FEFELETHU MOTLHOIWA

34903577
LIFE 322

ASSIGNMENT 3

mothloiwafefelethu@gmail.com

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I, Motlhoiwa Fefelethu (surname and name), student number 34903577

Declare that the attached assignment is my own work. I have not plagarised from a friend or any
other resources. I understand that if my lecturer finds ANY plagarism in my assignment, I will
receive zero for the entire assignment.

29 September 2023

Signature Date

Rubric used for ALL assignments

Assignment References Reference list in

answers acknowledged in correct format
text

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QUESTION 1

1.1 Osmoregulation
1.2 Feedback control
1.3 Vasodilation
1.4 Pleura
1.5 Denaturation

QUESTION 2

2.1 1- Afferent arteriole

2- Renal artery
2.2 The blood brought by the renal artery is filtered by the glomerulus and then passed to the
proximal convoluted tubule. Maximum reabsorption takes place in proximal convoluted
tubule of the nephron. It is the region of the renal tubule where reabsorption of essential
substances like glucose, proteins, amino acids, a major portion of electrolytes and water
takes place. The surface area for reabsorption is facilitated by the lining of the simple
cuboidal epithelium in them. Reabsorption takes place at the expense of energy, and the
process is active. The proximal convoluted tubule selectively secretes ions such as
hydrogen, ammonia, and potassium into the filtrate and absorbs (bicarbonate) HCO3– from it.
Thus, the proximal convoluted tubule maintains the electrolyte and acid-base balance of the
body fluids. The distal convoluted tubule and the collecting ducts are very permeable to
water so when the filtrate enters these areas water flows passively by osmosis into the
medulla tissue and back into the blood of the peritubular capillaries. The amount of water
that moves out of the filtrate is determined by the level of hydration of the body fluids and is
regulated by the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
(Curthoys and Moe, 2013)
2.3
i. Sensing Sodium Chloride Levels: The macula densa is primarily responsible for
monitoring the concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the filtrate that is passing
through the DCT. It acts as a chemical sensor and compares the NaCl concentration
in the tubular fluid with the surrounding interstitial fluid.

ii. Activation of the RAAS System: When the macula densa detects a lower-than-normal
concentration of NaCl in the tubular fluid (indicating that excessive NaCl has been
excreted and there may be a need to conserve sodium and water), it sends a signal
to the juxtaglomerular cells located in the adjacent afferent arteriole of the same
nephron.

iii. Renin Release: In response to the signal from the macula densa, the juxtaglomerular
cells release an enzyme called "renin" into the bloodstream. Renin is a key
component of the RAAS system.

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 iv. Angiotensinogen Conversion: Renin initiates a cascade of events in the RAAS
system. It converts angiotensinogen, a precursor protein produced by the liver, into
angiotensin I.

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE): Angiotensin I is further converted to

angiotensin II by an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), primarily
found in the lungs but also in other tissues.

v. Vasoconstriction and Aldosterone Release: It causes vasoconstriction, which raises

blood pressure. It also stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal glands.
Aldosterone acts on the distal nephron to increase the reabsorption of sodium and
water, further conserving these substances.
vi. The combined effects of angiotensin II, including vasoconstriction and increased
sodium and water retention, lead to an increase in blood volume and blood pressure.
In summary, the macula densa plays a vital role in the RAAS system by sensing changes
in NaCl concentration and initiating the release of renin. This, in turn, leads to the
production of angiotensin II and aldosterone, which help regulate blood pressure and
fluid balance in the body.
(Peti-Peterdi and Harris, 2010)

QUESTION 3

3.1 Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain stability of internal conditions

despite changes in its environment. (Isaac, 2012)

3.2 Regulation of the oxygen concentration in blood. The respiratory center in the medulla
oblongata of the human brain controls the breathing rate while the cardiovascular center in
the medulla oblongata controls the heart rate.
1. CO2 levels in the blood rise above normal levels
2. Receptor cells in the carotid artery (head artery) in the neck are stimulated
3. To send impulses to the medulla oblongata in the brain
4. The medulla oblongata stimulates the breathing muscles (intercostal muscles and
diaphragm) and the heart
5. Respiratory muscles contract more actively – this speeds up the rate and depth of
breathing to inhale more O2-laden air and exhale CO2-laden air
6. The heart rate also accelerates to increase the O2 supply to the muscle tissues and the
CO2 removal from the muscle tissues.

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7. More CO2 is taken to the lungs and exhaled, while more O2 is taken to the body cells so
that cell respiration can take place faster and more energy can be released.

3.3 Mechanism of exhalation. The movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs is
brought about by a difference in air pressure between the atmospheric air and the air in the
chest cavity and the lungs. The movement of the breathing muscles (diaphragm and
intercostal muscles) changes the volume of the chest cavity, which leads to the pressure
difference.
1. Exhalation is a passive process because the muscles relax.
2. Diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards.
3. External intercostal muscles relax.
4. Rib cage moves down and inwards.
5. Air pressure in lungs increases relative to the air pressure outside.
6. Atmospheric pressure is smaller than the pressure in the lungs and air is forced out to
equalize the pressure.

3.4

• The gas exchange surface within the lungs consists of millions of alveoli, which
greatly increases the outer surface.
• The walls of the alveoli are very thin and consist of a single layer of squamous
epithelium.
• The walls of the alveoli are lined by a thin mucous layer allowing for easy diffusion of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• The alveoli are surrounded by a system of capillary blood vessels for efficient
transport of gases.
• The movement of the rib, diaphragm and intercostal muscles increases and
decreases the volume and pressure in the lungs and chest cavity - this is how
efficient ventilation takes place.
• The lungs are protected by the interpleural fluid, between the two pleuras that
surround the lungs. The chest and intercostal muscles also serve as protection.
(J De Fontaine, 2013)

3.5
• Body temperature decreases and slightly colder blood passes through the
hypothalamus.
• Impulses are sent to blood vessels in the skin and to sweat glands.
• Vasoconstriction happens – blood vessels become narrow and less blood flows close
to surface of the skin.
• Less heat is lost to outside air.

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 • Sweat glands are inactive therefore no sweating occurs.
• There is no evaporation of sweat.
• Heat is not lost as easily to the outside atmosphere and the body warms up.
• In addition, the adrenal and the thyroid glands release adrenalin and thyroxin
respectively.
• Both these hormones increase metabolic rate, and more body heat is produced.
• The hypothalamus stimulates the skeletal muscles to contract. Involuntary shivering
occurs, and heat is produced.
(J De Fontaine, 2013)

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Reference list:
Curthoys, N.P. and Moe, O.W. (2013). Proximal Tubule Function and Response to
Acidosis. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 9(9), pp.1627–1638.
doi:https://doi.org/10.2215/cjn.10391012.
Isaac, T. (2012). Understanding life sciences. Grade 11, Learner’s book. Durban: Pulse
Education Services.
J De Fontaine (2013). Solutions for all life sciences. Grade 12, Learner’s book. Northlands:
Macmillan.
Peti-Peterdi, J. and Harris, R.C. (2010). Macula Densa Sensing and Signaling Mechanisms
of Renin Release. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN, [online] 21(7),
pp.1093–1096. doi:https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2009070759.

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