCUMULATION FACTOR (BAF) evaluates all
potential mechanisms of uptake and compares
the concentration of a chemical in an organism
to that in the surrounding medium. It is typically
employed to determine the potential for a
substance to accumulate in the tissues of
organisms higher up in the food chain.
BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM HEALTH
Biodiversity
- encompasses the vast array of life on
earth.
- populations of the same species that are
geographically or temporally separated
can exhibit significant genetic diversity:
this results in varying responses to
environmental stress and different roles
within ecosystems.
THREATS TO BIODIVERISTY
- overexploitation of resources: overusing
natural resources at a rate the
environment cannot sustain.
- habitat loss: reduced space and
resources organisms can utilize.
- invasive species: settlement of non-
native species in a new environment.
- pollution: presence of disruptive
substances in the environment.
- climate change: long-term shift of
weather patterns.
BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES IN THE ECOSYSTEM
WATER CYCLE
SUMMARY OF THE PROCESS:
- Liquid surface water evaporates, turning
into water vapor.
- Frozen water also sublimates, turning into
water vapor and releasing significant
volumes of water vapor into the
atmosphere.
- This water vapor eventually condenses
into clouds of liquid or frozen droplets.
- Precipitation follows, bringing water back
to Earth's surface as rain or snow.
- The rain eventually seeps into the earth,
where it may re-evaporate, move below
the surface, or be retained for a long
time.
- Surface runoff, the flow of fresh water
caused by rain or ice melting, is also an
important part of the water cycle. Runoff
can travel directly to the oceans or
through streams and lakes to the sea.
STAGES OF WATER CYCLE
Evaporation
- water molecules on the surface of the
bodies of water become agitated and
rise into the air.
- when molecules with the highest kinetic
energy group together, clouds of water
vapor are created.
- occurs below the boiling point of water.
- EVAPOTRANSPIRATION: process of
evaporation that happens through a
plant’s leaves; it has a significant impact
on the amount of water in the
atmosphere.
Sublimation
- turns snow or ice into water vapor without
first becoming liquid water.
- typically caused by dry winds and low
humidity.
- can be observed on mountaintops
where air pressure is very low: less energy
is required to sublimate the snow into
water vapor.
Condensation
- water vapor accumulated in the
atmosphere cools down; caused by low
temperatures and high altitudes.
- vapors condense into microscopic water
and ice droplets which eventually
coalesce to form clouds.
Precipitation
- when enough droplets combine, they fall
from clouds and land on the ground
below as rainfall.
- when it is unusually cold outside or there
is a dramatic reduction in air pressure,
water droplets freeze and fall as snow or
hail.
Infiltration
- rainwater seeps into the soil
- groundwater may follow rivers or streams,
but sometimes it may simply bury itself
more, creating aquifers.
Runoff
- process of forming rivers when rainwater
flows downwards along the slopes of
mountains and hills.
- when the amount of snowfall exceeds
the rate of evaporation or sublimation in
colder areas, icecaps may form.
CARBON CYCLE
CARBON is the second most prevalent element
in living organisms.
STAGES OF CARBON CYCLE
1. Plants use carbon from the atmosphere
to produce photosynthesis.
2. Animals eat these plants, which causes
carbon to bioaccumulate in their bodies.
3. When these creatures and plants
eventually pass away and decay,
carbon is returned to the atmosphere.
 4. Fossil fuels are eventually made from
some of the carbon that is not released
back into the atmosphere—these are
utilized for human activities that
contribute to the increase of carbon in
the atmosphere.
OXYGEN CYCLE
Production of oxygen that is utilized by humans is
almost 50% dependent on oceans.
OCEANIC PLANKTON - primary source; includes
drifting plants, algae, and certain photosynthetic
bacteria.
PROCHLOROCOCCUS - smallest photosynthetic
creature on earth; contributes up to 20% of the
oxygen in the entire biosphere.
STAGES OF OXYGEN CYCLE
1. Green plants release oxygen into the
atmosphere as a result of photosynthesis.
2. Aerobic organisms consume this oxygen
during respiration.
3. Animals exhale CO2, which is then used
by plants once again during
photosynthesis. This process helps to
maintain a balance of atmospheric
oxygen.
SOME INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT OXYGEN
- PHYTOPLANKTON are among the most
important oxygen producers, with
terrestrial plants and tress following close
behind.
- Oxygen is generated through a reaction
between sunlight and water vapor in the
atmosphere.
- A substantial amount of oxygen is stored
in the earth’s crust as oxides, but
unfortunately, this form cannot be utilized
for respiration as it is in a combined state.
NITROGEN CYCLES
Nitrogen is the essential building block for many
crucial biological components, including nucleic
acids and proteins
STAGES OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen Fixation
- specific bacteria convert atmospheric
nitrogen gas into ammonia or
ammonium ions, which can be utilized by
plants and other organisms.
Ammonification
- occurs when bacteria and fungi
decompose dead organisms and release
ammonia as a byproduct.
Nitrification
- converts ammonia into nitrate ions,
which can be used by plants, and then
into nitrate ions.
Assimilation
- plants and microbes absorb ammonium
and nitrate ions from the soil to create
necessary components like proteins and
DNA.
Denitrification
- converts nitrate and nitrite ions back into
nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide, releasing it
into the atmosphere.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
It is a natural process that describes how
phosphorus moves and cycles through the
Earth's lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Phosphorus is a vital building block of DNA, RNA,
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and many other
essential biological components, and is an
essential element for the survival of all living
organisms.
STAGES OF PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Weathering
- crust is where the phosphorus cycle
begins.
- large amount of phosphorus is present in
the rocks.
- the phosphate salts found in the rocks
break down and are transported into the
soil by wind or water, where they bond
with the soil.
Absorption by Plants
- plants absorb phosphate salts that have
dissolved in water; however, the soil's
phosphorous content is typically low.
- farmers use phosphates to fertilize
agricultural land.
- aquatic plants obtain inorganic
phosphorus from the bottom of water
bodies.
- in aquatic environments, phosphate salts
can inhibit plant growth as they do not
fully dissolve in water.
Absorption by Animals
- either through direct consumption of
plants or by eating other animals that
have already consumes plants.
- phosphorus cycle occurs at a faster rate
in plants and animals as compared to
rocks.
Return to the Environment through
Decomposition
- in the course of this breakdown,
phosphorus is transformed from its
organic state to its inorganic state, and
then it is released back into the soil and
water.
SULFUR CYCLE
It refers to the process of sulfur transportation
throughout the geosphere and biosphere.
Unfortunately, some harmful bacterial species
have the ability to reduce sulfur, which can lead
to diseases such as leprosy and tuberculosis.
Because of this, the sulfur reduction pathway is a
major area of focus for the development of
treatments.
STAGES OF SULFUR CYCLE
Mineralization
- conversion of organic sulfur molecules
into inorganic sulfur compounds.
- decomposer microorganisms release
sulfur in the form of hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
or sulfate ions (SO42).
Oxidation
- carried out by chemolithotrophic
bacteria and other sulfur-oxidizing
microorganisms.
- the breakdown of sulfur compounds
leads to the creation of sulfate, which is a
more stable and soluble form of sulfur.
Reduction
- reduction of sulfate to hydrogen sulfide or
other reduced sulfur species.
- often carried out by sulfate-reducing
bacteria in anaerobic environments.
- these bacteria utilize sulfate as a terminal
electron acceptor in their metabolic
process, while generating hydrogen
sulfide as a byproduct.
Incorporation
- living organisms incorporate sulfur
through various biological mechanisms.
- plants absorb sulfate ions from the soil
and use them to create organic
compounds like vitamins, amino acids,
and coenzymes.
- animals intake sulfur by consuming plants
or other animals which becomes a
crucial component of their tissues and
proteins.
POPULATON DYNAMICS
POPULATION - group of organisms belonging to
the same species, coexisting within a defined
geographical area or locality.
DYNAMICS - forces, processes, or systems that
cause changes, motion, or fluctuations within a
system.
Population Dynamics
- examines how different causes and
processes affect population size,
structure, and distribution through time.
- uses concepts of ecology, biology,
demography, and sociology to study
complex relationships that affect
populations, including people.
- studies population changes and their
causes and effects, including birth rate,
death rate, immigration, and emigration.
UNITS OF EXPRESSION FOR POPULATION SIZE
Counting the number of organisms in a
population, such as animals, makes it possible to
determine the population's size. Measuring the
population size of individuals alone is insufficient
for determining the extent and efficacy of a
population, particularly when the objective is to
calculate the total number of living things or
biomass.
It is easier and more efficient to use common
constituents that are appropriate for the
measured or target population. Such examples
are:
a. Dry weight (g DW)
b. Organic carbon content (g C)
c. Chlorophyll content (g Chl)
d. Plant biomass as:
o g DW/m2 (grasslands)
o metric tons C/hectare (forests)
o mg Chl/m3 (lakes)
MODELS OF POPULATION GROWTH
People are born, immigrate, and emigrate,
shifting populations through time and space.
Thus, populations grow and shrink and change
due to environmental alterations. Some
populations, such as forest trees, are stable,
whereas others change abruptly from time to
time. Idealized models allow population
ecologists to predict a population's size through
time and under different conditions.
1. Exponential or Unlimited Growth
- population undergoes growth at a
consistent rate over a given time period.
- visually depicted by a curve in the shape
of the letter J on a graph.
 - assumption: infinite resources; absence - For a batch reactor, both equations as
of any growth limits the two phenomena are present and are
combines to make the expression:

2. Logistic Growth
- there is an influence of environmental
limits and factors.
- example: bacteria
- population experiences an initial phase
o reproduction in these organisms occurs
of exponential growth when population is
via fission, when each individual cell
small.
undergoes division to yield two offspring
- as population size approaches maximum
cells.
capacity (K), the pace of growth
o this process continues, and the bacteria
decreases.
will reproduce at a constant rate.
- after carrying K, population stabilizes.
o this occurs in a large flask containing an
- S-shaped graph
unlimited supply of nutrients, ensuring
that the availability of resources does not
get depleted.
- The exponential growth model is
expressed as:

- Cellular maintenance and reproduction

are sustained by the utilization of energy
reserves that are mobilized via the
process of respiration. This is also known
as endogenous decay in wastewater
engineering. The respiratory demand of
the organisms can be represented by the
expression:
- Example: populations of animals in a
confined environment.
- food, space, or other resources required
for sustenance becomes limited.
- various environmental factor may also
affect the system.

o the right side of the equation is negative

due to the loss of biomass that could be
either from respiration, settling, and
predation.
 YIELD COEFFICIENT (γ)
- describes the relationship between the
substrate consumption to the growth of
organisms.

3. Resource-Limited Growth (Monod Model) X = amount of biomass produced per mass of

- exhaustion of renewable resources in substrate consumed (S)
natural environments.
- explains how nutrients affect population
or community growth.

o substrate (S) is a macronutrient such as

organic carbon in wastewater treatment or
a growth-limiting micronutrient such as BATCH GROWTH
phosphorus content in a lake.
o half saturation constant (Ks) is the
concentration of the substrate at half of the
maximum growth rate.
o A low Ks would attain the maximum specific
growth rate (µ𝑚𝑎𝑥) with low substrate
concentration while a high Ks would require
a higher substrate concentration to attain it
within a given time frame.

BIOKINETIC COEFFICIENTS
- Parameters used in environmental
engineering and microbiology.
- rate at which microorganisms, - in a controlled environment, batch
particularly a bacteria, consume or reactor studies the growth of
change substances over time kinetically microorganisms, usually bacteria.
in an area of interest.
COMMON EXAMPLES OF BIOKINETIC
COEFFICIENTS USED IN POPULATION DYNAMICS:
 1. Exponential (Log Phase)
- growth is characterized by rapid cell
division and exponential population
growth.
- constant growth rate if environment has
enough nutrients and no limitations.
2. Stationary Phase
- causes nutritional constraints and
metabolic waste accumulation.
- steady population size: growth rate slows;
number of newly divided cells equals the
number of dying cells.
3. Death Phase
- makes microorganism population growth
less favorable.
- less nutrients; more competition while
toxic waste increases.
- When cell mortality exceeds cell growth,
the microbial population decreases.
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS TO PROTECT THE
ECOSYSTEM
- system of rules, regulations, agreements,
and common law that controls how
humans interact with the environment.
- preserves the environment; establishes
guidelines.
- decides who can access natural
resources and under what conditions.
- may control pollution, natural resource
exploitation, forest preservation, mineral
extraction, and animal and fish
populations.
PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
 - GENERALLY: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.04% carbon dioxide, and other gases
like ozone and water vapor.
CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES THAT
DETERMINE WHETHER THE AIR QUALITY IS
SUSTAINABLE FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND
ENVIRONMENT:
1. Low level of pollutants
- clean air should have no visible and
nonvisible pollutants.
- VISIBLE: smoke, smog, and haze.
- NONVISIBLE: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone,
particulate matter, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs).
- to declare the air clean, these pollutants’
concentration must comply with the air
quality standards set by Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA).
2. Low to no particulate matter
- fine particles (PM2.5) or coarse particles
(PM10): causes respiratory problems;
Republic Act (RA) 7942: Philippine Mining Act of
hinders visibility in high concentration
1995
levels.
3. Balanced humidity
- areas with balanced humidity are said to
have clean air.
- provides comfort; prevents dehydration
and dry skin—associated with extreme
humid conditions.
4. Fresh and odorless
- clean air normally has neutral odors
signifying absence of pollution and
industrial emissions.
- it may sometimes have an earthly smell
associated with smells of vegetations:
normally described as fresh.
5. Optimal oxygen concentration
- OXYGEN: vital for every living thing.
- clean air has an abundance of oxygen
more than enough to provide humans
and animals with air to breathe.
6. Low CO2 levels
- should not exceed 400 ppm.
- CO2: a by-product of human and animal
CHAPTER 3: AIR AND NOISE QUALITY, POLLUTION respiration, combustion process, and
AND CONTROL other natural resources which may cause
CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF CLEAN AIR discomfort and reduced cognitive
- The exact composition of air is different function when found indoor at elevated
for every area and time of the year. levels.
7. Low noise pollution
 - areas with good air quality are quieter 2. lead
than others. 3. sulfur dioxide
- It provides a relaxing environment. 4. nitrogen dioxide
8. Clear visibility 5. ozone
- must not cause visibility impairment or 6. two categories of particulate matter.
reduce the clarity of distant objects.
9. Safety for sensitive groups - The standard normally uses a unit of
- people who have respiratory and measure in ppm by volume, ppb by
cardiopulmonary diseases. volume, and µg/m3.

- Air can be polluted even without visible

color or smell, leading to establishment of
various laws:
- Clean Air Act, which compelled the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR) to establish
standards that will help in maintaining air
pollutants at allowable levels:
o National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS)
o National Ambient Air Quality Guidelines NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY GUIDELINE
Values (NAAQGV) VALUES
o National Emission Standards for Sources - particulates of solid materials or liquid
Specific Air Pollutants (NESSAP) aerosol caused by man-made or natural
o Air Quality Index (AQI) sources like industrial emissions and
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS volcanic eruption may be of pollution
(NAAQS) concern.
Two levels: - these particles may be present in the air
1. Primary Standard for short—or even in an indefinite amount
- set to a level that will ensure and protect of time and travel hundreds of kilometers
public health. away, which then can be inhaled.
- provides “sufficient margin of safety,” - created by DENR-EMB to ensure that the
whether it is deemed to be air quality of an area is by standards.
technologically or economically - it has almost the same criteria as NAAQS
achievable. with an additional pollutant called total
- must protect people considered to have suspended particles (TSP).
sensitive cases (elderly or those who have - TSP: all particles present in the
respiratory and cardiopulmonary atmosphere that are mainly associated
diseases). with soil and dust nuisance and have size
2. Secondary Standard not exceeding 100 µm.
- set to protect public welfare (structures, - set the limits of air pollutants which helps
crops, and animals). in reducing the risk of respiratory and
- stricter than primary standard. cardiopulmonary illness.
- with the difficulty of achieving the - this guideline uses the unit of measure in
primary standard, the secondary µg/NCM (normal cubic centimeter)
standard is not used as a basis in setting
air pollution control policies and is set in
the same level to that of the primary air
quality standards.
Six criteria of pollutants:
1. carbon monoxide

AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI)
- set of pollution standards of air quality
formulated in line with section IV of
RA8749 that simplifies the complex
relationship between air pollution and
exposure.
- PURPOSE: protect the health, safety, and
welfare of the public as well as to inform
them of the ill health effects of the
different air pollutants.
- utilizes six terms to describe the air quality
based on six criteria pollutants:
SUMMARY MATRIX OF POLLUTANT-SPECIFIC
CAUTIONARY STATEMENTS FOR THE GENERAL
PUBLIC; SOURCE: EMB
SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
A. Sources of Air Pollutants
a. Anthropogenic Sources
All of these are connected to human activity.
Including the use of motor vehicles, the burning
of fossil fuels for electricity and heat and industrial
activities
b. Hazardous Air Pollutants
1. Lead – from volcanic activity and soil in
the air. Major point sources of lead
include smelters, refineries, and the
burning of garbage that contains lead.
2. Nitrogen Dioxide - released to the
atmosphere by bacterial activity in the
soil. Nitric oxide (NO), which is created
when atomic oxygen combines with
nitrous oxide in the upper troposphere
and stratosphere.
3. Petrochemical Oxidants
This is a class of compounds used to stop
oxidation in fuels and lubricants.
4. Sulfur Oxides
Both primary and secondary pollutants can be
sulfur oxides. Power plants, industry, volcanoes,
and the oceans all directly emit SO2, SO3, and
SO2.
5. Particulates
About 2.9 petagrams of particulate emissions are
produced annually by volcanic ash, soil dust, sea
salt, and forest fire smoke. 110 Tg of emissions
each year are anthropogenic and result from
the burning of fossil fuels and industrial processes.
B. Effects of Air Pollutants
a. Effects on Materials
1. Mechanisms of Deterioration
1.1 Abrasion
Rocks, sediments, and other materials can be
worn down or degraded by other materials
rubbing against them mechanically in a process
known as abrasion.
1.2 Deposition, Removal
It is the process by which natural forces like
water, wind, ice, or gravity descend or lay down
sediments, rocks, or other objects.
1.3 Direct chemical attack
Typically seen in solubilization and oxidation-
reduction processes. Often, water is required as
a medium for these reactions to occur.
1.4 Indirect chemical attack - when pollutants
are absorbed and subsequently react with a part
of the absorbent to create a harmful molecule.
2. Factors the Influence Deterioration
2.1 Moisture, Temperature, Position of the
exposed material, Sunlight
b. Effects on Vegetation
1. Cell and Leaf Anatomy
The photosynthesis and respiration processes
speed up when it's hot, sunny, and windy outside.
Due to the enhanced transfer of water and
minerals from the roots, the guard cells open,
allowing for increased water vapor clearance
that would otherwise collect.
2. Pollutant Damage
The palisade cells are harmed by ozone.
Chloroplasts eventually condense, which causes
the cell walls to break down. As a result, reddish-
brown blotches develop, which change to white
(f leck) after a few days.
c. Effects on Health
1. Susceptible Population
Smoking causes personal pollution, which
exposes people to amounts of air pollutants far
higher than the low levels present in ambient air
2. Anatomy of the Respiratory System
The human respiratory system is the main
indicator of the impacts of air pollution. While
oxygen diffuses from the alveolus into the blood
cell, carbon dioxide diffuses through the capillary
wall into the alveolus.
3. Inhalation and Retention of Particles
The nasal hairs filter out particles larger than 5 to
10 m. Particles of 1-2 m in size reach the alveoli.
Less than 0.5 m in diameter particles may diffuse
to the alveolus cell wall, but they lack a high
enough terminal settling velocity to be
effectively eliminated.
4. Lead(Pb)
Lead is a toxin that accumulates over time. Lead
occurs in the atmosphere as a particle. The
range of particle sizes is 0.16 to 0.43 m.
5. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
A pulmonary edema (an abnormal buildup of
fluid in the lung) could result from ongoing
exposure.
Measurement of Air Pollutants
a. Particulate Matter (PM):
1. Gravimetric Approach: This method
entails collecting particles on a filter, then
measuring the filter's weight before and
after sampling to determine the
concentration of particulate matter.
2. Beta Attenuation Technique: Beta
attenuation monitors use beta radiation
absorption to estimate particulate matter
concentration, particularly for continuous
monitoring of PM2.5.
3. Light Scattering Devices: These
instruments rely on light scattering
principles to provide real-time
measurements of PM2.5 and PM10
concentrations.
b. Mobile Monitoring- using vehicles
equipped with air quality monitoring
instruments to measure pollutants at
various locations
c. Remote Sensing - air quality over large
regions, especially in remote or
inaccessible areas.
d. Continuous Monitoring - provide real-
time data on pollutant concentrations
e. Reference Methods - often established
by regulatory agencies, provide highly
accurate measurements of specific
pollutants
f. Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) Sensors -
measure CO2 concentrations by
analyzing the absorption of infrared light
at specific wavelengths.
Air Pollution Contril Devices and Technologies
Stationary Sources
Absorption Devices designed for controlling
pollution based on absorption principles operate
by transitioning pollutants from a gaseous phase
into a liquid one.
Mass transfer is a diffusion process wherein the
pollutant gas moves from points of higher
concentration to points of lower concentration.
The removal of the pollutant gas takes place in
three steps:
1. Diffusion of the pollutant gas to the surface of
the liquid
2. Transfer across the gas–liquid interface
(dissolution)
3. Diffusion of the dissolved gas away from the
interface into the liquid
-spray chamber is a device that uses liquid to
remove pollutants from a gas stream.
-In a packed tower, the gas and liquid flow
counter currently (gas and liquid in opposite
directions, called countercurrent flow) through a
bed of packing material, such as rings, saddles,
or spheres.

Adsorption
Adsorption is a mass-transfer process in which the
gas is bonded to a solid. It is a surface
phenomenon. The gas (the adsorbate)
penetrates into the pores of the solid (the
adsorbent) but not into the lattice itself. The bond
may be physical or chemical. Electrostatic forces
hold the pollutant gas when physical bonding is
significant. Chemical bonding is by reaction with
the surface.
The relation between the amount of pollutant
adsorbed and the equilibrium pressure at
constant temperature is called an adsorption
isotherm. The equation that best describes this
relation for gases is the one derived by Langmuir.
As saturation is approached, pollutant will begin
to leak out of the bed, a process called
breakthrough.
Combustion
When the pollutant in the gas stream can be
turned into a safe gas through burning,
combustion becomes a potential way to control
it.
Direct flame burning is the preferred method if
two conditions are met. First, the gas in the
stream must contain more than 3.7 megajoules
of energy per cubic meter. The second condition
is that none of the substances produced when
the gas burns should be harmful.
Catalytic burning is a method that uses a catalyst
to accelerate the oxidation of fuel and minimize
the creation of harmful substances
An adsorption wave is the region where the
adsorbed substance changes from one
component to another along the solid surface.
A breakthrough curve is a graph that shows how
the concentration of the adsorbed substance
changes at the outlet of a fixed bed adsorber
over time.
Flue Gas Desulfurization
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems can be
classified into two types: nonregenerative and
regenerative. Nonregenerative systems use a
reagent to eliminate sulfur oxides from the gas,
which is then disposed of. On the other hand,
regenerative systems recover and reuse the
reagent.
Non-regenerative systems
Nonregenerative systems are methods of flue
gas desulfurization (FGD) that do not recover the
sulfur dioxide (SO2) removed from the flue gas.
Control Technologies for Nitrogen Oxides
The majority of nitrogen oxide air pollution comes
from combustion processes. This pollution is
created when nitrogen in the fuel undergoes
oxidation. There are two types of technologies
used to control NOx: those that prevent its
formation during combustion and those that
convert it into nitrogen and oxygen after
combustion.
Post combustion
The SCR, selective catalytic reduction, process
involves using a catalyst bed and anhydrous
ammonia to react with NOx and form N2 and
water. The SNCR selective noncatalytic
reduction process involves injecting ammonia or
urea into the flue gas at a specific temperature
to reduce NOx to N2 and water. The NSCR
nonselective catalytic reduction process uses a
three-way catalyst and requires a reducing
agent similar to CO and hydrocarbons.
Particulate Pollutants
Cyclone
It is a collector used for particles larger than 10
μm in diameter. It uses centrifugal force to throw
particles out of the gas, where they hit the
cyclone's wall and are removed. A reverse flow
cyclone is a device that uses centrifugal force to
separate dust particles from the gas.
Filters
When there is a need to control particles smaller
than 5 μm, a filter can be used
A baghouse is a device that uses fabric filters to
trap dust particles from the gas. The dust particles
are captured on the surface of the bags, while
the clean gas passes through the pores of the
fabric.
Reverse-air baghouses are a type of dust
collector that use low pressure air to clean the
filter bags from the inside. The bags are cleaned
by reversing the air flow in a separate
compartment, which removes the dust and
drops it into a hopper
Liquid Scrubbing
When the particulate matter is wet, corrosive, or
hot, a fabric filter may not be effective, and
liquid scrubbing may be a better option. Liquid
scrubbing is a method of removing pollutants
from a gas stream by exposing it to water or
another liquid. The liquid absorbs the pollutants,
which are then separated from the gas.
Electrostatic precipitation
Electrostatic Precipitation (ESP) is a method used
to efficiently collect particles from hot gas
streams. It involves the use of alternating plates
and wires, with a high direct current potential
established between them. This creates an ion
field, causing ions to attach to the particles in the
gas stream, giving them a negative charge. The
particles then migrate towards the positively
charged plate and stick to it. The plates are
periodically rapped to release the collected
particles into a hopper.
Control Technologies for Mercury
Existing boiler control equipment partially
removes mercury compounds. Particulate
control equipment collects mercury compounds
in solid form, while FGD systems collect soluble
mercury compounds. Different control
equipment achieves varying degrees of mercury
emission reduction, with fabric filters and dry
scrubbers being the most effective.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCES
Gasoline
In the conventional internal combustion engine,
a harmonious blend of fuel and air is delicately
introduced into a cylinder, where it undergoes
compression and ignition, courtesy of a spark
emitted by the illustrious spark plug. As the
immaculate mixture transforms into a vehement
inferno, its explosive energy propels the pistons
with utmost grace. These pistons, in turn,
seamlessly transmit their refined motion to the
distinguished crankshaft, ultimately propelling
the entire vehicle forward. Regrettably, the
exhausted remnants of this captivating
performance exit the engine and gracefully
escape through the elegant tailpipe.
Diesel
The diesel engine is different from the gasoline
engine in two main ways. First, it allows for more
air to enter, resulting in a higher ratio of air to fuel.
Second, it doesn't use a spark to ignite the fuel;
instead, the compressed air in the cylinder is
heated to a high temperature, which ignites the
fuel. A well-designed and maintained diesel
engine emits less CO and hydrocarbons
compared to a four-stroke engine, thanks to its
better air-to-fuel ratio. However, the higher
temperatures in the diesel engine do lead to
higher levels of NOx emissions.
Jet Engine
Airplanes powered by compressed gases can
increase the levels of particulate matter and
nitrogen oxides in cities. This propulsion system
involves taking in air, compressing and heating it
with fuel combustion, using the resulting gas
expansion to power the turbine blades, and then
expelling the gas through the exhaust nozzle.
Hybrid Cars
Hybrid cars combine gasoline and electricity to
make them more fuel efficient. They recharge
their batteries through regenerative braking and
coasting. Regular hybrids can travel 25
kilometers for every liter of fuel, much better than
regular cars. Some experimental hybrids have
achieved up to 100 kilometers per liter by using
stronger batteries or extra batteries. These "plug-
in" hybrids need to be charged from an electric
outlet. Although plug-in hybrids are not yet cost-
effective, regular hybrids reduce emissions by
60% due to their improved fuel efficiency.
Control of Automobile Emissions
Blowby
The airflow around a moving vehicle is used to
remove any gas-air mixture, evaporated
lubricating oil, and exhaust products that may
have leaked past the pistons. This air is drawn in
through a vent and released through a tube,
with the amount depending on the car's speed.
About 20-40% of the car's hydrocarbon emissions
come from the crankcase and are called
crankcase blowby.
Fuel Tank Evaporation Losses
There are two ways to prevent the evaporation
of VOCs from a fuel tank. One way is to use an
activated charcoal adsorber in the tank vent line
to capture the VOCs. The other way is to release
the vapors into the crankcase, but this method is
not as effective as the activated charcoal
system in fully controlling the evaporation.
Carburetor Evaporation Losses
When an engine is running, the vapors from the
carburetor are released into the engine intake
system. After the engine is shut off, the heat in the
engine compartment causes the remaining
gasoline in the carburetor to evaporate, known
as hot soak. To control these emissions, activated
carbon adsorption systems or releasing the
vapors into the crankcase can be used. The
canister system is the preferred method. Newer
fuel injection systems eliminate carburetors,
which helps prevent evaporation losses.
Engine Exhaust
There are several ways to reduce engine exhaust
emissions, but the most effective methods can
be grouped into three categories: engine
modifications, fuel system modifications, and
exhaust treatment devices. The most commonly
used technique currently is the catalytic
converter, which reduces certain pollutants but
can be easily damaged by certain substances
found in fuel. Another approach is modifying the
fuel itself by removing lead and reducing sulfur
content. Lowering gasoline vapor pressure and
using oxyfuel can also be helpful. Additionally,
alternative fuels such as alcohol, liquified
petroleum gas, and natural gas can be used as
alternatives.
Inspection–Maintenance (I/M) Programs
Car manufacturers have successfully added
devices to reduce pollution, but these devices
can wear out and stop working. Since the
devices don't impact the car's performance,
owners often don't bother fixing them. In places
with high pollution levels, programs have been
put in place to check if the devices are
functioning properly. If a vehicle fails the check,
the owner must get it fixed and rechecked.
Failing to pass the check could lead to not being
allowed to have license plates or tags.
The National Ambient Air Quality Guideline
Values (NAAQGV)
The National Ambient Air Quality Guideline
Values (NAAQGV) are limits on criteria air
pollutant concentrations published by the
Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR), intended for the protection of
public health, safety, and general welfare. The
NAAQGVs are based on scientific studies and
international standards and are periodically
reviewed and updated by the DENR.
What is Air Quality
The term "air quality" refers to the level of
cleanliness or pollution present in the
atmosphere. This is determined by assessing the
concentrations of various pollutants that are
found in the air, which include but are not limited
to particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and lead.
How do we Gauge “Quality”?
The assessment of air quality by utilizing suitable
techniques for air sampling and instruments.
PM-2.5 signifies particles with a size of 2.5 μm or
less, while PM10 encompasses particles with a
size of 10 μm or less
The primary distinction between PM-2.5 and PM-
10 lies in their size and composition. Referred to
as fine particles, PM-2.5 consists primarily of
secondary pollutants, including sulfates, nitrates,
organic compounds, and metals, which are the
result of intricate chemical reactions transpiring
in the atmosphere. Conversely, coarse particles,
known as PM-10, predominantly consist of
primary pollutants like dust, pollen, mold, smoke,
and sea salt, which are directly emitted from
diverse sources
Total suspended particulate (TSP) refers to the
totality of small solid matter released,
documented and/or otherwise observed in the
atmosphere.
Source Emission Testing, often known as "Stack
Testing," is a meticulous and sophisticated
procedure aimed at comprehensively assessing
the distinctive attributes of industrial waste gas
stream emissions into the surrounding
atmosphere.
EMB MC No. 2016-008: Clarificatory Guidelines on
the conduct of Stack Emission Tests by DENR-EMB
and its Accredited Third Party Source Emission
Testing Firms
NOISE LEVEL QUALITY MEASUREMENTS AND
CONTROLS
NOISE
- Defined as unwanted sound, an
environmental phenomenon, a waste
product generated with various
anthropogenic activities.
- Noise is any sound independent of
loudness that can produce an undesired
physiological or psychological effect.
- Noise can interfere with our
communication, work, rest, recreation,
and sleep.
- Noise can affect us in a way that we can
get sick like headache, nausea,
giddiness, and fatigue, mood swings and
etc.
 - NOISE WILL BE NOISE POLLUTION WHEN IT
IS ALREADY AFFECTING THE
ENVIRONMENT, PEOPLE AND ANIMALS.
TYPES OF SOUNDS
1. Continuous Noise - an uninterrupted
sound level that varies less than 5 dB
during the period of observation. It is a
constant, unbroken sound that is
seamlessly blending with our
environment. An example is the noise
from a household fan.
2. Intermittent noise - is a continuous noise
that persists for more than 1 s that is
interrupted for more than 1 s. A dentist’s
drilling would be an example of an
intermittent noise.
3. Impulse noise is characterized by a
change of sound pressure of 40 dB or
more within 0.5 s with a duration of less
than 1 s. Its grabs your attention in an
instant and it’s gone almost as quickly as
it arrived. * The noise from firing a weapon
would be an example of an impulsive
noise.
NPCC MEMORANDUM 002 SERIES OF 1980
- is a document issued by the National
Pollution Control Commission of the
Philippines that sets the noise standards
for different areas and activities in the
country.
- It also specifies the penalties for violating
the noise standards.
- it defines noise as any sound that is
unwanted or that interferes with normal
activities.
- It classifies different areas into four zones:
residential, commercial, industrial and
silence zones, and assigns maximum
permissible sound levels for each zone.
- It also sets maximum permissible sound
levels for specific sources of noise, such as
vehicles, aircraft, construction
equipment, public address systems and
others. T
- It provides guidelines for noise control
and abatement, such as using mufflers,
barriers, insulation, zoning and others.
- It also imposes penalties for violating the
noise standards, such as fines, suspension
or revocation of permits or licenses, or
imprisonment.
SEC. 77 NOISE SENSITIVE ZONE
- No person shall cause the creation of
unnecessary noise.
- Zone where extra silence or peace is
needed. Examples of places of this are
schools, churches, and hospitals.
SEC. 78 AMBIENT (NOISE) QUALITY AND EMISSION
STANDARDS FOR NOISE
A. Classification of General Areas:
Class AA – a section or contiguous area which
required quietness, such as areas within 100
meters from school sites, nursery schools,
hospitals, and special homes for the aged.
Class A – a section or contiguous area which is
primarily used for residential purposes.
Class B – a section or contiguous area which
zoned or used as a heavy industrial area.
Class C – a section primarily zoned or used as a
light industrial area.
Class D – a section which is primarily reserved,
zoned, or used as a heavy industrial area
B. Ambient Noise Levels
Sound-level meter, device for measuring the
intensity of noise, music, and other sounds. A
typical meter consists of a microphone for
picking up the sound and converting it into an
electrical signal, followed by electronic circuitry
for operating on this signal so that the desired
characteristics can be measured. The indicating
device is usually a meter calibrated to read the
sound level in decibels (dB; a logarithmic unit
used to measure the sound intensity).
Time Frame:
- Daytime (8AM-10PM)
- Morning/Evening (5AM-9AM)/(6PM-
10PM)
- Nighttime (10PM-5AM)
EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE
Many effects might occur because of noise
pollution. The example below is just the common
ones.
Auditory Effects – Hearing impairment and
Speech Interference
Psychological-sociological effects – Annoyance
and Sleep Interference
NOISE CONTROL
A. Reduce Impact Forces - Reduce the
weight, size, or height of fall of the
 impacting mass. Whenever practical,
one of the impact heads or surfaces
should be made of nonmetallic material
to reduce resonance (ringing) of the
heads. CARPETS
B. Reduce Speeds and Pressure - Reducing
the speed of rotating and moving parts in
machines and mechanical systems
results in smoother operation and lower
noise output.
C. Reduce Frictional Resistance - Reducing
friction between rotating, sliding, or
moving parts in mechanical systems
frequently results in smoother operation
and lower noise output. LUBRICATE
D. Reduce Radiating Area - The larger the
vibrating part or surface, the greater the
noise output
E. Reduce Noise Leakage - All unnecessary
holes or cracks, particularly at joints,
should be caulked. SEAL GAPS AND
CRACKS
F. Isolate and Dampen Vibrating Elements -
The most effective method of vibration
isolation involves the resilient mounting of
the vibrating component on the most
massive and structurally rigid part of the
machine. USE SPRINGS
G. Provide mufflers or other silencers - Fluid
flow noise is to be reduced
H. Separation - Reducing noise is to
separate the sources of noise from noise
sensitive uses.
I. Absorbing Materials - Sound-absorbing
materials such as acoustical tile, carpets,
and drapes placed on ceiling, floor, or
wall surfaces can reduce the noise level
J. Acoustical lining - Noise transmitted
through ducts, pipe chases, or electrical
channels can be reduced effectively by
lining the inside surfaces
K. Barriers and Panels - Placing barriers,
screens, or deflectors in the noise path
can be an effective way of reducing
noise transmission. SOUNDPROOF
CURTAINS
L. Enclosures - Enclose a noisy machine in a
separate room or box.
LEGISLATIVE MATTERS ON AIR AND NOISE QUALITY
International Agreements and Treaties that
address air and noise quality.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer
It is an international treaty established in 1987 to
address the depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer.
Its primary goal is to protect and restore the
ozone layer by phasing out the production and
consumption of ozone-depleting substances
(ODS), including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
halons, and carbon tetrachloride.
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), Kyoto Protocol and
Paris Agreement
The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was
established in 1992 where it addressed the global
issue of climate change. Its primary goal is to
stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
Earth’s atmosphere. The Philippines is one of the
parties that signed on and has met with every
country to assess progress and negotiate further
climate agreements.
This led to the establishment of the Kyoto
Protocol in 1997 which established legally
binding emission reduction targets for
developed countries as well as the Paris
Agreement in 2015 which established a limit to
global warming to below 2 degrees Celsius
above pre-industrial levels with an aspirational
target of limiting to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) is an agency of the United
Nations responsible for the regulation and
coordination of air travel. Its primary mission is to
ensure the safety, security, and efficiency of
global aviation as well as addresses
environmental aspects including air quality
control.
The organization recognizes the aviation
industry’s contribution to greenhouse gas
emissions and air pollution especially from
aircraft engines. It sets aircraft engine emissions
standards as well as promotes alternative fuels
and technologies.
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
The International Maritime Organization
(IMO) is another agency of the United Nations
responsible for the regulation and coordination
of international shipping. Its primary mandate is
to ensure safety, security, and environmental
protection in the maritime industry. It established
air emissions control of shipping emissions
including sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and
particulate matter. It also imposed sulfur limit
regulations and nitrogen oxides control as well as
greenhouse gas emissions.
Local Legislation on Air and Noise Quality Control
Presidential Decree No. 1152-1977: Philippine
Environment Code
One of the first legislative actions that
acted towards environmental protection. Signed
by then president Pres. Ferdinand E. Marcos
established a framework for environmental
protection and management in the country. The
focus of which is air quality regulation. It
prescribed the levels of air pollutants and
introduced the concept of Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA). It also paved the way
to create air pollution mitigation efforts.
Presidential Decree No. 1586: Establishing an
Environmental Impact Statement System,
Including Other Environmental Management
Related Measures and For Other Purposes
It established the Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS) system as a framework for the
assessment and management of the
environmental impact of projects, activities, and
development, with its primary focus is ensuring
that future and security of the environment are
considered and mitigated before projects.
Republic Act No. 6969: Toxic Substances and
Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act of
1990
Republic Act No. 6969 was enacted to
address the growing problem of toxic substances
and hazardous waste buildup in the country.
Although its’ focus is on hazardous materials, it
contains provisions relating to air quality
regulation especially on the air emissions of
industries.
Republic Act No. 7638: Philippine Clean Air Act of
1992
Republic Act No. 7638 was an initial
attempt to address air pollution in the country. It
focused on setting emission standards for
vehicles and industries, lead gasoline regulation
and establishing the Pollution Adjudication
Board to enforce air quality standards. The
statute faced challenges as the standards set at
the time were outdated compared to the quality
of vehicles and industries emerging in the
country. It also was limited to only to certain
vehicles and facilities leaving a huge portion of
the country unregulated.
Executive Order No. 16-1998: Creating the
Presidential Air Quality Commission
Executive Order No. 16-1998 establishes
the Presidential Air Quality Commission (PAQC)
which is responsible for addressing air quality
issues and ensuring the implementation of air
quality management initiatives across the
country. It is tasked with setting and monitoring
air quality standards to protect public health and
the environment, aligning with national and
international guidelines.
Administrative Order No. 46-1998: Revised Rules
and Regulations for the Prevention, Control and
Abatement of Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles
Administrative Order No. 46-1998
addresses air pollution from motor vehicles in
addition to previously set guidelines for emissions.
It set standards and limits for pollutants such as
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, and particulate matter. It also created a
comprehensive step by step for vehicle
inspection and maintenance. It also promoted
and ensured that the quality of automotive fuels
and cleaner combustion.
Republic Act No. 8749: Act Providing for a
Comprehensive Air Pollution Control Policy and
For Other Purposes
Otherwise known as The Philippine Clean
Air Act of 1999 imposed stronger air quality
control measures and provided a
comprehensive framework for air quality
management, emission standards, vehicle
inspection and maintenance programs. The law
had the following key provisions:
- Air Quality Management and Monitoring
It established that the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources is the lead
agency for implementation of the law as well as
maintaining air quality monitoring network to
report and assess air quality across the country.
- Emission Standards
It set emissions standards for various types of
pollutants especially Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen
Oxide, Particulate Matter and Carbon Monoxide
as well as Volatile Organic Compounds.
- Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance
It set regular inspection and maintenance
programs for motor vehicles to ensure
compliance with emission standards while
promoting cleaner fuels and technologies.
- Airshed Governing Boards
It also paved the way for creating airshed
governing boards to oversee air quality
management in specific regions who are
responsible for formulating air quality action
plans and measures to improve air quality within
the region.
Airsheds were established through the
following Administrative Orders expressed in
Table X.X Airsheds were defined in the Clean Air
Act of 1999 as geographic areas with similar
characteristics pertinent to air quality. It was
established for the purpose of assessing and
managing air quality. Similar characteristics
include climate, meteorology, and topology
that affects the interchange and diffusion of
pollutants.
Administrative Order No. 17-2002: Defining the
Organizational Structure and Major
Responsibilities of the Environment and
Management Bureau as a Line Bureau by virtue
of Section 34 of the Philippine Clean Air Act of
1999 (RA 8749)
Administrative Order No. 17-2002 outlines
the organizational structure and responsibilities of
the Environment and Management Bureau
(EMB) in accordance with the Philippine Clean
Air Act of 1999. It created the EMB under the
Department of Environment and Natural
Resources.
Administrative Order No. 23-2002: Implementing
Guidelines on the Operationalization of the Air
Quality Management Fund under Republic Act
8749
It provides detailed guidelines for the
operationalization of the Air Quality
Management Fund (AQMF) under the Philippine
Clean Air Act of 1999. Its purpose is to effectively
implement the provisions of the Clean Air Act,
outlining the funding mechanism of AQMF,
including sources of funds, such as fees, fines,
penalties, and donations.
Republic Act No. 9275: Act Providing for a
Comprehensive Water Quality Management and
for Other Purposes
Otherwise known as the Clean Water Act
which focused on the water quality and
protection of the country’s water resources,
however it also indirectly addresses air quality
regulation in the context of pollution control. It
addressed the management and treatment of
wastewater which is directly related to air
emissions. The law recognized the
interconnection between air and water quality
within the context of environmental protection
and sustainability.
Republic Act No. 9271: Philippine Noise Pollution
Control and Regulation
It addresses noise pollution and sets noise
standards for various areas and times of the day.
It included the regulation of emission control,
construction activities and transportation noise. It
restricted vehicle noise, promoted quieter and
less polluting industrial machines.
CHAPTER 4: WATER TREATMENT
SOME EARLY RECORDED WATER SYSTEMS:
- a sewer in Nippur, India (3750 BCE)
- a sewer in Tel Asmar near Baghdad, Iraq (26th
century)
- nine aqueducts that carried over 3x105
m3/day identified by Sextus Frontinus (97 AD)
THE SOCIAL AWAKENING IN ENGLAND:
- introduction of water filtration system in
Paisley, Scotland, in 1804
- foresight of Chelsea Water Company, which
erected filters to enhance the quality of the
Thames River water in 1829.
The large Parisian sewers began constructing in
1833. In 1842, W. Lindley supervised the
construction in Hamburg, Germany. The social
awakening was led by physicians, attorneys,
engineers, statesmen, and even the writer
Charles Dickens.
JOHN SNOW AND WILLIAM BUDD:
- two among the first recognizable
environmental scientists.
- offered a convincing example of how
contaminated water and disease are
related.
- in 1854, Snow illustrated the connection
between the cholera victims and their
locations in relation to the water sources they
drank.
- cholera deaths were found to be
concentrated near the Broad Street Pump in
London, which provided tainted water from
the Thames River.
- 1857: Budd started his research establishing the
link between typhoid and contaminated
water.
- Budd’s 1873 monograph included a concise list
of guidelines for stopping the spread of the
disease in addition to a description of the
progression of events leading to the
development of typhoid.
- these rules are still significant over 133 years
later.
- the work of these two is very remarkable that it
preceded the discover of germ theory diseases
by Koch in 1876.
1832 - filtration made an unsuccessful start in
Richmond, Virginia.
From 1830s to 1880s, simple sedimentation was
the main method of purification.
AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION
(AWWA):
- founded in 1881.
- group of experts came together to exchange
knowledge and expertise.
- its activities serve as an archive for the
expertise garnered in water purification, much
like other professional societies and
organizations founded in the late 1800s and
early 1900s.
- provides forum for the discussion of innovative
ideas and the criticism of inefficient
procedures.
LAWRENCE EXPERIMENT STATION:
- founded by State Board of Health of
Massachusetts in 1887.
- marked the start of significant filtration
research in the country.
- slow sand filter was constructed and put into
use in the city of Lawrence in the same year
because of studies carried out in the same
year.
RAPID SAND FILTERING:
- started to catch on the same period as the
slow sand filters.
- Austen and Wilbr’s research at Rutgers
University; tests by George Warren Fuller with a
full-scale factory in Cincinnati, Ohio—these
people were credited with the success in this
country, as opposed to the failure in Britain.
- Austin and Wilber noted that using alum as a
coagulant followed by simple sedimentation
produced water of greater quality than simple
sedimentation alone (1885).
1902 - first permanent water chlorination tank in
Middelkerke, Belgium. This operation was
followed by installations at Lincoln, England, in
1905 and at the Boonton Reservoir for Jersey City,
New Jersey, in 1908.
1945 - fluoridation of water became a common
practice in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
The most recent significant technological
advancement in water treatment is the filtration
using synthetic membranes. It was first
developed in 1960s, but it wasn’t until 1990s that
they became practical for use in unique
municipal applications.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Hydrogen Bonds
- refers to the weak interaction between the
positive end of the hydrogen and the
negative and of the oxygen.
2. High Specific Heat Capacity
- water contains the highest specific heat
capacity among any liquid substance that
exist in room temperature and pressure.
- SPECIFIC HEAT: amount of heat that must be
absorbed or lost by 1 gram of a substance to
change its temperature by 1 ˚C. The
equivalent of this in water is 1 cal.
3. Heat of Vaporization
- amount of energy required to change 1 gram
of liquid substance into gas.
- water has high heat of vaporization: 586 cal.
- this process usually occurs in the surface of
water because as the liquid water start to
heat up, the hydrogen bonding makes it
difficult to separate the individual water
molecules from each other, which is supposed
to make the water enter gas phase.
- when water hits its boiling point of 100 °C, there
is eventually enough heat to dissolve the
hydrogen bonds, allowing the molecules to
separate and form a gas at room
temperature.
4. Universal Solvent
- ions and polar molecules can easily dissolve in
water because it is a polar molecule with
slightly positive and negative charges; this is
why water is known as a universal solvent.
5. Water’s Cohesion and Adhesion
- COHESION: water molecules are drawn to
one another; it keeps them grouped together
at the liquid-gas interface and allows water
molecules to protrude over the glass’ top
surface.
- SURFACE TENSION: substance’s ability to resist
rupture while under tension or stress. It can
arise due to cohesion.
- ADHESION: attraction between water
molecules and those of other substances or
objects. This attraction outweighs the
cohesive forces of water.
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
1. Turbidity of Water
- measurement of how well it transmits light.
- it is made up of suspended and colloidal
particles.
- amount of suspended matter is measures
using a turbidity rod or turbidity meter; it is
given as turbidity in mg/L or ppm which are
roughly equivalent.
- unit of measurement is the result of mixing 1
mg of finely ground silica with 1 L of purified
water.
2. Color
- an aesthetic concern for water quality.
- it gives impression that it is unfit for
consumption.
- can reveal the presence of organic materials.
- utilized to quantitively analyze the presence
of potentially poisonous or dangerous organic
compounds.
3. Taste and Odor
- sour and salty flavors are produced by
relatively basic chemicals.
- more sophisticated organic chemical
molecules are what give sweet and bitter
sensations.
- organic waste dumped into water directly is
the source of compound that produces tastes
and odor.
- odor intensity is associated with threshold odor
or threshold odor number, which is a
measurement of the degree of taste or odor
present in a specific sample of water.
- threshold number should be 1 and should
never be higher than 3 for water used for public
consumption.
4. Temperature
- RIVERS AND STREAMS: 0 to 35 °C.
- temperature of around 10 °C is preferred for
drinkable water and no temperature should be
higher than °C.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
1. Total and Suspended Solids
- to determine total solids, sample water
must be evaporated, and its residue
should be weighed.
- maximum total allowable level of solids in
water: 500 ppm.
2. pH value of Water
- water becomes acidic if H+
concentration rises; it becomes alkaline
otherwise.
- existence of bicarbonate of calcium and
magnesium or carbonates of hydroxides
of sodium, potassium, calcium, and
magnesium is what causes alkalinity.
3. Hardness of Water
- results in increased soap usage, boiler
scaling, pipe corrosion and incrustation,
bland food, etc.
- water becomes briefly hard if
bicarbonates and carbonates of
calcium and magnesium are present,
however, this hardness can be partially
removed by boiling the water or
eliminated by adding lime.
- PERMANENT HARDNESS/NON-
CARBONATE HARDNESS: water needs
specific treatment if it contains sulfates,
chlorides, or nitrates of calcium or
magnesium.
- CARBONATE HARDNESS = Total hardness
or alkalinity
- NON-CARBONATE HARDNESS = Total
hardness - Alkalinity.
4. Chloride Content
- should not exceed 250 ppm.
- by titrating water with a standard silver
nitrate solution and using potassium
chromate as an indicator, it is possible to
determine how much chloride is present
in the water.
5. Nitrogen Content
- FACTORS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO
NITROGEN BEING PRESENT IN WATER:
o Free ammonia - denotes the beginning of
organic matter’s deterioration; shouldn’t
go above 0.15 mg/L.
o Albuminous or organic matter - indicates
the amount of nitrogen in water before
the process of molten organic matter
breakdown has begun; shouldn’t go
above 0.3 mg/L.
o Nitrites - organic material in water that
hasn’t entirely oxidized.
o Nitrates - reflect on old pollutants and
totally oxidized organic materials in water.
POTABLE WATER
- Also known as drinking water.
- water safe for human consumption, free of
harmful contaminants, and meets the quality
standards set by regulatory authorities.
- potable does not mean pure.
- PURE WATER: H2O molecules only.
- POTABLE: has low levels of dissolved
substances that may have been acquired
through treatment.
THREE CRITERIA OF POTABLE WATER
1. Levels of dissolved substances need to be
fairly low;
2. pH must be between 6.5 to 8.5; and
3. there should be no microorganisms in the
water.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR DRINKING
WATER BY WHO
1. Microbial safety
- should be free from Escherichia coli (E.
coli) or thermotolerant coliforms in 100 mL
of water: indicates fecal contamination.
- there should be a compliance with
specific microbial standards, such as a
limit on the total coliform count and
absence of fecal coliforms.
2. Physical and Organoleptic
Characteristics
- color should not be unacceptable to the
consumer.
- show no signs of murkiness.
- turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU; taste
and odor should be acceptable.
3. Chemical and Radiological Safety
- should comply with specific chemical
standards, including maximum allowable
concentrations for various chemical
standards, such as heavy metals,
pesticides, and other potential chemical
hazards.
- specific standards for radionuclides must
be adhered to ensure that water does
not contain harmful levels of
contaminants.
4. Other Legal Regulations
- must comply with further requirements
established by international and local
regulatory authorities.
SOURCES OF RAW WATER
- conversion of raw to potable water
depends highly on geographical
location.
SURFACE WATER
- bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and
reservoirs that are exposed to
atmosphere.
- one of the primary sources of potable
water for many communities around the
world.
ADVANTAGES:
- easily located; does not require
sophisticated equipment to scourge for
surface water sources.
- softer; makes treatment much simple.
- there is an existing data on the quantity
and quality of existing water supplies.
DISADVANTAGES:
- easily polluted with microorganisms;
causes waterborne diseases and
chemicals that enter the stream from
surface runoff and upstream discharges.
- NTU of surface water often fluctuates
depending on amount of precipitation.
- temperature is bound to change with
ambient temperature, making it difficult
to produce consistent water quality in
water treatment plants.
- intake structure is prone to clogging or
damage during winter.
- can dry up.
- legal water rights are required before
removing surface water.
o ALASKA: Department of Natural
Resources.
o PH: Presidential Decree NO. 1067, or the
Water Code of the Philippines.
▪ CHAPTER IV, ARTICLE 43: “no person
shall raise or lower the water level of
a river, stream, lake, lagoon, or
marsh nor drain the same without a
permit.”
HOW DOES SURFACE WATER BECOME POTABLE? MONITORING AND QUALITY CONTROL
- continuously monitored at various points
to ensure compliance with safety
standards.
- routine water quality testing is conducted
to assess factors such as turbidity, chlorine
levels, pH, and microbiological
parameters.
- adjustments may be made to treatment
process or chemical dosages to maintain
water quality.
PUBLIC ACCESS
- treated water is supplied to consumers
through taps.
GROUND WATER
- vast underground reservoir.
- accumulated from collected water that
seeped in between the ground through
the spaces between soil and rock
particles.
- MISCONCEPTION: this water only exists in
caverns or underground caves.
- stored in aquifers.
- BASEFLOW: groundwater that remains
close to surface and reappears.
- ACQUIFER: underground soil or rock
through which groundwater travels.
THREE TYPES OF AQUIFERS:
INTAKE AND SCREENING
1. Unconfined Aquifer
- surface water is collected from natural
- one that water has infiltrated from the
sources and large debris are removed
surface and saturated to the subsurface
using screens or bar racks to prevent
material.
damage to pumps and machinery.
- zone of saturation and is not contained
PRE-TREATMENT
except for the bottom.
- coagulation and flocculation
- depends on local precipitation for
- sedimentation
recharge.
FILTRATION
- TWO ZONES:
- removes remaining fine particles,
o zone of aeration (unsaturated zone)
microorganisms and impurities.
▪ contains two belts which are soil-
DISINFECTION
water belt (plants obtain their water
- chlorination
here), and the intermediate belt (a
- UV irradiation
mixture of air and water).
- Ozonation
▪ area where pores are filled with air
pH ADJUSTMENT
and water wherein fluctuations in
- water should fall within an acceptable
the moisture content of pores can
pH range to prevent corrosion of
occur daily and seasonally through
distribution pipes and ensure that water is
intermittent or long-term
neither too acidic nor alkaline—which
precipitation.
affects taste and safety.
o zone of saturation
DISTRIBUTION
▪ area saturated with water
- water is stored in reservoirs or tanks and
and where groundwater is
then pumped through a network of pipes
extracted to the surface.
to consumers.

- SHALLOW WELLS: subject to local
contamination from hazardous materials
such as fuel and oil runoff.
- wells require pumps to lift the water.
2. Confined Aquifer
- water is separated form atmospheric
pressure by an impermeable material,
typically rock, clay, or permafrost.
- aka artesian aquifers.
- typically yields large quantities of high-
quality water with the exception to those
confined by permafrost layer because
aquifers may be short or may extend
several hundred miles into the mountains.
- confined aquifers are recharged by snow
or rain in the mountains.
- possibility of contamination is low.
- takes long period of time before
recovering once contaminated.
- if an artesian well is inserted, water will rise
to the well which will then be divided into
two:
o flowing
o nonflowing
3. Springs
HOW IS WATER FROM AQUIFER ACQUIRED?
Aquifer is composed of a combination of solid
material and pores, which are open spaces. As
such, water is in motion caused by gravity or
pumping. This flow is influenced by the following:
a. size of material
b. number of pores
c. connection between pores
Volume is dependent on how much space is
available inside the aquifer between the various
grains. This property is known as porosity.
PERMEABILITY - ability of the water to pass. The
ease of movement within the aquifer depends
on how well the pores are connected. Those with
more clumped grains have less permeability
while those with more space have greater
permeability.
From this, a pump is then drilled. As it operated
inside the well, the depth of water will either
decrease or increase.
- Groundwater flows from high to low
pressure.
- WELL: a hole that allows groundwater to
seep from the soil to the surface.
o a vertical hole is bored using a drill rig.
o steel or plastic pipe called casing is
placed inside the hole to provide support
so that lose soil and rock does not fall into
the well.
o a screen, filled with gravel or coarse sand,
is attached where the water will be drawn
to keep fine particles from entering the
well.
o the space along the unscreened casing is
filled with clay that becomes a seal so that
sallow groundwater cannot flow the
annular space into the screen.
o pumps are used to deliver water that flows
into the casing to the surface; deeper
wells install pumps at the bottom of the
well to push water to the top.
o pumping creates a cone of depression
over time.
o uppermost section is permanently sealed
with cement ground and often with
concrete pad to avoid leaking and
 chemical spills that can contaminate the
water.
PROCESS OF INSTALLING PUMPS AND ACQUIRING
GROUNDWATER:
OVERBURDEN: layers of sand and coarse grains
on top of bedrock that traps groundwater.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF DRILLING:
1. Rotary drilling machine – giant diesel
machine with an attached hydraulic
pump.
- a giant hammer drill that spins and is
mostly used to drill big holes in large
quarries, open pit mines, petroleum
extraction, and other fields.
- as you apply pressure, it starts hammering
down and fractures the rock that is being
drilled into.
2. Cable tool – less used than rotary drilling
machine; it is a big drill that is lifted and
slammed on the ground to fracture the
back.
COUNTRY SOURCES OF WATER COMPARISON
Sources of water differ from country to country.
In Alaska, there are 3 distinct and separate
sources of water:
- Surface water – precipitation run off
- Ground water – infiltrates the ground’s
surface
- Ground water under the direct influence
of surface water
Coastal regions with limited freshwater sources
use desalination plants to convert seawater to
potable water. Reverse osmosis and distillation
are the common techniques employed.
Desalination is not widely practiced in the
Philippines due to its high energy requirements
and cost.
Much larger quantities of salt water are boiled
then condensed to get pure distilled water in
distillation.
In reverse osmosis, salty water is passed through
a membrane that allows only water molecules to
pass through. All ions and larger molecules get
trapped and are separated from the water, thus
ending up with pure distilled water.
IMPORTANCE OF ENSURING THE QUALITY OF
POTABLE WATER
a) Public health
b) Environmental impact
c) Economic development
d) Social equity
e) Sustainability
QUALITY STANDARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES
REPUBLIC ACT 9275 – The Philippine Clean Water
Act of 2004
- provides legal basis for the protection,
preservation, and management of the
country’s water resources.
- outlines the standards for wastewater
discharge, water quality management,
and the establishment of Water Quality
Management Areas (WQMAs) across the
nation.
Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water
(PNSDW)
- primary document that sets the water
quality standards for potable drinking
water in the country.
- regularly updated to align with
international standards and the evolving
needs of the population.
- provides maximum allowable
concentrations for various physical,
chemical, and microbiological
parameters that ensure the safety of
drinking water.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND PARAMETERS
IN THE PHILIPPINES:
Microbial Standards
- among the most critical for safe drinking
water.
- PNSDW sets standards for coliform
bacteria, which serves as indicators of
microbial contamination.
- water must be free from fecal coliforms,
with a maximum allowable limit of 0
colony-forming units (CFU) per 100 mL.
Physical Standards
- include factors like color, turbidity, and
odor which impact the aesthetics and
palatability of water.
- color of drinking water should not exceed
15 HU (Hazen Units); turbidity should not
exceed 5 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity
Units)
Chemical Standards
- encompass wide range of substances,
including heavy metals, pesticides and
chemical disinfectants.
- allowable limit of lead in drinking water:
should not exceed 0.01 mg/L.
Inorganic Standards
- arsenic, cadmium, mercury
- arsenic, a known carcinogen, should not
exceed 0.01 mg/L in drinking water.
Disinfection By-Products
- form when disinfectants like chlorine
react with natural organic matter in
water, is regulated to prevent health risks.
Radiological Standards
- radionuclides like radon and uranium are
naturally occurring contaminants that
can be present in groundwater.
Agencies such as DENR, Environmental
Management Bureau (EMB) conduct regular
monitoring and assessment of water sources,
treatment facilities, and distribution systems.
Violations of these standards can result in
penalties and the suspension or revocation of
permits for water suppliers and treatment
facilities.
Similarly, water quality monitoring is also the
responsibility of Local Government Units (LGUs)
and Water Districts, which play a crucial role in
ensuring the quality of drinking water within their
jurisdictions. They work closely with national
agencies to uphold the standards and address
any issues related to water quality.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION
- removes turbidity, odor, bacteria.
- coagulants are added to untreated
water to make dissolved minerals and dirt
lump together.
MECHANISMS OF COAGULATION
- adsorption and charge neutralization
o particles in water are negatively charged;
they attract counterions which forms a Stern
layer.
o beyond this layer is a layer of loosely bonded
cations called the Gouy-Chapman or diffuse
layer.
o this electric double layer prevents particles
from sticking together because the spaces
between them are not small enough to
allow van der waals forces to stick them
together.
- compression of the electric double layer
o once coagulants are added, neutralization
is induced.
o increasing the concentration of the cation
added to the water to be treated will
increase the extent to which the surface
charge is neutralized and the lower the
turbidity.
o increasing ionic strength decreases the
thickness of the double layer, and this
allows particles to approach one another,
close enough to allow van der Waals forces
to stick them together.
- adsorption and interparticle bridging
o addition of polymer/flocculation
- enmeshment in a particulate
THREE KEY PROPERTIES OF A COAGULANT:
- trivalent cation
- nontoxic
- insoluble in neutral pH range
TWO MOST COMMONLY USED METALLIC
COAGULANTS:
- aluminum (Al3+)
- ferric iron (Fe3+)
THREE BASIC TYPE OF COAGULANT AIDS:
- Activated silica
o sodium silicate that has been activated
with sulfuric acid, alum, carbon dioxide,
or chlorine.
o reacts with positively charged metal
hydroxide floc, resulting in larger and
denser floc that settles faster and
enhances enmeshment.
o useful for treating highly colored, low-
turbidity waters; requires proper
equipment and close operational
control.
- Clays
o acts like an activated silica but with
slightly negative charge.
- Anionic and nonionic polymers
o long-chain carbon compounds; high
molecular weight; have many active
sites.
o active sites adhere to flocs, joining them
together and producing a larger,
tougher floc that settles better.
Rapid mixing – chemicals are rapidly and
uniformly dispersed in water. It is the most
important physical operation affecting
coagulant dose efficiency.
Flocculation – provides the conditions necessary
for optimal particle growth so that sedimentation
can occur successfully.
- polymer is added; it allows particles to
collide, adhere to one another, and grow
to a size that’ll settle readily.
SEDIMENTATION
- A process the particles need to go
through after coagulation and
flocculation.
- Sedimentation basins are usually
rectangular or circular with either a radial
or upward water flow pattern.
- Materials are called sludge, and these
are removed for disposal.
- Sludge usually settles down due to gravity
the clarified water stays on top.
- designed to separate the clarified water
from the floc particles.

Where: v = water velocity or the overflow rate
(m/s); Q = water flow (m3 /s); Ac = cross-sectional
area (m2).
MECHANISM OF SEDIMENTATION
- Series of troughs, called weirs, are put in
place to provide a large area for the
water to flow through and to reduce the
turbulence as water flows out of the
sedimentation tank through the outlet
zone.
- The length of the weir required is a
function of the type of solids.
- The heavier the solids, the higher the
allowable outlet velocity, thus the shorter
the length of the weir required.
- When designing an ideal sedimentation
tank, the settling velocity of the particle
to be removed must first be determined.
- then the overflow rate determined using
The equation given above, must be set at
some values less than or equal the settling
velocity.
- Determination of the particle-settling
velocity differs depending on the type of
particles.
CLASSIFICAION OF SETTLING PROPERTIES OF
PARTICLES
Type I Sedimentation
- particles settle discretely at a constant
velocity.
- The particles settle individually, without
sticking together or forming flocs.
- This type of sedimentation is typically
seen during pre-sedimentation for sand
removal, prior to coagulation in a
potable water plant, in settling of sand
particles during cleaning of rapid sand
filters, and in grit chambers.
Ex. sand and grit material.
Type II Sedimentation
- particles that flocculate during
sedimentation
- The size of the particles is constantly
changing; the settling velocity constantly
changes.
- As depth and extent of flocculation
increases, the settling velocity also
increases.
- Typically seen in primary sedimentation
basins and in settling tanks in trickling
filtration.
Type III (Zone) Sedimentation
- particles are at high concentration
(greater than 1000 mg/L).
- They tend to settle as a mass, and a
distinct clear zone and sludge zone are
present.
- occurs in lime-softening sedimentation,
activated-sludge sedimentation, and
sludge thickeners.
DETERMINATION OF OVERFLOW RATE (vo)
- In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton showed that a
particle falling in a quiescent fluid
accelerates until the frictional resistance,
or drag, on the particle is equal to the
gravitational force of the particle.
- Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1845) found
that the terminal settling velocity of a
sphere falling under quiescent conditions
could be described by the following
equation.
Where: 𝜌𝑠 = density of particle (kg/m3 ); 𝜌 =
density of fluid (kg/m3 ); g = acceleration due to
gravity (m/s2 ); d = diameter of spherical particle
(m); 𝜇 = dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)
- Called Stokes’ law, and it is valid only at
laminar flow conditions, with R<1.
FILTRATION
- In compliance to the Surface Water
Treatment Rule (SWTR) under Safe Water
Treatment Act (SWDA), all surface waters
and ground water must be treater using
filtration.
- Water that flows over sedimentation
plants still contains particles that
somehow escaped the process.
- It is a process through which water flows
slowly through a bed of granular media,
usually sand, anthracite coal, or garnet,
to remove remaining suspended
particles, microorganisms, and other
impurities.
- The Manila Water Treatment Plants use
single layer of silica sand.
- Reduces the turbidity of the settling tank
effluent to 0.3 TU, which typically ranges
from 1 to 10 TU, with 3 TU being the typical
value.
MECHANISMS THAT TRAP THROUGH THE
GRANULAR MEDIA:
o Interception
o Flocculation
o Straining
o Sedimentation
- The densest particles are strained.
- These particles are too large to pass
through the small pores of the medium,
thus, they become trapped in the upper
depts of the filter.
- Particles flowing at a sufficiently low
velocity are “intercepted” and attach by
weak electrostatic forces to the filter
medium.
- Water that went through chemical
treatment prior to filtration will experience
additional flocculation.
- Once the pore spaces are filled to a
certain capacity, the turbidity level
exceeds a critical value, and the filter
bed needs to be backwashed.
- as the bed of the filter becomes filled with
the particles, it gets clogged causing it to
become more difficult for the water to
pass through.
Slow Sand Filters
- conventionally uses only sand with a
gravel support layer.
- well-suited for small communities.
- They require large areas of land, but are
reliable, require less operator time than
rapid sand filters, and have low technical
operational demands.
- They are cleaned by removing the
floating material, draining the water until
water level is 4 to 5 cm below the surface
of the sand, and then scraping off the top
6 to 12 mm of sand.
Rapid Sand Filter
- uses a variety of media
- have graded (layered) sand within the
bed.
- The sand grain size distribution is selected
to optimize the passage of water while
minimizing the passage of particulate
matter.
- can also be operated as dual-media
filters with sand and anthracite coal.
- The coal effectively traps the larger
particles in the upper depths of the filter
bed.
Backwashing
- filters are cleaned through this process.
- the filters are cleaned in place by forcing
water upward through the sand.
- backwash water is either pumped
directly to the sanitary sewer for disposal
or is treated using sedimentation.
Where: va = face velocity (m/day) = loading rate
(m3 /day m2); Q = flow rate onto filter surface (m 3
/day); As = surface area of filter (m2)
DISINFECTION
- kills the pathogens, or disease-producing
microorganisms in the water that would
cause mild to fatal illness if ingested.
- Disinfection is different from sterilization;
the latter means the destruction of all
living organisms.
- For a water to be safe to consume, It just
needs to be devoid of pathogens at
levels that would cause disease.
FOUR CATEGORIES OF HUMAN ENTERIC
PATHOGENS
o Bacteria
o Viruses
o Protozoa
o amoebic cysts
PROPERTIES OF WATER DISINFECTANTS
1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of
pathogens that may be present in water
within a practical period of time over an
expected range of water temperatures.
2. They must be effective at the variable
compositions, concentrations, and
conditions of the waters to be treated.
3. They must be neither toxic to humans and
domestic animals nor unpalatable or
otherwise objectionable in required
concentration.
4. They must be dispensable at reasonable
cost and safe and easy to store, transport,
handle, and apply.
5. Their strength or concentration in the
treated water must be determined easily,
quickly, and (preferably) automatically.
6. They must persist within disinfected water in
a sufficient concentration to provide
reasonable residual protection against its
possible recontamination before use.
 7. They must not form toxic by-products due to
their reactions with any naturally occurring
material in the water.
Disinfection Kinetics (Chick’s law)
- the rate of kill of a type of microorganism.
- the number of organisms destroyed with
respect to time is proportional to the
number of organisms.
Where: N = number of organisms; k = a first-order
rate constant.
Integrated Form:
Where: No = initial number of organisms per unit
volume (at t=0)
Chick-Watson equation:
Where: k = k’Cn ; C = disinfectant concentration,
mg/L; n = coefficient of dilution.
- This equation assumes that the disinfectant
concentration remains constant.
- Increasing rates of kill may occur due to the
time necessary for the disinfectant to damage
and inactivate the organism.
- Decreased rates of kill may occur because of
declining concentrations of disinfectant in
solution or poor distribution of organisms and
disinfectant.
- In the US, the concept of CT (C = concentration
of disinfectant; T = detention time in the
disinfectant) is used in determining the
required dose of a disinfectant in the process.
DISINFECTANTS AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS
Disinfection By-Products (DBPs)
- formed when disinfectants used in water
treatment plants react with bromide or
naturally occurring organic matter.
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
- chemicals that form when chlorine-
based disinfectants react with naturally
occurring organic matter in water:
chloroform, bromodichloromethane,
dibromochloromethane, and
bromoform.
Haloacetic acids (HAAs)
- form when certain disinfectants react
with naturally occurring organic and
inorganic matter in water.
Bromate (𝑩𝒓𝑶𝟑 − )
- formed when ozone reacts with naturally
occurring bromide found in source water.
- It is a tasteless and colorless inorganic
anion which readily dissolves in water
and is stable.
- To reduce bromate formation, the ozone
should be added in multiple but lower
doses, pH should be reduced, or/and
ammonia or hydrogen peroxide should
be added.
- The World Health Organization has set a
provisional guideline of 10 µg ⋅ L -1.
Chlorite (𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 − )
- formed during the generation of chlorine
dioxide.
- a tasteless and colorless inorganic anion
which readily dissolves in water and is
stable in the absence of other reactive
chemicals such as free chlorine.
- Exposure to this chemical affects the
nervous system in infants and young
children, along with fetuses in pregnant
women.
- It may also result in anemia.
CHLORINE REACTIONS IN WATER
- chlorine has been the most used
disinfectant.
- It acts to kill pathogens by first
penetrating through the cell wall, then
destroying enzymes within the cytoplasm.
- control slime and algae, to destroy
unpleasant taste and odor-causing
compounds, and to oxidize iron,
manganese, and hydrogen sulfide.
- disinfection process comes at the end of
the treatment process because adding it
at the beginning may cause it to
produce more DBPs as it reacts with the
naturally occurring particles in the water.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
CHLORINE:
- Dosage.
o it must be present at sufficiently high
concentration to inactivate the
pathogens.
- Contact time.
 o must be in physical contact with the
pathogens for a sufficient time to
achieve this activation
- Turbidity.
o The presence of particles (turbidity)
essentially hides the pathogens from
the disinfectant.
- Other reactive species.
o The presence of other reactive
species, such as ammonia, can
consume the disinfectant, thereby,
reducing the concentration
available for inactivation, along with
producing toxic chemicals.
- pH.
o It is most effective at pH values less
than 7.5.
- Water temperature.
o Increasing the temperature increases
the rate of disinfection; however,
chlorine becomes less stable.
- Chlorine dioxide inactivates the bacteria
and cysts, while chloramine provides a
residual in the distribution system
because chlorine dioxide does not
maintain a residual long enough to be
useful as a distribution system
disinfectant.
- The residual chlorine guarantees the
potability of water.
- The chloramine is not a powerful oxidant.
OZONATION
- a sweet-smelling, unstable gas, with three
atoms of oxygen making up one
molecule.
- widely used in drinking-water treatment
in Europe and is continuing to gain
popularity in the US.
o has an advantage of not forming THMs or
any chlorinated DBPs.
o forms some low-molecular-weight
compounds that can react with chlorine-
based disinfectants to produce
chlorinated aldehydes and ketones.
o unless these low-molecular-weight
compounds formed from the reaction of
ozone, the regrowth of bacteria in the
distribution system can be problematic.
o with chlorine dioxide, ozone does not
persist in the water, decaying back to
oxygen in minutes.
o typical flow schematic adds ozone
either to the raw water or between
the sedimentation basins and filter for
primary disinfection.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
- has the potential to inactivate
pathogens.
- It is a result of a photochemical reaction
with nucleic acids and other vital cellular
chemicals, causing the injury or death to
organisms exposed to it.
- done by shining a UV light through the
water.
- doesn’t kill the bacteria but makes them
impossible to reproduce.
- optimum UV range for disinfection is
between 245 and 285 nm.
- UV disinfection utilizes either low-pressure
lamp at a wavelength of 253.7 nm,
medium pressure lamps at wavelengths
from 180 to 1370 nm; or lamps at other
wavelengths in a high intensity “pulsed”
manner.
UV dose
Where: D = UV dose; I = average intensity (mW ⋅
s ⋅ cm-2 ); T = exposure time (s)
- inactivation of microorganisms by UV
radiation is directly related to the UV
dose.
Chick-Watson law (effects of wavelength of
light)
Where: 𝐼𝜆 = effective germicidal intensity of UV
radiation for wavelength, 𝜆 (mW ⋅ cm-2 )
- The major disadvantage of using UV
radiation as a disinfectant is that it leaves
no residual protection in the distribution
system.
HOW DOES THIS TREATED WATER GET TO THE
TAPS?
- Large primary lines or pipes from
treatment plants run above and
underground, and through creeks, to
bring treated waters to reservoirs or
storage tanks. Done with gravity.
 - higher areas require the use of pumps for
it to reach tanks and reservoirs.
- From the storage facilities, network of
pipes is found beneath the city to deliver
the treated water.
- the water first goes through the meters
before reaching the taps.
- The water quality of Manila Water has
consistently surpassed the PNSDW, set by
the DOH based on the World Health
Organizations quality guideline.
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
- Human activities that emit pollutants
corrupt the water quality.
- water quality managers carry out
measures to guarantee that the water
meets the standard requirement
needed.
- Water quality management is the
discipline of knowing the amount of
pollutants that can be assimilated by a
body of water.
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN RIVERS
- The effect of pollutants in a river is
dependent on the pollutant itself and the
attributes of the river
WQM INVOLVES:
1. Estimating pollutants
2. Projecting their effect on the quality of
water
3. Identifying the existing water quality
background without human interference
4. Determining the pollution degree
acceptable for the assigned use of water.
EFFECT OF OXYGEN DEMANDING WASTES ON
RIVERS
- Oxygen-Demanding Materials are
inorganic-compound carrying pollutants
that are oxidized in the receiving water
body, which causes depletion of
dissolved oxygen.
- When these pollutants sink into the
receiving water, microorganisms
decompose them, which in return causes
microorganisms to consume more
oxygen as they metabolize.
- huge number of microorganisms that
consume oxygen cause oxygen to
decrease in water.
- Oxygen-demanding wastes come from
human waste, food-processing, and
paper industries.
- as temperature and salinity of water
increases, the amount of dissolved
oxygen decreases.
- Organisms need nigher metabolic rate
when the temperature is high: 5.0 mg/L,
according to DENR Administrative Order
No. 1990-34.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
- Theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD).
• oxygen amount needed to oxidize
an organic substance when the
chemical composition is known.
- Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
• estimate of oxygen without
identifying the chemical
composition of the pollutant in
water.
- Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
• oxygen consumed when oxidation
of organic compound is carried by
microorganisms as their food source.
Bioassay test - The greater the
amount of organism, the greater the
amount of oxygen used
- BOD increases in direct proportion to the
concentration of degradable organic
matter.
Numerical value of the rate constant is
dependent on the following:
1. Characteristic of the waste
- Sugar and starch results to high BOD rate
constant.
- This tells that the BOD rate constant for
complex waste depends on the quantity
of components.
2. Capacity of organisms within a system to
utilize waste.
- lower in treated sewage than untreated
once since there needs to be more
population of bacteria, hence more
oxygen, to degrade the material in
untreated sewage.
3. The temperature
- factor for the speed of organisms’
processes.
- BOD is higher at warm environment and
lower at cold ones.
- a standard temperature of 20 °C and the
BOD constant is adjusted to the
temperature of water.
-
NITROGEN OXIDATION
- when there is too much nitrogen, algae’s
population increases.
- Algae float on the water surface and
block the sunlight for aquatic plants
causing them to die.
- Eutrophication - Bacteria will then
decompose the deceased plants,
consuming oxygen in the process. In this
condition, DO will soon run out.
- About 60%-80% of fresh manure is
composed of nitrogen which is then later
converted to ammonia.
- As recommended by the DOA 1990-34,
rivers intended for water supply class II
must only have 10 mg/L maximum nitrate.
Nitrogenous BOD (NBOD)
- oxygen consumption due to oxidation of
nitrogen
- happens when nitrogen is released into
the water as ammonia, specifically an
ammonium cation.
- Nitrification - ammonium cation oxidized
to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria.
- rate of NBOD also depends on the
number or organisms present.
- Treated sewage has lower NBOD in
treated water since less oxygen is
needed to clean the purer water.
DO SAG CURVE
- oxygen-demanding pollutant that is
within the capacity of the water resource
to purify itself will be a home for organisms
since its dissolved oxygen will be high.
Management Strategy:
- DO standard - smallest possible dissolved
oxygen amount a body of water can
have to sustain life in it.
- A DO lower than the standard,
supplementary waste treatment is
needed.
- Excess nutrients in water can be removed
through denitrification.
- Denitrification - certain bacteria will
convert ammonia to nitrate and into
nitrogen gas that will escape the water.
- Pseudomonas - a type of bacteria that
converts nitrate ions to nitrite and other
species may even reduce nitrate to
nitrogen gas.
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN LAKES
1. Phosphorus in Lakes
- natural source of phosphorus are
weathering rocks and are also a result of
human activity such as municipal and
industrial wastewaters.
 Septic Tank Seepage
- have tile field which help absorb
phosphorus from waste.
- Over time, the tile field can no longer
carry much phosphorus, causing the
substance to go directly to lake causing
eutrophication.
- prevented by creating large distance
from tile field to lake and replacing septic
tanks.
 Agricultural Runoff
- Phosphorus is an important ingredient in
fertilizers that get washed off in lakes due
to soil erosion.
- prevented through using right amount of
phosphorus.
- Management Strategy – Dredging: This is
the process of removing sediments and
other materials beneath the river.
Precipitation: This naturally improves the
quality of water through adding
rainwater.
2. Lake Acidification
- Pure rain is slightly acidic, having pH less
than 5.6 due to emissions of sulfur and
nitrogen oxides from fossil fuel
combustion.
 - High aluminum concentration in lakes kill - Metals, PAH, PCB, heavy metals, and
fish. oesticides are absorbed by benthic
Management Strategy: species and may endanger human
- lakes are buffered with carbonate buffer health if swallowed.
system. Bicarbonates and carbonate - Transportation has caused the
ions act as antacids to neutralize the lake introduction of nonnative species
water acidity. - Herbivore overpopulation causes (1)
- Acid rain that has (H+ ) will react with altered nutrient cycles or soil fertility; (2)
(CaCO3) in the lake water. CaCO3 will increased erosion; and (3) interference
neutralize the acid producing (HCO3) with navigation.
and (Ca2+). WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN OCEANS
- The oceans cover approximately 71% of
the Earth's surface.
- Limestones may also contribute to water - significant part in cycling of carbon
hardness: good for fish’ bones. dioxide and help regulate the cycling of
- Lakes that have calcareous soils are likely nitrogen and phosphorus.
to be immune to acidification. - High nutrient levels from off-shore sewage
- Taal lake is an example of a lake rich in and agricultural discharges results in
bicarbonates. The deposited volcanic algae blooms that consume oxygen,
ash helped produce sediments which choking the coral reefs and attracting
become limestones. predators which destroy living corals.
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN ESTUARIES - Oil pollution also contribute to the
- An estuary is a partially enclosed, coastal damage of corals
water body where freshwater from rivers
and streams mixes with salt water from
the ocean.
- also known as bays, lagoons, harbors,
inlets, or sounds.
- influenced with tides but are protected
from the full forces of winds, ocean
waves, and storms.
- Within an estuary, many different types of
habitats, including shallow open waters,
freshwater and salt marshes, sandy
beaches, mud and sand flats, rocky
shores, oyster reefs, mangrove forests,
river deltas, tidal pools, sea grass and kelp
beds, and wooded swamps are found.
- Wetlands play an important role in
improving water quality, protecting
against coastal flooding, and stabilizing
shorelines.
- wetland ecosystems act as natural filters
As sediment and pollutant-laden water
flows from the uplands.
- excess amount of N and P contributes to
fish disease, “red and brown tides,” algae
blooms, and low dissolved oxygen.
- Fish and shellfish die because of low
oxygen levels.
- Excessive algal development has also
been connected to fish kills.
 - human activities like sewage disposal
and manure from livestock production
can disrupt fragile ecosystem, leading to
increased urchin numbers and
widespread destruction of the kelp forest.
- problem of oil pollution is considerably
larger than tanker spills.
- Only about 5% of oil pollution in oceans
results from major tanker accidents.
- Bottom-dwelling fishes are mainly
affected by toxic chemicals.
GROUNDWATER QUALITY
- Deterioration of groundwater quality is
the result of aquifer contamination due
to:
a. Discharge from erroneously operated
and located septic systems.
b. Leaking storage tanks
c. Improper chemical water disposal
d. Spills from pipe or transportation
accidents
e. Groundwater with contaminated
surface water
f. Leaking landfills
g. Leaking lagoons
- the movement of contaminants in
aquifers depend on the solubility to
water.
- LNAPLS or Low Nonaqueous Phase
Liquids - less dense than water. Only
some of the chemicals will dissolve into
the groundwater and the volatile
compound will be move in the gas
phase.
- DNAPLs or dense NAPLs will sink in the
aquifer into the bedrock.
- Soluble organic chemicals will be
retarded faster than insoluble ones. Also,
low pH contaminants are more soluble
since it has absence of oxygen.
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR DRINKING
WATER OF 2017 (FDA-AO No. 2017-0010)
I. Rationale
The PNSDW began in the year of 1963 based on
the 1958 World Health Organization International
Standard for Drinking water and the 1962 United
States Public Health Standards. Revisions were
done in n1978, 1993, and 2007.
II. Objectives
Prescription of standards and procedures on
quality of drinking water with the aim of
protecting the health of the public.
III. Scope and Coverage
The PNSDW is applied to all drinking water service
providers which includes government and
company-owned developers and operators,
bulk water suppliers, water refilling station
operators, water vending machines owners, ice
suppliers, food establishments residential,
commercial, and institutional buildings that utilize
drinking waters, testing laboratories, health and
sanitation authorities, the general public and
almost everything involved in sectors utilizing
drinking waters.
IV. Definition of Terms
1. Acceptability – physical and chemical quality
of water that refers to the appearance, taste
and odor of drinking-water satisfactory to the
consumer.
2. Bulk Water Supply – drinking-water supplied to
water service providers or associated
infrastructures including pumping stations,
reservoirs, and pipelines.
3. Certified Sampling Personnel – a person who
underwent training for drinking-water sampling
and certified by the DOH.
4. Contamination – a general term referring to
the presence of substances found in water that
make water less desirable or unfit for drinking.
5. Drinking Water – water intended for direct
human consumption or for use in food
preparation and related processes.
6. Emergency – any situation in which there is
actual disruption or damage to communities,
i.e., any actual threat to public health and
safety.
7. Health-based Targets – are measurable health,
water quality or performance objectives that are
established based on a judgement of safety and
on risk assessments of waterborne hazards.
8. Limit of Quantitation (LOQ) – the analyte
concentration that produces a signal sufficiently
stronger than the blank, such that it can be
detected with a specified level of reliability
during routine operations. Typically, it is the
concentration that produces the signal above
the reagent water blank signal and should have
a defined precision and bias at that level.
9. Maximum Allowable Level – the highest level
of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking-
water.
10. Method Detection Limit – the
constituent/contaminant concentration that
when processed through the complete method,
produces a signal with a 99% probability that is
different from the blank.
11. Mobile Water Tanks – tanks designed to
deliver water for domestic use or emergency
purposes.
12. Potable/Safe Water – water with quality
within the standard limits set in this PNSDW both
for acceptability and health aspects.
13. Surveillance – the continuous and vigilant
public health assessment and review of safety
and acceptability of drinking-water supplies.
V. General Guidelines
1. Standards for quality, sampling and
examination, and evaluation for drinking-water
shall conform to criteria prescribed under this
Order.
2. Standards shall be applied in accordance to
improved framework for drinking-water safety
which consists of three key components:
a. Health-based targets
b. Safely managed water systems
c. A system of detailed surveillance
VI. Specific Guidelines
1. Standards for Drinking-water Quality
A. Drinking-water must be clear and does not
have objectionable taste, odor and color. It
must be pleasant to drink and free from all
harmful organisms, chemical substances and
radionuclides in amounts which could
constitute a hazard to the health of the
consumer.
B. The quality of drinking-water shall be
measured in terms of its microbiological,
physical, chemical, and radiological
constituents.
C. The parameters of drinking-water quality
shall be classified as mandatory, primary
and secondary.
2. Standards for Water Sampling and Examination
A. Initial examination shall be conducted for
new or newly constructed water sources
while periodic examination shall be done
for existing water sources. Water samples
for initial and periodic examination from all
water sources shall cover microbiological,
physical, chemical, and radiological
parameters.
B. The minimum number of samples to be
collected and examined periodically shall
be based on the source and mode of
distribution of drinking-water supply.
C. The collection of water samples shall comply
with the standard sampling requirements.
D. Only certified sampling personnel shall
collect water samples for regulatory
purposes.
E. All water samples for regulatory purposes
shall be examined only in DOH-Accredited
Laboratory. The standard methods of
examination shall be based on the "22nd
edition (2012) of the Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater"
unless otherwise stated in the Manual of
Operations.
F. Examination of water samples for
radiological quality shall be done by the
Philippine Nuclear Research Institute.
3. Standard for Other Modes of Distribution of
Drinking-Water
A. Drinking-water from refilling stations, vending
machines, mobile tanks and bulk water
supply shall be subject for initial and periodic
examinations for microbiological, physical,
chemical and radiological quality.
B. All standard values of mandatory parameters
shall be applicable to product water from
refilling stations and vending machines,
except for the standard values of pH and
total dissolved solids (TDS). The pH value shall
be 5-7 while the TDS levels of product water
shall not exceed 10 mg/L to validate the
efficiency of reverse osmosis or distillation
process.
C. Water from mobile tanks shall have chlorine
residual (as free chlorine) of at least 0.5 mg/L
but not to exceed to 1.50 mg/L at the point
of delivery.
D. Bulk water supply shall maintain chlorine
residual (as free chlorine) level between
0.3 mg/L to 1.5 mg/L or chlorine dioxide
residual between 0.2 mg/L to 0.4 mg/L
prior to distribution.
E. All water-refilling stations, vending
machines, mobile tanks and bulk water
supply shall comply with the standard
minimum number of samples and
frequency of sampling requirements.
4. Evaluation of Results
A. Expression of Results
a. Microbiological examination for drinking
water shall provide the numbers/presence
 of Total Coliform, E. coli/Thermotolerant
Coliform, and Heterotrophic Bacteria
present in 100 mL of water.
b. All results from physico-chemical and
radiological examinations that are not
detected shall be reported as less than
the method detection limit (MDL). For
trace analysis, the MDL and level of
quantitation (LOQ) shall be reflected in
the laboratory test report.
B. Interpretation of results
a. Drinking-water service providers shall
consult the DOH/Local Drinking Water
Quality Monitoring Committee
(LDWQMC)/local health office for the
interpretation of results.
b. When E. coli/Thermotolerant Coliform is
present in water, a sanitary survey shall be
conducted within 24 hours to determine
the cause of contamination which include
resampling. If resampled water still
contains E. coli/Thermotolerant coliform,
corrective actions should be applied. At
the same time, the drinking-water service
provider shall issue an advisory to "boil
water" or other household water
treatment options or provide an
alternative drinking-water supply.
c. In case of exceedance of standard values
of physical and chemical parameters,
monitoring shall be carried out for the next
three (3) consecutive months wherein all
results must comply with the standards. If
the results still exceed, further study must
be done to determine the cause of
contamination for proper identification of
corrective actions.
C. Classification of Drinking Water Quality
Parameters
A. Mandatory Parameters
a. Mandatory parameters are legally
enforceable. These core parameters shall
be required for examination by all drinking-
water service providers. The criteria used for
selection of mandatory core parameters
are:
- parameters that directly affect health
through acute or chronic exposure and/or
will render the water unacceptable for
drinking. - indicate the possible presence of
other contaminants.
- exceed tolerable values/standards based
on local monitoring data of the previous
years.
- have wide spatial distribution across the
Philippines based on local monitoring data.
- viable indicators for general quality and
stability of water supply.
b. The frequency of testing for mandatory
parameters, except for E.
coli/Thermotolerant Coliform and residual
disinfectant, may be reduced to every three
(3) years if the LDWQMC found the
consolidated water quality reports showed
undetectable levels (below MDL) of a
particular mandatory parameter for three
(3) consecutive years.
c. The mandatory parameters are the
minimum parameters required to be tested
for initial and periodic examinations.
B. Primary Parameters
a. Primary parameters are site-specific.
These are chemical impurities in water
that directly affect health through acute
or chronic exposure.
b. Primary parameters can also be adopted
as enforceable parameters.
C. Secondary Parameters
a. Secondary parameters are those that
render the water unacceptable for
drinking.
b. These include operational parameters
which affect the efficiency of the
treatment processes.
D. Emergency Drinking-Water Parameters
a. During the first 72 hours, temporary
supply of water shall be provided by
the local government unit (LGU). Water
should be disinfected as a minimum
treatment (i.e. boiling, chlorination,
etc.). Mobile treatment plant can be
used as an alternative source of water.
b. The water supply shall be monitored
daily for at least seven (7) days by the
LGU and other respondents in terms of
residual chlorine, and E. coli.
c. Regular monitoring shall resume after
normal condition has been declared
by the appropriate government
agency.
E. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
Parameters
 a. the population should be using safely
managed drinking water services by
2030.
b. This entails that the population uses a
drinking water source which is located
on premises, available when needed,
and free of fecal and priority chemical
contamination.
D. Quality Assurance/Quality Control for
Water Laboratories
A. Only laboratories accredited by the
DOH shall perform drinking-water quality
examination for regulatory purposes. All
drinking-water service providers shall be
required to prepare WSP as provided by
the DOH Administrative Order No. 2014 –
0027.
B. All accredited laboratories shall
provide highest quality service through th
establishment, documentation, and
effective operation of a Quality System
(QS). The laboratory personnel involved in
water sampling shall be certified by the
DOH.
E. Water Safety Plan (WSP) and Drinking-
water Quality Surveillance
A. The implementation of WSP approach can
secure the safety of drinking-water. It
utilizes a risk assessment and risk
management approach that
encompasses all steps in the water supply
system, from catchment/source to
consumers.
B. All drinking-water service providers shall be
required to prepare WSP as provided by
the DOH Administrative Order No. 2014 –
0027.
C. The WSP of a drinking-water service
provider shall be subject for review and
approval as provided by the DOH
Administrative Order No. 2017-0006.
D. The WSP shall be developed to meet
health-based targets consistent with the
Philippine National Standards for Drinking
Water.
E. The drinking-water quality surveillance
agency shall ensure that monitoring of the
WSP implementation and its effectiveness
meets the Philippine National Standards for
Drinking Water
VII. Roles and Responsibilities
A. Department of Health
a. Develops systems and procedures to
operationalize this Order.
b. Ensure the compliance of all drinking-water
service providers and operators.
c. Perform independent surveillance on drinking
water service providers.
d. Provide technical assistance to local
government units, drinking water service
providers, and to the public.
e. Accredit water laboratories, certify training
providers, and water sampling personnel.
B. Local Government Unit
a. Enforce the provisions of this Order.
b. Develop and implement drinking water quality
surveillance program.
c. Establish a local drinking water quality
monitoring committee.
d. Advocate and create awareness to general
population on the importance of drinking
water quality standards, impact of water
contamination on health, and control
measures on addressing water quality issues
and problems.
C. Water Laboratory
a. Comply with the provisions of this Order.
b. Secure accreditation from the Department of
Health.
c. Implement QS and develop a manual of
operations describing the laboratory's policies
and plans for ensuring the quality of their work
provided to the public.
D. Drinking-Water Service Provider/Operator of
Establishment and Building
a. Comply with the provisions of this Order.
b. Develop and implement WSP.
c. Institute corrective actions for any
unsatisfactory results of water sampling.
d. Submit to the accredited laboratories water
samples for examination in a manner and at
such intervals prescribed under this Order.
e. Submit results of water quality testing to the
local health authority.
f. Educate consumers on how to keep drinking-
water safe at all times.
VIII. Penal Provision
A. Any person who shall violate, disobey, refuse,
omit or neglect to comply with any of the
provisions of this Order, shall be guilty of
misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be
punished by imprisonment for a period of not
exceeding six (6) months or by a fine of not
exceeding Php 1,000.00 or both depending
upon the discretion of the court.
B. Any person who shall interfere with or hinder,
or oppose any officer, agent or member of the
Department or of the bureaus and offices under
it, in the performance of his duty as such under
this Order, or shall tear down, mutilate, deface or
alter any placard, or notice, affixed to the
premises in the enforcement of this Order, shall
be guilty of a misdemeanor and punishable
upon conviction by imprisonment for a period of
not exceeding six (6) months or by a fine of not
exceeding Php 1,000.00 or both depending
upon the discretion of the court.
IX. Separability Clause
In the event that any rule, section, paragraph,
sentence, clause, or word of this Order is
declared invalid for any reason, the other
provisions thereof shall not be affected thereby.
X. Repealing Cause
Administrative Order No. 2007-0012 (2007
PNSDW) is hereby repealed. All laws, rules and
regulations and administrative issuances or parts
thereof inconsistent with the provisions of these
standards are hereby repealed or amended
accordingly.
XI. Effectivity
This order takes effect fifteen (15) days after its
publication in an official gazette.
CHAPTER 5: WASTEWATER TREATMENT, POLLUTION
AND CONTROL
CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004 (RA 9275) “An Act
Providing for a Comprehensive Water Quality
Management and for Other Purposes”
Clean Water Act of 2004
- known as Republic Act No. 9275 enacted
on March 22, 2004, published on April 21,
and took effect on May 6, 2004
- implemented to address the growing
concerns related to water pollution and
the deteriorating quality of water
resources in the Philippines.
- develop and implement a national
program for the protection, preservation,
and revival of the quality of the country’s
fresh, brackish, and marine water
resources.
Why the need for the Clean Act of 2004
- Low sewerage coverage
- Degradation of water quality from
domestic wastes
- Spread of waterborne diseases
- Decline in fish production.
Declaration of Policy, Section 2 of Philippine
Clean Water Act
- The State shall pursue a policy of
economic growth in a manner consistent
with the protection, preservation and
revival of the quality of our fresh, brackish,
and marine waters.
- preventing and managing water
pollution; encouraging fair and
sustainable use of water resources; and
recognizing that local citizens have the
right to access and manage water in
their own areas.
- This includes government agencies, local
government units, the private sector, and
the public in general.
- the groundwork for protecting and
regulating all of the Philippines' water
resources.
Coverage of the Act, Section 3 of Philippine
Clean Water Act
- This act shall apply to water quality
management in all water bodies.
- apply to the abatement and control of
pollution from land-based sources
- the water quality standards and
regulations and the civil liability and
penal provisions under this act shall be
enforced irrespective of sources of
pollution.
Section 8 (Sewage Collection, Treatment and
Disposal) of Philippine Clean Water Act
- Within five (5) years following the
effectivity of this Act, the agency vested
to provide water supply and sewerage
facilities and/or concessionaires in Metro
Manila and other highly urbanized cities
(HUCs)
- in Republic Act No. 7160, in coordination
with LGUs, shall be required to connect
the existing sewage line found in all
subdivisions, condominiums, commercial
centers, hotels, sports and recreational
 facilities, hospitals, marketplaces, public
buildings, industrial complex and other
similar establishments including
households to available sewerage
system
- In areas not considered as HUCs, the
DPWH in coordination with the
Department, DOH and other concerned
agencies, shall employ septage or
combined sewerage-septage
management system.
Government agencies that are responsible for
the implementation:
Sec. 22 Linkage Mechanism
- The Department and its concerned
attached agencies including LLDA
(Laguna Lake Development Authority)
shall coordinate and enter into
agreement with other government
agencies, industrial sector, and other
concerned sectors in the furtherance of
the objectives of this Act
Philippine Coast Guard (PCG)
- in coordination with the DA and the
Department shall enforce for the
enforcement of water quality standards
in marine waters, set pursuant to this Act,
specifically from offshore sources;
Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH)
- such as the MWSS (Metropolitan
Waterworks and Sewerage System),
LWUA (Local Water Utilities
Administration), and including other
urban water utilities for the provision of
sewerage and sanitation facilities and
the efficient and safe collection,
treatment, and disposal of sewage within
their area of jurisdiction.
Department of Agriculture (DA)
- The formulation of guidelines for the re-
use of wastewater for irrigation and other
agricultural uses and for the prevention,
control and abatement of pollution from
agricultural and aquaculture activities
- the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources (BFAR) of the DA shall be
primarily responsible for the prevention
and control of water pollution for the
development management and
conservation of the fisheries and aquatic
resources
Department of Health (DOH)
- shall be primarily responsible for the
promulgation, revision, and enforcement
of drinking water quality standards;
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
- shall prepare a program for the
evaluation, verification, development
and public dissemination of pollution
prevention and cleaner production
technologies
Department of Education (DepEd), Commission
on Higher Education (CHED), Department of the
Interior and Local Government (DILG), and
Philippine Information Agency (PIA)
- shall assist and coordinate with the
Department in the preparation and
implementation of a comprehensive and
continuing public education and
information program pursuant to the
objectives of this Act
PROHIBITED ACTS, section 27 of philippine clean
water act
- This section primarily focuses on activities
that can harm water bodies and their
ecosystems.
- It prohibits any person or entity from
discharging, depositing, or allowing the
discharge or deposit of any water
pollutant into the country's waters without
the necessary permits and compliance
with prescribed effluent standards.
- This regulation aims to prevent the
contamination and deterioration of
water quality by regulating the
introduction of harmful substances into
the environment.
Fines, Damages, and Penalties, Section 28 of the
Philippine Clean Water Act
 - it states that anyone, living or not, who
breaks the Clean Water Act can be fined
between 1,000 and 200,000 pesos per
day for each violation. If an individual
continues to violate the law, they could
be fined an extra two thousand pesos
(₱2,000) every day until they honor the
regulations strictly
- additional penalties such as
imprisonment and/or losing permits or
licenses, based on the severity of the
offense was

DAO 2016-06- Water Quality Guidelines and

General Effluent Standards of 2016

- Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR) issued this
administrative order
- All previous DENR water quality standards
and effluent standards have been
replaced by DAO 2016-08.
- It offers a thorough framework for the
administration and protection of the
water resources in the Philippines. All of
the nation's bodies of water, including
freshwaters, saltwater, and groundwater,
are covered by the directive. Regardless
of their volume, it also applies to all point
sources of pollution.
- Water quality guidelines (WQG) are the
desired levels of water quality for different
uses, such as drinking, swimming, fishing,
and irrigation.
- general effluent standards (GES) are the
maximum allowable levels of pollutants
that can be discharged into water
bodies. These two are the primary
categories of standards that DAO 2016-08 This directive is very important for protecting the
establishes. country's water supplies and making sure they
are safe and clean. So, businesses and industries
have to meet GES for all pollutants they release,
which could mean spending money on pollution
control tools and keeping a closer eye on and
reporting more effluent.

DAO 2021-09 – Updated Water Quality

Guidelines (WQG) and General Effluent
standards (GES) for selected Parameters

- an administrative order issued by the

DENR on June 30, 2021. It took effect on
July 31, 2021
The main amendments are:

- Raising the standard values for six

parameters: ammonia as NH3-N, fecal
coliform, phosphate as phosphorus (total,
reactive), sulfate, boron, and copper as
dissolved copper.

- Requiring establishments with influent

BOD equal to or greater than 3000 mg/L
to submit data on influent BOD values.
- Allowing establishments to request the
exclusion of a particular significant
parameter from their monitoring program
if the parameter is not present in their
waste stream and meets certain other
conditions.

Sources of Wastewater

- Domestic or Sanitary Wastewater

originates from residential areas, commercial

districts, and institutional facilities such as schools
and hospitals. It primarily consists of water
discharged from toilets, sinks, showers, and other
sanitary facilities within buildings. Domestic
wastewater can contain organic matter, human
waste, detergents, and other contaminants.

- Industrial Wastewater

generated by various industrial processes.

Different industries, such as manufacturing, food
processing, and chemical production, produce
wastewater with varying levels of contaminants.
Industrial wastewater may contain pollutants like
heavy metals, chemicals, and organic
substances, depending on the nature of the
industry
- Storm Sewage or stormwater
is runoff water resulting from rainfall or snowmelt.
It is not typically considered wastewater in the
traditional sense, as it doesn't originate from
indoor plumbing. Stormwater can carry various
pollutants from streets, parking lots, and other
urban surfaces, including oil, sediment, and
debris
- Infiltration
Infiltration refers to groundwater or rainwater
seeping into sanitary sewers through cracks in
pipe joints, manholes, and other openings in the
sewer system. Infiltration can overwhelm
wastewater treatment plants and lead to
increased treatment costs
- Inflow
This can occur through sources such as manhole
covers, roof downspouts, yard drains, foundation
drains, and cooling-water discharge from air
conditioners and industrial processes. While
inflow is not inherently polluted, it can increase
the volume of wastewater that needs treatment.
SEWER SYSTEMS
Sanitary Sewer: designed to carry domestic
wastewater from homes, businesses, and
institutions to a wastewater treatment plant. The
goal is to transport this wastewater without
creating offensive odors or health hazards
Storm Sewer: designed to manage stormwater
runoff. They collect rainfall and surface runoff
from streets, parking lots, and other urban areas,
preventing flooding and directing the water to
appropriate drainage points, such as rivers or
retention ponds
Combined Sewer: These systems carry both
sanitary sewage and stormwater runoff in the
same pipes. During dry weather, the sewage is
conveyed to the treatment plant, but during
heavy rain or snowmelt events, the system can
become overwhelmed, leading to combined
sewer overflows (CSOs) and the discharge of
untreated wastewater into water bodies.
Separate Sewer System: considered a modern
and environmentally preferable approach. It has
separate sanitary and storm sewers, preventing
the mixing of domestic sewage and stormwater.
This reduces the risk of CSOs and ensures that
wastewater is properly treated before discharge
Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater
Physical Characteristics
- Odor: Fresh, aerobic wastewater often
has a faint odor resembling kerosene or
freshly turned earth. This relatively mild
smell is primarily due to the presence of
organic matter and various gases
produced during the decomposition of
waste.
- Aged, septic sewage, on the other hand,
can be considerably more offensive in
odor. This offensive smell is a result of the
breakdown of organic material in an
anaerobic (without oxygen)
environment, leading to the production
of foul-smelling gases such as hydrogen
sulfide (H2S).
- Color: Fresh, typically appears gray in
color. This coloration is associated with
the mixture of various waste materials,
including soap, food particles, and other
organic substances.
- Septic sewage, on the other hand, is
black in color due to the precipitation of
iron sulfide. Iron sulfide forms when iron
ions in the wastewater react with
hydrogen sulfide gas produced during
anaerobic decomposition. This chemical
reaction results in the formation of dark,
insoluble particles.
- Temperature: Wastewater temperatures
usually fall within the range of 10 to 20°C.
The temperature of wastewater tends to
be higher than that of the incoming
water supply due to the addition of warm
water from households (e.g., hot showers,
dishwashing) and the heating that
occurs within the plumbing system of
buildings
- Solid Contents: which include substances
like calcium, sodium, and soluble organic
compounds. Dissolved solids are typically
not visible and remain in a solution within
the wastewater
 - One cubic meter of wastewater weighs
approximately 1,000,000 grams (or 1,000
kilograms).
- About 500 grams of solids are typically
found in one cubic meter of wastewater.
- Half of these solids are dissolved solids,
including substances like calcium,
sodium, and soluble organic
compounds.
- The remaining 250 grams of solids are
insoluble and can be further divided into
settleable and suspended solids.
- Settleable solids (125 grams) are heavy
enough to settle out of the liquid within 30
minutes under still conditions, often
consisting of larger particles.
- Suspended solids (125 grams) do not
readily settle and contribute to the
turbidity or cloudiness of wastewater.
- The presence of suspended solids in
wastewater can interfere with treatment
processes and reduce water clarity.
- Effective wastewater treatment aims to
remove or reduce suspended solids to
meet environmental standards and
ensure safe discharge or reuse of treated
water.
Chemical Characteristics
- Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5): a
well-known test used to measure the
oxygen demand of organic matter in
wastewater. It represents the amount of
oxygen consumed by microorganisms
during the biological degradation of
organic compounds. BOD5 values
provide insights into the biodegradability
of organic substances in wastewater
- Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
measures the amount of organic matter
that can be chemically oxidized by a
strong chemical oxidizing agent, such as
potassium dichromate, in an acid
medium. In general, COD values are
higher than BOD5 values because more
compounds can be chemically oxidized
than biologically oxidize
- Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN): a measure
of the total organic and ammonia
nitrogen content in wastewater. It
provides information about the
availability of nitrogen for microbial
growth and the potential nitrogenous
oxygen demand that must be addressed
during wastewater treatment.
- Total Phosphorus (as P): : Phosphorus
exists in various forms in wastewater,
including orthophosphates,
polyphosphates, and organic phosphate
compounds. all these forms are often
grouped together under the term "total
phosphorus (as P)."
Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
classified these pollutants into three distinct
categories: conventional, nonconventional, and
priority pollutants. Table 1 enumerates the
conventional and nonconventional pollutants,
while Table 2 outlines the priority pollutants

It can be provided a selective representation of
a couple of industries and their respective levels
of two conventional pollutants in Table 3. A
parallel selection for nonconventional pollutants
can be found in Table 4.
WASTEWATER QUALITY STANDARDS
These standards safeguard environmental well-
being, ensure public safety, and meet regulatory
requirements.
Sources of Wastewater
Wastewater is created from multiple sources,
including domestic, industrial, and agricultural
activities.
DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08: Water
Quality Guidelines and General Effluent
Standards of 2016
- Known as "Water Quality Guidelines and
General Effluent Standards of 2016,"
- Created by the DENR
- intending to safeguard the country's
water ecosystems and public health.
- It defines precise parameters and ceilings
for wastewater discharge, guaranteeing
environmental sustainability and
adherence to environmental regulations.
Sec. 7.0 General Effluent Standards
- Effluent used for irrigation and other
agricultural purposes.
- Effluent quality monitoring procedures
(i.e., effluent quality monitoring plan,
sampling, QA, QC, etc.) shall be in
accordance with the Effluent Quality
Monitoring Manual issued through EMB
Memorandum Circular 2008-008
- Discharges from any point source shall at
all times meet the effluent standards set
forth in Tables 2-3 to maintain the
required water quality per water body
classification. The GES shall be used
regardless of the industry category.
7.1 Significant Effluent Quality Parameters per
Sector
For purposes of streamlining compliance and
enforcement of the GES, the significant effluent
quality parameters per sector are listed in Table
8
Notes:

COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand

PSIC – Philippine Standard Industrial Classification

(2009)

1. For sectors not included in Table 8 of this Order,

EMB Central Office shall determine the
significant effluent parameters for the said
sector.

2. Domestic sewage of all establishments shall be

monitored for the same parameters listed in PSIC
No. 37000.
The DENR Administrative Order 2016-008 is a - The effluent parameters for these sectors
document that sets forth guidelines for are generally less significant than for
establishing effluent standards in the Philippines. others, Parameters may include pH and
It aims to control and manage water pollution by TSS. Adherence prevents minor pollutants
outlining significant effluent quality parameters from contributing to overall
for different sectors. environmental degradation.
G. Transportation and Storage
Significant Effluent Quality Parameters per Sector: H. Accommodation and Food Services
A. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing I. Real Estate Activities
- produce wastewater that contains J. Professional, Scientific and Technical
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Activities
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total K. Education
Suspended Solids (TSS), and pH. These L. Human Health and Socai Work
parameters are essential to maintain to M. Other Service Activities
safeguard aquatic ecosystems that are
impacted by these industries' activities.
B. Mining and Quarrying
- can generate wastewater with high
levels of heavy metals and other
pollutants, including heavy metal
concentrations (such as lead, mercury,
and arsenic), TSS, and pH. It is crucial to
carefully regulate these parameters to
avoid water pollution and protect the
ecosystem.
C. Manufacturing
- The parameters of these sectors differ
depending on the type of
manufacturing, but they commonly
include BOD, COD, TSS, pH, and specific
chemicals used in production.
D. Electricity, Gas, Steam, and Air
Conditioning Supply
- Power plants and utility facilities generate
liquid waste containing pollutants like
heavy metals, oils, and water discharge.
Effluent Standards
The parameters involved in monitoring
effluent differ depending on the type of
energy production, but some common
ones include BOD, COD, pH,
temperature, and specific contaminants.
E. Water Supply; Sewerage, Waste
Management, and Remediation
Activities
- Some parameters checked for are BOD,
COD, TSS, ammonia, and chlorine
residual levels. Meeting these standards
guarantees drinking water's safety and
proper sewage treatment.
F. Wholesale and Retail Trade; Repair of
Motor Vehicles and Motorcycles
 Escherichia coli (E. coli) and other pathogens
associated with fecal matter.
Table 10. Effluent Standards for BOD Applicable
to Establishments with Influent BOD of > 3.000
mg/L

These parameters include but are not limited to

DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): SECTION 8.0 Modification of WQG and GES
measures organic pollution levels in water Any person, both natural and juridical, may
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): indicates request for the modification of the WQG and GES
the amount of chemicals that can be oxidized as described in this section.
in water SECTION 9.0 Periodic Review
• Total Suspended Solids (TSS): measures the Pursuant to Section 19 of RA 9275, this Order shall
concentration of suspended particles in water be reviewed periodically, and amended as
pH: measure of acidity or alkalinity of water necessary.
• Specific contaminants that are important to SECTION 10 Grace Period
watch out for in a particular industry or sector, A grace period of not more than five (5) years
such as heavy metals, oils, and chemicals used may be given if establishment submits
in various processes Compliance Action Plan and periodic status of
Physical and Chemical Parameters implementation within the prescribed grace
different chemical parameters, which include period.
BOD, COD, TSS, TDS, pH, Oil and Grease, and SECTION 11 Prohibitions
several specific chemical compounds. These
parameters show the potential contaminants
present in wastewater discharges. Physical
parameters, such as temperature, turbidity, and
color, can also impact the quality and
appearance of water bodies, particularly those
used for recreation or scenic purposes.
Metal Parameters
the level of metal parameters allowed in water
bodies, with different standards depending on
the intended use of the water. For example, the
standards for metals like lead (Pb), cadmium
(Cd), and mercury (Hg) are stringent in Class AA
water bodies designated for drinking water
supply to ensure public health and safety.
Organics Parameter
set guidelines and boundaries established for
organic parameters by the table play a crucial
role in safeguarding the quality of water sources.
Microbiological Parameter
Monitoring these parameters is essential to assess
the safety of water bodies and prevent
transmission of microorganisms such as
SECTION 12 Fines, Damages, and Penalties
Any person, both natural and juridical, found
violating or failing to comply with any Order or
Decision of the Department and/or the Pollution
Adjudication Board or any provision of this Order,
shall be liable under Section 28 of RA 9275.
SECTION 13 Separability Clause
Any section or provision of this Order declared to
be unconstitutional or invalid by a competent
court, the other sections or provisions hereof shall
remain to be in force.
SECTION 14 Repealing Clause
The Rules and Regulations of the National
Pollution Control Commission (1978), 1982
Effluent Regulations, and DENR Administrative
Orders 1990-34 and 1997-23 are hereby
repealed; while DENR Administrative Order 1990-
35 is modified accordingly. All other orders,
issuances, rules and regulations, or parts thereof
inconsistent with this Order are hereby
amended, modified, or repealed accordingly.
SECTION 15 Effectivity
This Order shall take effect fifteen (15) days after
its publication in a newspaper of general
circulation and upon acknowledgement of
receipt of a copy hereof by the Office of the
National Administrative Register.
WASTEWATER QUALITY STANDARD
Compliance
Establishments need to release wastewater into
bodies of water to guarantee that their
discharges conform to the appropriate
standards for their corresponding water body
classification. Compliance is crucial in
preventing pollution, safeguarding aquatic
ecosystems, upholding public health, and
satisfying legal obligations.
Environmental Protection
Adhering to the Effluent Standards is crucial in
protecting the ecological integrity of water
bodies and preventing pollution. These
standards play an essential role in balancing
economic progress with environmental
preservation.
Monitoring and Enforcement
It is the duty of regulatory bodies, like the DENR,
to oversee and ensure adherence to these
standards. Failure to comply may lead to fines,
penalties, or legal repercussions for those who
violate them.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESS
Wastewater treatment
It is the removal of impurities like bacteria, solid
wastes, harmful chemicals and the like from
wastewater, or sewage before it reaches
aquifers, or natural bodies of water such as rivers,
lakes, estuaries, and oceans.
- Wastewater treatment plant in the FAB
(Freeport Area of Bataan)
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PHASES
@ Primary
- Material that will either float or easily
settle out by gravity is removed during
primary treatment.
@ Secondary
- Biological techniques are typically used
to remove organic pollutants since
bacteria may use them as food to
produce carbon dioxide, water, and
energy for their own development and
reproduction.
@ Tertiary
- The secondary effluent may be treated
further by several tertiary processes when
the intended receiving water is extremely
susceptible to the effects of
contamination.
I. Primary Unit Operations
BAR RACKS
- The first device met by the wastewater entering
the plant.
- Primary purpose: Remove large objects from
the wastewater.
- Types of objects removed: Rags, logs, and other
debris.
- Removal occurs on racks.
Classification of Bar Racks
@ Trash Racks
- have large openings of 40-150 mm and
are designed to prevent very large
objects such as logs from entering the
plant.
@ Manually Cleaned Racks
- have openings that range from 25-50
mm, these racks are not often employed.
@ Mechanically Cleaned Racks
- have openings that range from 5-40 mm
GRIT CHAMBERS
- This device removes grit from the wastewater
- Grit is inert dense materials such as sand, broken
glass, silt, pebbles, and many more.
- They wear away pumps and other mechanical
parts causing unwanted early wear.
3 Basic Types of Grit-removal devices
1.Velocity Controlled Chamber
- Also known as a Horizontal-Flow grit chamber.
- Specially designed weir used at the end of the
channel to control liquid velocity.
- Recommended horizontal liquid velocity: about
0.3 m/s.
2. Aerated Grit Chamber
- This is a type of grit chamber that has a liquid
spiral roll.
- Purpose of air bubbles: Shearing action to
remove organic material from the grit surface.
- Performance factors: Detention time and roll
velocity.
3. Vortex Grit Chamber
- Wastewater input: Tangent to the vortex.
- Behavior of organic particles: Lighter organic
particles tend to lift within the flow pattern.
- Effluent outlet: Twice the width of the influent
flume to lower exit velocity and prevent grit from
entering the effluent flow.
MACERATOR
- This is a device that chops up solids in the
wastewater such as rags, paper, plastic, and
other materials.
- This is done by revolving cutting bars which are
the macerators.
FLOW EQUALIZATION
-Flow equalization is done through the
construction of enormous basins that collect and
retain wastewater flow and from which
wastewater is sent to the treatment plant in a
constant flow rate.
SEDIMENTATION TANK
-These can be round or rectangular tanks.
-This can remove light organic suspended solids
and the mass of settled solids is called raw sludge
which is removed from the tanks.
Types of Sedimentation Tanks
@ Primary Tanks
Considering that the flocculating particles are
constantly changing in size, shape, and, when
water is trapped in the floc, specific gravity. This
is called Type II flocculant setting.
@Common-wall Rectangular Tanks
Typically selected because they are ideal for
locations with limited space. The tanks used
typically range from 15 to 100 m in length and 3
to 24 m in width. Circular tanks have diameters
from 3 to 90 m.
II. Secondary Treatment Operations
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
- An agitated and aerated mixture of
wastewater and biological solids
(microorganisms) is used in the activated sludge
process, a biological wastewater treatment
method. The cleaned wastewater is then
separated from the biological solids by settling,
and if needed, a portion is added back to the
aeration process.
-The biological mass produced when air is
continuously introduced into the wastewater is
where the name "activated sludge"
-Wastewater is continuously pumped into an
aeration tank.
-The mixture of activated sludge and wastewater
in the aeration tank is called mixed liquor.
-Return sludge is the activated sludge from the
secondary clarifier that is returned to the
aeration tank to maintain the high population of
the microbes present in the process.
-Since more activated sludge is being produced,
some of the return sludge is sent to the handling
system for treatment and disposal.
-Typically, the wastewater is aerated for 6-8 hrs in
long, rectangular aeration basins wherein about
8m3 of air for each cubic meter of wastewater
being treated.
-The volume of sludge returned to the aeration
tank is usually 20%-30% of the wastewater flow.
TRICKLING FILTERS
-This is made up of a bed of coarse material or
media which is usually composed of stones, slats,
or plastic materials, over which wastewater is
applied.
-The most used design for trickling filters is simply
a bed of stones from 1 to 3 m deep through
which wastewater is passed.
-Trickling filters are not primarily for filtering or
straining.
-This process works by letting the wastewater
trickle down through the bed which introduces
microbial growth in the surface of the media. The
wastewater then passes through the stationary
microbial population which accelerates the
breakdown of organic compounds in the water.
OXIDATION PONDS
-Large, shallow ponds called oxidation ponds—
also known as lagoons or Water stabilization
ponds—are used to purify wastewater by the
action of sunshine, bacteria, and algae.
-Sometimes mechanical aerators are built to
provide even more oxygen, hence lowering the
necessary size of the pond.
5 types of Ponds:
@Aerobic Ponds
-These ponds are shallow, usually less than 1m in
depth, to let the light penetrate to the bottom
wherein the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is
maintained throughout the entire depth.
@Anaerobic Ponds
-A pond that is maintained in anaerobic
conditions are deep ponds which receive a high
magnitude of organic loadings that exceed the
oxygen production from photosynthesis.
-Algal growth is negligible in the deeper parts
because of the lack of sunlight.
-First, we have acid fermentation wherein
complex organic materials are broken down into
mainly short-chain acids and alcohols.
-Second, we have methane fermentation
wherein these materials (short-chain acids and
alcohols) are converted to gases, primarily
methane and carbon dioxide.
@Facultative Ponds
-The most common type selected as wastewater
treatment system for small communities.
Facultative ponds are the popular choice
because long retention times facilitate large
fluctuations in wastewater flow and strength with
no significant effect on the quality of the effluent.
Moreover, the capital, operating, and
maintenance cost is lower compared to those
other biological methods of equivalent
treatment.
@Maturation Ponds
-This is a pond used for polishing effluents from
other biological processes wherein dissolved
oxygen is furnished through photosynthesis and
surface re-aeration. This is also called a polishing
pond.
@Aerated Lagoons
-These are ponds oxygenated through the
action of surface or diffused air aeration.
-This consists of a large lagoon of basin that is
equipped with mechanical aerators to maintain
an aerobic environment.
-Population of microorganisms is much lower
compared to the other treatment processes.
-Requiring a much longer residence time which
is advantageous when dealing with complex
organic chemicals.
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTRACTORS (RBC)
-Consists of a series of closely spaced discs
mounted on a horizontal shaft and rotated with
one-half of their surface area immersed in
wastewater.
-The discs are typically made from lightweight
plastic.
-The attached growths are similar to the concept
of a trickling filter, the only difference is that, in a
sense, in a trickling filter, wastewater is passed
over the microbes, whereas in a RBC, the
microbes are the one that is passed through the
wastewater.
@ Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge (IFAS)
Fixed film media increases the biomass in the
reactor. In a retrofit application, this presents the
opportunity to either decrease the basin size or
enhance the capacity of an existing basin. This
process is done by using a media (e.g. sponge,
plastic carriers, and a honeycomb polyester
fabric called BioWeb) that is fixed in a frame
which is then placed above a grid of fine bubble
diffusers
@ Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor
This process is done by the formation of the
biofilm in the reactor is supported by tiny, plastic
components with an effective diameter of
between 7 and 22 mm.
DISINFECTION
-This is done through the addition of a
disinfectant to treated wastewater
-Chlorine is the most common disinfectant used.
-Wastewater is directed into a basin and held
there for around 15 minutes to give the chlorine
time to interact with the pathogens, where it is
held for about 15 min to allow the chlorine to
react with the pathogens.
III. Tertiary Treatment Operation
FILTRATION
-This process is necessary because the secondary
clarifiers are not perfectly efficient at settling out
the microorganisms from the biological
treatment process.
4 types of Filtration
@ Granular Filtration
-By utilizing a filtering procedure akin to that
employed in the purification of water including
the unsettled microbes, it is able to remove the
remaining suspended solids from plants.
-Low density coal for the largest particle sizes
-medium-density sand for the intermediate sizes
-high-density garnet for the tiniest grain sizes
@ Membrane Filtration
-Unwanted components are taken out of water
using membrane filtration. Barriers like
membranes let certain molecules pass through
while blocking others.
-Surface water, groundwater, and wastewater
are cleaned by water treatment plants using a
variety of membrane types and procedures to
create water for use in industry and drinking.
@ Carbon Adsorption
-The most practical available method for
removing refractory organic compounds is by
adsorbing them on activated carbon.
-Refractory organic compounds are a common
term used to describe persistent materials.
-The buildup of materials at a contact is known
as adsorption.
-Each carbon particle develops many pores
because of the activation process.
@ Chemical Phosphorus Removal.
-A reaction basin and a settling tank are needed
for the phosphorus precipitation to remove the
precipitate.
-Ferric chloride and alum can be put right into
the aeration tank of the activated sludge system.
The aeration tank functions as a reaction basin
as a result. The secondary clarifier then removes
the precipitate.
-With lime, this is not possible since the high pH
needed to generate the precipitate is harmful to
the organisms in activated sludge.
NITROGEN CONTROL
-Nitrogen in any soluble form is a nutrient and
may need to be removed from wastewater to
help control algal growth in the receiving body.
-Ammonia in the form of nitrogen exerts an
oxygen demand and can also be toxic to fish.
-Nitrogen can be controlled using two ways;
Nitrification-Denitrification, and Ammonia
Stripping.
NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION
-Natural process, uses bacteria to trigger the
reaction.
-Uses an activated sludge system which takes 15
days in temperate climates and 20 days in chilly
climates.
-Chemically, the nitrification process is described
as follows:
-The wastewater can be discharged after
settling if the receiving body is not concerned
about the nitrogen level. Nitrification must be
followed by anoxic denitrification by bacteria if
nitrogen is a concern:
AMMONIA STRIPING
-By raising the pH to change the ammonium ion
into ammonia, which can then be stripped from
the water by letting a lot of air pass through it,
nitrogen in the form of ammonia can be
chemically removed from water.
Sludge Characterization and Treatment
Processes
SLUDGE
Sludge, often a byproduct of industrial,
agricultural, and wastewater processes, varies in
consistency and composition based on its
source. Typically a mix of solids and water, it
contains bacteria, microbes, particles, and
various organic and inorganic components.
Forms of Sludges
@ PRIMARY
Thick, solids-rich waste from initial wastewater
treatment, high in organic matter and nitrogen.
@ SECONDARY
Produced in secondary wastewater treatment,
rich in organic material and microbial biomass.
@ TERTIARY
Varied characteristics depending on specific
tertiary treatment processes, often challenging
to manage.
Sources of Sludge
DOMESTIC SEWAGE
a product of the treatment of domestic
wastewater that includes organic material,
suspended particles, and possible pathogens.
INDUSTRIAL SEWAGE
It can be made by a variety of businesses and
may contain heavy metals, organic chemicals,
and pollutants unique to that industry.
WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
arises from the treatment of raw water and may
include silt, coagulated contaminants, and
particle pieces.
Characterization of Sludges
A. Screenings
Large organic and inorganic debris, such plastic
bags and twigs, as well as occasionally heavier
objects like tires and logs—often loaded with
feces and generating pungent odors—are
captured in sewage systems by coarse screens.
Table 27-1 provides more information on these
traits.
B. Grit
Wastewater grit levels vary due to factors like
sewage system type, condition, industrial
influence, and collection efficiency, with
recorded volumes ranging from 2.5 to 180 cubic
meters per 10 meters, averaging around 28
cubic meters (WEF, 1998). The needed storage
for grit depends on the frequency of removal
from the treatment facility.
The overall amount of storage space required for
grit depends on how frequently it is taken out of
the treatment facility. The following volumes are
suggested for design purposes (WPCF, 1977):
• Wastewater storage for combined sewer
systems ranges from 74 to 220 cubic
meters per 10 meters.
• ·Wastewater storage for separate
sewage systems of 15 to 74 cubic meters
per 10 meters.
• ·According to Steel and McGhee (1979),
a conservative design value for separate
sewers is 60 cubic meters every 10 meters.
SLUDGE TREATMENT PROCESS
• Preliminary Operations
Early-stage actions like screening, grinding,
degritting, blending, and storage protect
downstream equipment and ensure a consistent
feed.
• Thickening or Concentration
Reducing moisture content in raw sludge, this
step lowers digestion tank capacity needs and
enhances control over digestion conditions. It
yields sludge with <10% solids using methods like
gravity, flotation, and centrifugation.
• Digestion or Stabilization
Biological degradation of organic matter lowers
sludge's organic content, improves drainability,
and reduces odors. Anaerobic and aerobic
digesters are common units.
• Conditioning
Preparing sludge for disposal or further
processing, conditioning changes its chemical
and physical properties. Methods like chemical
addition or heat are applied.
• Dewatering
After digestion, dewatering increases solids
content (>10%) and manages sludge for disposal
or reuse. Techniques include centrifugation and
sludge drying beds.
• Reduction
The final step transforms treated sludge into a
stable form with reduced volume for eco-friendly
disposal or beneficial reuse. Various methods are
chosen based on sludge composition,
regulations, and available resources.
METHODS OF DISPOSAL
@ Partial Disposal
Involves reducing sludge volume through
methods like incineration, resulting in ash and
gases.
@ Ultimate Disposal
Treated sludge is safely and responsibly disposed
of, potentially in seas or as a fertilizer/soil
conditioner. Practical options include land
expansion, additional uses, disposal with sewage
sludge, or landfills.
@ Quality Standards
Sewage sludge quality regulations define
pollutant concentration limits and ceiling
concentration limits, depending on usage.
Compliance with these limits ensures suitability
for land application, residential gardens, or
bagged distribution.
CHAPTER 6: SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE
MANAGEMENT

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERIZATION

- Solid waste characterization requires an
understanding of the properties,
composition, and characteristics of
waste materials. This can effectively
contribute to waste management
approaches.
Solid Waste
- any item we use or discard daily, such as
household trash or industrial byproducts.
- According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), solid waste denotes
any form of waste material, Solid Waste Generation, Sources, and
encompassing items such as garbage, Composition in the Philippines
trash, refuse, or discarded material that - According to the NSWMC, daily waste
are no longer needed or wanted. generation in the country rose from
Types of Solid Waste (According to Eco Gov 37,427.46 tons in 2012 to 40,087.45 tons in
(2011) 2016, averaging 0.40 kilograms per day
• Biodegradable Waste: decomposes per capita for both urban and rural areas.
naturally. (Food waste) - The National Capital Region (NCR)
• Recyclable Waste: can still be converted contributed the most waste in the last five
into beneficial use or other purposes. (dry years, primarily due to its large
paper) population, numerous establishments,
• Residual Waste: cannot be used for other and modern lifestyle.
purposes; thus for transport to disposal - In 2016, Metropolitan Manila, with its 12
site. (ashes and soot) million residents, generated 9,212.92 tons
• Special Waste: Household hazardous of waste daily. Region 4A followed with
waste, bulky waste, consumer 4,440.15 tons per day (11.08%), and
electronics, white goods, yard waste. Region 3 with 3,890.12 tons per day
(bulbs) (9.70%) (NSWC).
Sources of Solid Waste Table 2. Waste Generation of the Philippines,
can be classified based on its origin. Municipal 2012-2016 (Tons per day)
Solid Waste (MSW) is the term used to describe
the waste produced by households, companies,
institutions, and public areas. It includes
commonplace objects that people and
businesses discard, such as food trash,
packaging, clothing, and home appliances.
 Hazardous Waste Characterization
Hazardous waste
- comprises substances that may pose
health or environmental hazards.
- refers to toxic substances or a
combination of wastes that presents an
imminent danger to human, plant, or
animal life
Hazardous Waste Management Hazardous
wastes are managed under two categories:
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Solid waste originates from various sources,
a. Waste material currently being
including residential, commercial, industrial, and
generated and subject to control by the
institutional sectors.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
- 57%, comes from residential areas,
(RCRA)
consisting of items like kitchen waste,
b. Wastes that have accumulated at
yard debris, paper, cardboard, and glass
inactive or abandoned sites or wastes resulting
bottles.
from spills that require emergency response.
- Commercial sources, encompassing
businesses and public and private
Classification of Hazardous waste (Code of
markets, contribute 27% of the waste.
Federal Regulations, 40 CFR 260)
- Institutional sources, like government
I. Presence on the EPA-developed lists: The list of
offices, educational institutions, and
hazardous wastes includes spent halogenated
medical institutions, contribute around
and nonhalogenated solvents; electroplating
12%
baths; wastewater treatment sludges from many
- 4% is generated by the industrial and
individual production processes.
manufacturing sector (NSWMC).
- Some commercial chemical products
are also listed as being hazardous wastes when
discarded. These include “acutely hazardous”
wastes such as arsenic acid, cyanides, and
many pesticides, as well as “toxic” wastes such s
benzene, toluene, and phenols.
The five hazardous categories
• Specific types of wastes from nonspecific
sources; examples include halogenated
solvents, nonhalogenated solvents,
electroplating sludges, and cyanide
solutions from plating batches. There are
28 listings in this category. These wastes
- According to NSWMC, disposed waste
have a waste code prefix letter F.
mainly comprises biodegradable waste
• Specific types of wastes from specific
at 52%,
sources; examples include oven residue
- recyclable waste at 28%, and residuals at
from the production of chrome oxide
18%. Biodegradable waste mainly
green pigments and brine purification
includes food and yard waste, while
muds from the mercury cell process in
recyclable waste comprises plastic
chlorine production where separated,
packaging, metals, glass, textiles, leather,
pre-purified brine is not used. There are
and rubber.
111 listings in this category. These wastes
have a waste code prefix letter K.
• Any commercial chemical product or
intermediate, off-specification product,
 or residue that has been identified as an
acute hazardous waste. Examples
include potassium silver cyanide,
toxaphene, and arsenic oxide. There are
approximately 203 listings in this
category. These wastes have a waste
code prefix letter P.
• Any commercial chemical product or
intermediate, off-specification product,
or residue that has been identified as
hazardous waste. Examples include
xylene, DDT, and carbon tetrachloride.
There are approximately 450 listings in this
category. These wastes have a waste
code prefix letter U.
• wastes not specifically identified
elsewhere, that exhibit properties of
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or
toxicity. These wastes have a waste code
prefix letter D.
Note:
- The wastes that appear on one of the lists
specified in items one through four are
called listed wastes.
- Those wastes that are declared
hazardous because of their general
properties are called characteristic
wastes.
- The characteristics of ignitability,
corrosivity, and reactivity may be
referred to as ICR. The toxicity
characteristic may be referred to as TC.
@ Ignitability
- It is a liquid, other than an aqueous
solution containing less than 24 percent
alcohol by volume and has a flash point
less than 60℃.
- It is not a liquid and is capable, under
standard temperature and pressure, of
causing fire through friction, absorption of
moisture, or spontaneous chemical
changes; and, when ignited, burns so
vigorously and persistently that it creates
a hazard.
- It is an ignitable, compressed gas.
- It is an oxidizer. A solid waste that exhibits
the characteristic of ignitability is given
an EPA Hazardous Waste Number of
D001.’
@ Corrosivity
- is aqueous and has a pH less than or
equal to 2 or greater than or equal to
12.5.
- It is a liquid that corrodes steel at a rate
greater than 6.35 mm per year at a test
temperature of 55℃
@ Reactivity
- It is normally unstable and readily
undergoes violent change without
detonating.
- It reacts violently with water.
- It forms potentially explosive mixtures with
water.
- When mixed with water, it generates
toxic gases, vapors, or fumes in a quantity
sufficient to present a danger to human
health or the environment.
- It is a cyanide or sulfide-bearing waste
that, when exposed to pH between 2
and 12.5, can generate toxic gases,
vapors, or fumes in a quantity sufficient to
present a danger to human health or the
environment.
- It is capable of detonation or explosive
reaction if it is subjected to a strong
initiating source or if heated under
confinement.
- It is readily capable of detonation or
explosive decomposition or reaction at
standard temperature and pressure.
- It is a forbidden explosive, as defined in
Department of Transportation regulations
(49 CFR 173.51, 173.53, and 173.88).
@ Toxicity
A solid waste is said to exhibit the characteristic
of extraction procedure (EP) toxicity if, using the
test methods described in Appendix II of the
Federal Register (55 FR 11863 and 55 FR 26986)
Flow Scheme for Determining a Hazardous
Wastes
Excluded wastes does not mean that the wastes
are not regulated at all. In fact, they are
regulated under other statutes and, thus, do not
need to be regulated under RCRA. Some waste
streams do not come under the purview of RCRA
but are, nonetheless, considered hazardous.
These special wastes include, for example, PCBs
and asbestos. PCBs and asbestos are regulated
under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).
Four Parts of the Definition of Hazardous Wastes
 1. The mixture rule prevents dilution of
waste for the purpose of escaping RCRA Subtitle
C regulation. Under 40 CFR 261.3(a)(2), mixtures
of a listed hazardous waste and other solid
wastes become hazardous wastes. In certain
instances, for characteristic wastes and in those
cases where the listed waste is not to be land
disposed, dilution is permitted. The dilution rules
are summarized in 56 FR 3875, 31 JAN 1991. When
the dilution rules apply, the mixture of a
hazardous waste with the diluent does not cause
the diluent to become hazardous and may
render the non-hazardous wastes.
2. A corollary to the mixture rule is the
“contained in” policy. Under this policy, media
such as soil and water are treated as hazardous
wastes if they “contain” listed hazardous wastes.
3. Any solid waste generated from the
treatment, storage, or disposal of a hazardous
waste, including any sludge, spill residue, ash,
emission-control dust, or leachate (but not
precipitation run-off) is a hazardous waste (40
CFR 261.3(c)). This is known as the “derived from”
rule.
4. A corollary to the derived from and
mixture rules is the “waste-code carry through”
principle. The principle states that a solid waste
derived from a hazardous waste, or a mixture of
hazardous and nonhazardous waste contains all
of the same waste codes as the original waste
(53 FR 31138, 31148)
Hazardous waste in the Philippines
Hazardous waste is made up of various toxic and
harmful substances that can harm the
environment and public health. In addition to
endangering communities, improper waste
handling and disposal also endanger natural
ecosystems and water supplies.
Republic Act No. 9003. Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act of 2000
- It was passed by the Philippine Congress
on December 20, 2000, and was
subsequently approved by President
Gloria Macapagal–Arroyo on January
26, 2001
- Under this law, local government units
(LGUs) are designated as the main sector
responsible for its implementation.
- This act also identifies prohibited activities
in the environment with associated
penalties.
Chapter 1: Basic Policies
Article 1: General Provisions
Section 2: Declaration of Policies
(a) Ensure the protection of public health and
the environment.
(b) Utilize environmentally sound methods that
maximize the utilization of valuable resources
and encourage resource conservation and
recovery.
(c) Set guidelines and targets for solid waste
avoidance and volume reduction through
source reduction and waste minimization
measures, including composting, recycling, re-
use, recovery, green charcoal process, and
others, before collection, treatment and disposal
in appropriate and environmentally sound solid
waste management facilities in accordance
with ecologically sustainable development
principles;
(d) Ensure the proper segregation, collection,
transport, storage, treatment and disposal of
solid waste through the formulation and
adoption of the best environmental practice in
ecological waste management excluding
incineration;
(e) Promote national research and development
programs for improved solid waste management
and resource conservation techniques, more
effective institutional arrangement and
indigenous and improved methods of waste
reduction, collection, separation and recovery;
(f) Encourage greater private sector
participation in solid waste management;
(g) Retain primary enforcement and
responsibility of solid waste management with
local government units while establishing a
cooperative effort among the national
government, other local government units, non-
government organizations, and the private
sector;
(h) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation
among waste generators through the
application of market-based instruments;
(i) Institutionalize public participation in the
development and implementation of national
and local integrated, comprehensive, and
ecological waste management programs; and
(j) Strengthen the integration of ecological solid
waste management and resource
conservation and recovery topics into the
academic curricula of formal and non-formal
education in order to promote environmental
awareness and action among the citizenry
Chapter 2: Institutional Mechanism
National Solid Waste Management Commission
(NSWMC) will operate under the Office of the
President and will consist of fourteen (14)
members representing the government sector
and three (3) members from the private sector
REPUBLIC ACT 6969 - Toxic Substances and
Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act of
1990
AN ACT TO CONTROL TOXIC SUBSTANCES
AND HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR WASTES,
PROVIDING PENALTIES FOR VIOLATIONS
THEREOF, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
- Republic Act 6969, also known as the
Toxic Substances and Hazardous and
Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990
- stated in Section 1 of this Act,
enacted by former President Corazon
C. Aquino on October 26, 1990,
focuses on the regulatory framework
governing toxic substances,
hazardous waste, and nuclear waste
in the Philippines.
- The Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR) acts as the
implementing agency in overseeing
the regulation of chemical
substances that could pose public
health and environment concerns.
Important Provisions
Section 2. Declaration of Policy
the policy of the State to regulate, restrict or
prohibit the importation, manufacture,
processing, sale, distribution, use and
disposal of chemical substances and
mixtures that present unreasonable risk
and/or injury to health or the environment;
Section 3. Scope
This Act shall cover the importation,
manufacture, processing, handling, storage,
transportation, sale, distribution, use and
disposal of all unregulated chemical
substances and mixtures in the Philippines
Section 4. Objectives
a) To keep an inventory of chemicals that
are presently being imported,
manufactured, or used, indicating,
among others, their existing and
possible uses, test data, names of firms
manufacturing or using them, and such
other information as may be considered
relevant to the protection of health and
the environment;
b) To monitor and regulate the
importation, manufacture, processing,
handling, storage, transportation, sale,
distribution, use and disposal of
chemical substances and mixtures that
present unreasonable risk or injury to
health or to the environment in
accordance with national policies and
international commitments;
c) To inform and educate the populace
regarding the hazards and risks
attendant to the manufacture,
handling, storage, transportation,
processing, distribution, use and
disposal of toxic chemicals and other
substances and mixture; and
d) To prevent the entry, even in transit, as
well as the keeping or storage and
disposal of hazardous and nuclear
wastes into the country for whatever
purpose.
Section 5. Definitions
 a. There is a reason to believe that the
chemical substances or mixture may present
an unreasonable risk to health or the
environment or there may be substantial
human or environmental exposure thereto;
b. There are insufficient data and
experience for determining or predicting the
health and environmental effects of the
chemical substance or mixture; and
c. The testing of the chemical
substance or mixture is necessary to develop
such data. The manufacturers, processors or
importers shall shoulder the costs of testing
the chemical substance or mixture that will
be manufactured, processed, or imported.
Section 13. Prohibited Acts
a) Knowingly use a chemical substance
or mixture which is imported,
manufactured, processed or
distributed in violation of this Act or
implementing rules and regulations or
orders;
b) b) Failure or refusal to submit reports,
notices or other information, access to
records, as required by this Act, or
permit inspection of establishment
where chemicals are manufactured,
processed, stored or otherwise held;
c) Failure or refusal to comply with the
pre-manufacture and pre-importation
requirements; and
d) Cause, aid or facilitate, directly or
indirectly, in the storage, importation,
Section 8. Pre-Manufacture and Pre- or bringing into Philippines territory,
Importation Requirements including its maritime economic
the manufacturer, processor or importer zones, even in transit, either by means
shall submit the following information: the of land, air or sea transportation or
name of the chemical substance or mixture; otherwise keeping in storage any
its chemical identity and molecular amount of hazardous and nuclear
structure; proposed categories of use; an wastes in any part of the Philippines.
estimate of the amount to be Section 14. Criminal Offenses and Penalties
manufactured, processed or imported; a) Violation of Sections 13(a) to (c)
processing and disposal thereof; and any Any person who violates sections 13(a) to (c)
test data related to health and of this Act may be sentenced to
environmental effects which the imprisonment of six (6) months and one day
manufacturer, processor or importer has to six (6) years and one day, and fined from
Section 9. Chemicals Subject to Testing Six hundred pesos (P600.00) to Four
thousand pesos (P4,000.00).
If the offender is a foreigner, they may be
deported and barred from reentering the
Philippines after serving their sentence.
b) Violation by Partnership, Corporation, or
Association
If a violation of this Act is committed by a
partnership, corporation, or association, the
partner, president, director, or manager
who consents to or knowingly tolerates the
violation shall be directly liable and
responsible for the act of the employee.
They shall be criminally liable as a co-
principal.
In the case of corporations or other
associations, the penalty of imprisonment of
twelve (12) years and one day to twenty (20)
years shall be imposed upon the managing
partner, president, or chief executive. They
shall also be subject to an exemplary
damage of at least Five hundred thousand
pesos (P500,000.00).
If the corporation or association is a foreign
firm, the director and all officers of such
foreign firm shall be barred from entry into
the Philippines, and their license to do
business in the Philippines shall be canceled.
c) Violation by Government Official or
Employee
If the offender is a government official or
employee, they shall be deemed
automatically dismissed from office and
permanently disqualified from holding any
elective or appointive position.
This is in addition to the penalties mentioned
in sections a) and b) above.
Confiscation and Forfeiture
Any penalty imposed for the unlawful
importation, entry, transport, manufacture,
processing, sale, or distribution of chemical
substances or mixtures shall result in the
confiscation and forfeiture of the proceeds
of the unlawful act and the instruments,
tools, or other improvements used in or with
which the offense was committed.
Confiscated chemical substances shall be
turned over to the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources for
safekeeping and proper disposal.
Note: The given document does not provide
specific penalties for violations of sections
13(d) and 13(e) of this Act.
Section 15. Administrative Fines
According to Section 15 of the document,
the Secretary of Environment and Natural
Resources is authorized to impose fines for
violations of the Act. The fine imposed can
range from a minimum of Ten thousand
pesos (P10,000.00) to a maximum of Fifty
thousand pesos (P50,000.00). These fines are
applicable to any person or entity found
guilty of violating the Act.
DENR Administrative Order No. 22, Series of
2013
This administrative order, also known as the
"Revised Procedures and Standards for the
Management of Hazardous Wastes," was
issued by the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR). It aims to
establish guidelines and regulations for the
proper management of hazardous wastes in
the Philippines. The order includes provisions
for the imposition of administrative fines on
individuals or entities found guilty of violating
the regulations. The collected fines are then
allocated to a special fund administered by
the DENR for projects and research activities
related to toxic substances and mixtures.
Section 3. Scope and Coverage
Section 3. Chapter 5: HAZARDOUS WASTE
TREATMENT, STORAGE AND DISPOSAL (TSD)
FACILITIES
Priority Chemical List (PCL)
Assessment of PCL Chemicals
The assessment of PCL chemicals is a critical
stage in the process, as it provides vital
information to the DENR-EMB about the
prioritized compounds and their uses.
Evaluating the possible dangers and
hazards associated with each chemical is
challenging, but it is necessary to
understand their toxicity. Other factors, such
as persistence and bioaccumulation
potential, also need to be considered in
determining the severity and long-lasting
effects of these chemicals. The DENR-EMB
determines which compounds in the PCL
need to be regulated and implements
specific reporting requirements for these
designated chemicals
Persistence
denotes a substance's characteristic
wherein its half-life in water, sediment, soil, or
air extends beyond fifty (50) days, with
sludge serving as a surrogate for sediment.
Notably, metals are deemed persistent
across all media.
Toxicity
pertains to a substance meeting any of the
subsequent criteria:
● Acute lethality
● Chronic or sub-lethal toxicity
● Teratogenicity
● Carcinogenicity
Bioaccumulation
potential is a gauge of a substance's
capability to accumulate within the food
chain
Chemical Control Order (CCO)
• The CCO is an order that regulates
the use, production, importation,
transportation, processing, storage,
possession, and wholesale distribution
of priority chemicals.
• It is issued by the DENR-EMB to
address the serious risks posed by
these chemicals to public health, the
workplace, and the environment.
• The CCO may include restrictions,
phase-out plans, or bans on specific
chemicals or chemical compounds.
• The DENR-EMB determines which
chemicals should undergo regulation
based on factors such as health and
environmental risks, international
treaties, and available resources.
Chemical Conctrol Regulations:
• Mercury and Mercury compounds
• Cyanide and cyanide compounds
• Asbestos
• Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
• Ozone-Depleting Substances
• Lead and Lead Compounds
• Chromium IV
• Cadmium
General Requirements for Application of
CCO
1. Registration with DENR-EMB & regulated by laws other than RA 6969
Obtaining Import Clearance:
Manufacturers, importers, and
industrial users of chemicals must
register with DENR-EMB and obtain an
import clearance.
2. Limitation in Industrial Use: There are
limitations on the import and
manufacturing of chemicals, with a
gradual phase-out and substitution of
chemical uses and premises.
3. Annual Report to DENR-EMB: All
manufacturers, importers, and
industrial users of chemicals must
submit an annual report to DENR-
EMB. This report should include
general information about the
premises, production and
management information, number
and category of employees
exposed, waste generated, and
storage, treatment, and disposal
information.
4. Labeling Requirements: Proper
labeling of chemicals is required to
ensure safety and proper handling.
5. Storage Requirements: Specific
storage requirements must be
followed to prevent accidents and
ensure the safety of workers and the
environment.
6. Treatment and Disposal
Requirements: Proper treatment and
disposal methods must be followed
for chemicals and chemical waste to
minimize environmental impact.
7. Self-Inspection: Regular self-
inspections should be conducted to
ensure compliance with CCO
requirements.
8. Reporting and Recordkeeping
Requirements: Accurate reporting
and recordkeeping of chemical use,
storage, treatment, and disposal
activities are necessary to monitor
and track compliance.
General Exemptions under the CCO Rules
- Chemical substances and mixtures
- Special circumstances as determined
by DENR-EMB
Solid Waste Treatment Processes
Solid waste management is a five-
component process. First, waste is collected
at the source (waste generators), then at
collection pick-up points (temporary
storage), then at collection vehicles (dump
or compactor trucks), then at treatment
plants, and finally at disposal sites.
Temporary waste storage uses a
variety of containers of varying sizes,
including plastic bags, cans, sacks, native
baskets, and bins made of steel, concrete,
and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) which
is chosen appropriately for the type of
waste.
After collection, waste materials are
brought to Materials Recovery Facility (MRF)
for recycling and recovery. MRF serves as
hubs where the materials collected are
recycled to reduce the amount of waste
sent to landfills.
The processing and treatment
components are composting plants, MRFs,
and treatment facilities. These facilities
employ various treatment technologies to
detoxify and neutralize the waste, such as
biological treatment and other specific
treatment technologies for hazardous
waste.
The final step in solid waste treatment
is the safe disposal of the remaining treated
residues in specially-designed landfills.
Recycling and Material Recover
Recycling and material recovery are
important processes in waste management.
After waste collection, the materials are
brought to a Materials Recovery Facility
(MRF) where they are sorted and processed.
The staff at the MRF separate the recyclable
materials from the trash. This step is crucial to
ensure that contaminants are removed, as
they can affect the quality of the recycled
materials. The goal of recycling and material
recovery is to reduce the amount of waste
that goes to landfills and promote the reuse
of valuable resources.
Composting
Composting is a natural process that
involves the breakdown of organic materials
such as kitchen scraps and yard debris into
nutrient-rich soil compost. This process is
facilitated by various microorganisms,
including bacteria, fungi, and earthworms.
Composting not only improves soil quality
but also helps minimize the volume of waste
that ends up in landfills. It is an
environmentally friendly method that
stimulates plant growth and promotes
sustainable waste management.
Common Application of Composting
1) Industrial/agricultural wastes, such as
wood waste, fish-processing waste, and
solids generated at a municipal wastewater
treatment plant; and
2) Source-separated Municipal Solid Wastes
(MSW), such as yard wastes separately
collected or a mixture of yard and food
wastes separately collected
Common Types of Composting Systems
@ Window Composting
a popular method for processing huge
amounts of yard waste and is often used in
outdoor composting facilities. It involves
creating long, open-air piles or rows of
organic materials. These windrows are
changed on a regular basis to guarantee
aeration and optimal decomposition.
Windrow Composting Process
1. The raw waste is shredded and mixed with
water.
2. It is placed into windrows along a non
permeable surface.
3. The windrows are turned regularly to
increase oxygen content and ensure equal
distribution of heat and moisture. This step
takes sixteen weeks on average until
maturity
is reached.
4. The compost is screened to remove
plastic and metal contaminants. Oversized
compost
can be put back into the process while the
graded compost is ready for various uses.
@ In-vessel Composting
is a technique that confines composting
materials within a container or vessel. Airflow
and temperature are effectively managed
through air openings, which accelerate the
composting process. Manual turning is
required during the initial two weeks to
facilitate aeration, temperature control, and
moisture regulation. This method is space-
efficient compared to windrow composting
and can handle substantial quantities of
organic waste. However, the compost
produced in a few weeks cannot be used
immediately as it needs time for microbial
activity to balance and the pile to cool.
Immature compost can have an unpleasant
odor due to its high organic matter content.
Waste to Energy Incineration
Incineration, also known as waste-to-energy,
involves burning waste materials at high
temperatures with oxygen. This process is
particularly suitable for waste types that
have high energy content, low moisture
content, and minimal ash content. These
waste types include paper, plastics, textiles,
rubber, leather, and wood. Incineration
reduces the amount of waste that needs to
be disposed of, generates energy for local
communities, and lowers transportation
costs of municipal solid waste (MSW).
Common Incineration Systems
MASS-BURN
In the mass-burn incineration process,
unsegregated solid waste is burned in a
special oven. The heat generated from the
burning waste turns water into steam, which
is then used to power a turbine and
generate electricity. This process produces
two solid by-products: bottom ash, which is
the unburned fraction of the waste, and fly
ash, which is the particulate matter
suspended in the combustion air. The
leftover ash is collected and processed to
extract recyclable metals before being
transported to landfills. Filters are also used
to remove over 99% of the ash from the
smoke.
Modular Combustion Units
Modular incinerators are sometimes called
“small-scale mass burns”. It is designed to
handle 25 to 300 tonnes of waste and uses
boilers for burning the waste.
Refuse-Derived Fuel
waste undergoes pre-processing where
glass and metals are first separated. The
remaining combustible waste is shredded
and burned in boilers to produce energy.
Co-Incineration
involves burning different types of waste in a
single facility. Specific post production
wastes such as wood chippings from
construction can be combusted with
production wastes such as paper mill sludge
or dried wastewater treatment plant
biosolids to produce energy
Hazardous Waste
Hazardous organic waste like solvents and
pesticides are combusted to reduce risks
associated with their long-term storage.
Cement Kilns
provide suitable conditions for combustion
of wastes during production of cement
Landfill
Landfill is the land-based disposal site for
waste. It differs from an open dump in a way
that landfills are regulated and designed
specifically for waste disposal. In order to
safeguard the environment and public
health, landfills are constructed with the
trash concentrated in compacted layers to
reduce volume and monitored for the
control of liquid and gaseous effluent.
Three Classification of Landfills
Class I landfills, or secure landfills, are
designed to handle hazardous wastes
Class II landfills, or monofills, handled
designated wastes such as incinerator ash or
sewage sludge, that are relatively uniform in
characteristics and require special handling
Class III landfills, or sanitary landfills, are
engineered facilities designed to handle
municipal solid waste.
Landfill Siting
They prevent these wastes from being
accumulated in public areas .These factors
play an important role in ensuring that the
landfill operates safely, efficiently, and in
compliance with legal and environmental
laws. In choosing a location for a landfill,
consideration should be given to the
following variables:
• Restricted locations such as wetlands,
flood plains, and seismic impact
areas
• Public opposition
• Proximity to major roadways
• Load limits on roadways and bridges
• Underpass limitations
• Traffic patterns and congestion
• Location of the groundwater table
and sole-source aquifers
• Soil conditions and topography
• Availability of cover material
• Climate (e.g., floods, mud slides,
snow)
• Zoning requirements
• Buffer areas around the site (e.g.,
high trees on the site perimeter)
• Location of historic buildings,
endangered species, and similar
environmental factors
Landfill Operation
• Landfill operation follows a three-step
process: waste spreading,
compaction, and soil covering.
• Solid waste is deposited on the landfill
surface, compacted, and covered
with a daily cover.
• The dimensions of a cell are
determined based on waste volume
and operational period duration.
• Trenches and benches are used to
accommodate landfill height and
stability.
• Final cover is applied after all
landfilling operations are complete.
Landfill Decomposition
When waste is deposited in a landfill, a
sequence of connected chemical and
biological processes occurs. These
processes can be categorized into four
stages:
1. Aerobic Phase: Initially, there is
enough oxygen for aerobic
decomposition to occur. However, as
time passes, the oxygen levels
decrease, and the landfill transitions
to the anaerobic phase.
2. Acid Phase: In this stage, complex
organic compounds like cellulose
and starch are broken down into
simpler substances by hydrolyzing-
fermentative microorganisms. These
substances are further transformed
into organic acids by acetogens. The
accumulation of these acids can
decrease the pH of the leachate and
potentially solubilize heavy metals.
3. Methanogenesis, Unsteady: Methane
formers or methanogens convert the
 organic acids into methane and
carbon dioxide. During this phase, the
pH returns to a more neutral state,
and the release of heavy metals into
the leachate decreases. This phase
can last for several months.
4. Methanogenesis, Steady: The
duration of each phase depends on
factors like moisture availability and
nutrient levels. After about a year, the
rate of methane and carbon dioxide
production stabilizes, with both gases
being generated in nearly equal
proportions. Over time, the
decomposition process and
methane production rate
significantly decrease.
Landfill Gas
• Methane and carbon dioxide are the
primary gases released from landfills.
• During the landfill's initial life, carbon
dioxide predominates.
• As the landfill matures, the gas is
composed almost equally of carbon
dioxide and methane.
• Due to the explosive nature of
methane, its movement must be
controlled.
Landfill gas can be potentially dangerous for
several reasons:
* Flammability: When methane reaches
certain concentrations in the air (between
5% and15%), it becomes explosive. Landfill
gas can accumulate in confined spaces,
and any ignition source, such as a spark or
open flame, can lead to explosions or fires.
● Asphyxiation: Landfill gas can displace
oxygen in the air, creating an oxygen-
deficient environment in enclosed spaces.
Breathing air with reduced oxygen levels
can lead to
asphyxiation, which can be fatal.
● Toxic Compounds: Landfill gas may
contain trace amounts of toxic or harmful
compounds, including volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
and other volatilechemicals. Exposure to
these substances can cause respiratory
problems, headaches, nausea, and eye
irritation.
● Odor and Nuisance: Landfill gas often
produces unpleasant odors, causing
discomfort to nearby communities.
Landfill Leachate
• Landfill leachate is a liquid that
contains dissolved and suspended
substances from waste materials.
• It originates from external sources like
rainfall, surface runoff, groundwater,
and waste decomposition.
• Inadequate management of landfill
leachate can lead to environmental
issues.
• Leachate control strategies include
isolating waste from water, natural
attenuation, and controlled
biological degradation of waste.
Landfill Management
• Landfill management follows a three-
step process: waste spreading,
compaction, and soil covering.
• The daily cover, made of native soil or
approved alternatives, is placed over
the waste to prevent exposure.
• Landfill management includes the
use of liners, leachate collection
systems, and monitoring wells to
protect against contamination.
 • The final cover is applied to the entire Anaerobic microorganisms, primarily
landfill site once all landfilling methanogens, thrive in the absence of
operations are finished. oxygen and are responsible for breaking
Solid-Waste Energy Technologies down complex organic compounds into
Anaerobic Digestion simplermolecules
• Anaerobic digestion is a process that Four Key Stages
breaks down organic materials Hydrolysis: In this stage, complex organic
without oxygen. compounds are broken down into simpler
• It involves stages such as feedstock substances such as sugars, amino acids, and
preparation, digestion tank, microbial fatty acids. This breakdown is facilitated by
activity, biogas collection, residue enzymes released by microorganisms.
production, and control and Acidogenesis: The simpler compounds
monitoring. produced in the hydrolysis stage are further
• Methanogens, anaerobic broken down into organic acids, carbon
microorganisms, play a key role in dioxide, and hydrogen gas.
breaking down complex organic Acetogenesis: Organic acids and alcohols
compounds. are converted into acetic acid, carbon
• The end product of anaerobic dioxide, and hydrogen gas by acetogenic
digestion is biogas, primarily bacteria.
composed of methane. Methanogenesis: Microorganisms transform
• The digestate, a byproduct of the acetic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
process, can be used as a soil gas into methane (CH4). This stage is
fertilizer. responsible for the generation of biogas,
which is primarily composed of methane.
4.Biogas Collection
he product is collected and harnessed for
electricity generation and heating.
5.Residue Production
The digestate can be used as a soil fertilizer.
It is separated from the liquid fraction and
further processed
6.Control and Monitoring
The anaerobic digestion process must be
controlled to maximize gas production and
microbial activity
Anaerobic Digestion Process
1. Feedstock Preparation
The process begins with the collection of
organic materials, often referred to as
feedstock. These are typically shredded or
pre-processed before digestion.
2. Digestion Tank
The feedstock is loaded into a sealed
anaerobic digestion tank or reactor kept in
an oxygen-free environment to promote
anaerobic conditions. Gastification
3.Microbial Activity Gasification is the process of converting solid
waste materials into synthetic gas or syngas.
It is similar to incineration but with less
amount of oxygen used in the vessel
Four Main Reactions of Gastification Process
(Seo, Alam, & Yang, 2018)
1. Heating and drying at about 160°C: In
this stage, the feedstock is dried and
ground to reduce moisture content.
This prepares the feedstock for further
processing in the gasification process.
2. Devolatilization (or pyrolysis or
thermal decomposition) at about
700°C: The feedstock undergoes
pyrolysis, where complex organic
compounds are broken down into
simpler molecules. This results in the
production of volatile organic
compounds, char, and tar.
3. Combustion: The volatile organic
compounds produced in the
previous stage are exposed to high
temperatures through the injection of
hot steam or air. This chemically
transforms the materials into syngas,
which typically consists of carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2),
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane Hazardous Waste Treatment Process
(CH4), and other gases. Hazardous Waste Management
4. Gasification: In the gasifier, two main The following shows the logical priority in
reactions occur. The water-gas shift treating hazardous waste:
reaction combines water-gas and 1. Minimize the generation of hazardous
Boudard reactions, while waste.
methanation combines water-gas 2. Promote the concept of ‘waste
and hydrogasification reactions. exchange’, where the hazardous materials
These reactions facilitate the generated by one facility can serve as raw
conversion of carbon monoxide (CO) material for another.
into hydrogen (H2) and carbon 3. Reutilizing valuable resources present in
dioxide (CO2) to optimize the hazardous wastes.
hydrogen content of syngas. 4. Employ biological and chemical
Impurities from raw syngas are treatment methods to detoxify and
removed through filtration, neutralize hazardous liquid waste streams.
scrubbing, and catalytic conversion. 5. Decrease the volume of waste sludges
The cleaned syngas can be used for produced through dewatering.
electricity generation in a gas turbine. 6. Eliminate combustible hazardous wastes
by subjecting them to high-temperature
incineration in specialized facilities
equipped with appropriate pollution control
and monitoring systems.
7. Enhance the stability and reduce the
leachability of metals in sludges and ash
resulting from steps five and six by means of
stabilization or solidification.
8. Safe disposal of remaining treated
residues in specially-designed landfills.
Waste Management
The essential components required to ensure
the effectiveness of a waste reduction
initiative are the following:
1. Top-level organizational commitment
2. Financial resources
3. Technical resources
4. Appropriate organization, goals, and
strategy
Waste Audit
A crucial action in developing a waste
reduction plan is to carry out a waste audit.
This assessment should progress in a
systematic manner:
1. Identify waste streams
2. Identify sources of waste
3. Determine which waste streams
should be the priority in waste
reduction efforts.
4. Screen alternatives
5. Implement
6. Track
7. Evaluate progress
Waste Exchange:
Waste exchange, also known as industrial
symbiosis or material exchange, is a
concept where one organization's waste or
by-products become a resource for another
organization, reducing the disposal of these
materials as waste. This practice promotes a
closed-loop, circular economy where
materials and resources are continuously
reused and repurposed, contributing to
waste mitigation and sustainability.
Recycling:
Recycling is an important environmental
endeavor that involves the collection,
treatment, and repurposing of materials and
products that would otherwise be discarded
as waste. Its primary goal is to extend the life
cycle of materials, conserve resources,
reduce energy consumption, and mitigate
the ecological impact associated with the
extraction and production of new materials.
Treatment Technologies:
After implementing various waste mitigation
measures, there may still be residual wastes
that require treatment. These remaining
wastes need to undergo different treatment
technologies to detoxify and neutralize
them. In the context of hazardous wastes,
this chapter focuses on the application of
treatment technologies specific to this type
of waste, in addition to discussing previously
mentioned treatment methods.
Biological Treatment:
• Biological treatment is used to
degrade anthropogenic compounds
that are resistant to natural
biodegradation.
• Microorganisms play a crucial role in
transforming these compounds into
intermediates that can be further
broken down.
• The success of biological treatment
depends on factors such as the
availability of free electrons and the
direct contact between electron
donors and acceptors.
• Environmental conditions and the
physical-chemical characteristics of
the compound also influence the
feasibility of biodegradation.
• Different microorganisms can aid in
the biodegradation of various
anthropogenic compounds.
Chemical Treatment
• Chemical treatment methods
concentrate hazardous waste for
 subsequent treatment or potential
recovery.
• Carbon adsorption is a common
method that involves retaining the
adsorbent in pressure vessels to hold
onto gases or chemicals in solution.
• Distillation is used to separate more
volatile substances from less volatile
ones through vaporization and
condensation.
• Biodegradation relies on
microorganisms or non-living
mediators to facilitate the
breakdown of hazardous
compounds.
• Oxidation involves the introduction of
oxidizing agents to destroy or convert
compounds into other forms.
Neutralization
Neutralization is a process used to achieve a
suitable pH level in solutions. The law of mass
balance is applied to adjust the pH of acidic
and basic solutions. Acidic solutions are
balanced with sulfuric or hydrochloric acid,
while basic solutions are adjusted with
caustic (NaOH) or slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]. It
is important to note that a waste is
considered hazardous below pH 2 or above
12.5. However, for proper treatment and to
safeguard natural ecosystems, it is
recommended to aim for a final pH in the
range of 6-8.
Oxidation
compounds are destroyed and/or
converted into other compounds through
introduction of oxidizing agents.
The process of destroying cyanide
molecules involves oxidation, and chlorine is
the most commonly employed oxidizing
agent for this purpose. To prevent the
formation of highly toxic hydrogen cyanide
gas, oxidation is carried out in an alkaline
environment, which is commonly known as
alkaline chlorination
In the initial phase of cyanide oxidation, it is
crucial to maintain a pH level above 10 to
ensure a swift reaction. Lower pH levels can
be dangerous as they may lead to the
formation of highly toxic hydrogen cyanide
gas. The subsequent reaction phase is most
efficient at a pH of around 8, although it
proceeds at a slower rate compared to the
first step. Opting for higher pH levels in the
second phase can help reduce the use of
chemicals in subsequent precipitation
stages, but it may extend the reaction time.
It is worth noting that the second reaction
step is often omitted due to the perception
that the cyanate anion complies with
existing toxicity regulations.
Wet Air Oxidation,
also known as the Zimmerman Process, is a
method used for the oxidation of organic
particles in wastewater. It involves the
introduction of air into the liquid, which
initiates a self-sustaining oxidation reaction.
This process is energy-efficient and versatile,
making it applicable to a wide range of
organic compounds, including specific
pesticides. While wet oxidation can
effectively decompose many hazardous
substances, it is not as thorough as
incineration. The addition of metal salt
catalysts can enhance its efficiency and
allow operation at lower temperatures and
pressures.
Precipitation
The extraction of metals from plating rinse
waters is commonly achieved through a
process called precipitation. This method is
based on the principles of solubility
products. By increasing the pH using
substances like lime or caustic, the solubility
of the metal decreases, leading to the
formation of metal hydroxides. It is important
to select the ideal pH level for effective
removal, although practical scenarios
involving mixed metals can make it
challenging to achieve the lowest
achievable value for any single metal within
the mixture.
 are effective methods for solvent
recovery.
Air Stripping
• Air stripping is used for purging
contaminated groundwater with
volatile organic substances.
• It involves passing air and
contaminated liquid through a
packed tower.
• Volatile compounds vaporize into the
air, leaving behind purified liquid.
• Contaminated air is managed
through an activated carbon column
and subsequent incineration.
Stream Stripping
• Stream stripping is used for treating
Reduction gases with lower volatility or higher
This reduction process is typically achieved concentrations exceeding 100 ppm.
using sulfur dioxide (SO2) or • Steam is introduced instead of air to
sodium sulfite (NaHSO3). With SO2 the enhance the stripping process.
reaction is • The incorporation of steam reduces
the solubility of the organic
compound in the aqueous phase
Physical/Chemical Treatment
and increases vapor pressure.
Carbon Adsorption
• Stream stripping is effective in
• Carbon adsorption is a process of
treating aqueous waste
mass transfer that involves holding
contaminated with various organic
gases or chemicals in solution onto a
compounds.
solid surface.
Evaporation
• Activated carbon, molecular sieves,
To maintain the water balance of the
silica gel, and activated alumina are
plating bath, the evaporator duty, or boil-off
commonly used as adsorbents.
rate, is set accordingly. Typically,
• The active sites on these materials
evaporation is carried out under vacuum
can become saturated over time.
conditions to prevent thermal degradation
• Carbon adsorption is used for vapor
of additives and to reduce the energy
recovery and improving the quality of
required for water evaporation.
wastewater effluents.
Four types of evaporators
Distillation
@ Rising Film- evaporative heating surface is
• Distillation is a process of separating
covered by a film of wastewater
volatile substances from less volatile
@ Flash Evaporators utilizing waste heat-
ones through vaporization and
they continuously circulate the plating
condensation.
solution through the evaporator alongside
• Components with higher vapor
the wastewater, making use of waste heat
pressures become more
from the plating bath to aid in the
concentrated in the vapor phase.
evaporation process
• Distillation can be carried out in
@ Submerged tube- involves immersing the
different types, including batch
heating coils in the wastewater
distillation and fractionation, which
@ Atmospheric pressure evaporators- do not
reclaim the distillate for reuse and do not
operate under vacuum conditions
Ion Exchange
• the waste stream containing the
specific ion to be removed is directed
through a resin bed.
• During this exchange, ions with similar
charges are taken off the resin
surface and replaced with ions from
the solution
• This process pushes the exchanged Reverse Osmosis
pollutant off the bed in a Osmosis refers to the spontaneous
concentrated form, which can be movement of a solvent from a less
potentially reused. concentrated solution to a more
concentrated one through an ideal
semipermeable membrane that hinders the
passage of solute but permits the flow of
solvent.

Solvent Extraction
• known by various names such as
liquid extraction and liquid-liquid
Electrodialysis
extraction, offers a means to
employs a specialized membrane designed
eliminate contaminants from a waste
to selectively either retain specific molecules
stream.
or allow them to pass through. These
• This technique is effective when
membranes consist of thin sheets made from
wastewater comes into contact with
ion-exchange resin and are reinforced with
a solvent possessing higher solubility
synthetic fiber backing.
for the specific contaminants
targeted, causing these
contaminants to shift from the
wastewater into the solvent.
• Although it is primarily used for
separating organic substances, it can
also be used to extract metals if the
solvent includes a substance
capable of reacting with the metal,
exemplified by liquid ion exchange.
 • In the solvent extraction process, the
solvent and the waste stream are
combined, enabling the transfer of
constituents from the waste to the
solvent.
• The solvent, which does not mix with
water, can then separate from the
water under the influence of gravity.
The resulting solution, containing the
extracted contaminants, is termed
the "extract," while the waste stream
that has been purified by removing
the contaminants is referred to as the
"raffinate."
INCENERATION
• Within an incinerator, chemical
compounds are broken down
through high-temperature oxidation,
typically exceeding 800°C.
• To be effectively eliminated, the
waste, or at least its dangerous
constituents, should have the ability
to burn.
• The primary outcomes resulting from
the combustion of organic waste
include carbon dioxide, water vapor,
and non-reactive ash. Nonetheless, a
variety of additional byproducts can
also be generated.
Products of Combustion
To determine the stoichiometric combustion
air requirements and forecast the
composition and flow of combustion gasses,
it is essential to have knowledge of the
proportions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, halogens, phosphorus, and
moisture content in the waste. In practice,
incineration conditions typically involve the
use of surplus oxygen to optimize the
production of products of complete
combustion (POCs) and minimize the
creation of products of incomplete
combustion (PICs).
Design Considerations
revolve around three crucial factors:
combustion temperature, the residence
time of combustion gases, and the
efficiency of mixing waste with combustion
air and auxiliary fuel (Oppelt, 1981).
INCINERATOR TYPES
• The field of incineration is primarily
dominated by two technologies:
liquid injection and rotary kiln
incinerators, as noted by Oppelt in
1981.
• These two methods are used in more
than 90% of all incineration facilities.
Of these, over 90% employ liquid
injection units, while less frequently
utilized incinerators include fluidized
beds and starved air/pyrolysis
systems.
rotary kilns are widely employed in
hazardous waste disposal systems due to
their versatility in processing solid, liquid, and
containerized waste materials. This method
involves incinerating waste within a
refractory-lined rotary kiln, which is slightly
inclined from the horizontal plane to
facilitate the mixing of waste materials with
circulating air.
Air Pollution Control (APC)
• associated with an incinerator
generally comprises several
components, including an
afterburner, liquid scrubber, demister,
and fine particulate control device.
• Afterburners play a role in regulating
the emission of unburned organic by-
products by providing additional
 combustion capacity at an elevated
temperature.
• Scrubbers are utilized to physically
eliminate particulate matter, acid
gasses, and residual organic
compounds from the combustion gas
stream. It's important to note that
metals are not eliminated during the
incineration process; some may
vaporize and then be collected in the
air pollution control device.
• Any large liquid droplets that escape
the scrubber are captured in a mist
collector.
• The final phase in gas purification
involves the removal of the remaining
fine particles, for which electrostatic
precipitators have been employed.
• It's worth mentioning that scrubber
water and residues from other APC
devices are still considered
hazardous and require treatment
before they can be safely disposed of
on land.
Stabilization-Solidification
There are two primary techniques for
solidification-stabilization: cement-based
and lime based. These procedures entail the
combination of cement or lime additives
with ash or sludge and water. The
amalgamation is subsequently permitted to
be set, forming a solid framework. The
precise mixture ratios are established
through empirical testing on waste samples
LAND DISPOSAL
Deep Well Injection
The process of deep well injection involves
the pumping of waste materials into
geologically secure formations (Warner
1998)
- It should be situated within a saline-
water-bearing formation of sufficient
size and permeability to
accommodate the waste.
- There should be impermeable strata
both above and below the injection
zone (confining layers) to contain the
waste within the injection strata.
- The site should be free from features
like solution-collapse structures, faults,
joints, and abandoned wells that
could potentially allow the waste to
escape.
Land Treatment
sometimes referred to as land farming of
waste, involves the mixing of waste with soil,
akin to how fertilizer or manure is
incorporated. Within this method, the
organic portion of the waste is naturally
broken down by microorganisms in the soil
The Secure Landfill
- it is generally recommended that
hazardous waste sites be located
above a natural barrier and
equipped with an engineered liner.
- Additionally, continuous monitoring
systems should be in place to assess
the condition of any associated
aquifers. In cases where leachate
generation is anticipated, a
collection and treatment system for
the leachate should be established.
- The technology of secure landfill
management can be broken down
into two phases: site selection and
construction.
Landfill Sitting
the primary considerations revolve around
air quality, groundwater quality, surface
water quality, and the subsurface
movement of gases and leachates
Siting a hazardous waste landfill from
a hydrogeologic perspective involves four
main areas: hydrology, climate, geology,
and soil.
- Hydrological factors include the
distance to the groundwater table,
the hydraulic gradient, proximity to
wells, and the nearness to surface
waters.
- Climate is a significant factor
influencing contaminant migration
but may be less critical when
assessing sites within the same region
with relatively stable climates
 - The structural integrity of the host rock
is crucial, particularly in terms of
seismic risk zones, dipping, and
cleavage. Seismic risk zones are
areas with a history of earthquakes or
a high likelihood of seismic activity,
indicating the presence of
geological faults and fractures that
could provide pathways for
contaminant flow
- Soils with low hydraulic conductivity
can extend the flow period and act
as a natural defense against rapid
contaminant movement.
Landfill Construction
- A secure landfill, in essence, means
that absolutely no leachate or any
other contaminants can escape from
the site and cause any adverse
impact on surface water or
groundwater (Josephson, 1981).
- Any form of leakage from the site,
whether during or after operations, is
deemed unacceptable.
- Furthermore, any external or internal
displacements, which could result
from events like slumping, sliding, or
flooding, are to be avoided entirely.
- It is imperative to ensure that wastes
remain confined within the site
boundaries.
The liner system must incorporate the
following components (57 FR 3462, 1992):
1. An upper liner, constructed with materials
like a geomembrane, intended to prevent
the migration of hazardous substances into
the liner during both the active life and the
post-closure care period.
2. A composite bottom liner comprising at
least two components. The upper
component must be designed and
constructed with materials, such as a
geomembrane, to prevent the migration of
hazardous constituents into the liner during
both the active life and the post-closure
care period. The lower component must be
designed and constructed with materials to
minimize the migration of hazardous
constituents in the event of a breach in the
upper component. The lower component
must consist of at least 91 cm of compacted
soil material with a hydraulic conductivity of
no more than 1 × 10−7 cm · s−1
The LCR must, at a minimum:
1. Have a bottom slope of 1% or more.
2. Be constructed using granular drainage
material with a hydraulic conductivity of 1 ×
10−2 cm · s−1 or more and a thickness of 30
cm or more; or be constructed using
synthetic or geonet drainage materials with
a transmissivity of 3 × 10−5 m2 · s−1 or more.
3. Be designed with adequate strength to
prevent collapse and to avoid clogging
Groundwater Contamination and
Remediation
Groundwater contamination doesn't solely
originate from hazardous waste landfills; it
can stem from various other sources. These
sources encompass municipal landfills,
septic tanks, mining and farming operations,
illegal dumping activities, and the leakage
of underground storage tanks. Alarming
estimates suggest that a substantial number
of gasoline storage tanks at local service
stations, up to 5000 in number, are currently
experiencing leaks
EPA’s Groundwater Remediation Procedure
Preliminary Assessment
EPA involvement typically initiates when a
potential hazardous waste site is identified.
This initial information can originate from
various sources, including concerned local
residents and authorities, state
environmental agencies, the site owners
themselves, or from recognizing potential
issues associated with specific industries
based on the preliminary assessment, the
site is categorized by EPA into one of the
three following groups:
1. No further action is necessary because
there is no risk to human health or the
environment.
2. Additional information is needed to
complete the preliminary assessment.
3. A site inspection is required.
Site Inspection
Conducting a site inspection involves taking
samples to ascertain the nature of
hazardous substances in the area and to
assess the scope of contamination and its
spread. The site inspection encompasses the
development of a work plan and an onsite
safety plan. The site assessment serves three
main purposes:
1. To identify which releases do not present
any risks to public health or the environment.
2. To establish whether there is an immediate
danger to individuals residing or working in
proximity to the release.
3. To gather data for the purpose of
determining whether the site should be
added to the National Priorities List (NPL).
Remedial Design Response
EPA-funded cleanup efforts are exclusively
authorized for sites included on the NPL,
ensuring that Superfund resources are
employed in the most cost-efficient manner
to yield the greatest benefits.
The National Contingency Plan (NCP)
outlines three responses to incidents
involving hazardous substances,
distinguishing between removal and
remediation:
1. Immediate removal is a swift action taken
to prevent significant and immediate harm
to human health or the environment,
requiring completion within 6 months.
2. Planned removal is an expedited
response when a situation necessitates
action, even if not an emergency, with the
same 6-month timeframe.
3. Remedial response aims to provide a
lasting solution to the specific problem
Mitigation and Treatment
Restoring contaminated aquifers is a
complex and challenging process due to
the localized nature of contaminant plumes,
often resulting in substantial efforts, time,
and expenses.
In many scenarios, the most practical
and cost-effective approach is to treat the
water to achieve the necessary quality for a
particular purpose. This treated water can
then be utilized or reintroduced into the
aquifer. Certainly, combinations of barriers
and treatment techniques should be
explored. Source control (removing or both well point and deep well
remediating the source), physical systems to be engineered so that the
containment, and treatment methods all influence area of the system fully
play vital roles in mitigating groundwater intercepts the contaminant plume.
contamination problems. Legal - pressure ridge systems operate on a
considerations may also dictate potential different principle compared to
strategies. traditional well systems.
- In pressure ridge systems,
uncontaminated water is injected to
create an upcoming effect on the
water table, forming a barrier against
the movement of groundwater. The
injection well is also referred to as a
recharge well.

Well Systems
A typical method for remediating
contaminated groundwater involves the use
of well systems. These systems involve the
manipulation of subsurface water flow by
either injecting or extracting water. Their
primary aim is to directly control the
movement of groundwater and indirectly
manage subsurface pollutants.

There are three primary categories of well

systems: well point systems, deep well
systems, and pressure ridge systems.
- well point and deep well systems are
designed for water withdrawal.
- The well point system utilizes closely
spaced, shallow wells, with each well
connected to a central pipeline
(header) linked to a centrally
positioned pump.
- This system is suitable for shallow
water table aquifers.
- Deep well systems are employed for
greater depths and are usually
pumped individually. It is essential for