History of the Earth

Quarter 2 – Module 6

What is Geologic Time?

Geologic time refers to the chronological record of Earth’s formation, changes, development,
and existence, measured on a geological time scale. It is not measured with a clock or
calendar, but rather based on the age of rocks, their fossils, and the evolution of life over
millions of years. Geologists divide Earth’s history into varying time intervals, determined by
significant events in its history. The geologic time scale is established through techniques such
as absolute dating and relative dating.

How relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of Geologic
time?

Relative dating relies on stratigraphic principles to determine the relative ages of rocks. It does
not provide exact ages, but helps establish which rocks or fossils are older or younger
compared to others. This method also observes that fossils in older rocks differ from those in
younger rocks, indicating changes in life forms over time.

On the other hand, absolute dating, made possible by the discovery of radioactivity in the late
1800s, allows geologists to measure the precise age of rocks in years. It relies on the
radioactive decay of specific elements, with the half-life of a radioactive isotope serving as the
basis for dating. This technique provides actual numerical ages, enabling scientists to estimate
the timing of events in the geologic time scale.

While relative dating places historical events in their proper order within the time scale, absolute
dating gives the estimated timing of these events. Together, both methods played crucial roles
in establishing the subdivisions of geologic time.

How do index fossils relate to geologic time?

Index fossils, also known as marker or guide fossils, play a crucial role in establishing the
relative age of rocks in relation to geologic time. These fossils are chosen based on specific
criteria:

1. They are easily recognizable.

2. They are abundant in the fossil record.
3. They have a widespread distribution.
4. They had a relatively short existence.

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For example, trilobites are considered index fossils because they existed during the Paleozoic
era, from the middle Cambrian period to the Permian period. Other examples include
ammonites, brachiopods, and mollusks.

Index fossils are instrumental in correlating rock layers from different locations. By observing
the presence or absence of specific index fossils, geologists can match rock layers and
determine their relative ages. This follows the faunal fossil succession principle.

Furthermore, index fossils can be used to estimate the age of an unknown fossil. If an unknown
fossil is found alongside known index fossils in a specific rock layer, it indicates that the age of
the unknown fossil falls within the range of the associated index fossils.

Ultimately, index fossils have greatly contributed to understanding geological history, providing
insights into the relative ages of rocks and aiding in the construction of the geologic time scale.
This time scale, which classifies Earth's history, is established through stratigraphy, with index
fossils being key markers for defining boundaries between eons, eras, periods, epochs, and
ages.

Eon

The eon is the broadest category of geological time, consisting of four eons: Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic form the Pre-Cambrian
Eon. We currently live in the Phanerozoic, characterized by abundant fossilized remains. The
Phanerozoic is the youngest eon and is well-represented by surface rocks, making it a focus for
paleontologists and geologists. The era is a smaller time interval that divides geological time.

Era

An era is a smaller time interval that divides an eon. The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three
eras: Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic. Boundaries of these eras are determined by
significant events in Earth’s history. The Paleozoic era is known for trilobites, early vertebrates,
and land plant ancestors. The Mesozoic era, the “age of dinosaurs,” also features the first
mammals and flowering plants. The Cenozoic era, referred to as the “age of mammals,” is the
current era. Most knowledge of the fossil record comes from these Phanerozoic eras.

Periods

Periods are subdivisions of eras, and the Paleozoic era is divided into six periods: Cambrian,
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous (including Mississippian and Pennsylvanian in
the United States), and Permian. The Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era is widely known,
partly due to the movie Jurassic Park. Periods are further subdivided into epochs, and epochs
are divided into even narrower units called ages. There is ongoing discussion among geologists
about adding a new epoch, the Anthropocene, due to significant human impact on Earth, but its
definition and inclusion are subjects of debate.

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The Earth’s Story
Pre-Cambrian Eon

The Pre-Cambrian Eon, early in Earth’s existence, lacks substantial information and known
living organisms. Subdivided into three eons, it’s also called the Pre-Cambrian Supereon. The
Hadean eon (named after the Greek God Hades) is marked by intense heat, while the Archean
eon witnessed early life forms and the origin of oxygen. The eon concluded with an oxygen
crisis, making the planet inhospitable. The last part is the Proterozoic eon, known as the
Cryptozoic eon or the age of hidden life.Table 1 below summarizes the event characteristics of
this eon.

Table 1 Some Event Characteristics of the Pre-Cambrian Supereon

Time Event characteristics

Hadean 4.6-4.0 BYA  formation of the solar system and its planets
 formation of early waters in the planet

Archean 4.0-2.5 BYA  early bacteria and algae start to exist

 early oxygen was produced by prokaryotic
 organisms which led to a build up in the
atmosphere
 Oxygen Crisis

Proterozoic 2.5 BYA-542 MYA  appearance of stable continents

 appearance of bacterial and Archean fossils
and eukaryotic cells
 prokaryotic organisms start to form symbiotic
relationships
 plate tectonics forms Rodinia (the first
supercontinent)
 towards its end autotrophs and soft-bodied
heterotrophs filled up the continental shell of
Rodinia

Phanerozoic Eon

The Phanerozoic Eon spans from 542 million years ago to the present, subdivided into three
eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. The Paleozoic Era, lasting from 542 to 251 million
years ago, is marked by the Cambrian explosion, signifying the evolution of animal life, and the
Permian extinction, causing the extinction of around 90% of species. The Paleozoic Era is
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further divided into six periods: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and
Permian.

During the Cambrian period (542-488 million years ago):

 Rodinia, the supercontinent, broke up into Gondwana, comprising present-day southern

hemisphere continents and fragments that became northern continents.
 Earth lacked polar ice caps, exhibiting a warm and wet climate with no distinct seasons.
 Marine life flourished, including primitive animals like sponges and abundant trilobites.
Various algae also thrived in the oceans.
 No known land animals or plants existed during this period.

During the Ordovician period (488-423 million years ago):

 Most continents were part of Gondwana, with North America and northern Europe slowly
converging.
 Gondwana’s movement over the South Pole triggered an ice age, transitioning from a
warm and wet climate to a colder one.
 Oceans teemed with diverse invertebrates, including new ones with shells and the
emergence of the first corals. Reefs were dominated by algae and sponges.
 The Ordovician saw the appearance of the first jawless fish and land plants resembling
mosses with shallow roots.
 An ice age led to mass extinction, with around 80% of marine species disappearing, and
abundant glaciers caused a drop in sea levels.

In the Silurian period (423-416 million years ago):

 Gondwana moved away from the south pole, and North America and Northern Europe
collided.
 Gondwana's movement led to the melting of glaciers, marking the end of the ice age.
 The climate became cold, with glaciers near the South Pole and warmer conditions near
the equator.
 In oceans, corals emerged, and fish continued to evolve, with the appearance of the first
jawed fish.
 Land saw the introduction of scorpions and millipede-like animals as the first terrestrial
creatures.
 The Silurian witnessed the arrival of the first vascular plants, featuring special veins for
liquid transport, rapidly covering much of the land surface.

During the Devonian period (416-359 million years ago):

 Three major continental land masses, including North America/Europe near the equator,
a portion of modern Siberia to the north, and Gondwana to the south, moved toward
each other.
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  High sea levels submerged much of today’s land under shallow seas.
 The climate was warm and mild, with dry interiors of large continents leading to the
formation of salt and gypsum deposits.
 Shallow tropical seas featured abundant reefs and various marine organisms, including
common sharks. Lobe-finned fishes evolved, capable of breathing air when raising their
heads above water, contributing to a decline in trilobite populations.
 The Devonian witnessed the appearance of proto-amphibians, the first vertebrates to
inhabit the land.
 The first seed plants evolved, although flowering plants did not exist during this period.
 Towards the end of the Devonian period, trees and forests emerged.

During the Carboniferous period (359-299 million years ago):

 Named after the abundant carbon in swampy Earth conditions. Gondwana's movement
toward North America/Europe caused the initial uplift of the Appalachian Mountains.
 Early period characterized by a uniform tropical, wet climate with limited seasonality.
Alternating glacial periods caused sea level changes, impacting shallow marine
organisms.
 First amphibians evolved to colonize land but returned to water for reproduction.
 The first reptiles appeared, marking a shift to reproduction and egg laying on land.
 Land snails and winged insects made their debut.
 Forests were widespread near the equator, contributing to extensive coal deposits.
 The first appearance of conifers occurred during this period.

During the Permian period (299-251 million years ago):

 Pangaea, a supercontinent, stretched from the North Pole to the South Pole, with ice
sheets covering the South Pole and fewer shallow seas compared to the Carboniferous
Period.
 The vast land mass of Pangaea led to significant climatic changes, including the
formation of extensive deserts in the central region, as there were no moderating effects
from bodies of water. Coal swamps dried up.
 Amphibians declined as swamps dried up, while reptiles diversified and spread across
the land.
 Plants and animals evolved adaptations to the dry climate, with plants developing waxy
leaves and animals having leathery skins.
 The Permian period concluded with the most extensive mass extinction event, known as
the “great dying.” Multiple factors, including massive volcanic eruptions, meteor impacts,
global warming, oceanic conditions, and changes in animal metabolism due to increased
global temperatures, are believed to have contributed to this event.

Mesozoic era

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The Mesozoic era, named for “meso” meaning middle animals, spans from 251 to 65.5 million
years ago and is dominated by dinosaurs. Despite a mass extinction at the end of the Paleozoic
era, survivors became ancestors of major plant and animal groups. The Mesozoic era
comprises three periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.

During the Triassic period (251–200 million years ago):

 Tectonic movements caused Pangea to separate into Laurasia (Northern Hemisphere)

and Gondwanaland (Southern Hemisphere).
 Continents featured vast deserts, high mountains, and widespread erosion forming
sandstone beds in shallow seas around continents.
 Climate transitioned from hot and dry in continental interiors to more humid with
increased rains later in the period.
 Reptiles dominated the land, and the first dinosaurs, marine reptiles, lizards, and
tortoises appeared.
 Mammals appeared in small numbers compared to dinosaurs, and crocodiles were
abundant.
 Insects underwent complete metamorphosis, and modern corals, fish, and insects
evolved.
 Common plant life included conifers, cycads, ferns, and dominant seed ferns and
conifers in forests.
 The Triassic period concluded with a mass extinction event of unknown cause,
eliminating about thirty-five percent of animal groups.

In the Jurassic period (200–145 million years ago):

 Pangaea continued to break up, forming early Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico as
shallow continental seas. Intense volcanic activity occurred.
 The climate was mild with sufficient rainfall.
 Recognized as the “golden age of dinosaurs,” featuring giant plant-eating dinosaurs and
smaller carnivores.
 Flying reptiles and the first birds, descended from flying reptiles, made their appearance.
 Known as the “Age of Cycads” due to the abundance and diversity of these plants.
Conifers were the most diverse large trees.
 Flowering plants emerged for the first time, accompanied by the evolution of insects for
pollination.
 Mammals evolved but remained small in size.

During the Cretaceous period (145–65.5 million years ago):

 Pangaea continued to break up, contributing to the lengthening and widening of the
Atlantic Ocean.

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  The climate remained mild, and rising sea levels, along with separated continents, led to
warm water currents reaching farther toward the poles, causing mild global climate
change.
 Dinosaurs, the dominant group of reptiles, reached their maximum size and distribution
during this period. By the end, they faced extinction, and mammals began to appear.
 Birds diversified and increased in numbers. Various insect groups, including ants,
termites, bees, butterflies, aphids, and grasshoppers, appeared and diversified.
 Flowering plants evolved and became diverse, potentially contributing to the
diversification of insects.
 The Cretaceous period concluded with another mass extinction event, leading to the
extinction of dinosaurs. A prevalent theory suggests that a meteor, comet, or asteroid
impact caused a massive tsunami, darkened the skies, disrupted photosynthesis, and
induced climate change.