Unit 3: Language Teaching Theories & Methodologies

Section 3.1: Introduction

Essential Knowledge and Skills

 Teachers will be able to describe some theories of learning, L1 acquisition, and SLA and
explain some relationships between them.
 Teachers will be able to explain some details about the different views, perspectives, and models
listed in the table.

 Teachers will be able to give an overview of the models of SLA and explain how they build on the
views and perspectives.
 Teachers will be able to list some ideas that have endured from some of the different models.
 Teachers will be able to describe some problems with some of the models.

 Teachers will be able to give some examples of how the theories work in the real world
(either examples found in this unit or preferably their own examples).

 Teachers will be able to illustrate the three views of learning either by describing the three Chinese
language learning examples or by giving their own examples.
 Teachers will be able to describe how the story of Nicaraguan Sign Language supports both nature
and nurture and fits with different perspectives of L1 acquisition, or they will be able to give their
own examples.
 Teachers will be able to describe how the four models of SLA work based on their experiences
during Section 5 or using their personal learning/teaching experiences.

 Teachers will be able to analyze some commonly held beliefs about SLA using the theories
they have learned.

 Teachers will be able to explain some agreed-upon beliefs about SLA.

 Teachers will be able to give a rationale for some of the agreed-upon beliefs by drawing on
theories learned in this unit.
 Teachers will be able to give examples of how some of the beliefs work.
 Teachers will be able to describe some ways that the beliefs should influence teacher behavior.

 Teachers will be able to evaluate their own beliefs about SLA, telling how they may need to
change and why.

 Teachers will be able to explain how their beliefs have changed as a result of working through this
unit.
 Teachers will be able to note places where they still have room to grow and why.

Introduction to “Language Teaching Theories and Methodologies”

This unit looks at how languages have been taught (and learned) in the past,
identifying methods that have been both successful and not so successful. You may
think that there is one best approach and corresponding method to teaching EFL in
China, it is our hope that you will realize that the best method is the one that meets
student needs, administrative needs, uses the current curriculum and materials, and
considers he school, the region, the country – or the learning and teaching context.

Language learning has been happening for thousands of years. Methodology for
language teaching has existed for, perhaps, hundreds of years. Despite all this, the
body of research on language teaching methodology is only decades old. The
twentieth century hosted a surge of changes in views and opinions on how best to
teach and learn a foreign language. We will introduce a summary of the more
influential methodologies. Note that “methodologies” is often used to refer to the
more complete phrase “methodologies and approaches.”

Linguistic, sociological, psychological, and cultural factors all affect language

learning. There are several reasons why we spend a bit of time learning about
language teaching’s history:

 To learn how teaching philosophy and thought has changed over the years.
 To observe how each methodology or approach reflects the values and circumstances of its era.
 To see how research has developed and directed the search for better language teaching.
 To gather a range of techniques from these methodologies.
 To see how various education systems (such as China’s) have latched on to certain methodologies
while other countries have adopted other approaches.

The teaching methodologies and theories discussed in this unit lay a foundation of
knowledge to inform your own teaching methods. Professional teachers reflect on
their own learning experiences combined with knowledge and a growing skill set to
give their students the greatest opportunity for success.
Key Terms

 grammar translation method (GTM)–for decades, the most commonly used second and foreign
language teaching method.
 audio-lingual method (ALM)–in the 1950s and 1960s, a major second foreign language teaching
method.
 total physical response (TPR)–developed in the early 1970s, this teaching method emphasizes
comprehension more than many other teaching methods.
 communicative language teaching (CLT)–developed in the 1980s, CLT emphasizes
communicative competence, meaningful communication and language use.
 teacher-centered–approach with the teacher at the center, presenting content and directing
activities, choosing curriculum for students.
 student-centered (aka learner-centered)–approach with the student at the center, their needs and
interests guiding curriculum and lesson decisions.
 NNEST-- Non-Native English Speaking Teacher is one whose L1 is not English.

Journal Reflection

Section 3.2: Approaches and Methodologies

Approach, Method, and Philosophy
Before we look at the various theories and methodologies, we need to define a few
key terms – “approach” and “method.” Simply, an approach is a way of looking at or
dealing with something, whereas a method is an ordered or systematic way or
procedure of doing something. An approach tends to be more theoretical and the
method tends to be more practical. So, if you are thinking in terms of the chicken or
the egg…an approach births a method, not the other way around. Philosophy then is
the overarching principles that form your approach which then shapes methods.

To recap, think along these lines:

An approach = a way of looking A method = a way of doing

Three Approaches to Education – Transmission

Transmission
Miller and Seller (1990) identify the three approaches to education as “transmission,
transaction, and transformation”. In a transmissional approach, the purpose of
education is to transmit facts, skills and values. It would be considered our
most traditionalapproach to education. In this approach, the teacher is the center of
the classroom. The student is a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) and the goal of the
education is for the teacher to write knowledge on the student’s minds. Success is
measured by testing the pieces of knowledge that the student has learned.

For example, can the student name four colors and use them in a descriptive sentence?
In language teaching, a transmissional approach is interested in teaching the language
structures and vocabulary of an L2 and proving success through grammar and
vocabulary tests.

Note that the transmissional approach is one-directional movement of information

from the teacher to the student and then the students’ ability to process that
information and regurgitate it back in the form it was given through homework or
testing.

Traditional (Transmission)
Three Approaches to Education – Transaction

Transaction
Some of you may have experienced the transmission approach in your educational
career; however, if you are under 40, the majority of you have been exposed to a more
transactional approach to education.

A transactional approach to education is often referred to as a learner-

driven approach where the student and teacher work together and the student’s prior
knowledge and experience is just as important as the discovery of new information.
The focus of this approach is the interaction of the teacher, students and knowledge.
So instead of curriculum being something “static” or a product you can measure, the
curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what the different people in
the classroom do. Curriculum, then, is a process that really has no beginning or end. It
begins outside the classroom, it happens in the classroom, and continues outside the
classroom.

For example, the transaction teacher could begin class with the same question as the
transmission teacher, can the student name four colors and use them in a descriptive
sentence? However, the teacher would focus on finding out the colors that students
already know, and identifying what those colors might look like in the classroom or
outside of the classroom.

In a transactional language classroom, language is viewed as something you

communicate with; therefore, you come to consensus of meaning. We say that
language is continually negotiated in these classrooms.

You’ll find that assessment in a transactional approach generally takes the form of
essay-type questions or presentations where students can demonstrate their learning
and abilities. Let’s take a look at both of these approaches in the following chart:
Traditional (Transmission) and Learner-
Driven (Transaction)
Note the differences between the two approaches and imagine if you, as a teacher
used to a learner-driven approach, were to teach in a class where the students are more
comfortable with a traditional approach.
Three Approaches to Education – Transformation

Transformation
Finally, Miller and Seller describe the transformational approach to education. A
transformational approach is considered a critical approach because it carefully
analyzes (and thereby refutes or adopts) previous assumptions regarding education
and identifies current beliefs and practices that are imperative to learning and social
change. Now that is a mouthful!

Central to the heart of a transformational approach is praxis, a term which is the

precursor to our present word – practice, the act of doing something. While praxis
carries the same meaning (the act of doing something), in education it carries a deeper
meaning and is concerned with acts which shape and change the world. With a base in
the works and research of Paulo Freire (Torres, C. A. 2007) and themes of social
justice, a transformational approach suggests that learning can only take place if
knowledge is experienced, reflected on and applied. In a classroom, the teacher poses
real life problems. Students apply information to real life interaction and create
solutions. The solutions are considered informed, committed act(ion)s and give
students the tools to apply these solutions on a broader scale in order to change the
world.

Although it may sound quite ephemeral and “out there”, many students in the past 30
years may have developed certain beliefs and attitudes regarding recycling and
“mother earth” through a transformational approach.
Scenario 1
Scenario 1 Reflective Teacher’s Response
Summary

The following chart identifies each approach to help you visualize the differences and
similarities among them.

Comparison of the Three Approaches to

Education
Section 3.3: Communicative Competencies
Brief History of Communicative Competencies

Communicative
Competence helps us define how a competent or fluent speaker of English (or any
language) should be able to communicate and is a key component in our method
selection today. While we isolate this into four competencies, there is much overlap
and interaction between them.

In 1966, Dell Hymes, a prominent sociolinguist, recognized that Noam Chomsky’s

(1965) view of competence and performance was inadequate in addressing how
languages were learned. Chomsky’s linguistic competence focused on a grammatical
analysis of language rules and structures buried in our subconscious, Hymes sought to
explore all the complexities of language as a communication system. This led him to
build on Chomsky’s notion of competence and he coined the term “communicative
competence.”

While we have Hymes to thank for his research, the seminal work on defining
communicative competence was carried out by Michael Canale and Merrill Swain.
According to Canale and Swain, there are four different components, or
subcategories, that make up the construct of communicative competence. Competence
in all areas relates to fluency (1980).
The Four Components of the Communicative Competencies–1
(1) Grammatical (Linguistic) Competence
Encompasses the knowledge of vocabulary, rules of morphology (forming words) and
syntax (sentence structure), semantics and phonology. This would be your internal
knowledge of the rules of pronunciation, stress placement, tense and aspect on verbs,
forming nouns, and vocabulary acquisition.

(2) Discourse Competence

This is how we use grammatical competence to piece together sentences in stretches
of discourse and form meaningful utterances. This could mean written texts, including
poetry and essays, as well as spoken conversation. Discourse competence is interested
in how we piece them together meaningfully.

(3) Socio-linguistic (Pragmatic)

Competence
The key word in socio-linguistic competence is appropriacy. This competence is the
knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of language and discourse. For example, how
you greet and speak to a professor in your university is much different than the way
you will greet and speak with a good friend. Your choice of words, your intonation,
and degree of formality all factor into how you communicate. It helps a speaker
determine whether they should give a “What’s up?” and high-five to someone they
greet or shake hands and say “How do you do?”

The Four Components of the Communicative Competencies–2

(4) Strategic Competence

This tends to be the one competency that people find quite complex. Canale and
Swain (1980) describe it as the verbal and non-verbal communication strategies we
use when there has been a breakdown of communication, or a speaker finds himself
with insufficient competence.
 Consider some of your experiences as a
foreigner in another country trying to get directions to your hotel. You may have
learned the basic words for directions (turn right, turn left, go straight); however, the
stress of the situation, shifts in accent in the region you are visiting, or your own
forgetfulness require that you compensate for this inability to get directions.

Strategic Competence goes much deeper. In order to use strategic competence skills
in an L2, it requires a deep understanding of the L2 culture in order to indirectly get
the information that you desire. Analyzing video clips with your students or having
students participate in role plays and situational dialogues are ways that they can
experiment with and gain strategies that will help deal with taboos topics in L2
conversations.
The Reflective Teacher’s Response
Conclusion
Linguists have teased communicative competencies apart to help us understand
communicative competence more clearly; however, they are all interconnected.
Utilizing phrases to help clarify what you want to ask requires a socio-linguistic
 competence as well as grammatical and discourse competence. Where your discourse
competence might fail because you cannot piece together a response to what you did
on the weekend, your use of gestures and simple vocabulary (grammatical
competence) will have to kick into high gear.

Next we will look at the major theories and methodologies in language teaching. As
you think through each one, notice how communicative competence, actually being
able to communicate fluently, is addressed, ignored, and/or a focal point of each.

Section 3.4: Grammar Translation Method

How to Analyze Different Theories and Methodologies

In order to focus on the usefulness of each methodology, we need to pay attention to

specific information for each.

 What is the role of the teacher?

 What is the role of the learner?
 What, if any, is the role of the textbook? Are other materials used?
 Which language should be used for learning, L1 or L2?
 What should the language learning (or “syllabus”) be centered around?
 What is the focus (or philosophy) of learning the language?

Grammar Translation Method–1

Introduction
The Grammar Translation Method (or the Classical Method) of foreign language
teaching is one of the most traditional language teaching methods, dating back to the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was originally used to teach 'dead'
languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek, which is the reason why the
emphasis is on reading, writing and grammar instead of speaking. The major
characteristic of GTM is a focus on learning the rules of grammar and their
application in translating passages from one language into the other. Vocabulary in
the target language is learned through direct translation from the native language, e.g.
with vocabulary tests such as:

Example:

Very little teaching is done in the target language. Instead, readings in the L2 are
translated directly and then discussed in the L1. Grammar is taught with extensive
explanations in the students’ L1, and only later applied in the production of L2
sentences through translation from one language to the other, e.g.:

Do you know where my book is? = 你知道我的书在哪里?

I don’t know where your book is. = 我不知道你的书在哪里。

Translation of the text is valued here primarily for reading. The syllabus, therefore,
revolves around the text. The students are required to memorize vocabulary and in
depth grammar rules which are then assessed via translation. Teachers of GTM will
often directly test grammar and vocabulary. The focus is on details of the language so
that translations are as accurate as possible. The following chart summarizes the
Grammar Translation Method.

Key Elements of the Grammar Translation

Method
Grammar Translation Method–2

Let’s look at a number of points

from the Key Elements of the GTM chart and compare them with the Comparison of
the Three Approaches chart in Section 2/Part 7 in the approaches to education.

(1) Language is Structure

By this, we mean that language is made up of vocabulary and grammatical structures
that a student can systematically learn. The textbook is ordered around the
grammatical features of the language, such as parts of speech, phrases, and the verb
tense-aspect combinations.

(2) Learning is Best Accomplished Through

Memorization
Here, you should visualize students learning a set of vocabulary words each class and
creating flash cards to remember the spelling and meaning of each word. Tests are
opportunities for students to display their memorization and translation skills. Normal
classroom practice has teachers correcting student’s grammar and translation.

(3) The Role of the Teacher is Central

In GTM classrooms, the teacher leads everything–they are central to the success of
the students and curriculum. Teachers give lectures in the students’ L1. Students then
work individually to translate. The student’s job is to process the information, practice
it, memorize it, and solve problems (translation problems, grammar problems).

(4) The Materials are Central

 In the GTM classroom, learning cannot be accomplished without a textbook. Success
in the class = successfully finishing all of the problems in the textbook. The teacher
follows the scope and sequence of the textbook and bases the course on the layout of
the textbook; hence, the student is lost without the book.

 Chinese context for textbook considerations: Students and schools are pragmatic in getting the
most out of their money. So if they have purchased a textbook, its use in the classroom and/or for
homework is expected in some capacity. It’s best to discuss your school’s expectations for
textbook use in and out of class.

Grammar Translation Method–3

(5) The GTM Classroom is Often Very Quiet

with Very Little Communication in the L2
You may hear students reciting classical English texts, dialogues, or poems, but you
most likely will not hear them communicating with each other in a language other
than their L1. It is common to hear students reciting irregular verb conjugations, such
as I am, you are, he is, she is, we are, you are, they are. On the walls of the classroom,
you may see grammatical charts such as the Verb Tense and Aspect Chart (see below)
and written in their notebooks.

Verb Tense and Aspect Chart

Here are some examples of typical homework or practice in a GTM classroom.

Homework/Practice in a GTM Classroom:

Pros & Cons of the Grammar Translation Method

Pros/Cons of the GTM

Application to Chinese Context and Modern TEFL

Just imagine how many Chinese characters your students have learned in their
academic career. Though there are a few tricks and hints, most Chinese characters
require students to simply memorize them. That means your students have built up
good memorization muscles and are used to this type of instruction. This necessary
skill combined with Chinese Confucian values for respecting elders/tradition means
that many methods of their general education parallel GTM, specifically the central
role of the teacher and memorization of key information.

GTM is the preferred approach to teaching English in most primary, middle, and
secondary school settings in China. Most students in university are well-versed in the
grammatical system of English and have spent many hours struggling to translate
sentences and memorize vocabulary. They have not, however, had the opportunity to
put the grammar into practice. You may find some of your students afraid to speak
 because it may be the first time they have attempted to create their own sentence in
English. They are familiar with drills, dictations and fill-in-the-blank exercises, but
not with communicating about real-life situations. It may take them a while to warm
up to communicating more freely. However, remember, they have a tremendous
amount of structure and vocabulary to build from, so do not throw out the baby with
the bathwater.

In practice today, this is how GTM fits into modern thinking about EFL:

 There is a consensus among experts that teaching grammar is a necessary part of teaching
ESL/EFL.
 The way EFL teachers teach grammar now differs significantly from GTM in at least three ways:
. We focus on using grammar for communication.
. We use a variety of classroom techniques in order to offset its intrinsic
"boringness."
. We tend not to devote whole classes solely to grammar (although it is common
to have an "English Grammar" class at language schools or university
levels).

 If you ask an experienced English teacher what the number one weakness of new English teachers
is…you have got it – grammar! Native speakers use good grammar but often do not know how to
explain their expertise to their students.

Section 3.5: The Direct Method

Transition from GTM to the Direct Method

In the late 1800s and moving into the 1900s, there was a growing dissatisfaction with
the way languages were being taught. A number of factors contributed to this
dissatisfaction, two being increased foreign travel and students actually wanting to
speak new languages. GTM was still the most popular form of language teaching in
Europe; however, it was inadequate for people who wanted to experience more than
the scenery and cuisine in other parts of the world. It was during this time that a few
important developments occurred:

. In 1886, the International Phonetic Alphabet Society (IPA) was established and an
alphabet capable of representing all of the known sounds in languages was
developed.
. At the turn of the century (1800s to 1900s), linguists and language practitioners became
increasingly interested in studying spoken languages.
. There was a growing dissatisfaction with teaching and memorizing grammatical rules in
L2 classrooms and a cry for change in the way languages were being taught.
 A major movement at the time was
called the Reform Movement, and while it lacked a leader; it was considered a
movement because it questioned GTM in the classroom and called for a study of
spoken languages. With the IPA at their disposal, students could now be given
phonetic training and would be capable of writing down everything they heard. The
movement called for the use of conversation texts and dialogues in the classroom and
the arranging of materials into four skills – reading, writing, listening and speaking.
However, with no one to take the lead the Reform Movement disappeared. (Doff,
2008)

A few decades later, a leader emerged and developed what turned out to be the
world’s most successful language program and method–the Berlitz Method. While the
Berlitz Method was actually built upon the Direct Method (or the Natural Approach,
as it is often called), this method is best remembered as the Berlitz Method because of
the influence it has had on language learning throughout the world.
The Direct Method–1

The Direct Method stood in stark contrast to the Grammar Translation Method as can
be seen by the chart below:
The key characteristic of the Direct Method was immersion. Those that supported this
method believed that L1 and L2 learning were identical, which meant you could learn
a second language exactly the same way you learned your first language, and since
the first language was learned through immersion, the second one should be too. Here,
we observe the first major paradigm shift in how languages were taught and learned.

Scenario 2: Example of The Direct Method

The Direct Method–2

Key Elements of the Direct Method

Let’s look at a number of points from the Key Elements of the Direct Method chart.

(1) Language is Living

It is so important to distinguish the difference between GTM definition of language
and the DM–from structure to living! If you can read in between the lines, though, the
DM is suggesting that reading and writing are unimportant to real-time
communication; therefore, everything about the method revolves around speaking and
listening. They also suggest that meaning is inherent in L2, which means that
dictionaries were usually forbidden in these classrooms.

(2) Immersion Best Facilitates Learning

The DM was the first to articulate that the best type of learning happens when you are
immersed in an L2 environment. They believed that you should not use L1 in the
classroom, see it, or even hear it. The only writing that was permitted at the onset was
IPA transcription of the words they heard, and then eventually, L2 from the board or
handouts.
The Direct Method–3

(3) Speaking is King

The objectives of the DM make it clear that reading and writing are not important, the
activities in the classroom were based on choral repetition, enhanced by a visual
representation. For example, the teacher may want to highlight adjectives before
nouns and begin by using a frame such as I like _______ food. The students have
already learned how to produce I like and food; however, now they will learn
appropriate adjectives.

(4) The Role of the Teacher and Students

is Very Important
Special training was needed for teachers because of the amount of work needed to
execute a lesson. Students who were used to GTM classes were shocked at the
amount of work they needed to invest in the class. Although the teacher and the
student worked together, the teacher was still in charge of the input and maintained
firm control of the class. Communication situations were well-rehearsed and enforced.

(5) Realia
 With a new
methodology comes new words. Realia simply means objects and material from
everyday life (when used as teaching aids). So, anything you bring into the classroom
to use as a teaching aid is realia. The DM proponents believed that the more real life
things you could taste, touch, smell and see–the better the learning situation.

(6) Text
When people see the word “text”, they often think of something that is written such as
a novel, a letter, a postcard, etc. When linguists and teachers use the term “text,” it
carries a very broad meaning. It could mean a dialogue about shopping or the weather,
a functional exchange (greetings, giving directions, inviting someone to a party), or an
oral presentation, in addition to different types of writing. With the DM, it was
about oral texts, not written texts.
The Direct Method–4

Direct Method in the Classroom

Pros/Cons of the Direct Method
Application to Chinese Context and Modern
TEFL
For the Chinese context, this is an excellent method to use for correcting problematic
(or unintelligible) pronunciation, as well as for introducing new vocabulary. Your
students will appreciate ALL visual aids you bring to the classroom, especially those
that they can touch, smell, taste and experience!

If you are wondering which approach to education the DM would fit under, be careful
where you place it. It is best to place the approaches along a continuum. While the
DM encouraged more interaction between students and teachers, it did not put
learning in the hands of the students. There was more talk in the classroom, but it was
the teacher who remained in charge. The curriculum was still very much a product to
be measured, and while language was viewed as communication, it was more about
native-like articulation, than fluency. Though moving closer to a learner-driven
approach, it would land somewhere in the middle of the transmissional and
transactional approach.

Section 3.6: Audio-Lingual Method

Transition to the Audio-Lingual Method ALM

You have seen a major paradigm shift from the GTM to the DM. While the DM is
still used in its full form (generally) in Berlitz language schools, it is now considered
more of a designer method, catering to a specific clientele. However, it was an
important development in the future of foreign language education and set the
foundation for a new paradigm shift and a new methodology–the Audio-Lingual
Method.

. The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) has striking similarities to the DM, but they are not
the same.
. The ALM is one of the first methods to find a strong base not only in psychology, but
also linguistics.
 In the 1930s, the development of
world-class universities in North America highlighted the need for a new
methodology in university classrooms. These were some of the first ESL classes on
campuses throughout North America. Some of these students had exposure to GTM
and were well versed in classic literature, so their translation skills were exceptional.
However, their listening and speaking skills were underdeveloped. Up to this point,
foreign language teaching had reverted back to GTM-type lessons with a stronger
focus on reading.

As World War II broke out, the priority became teaching soldiers the language of the
enemy. Behaviorism, as made popular by Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, found its way
into classrooms and the business sector. By the 1950s, however, it had already
become the basis for language training for the US military and its allies.

It is no surprise then, that the ALM found its place in the military and became known
as the Army Method. With its focus on drills and repetition, it was the perfect place to
teach motivated soldiers a target language, where success was quite literally life or
death for some. Government agencies were in need of many speakers of a variety of
foreign languages, and they needed those people to quickly be proficient language
speakers and listeners.

Audio-Lingual Method–1

In ALM language teachers used repetition and substitution drills to teach grammar
and vocabulary. Lessons consisted mostly of speaking and listening exercises. While
the teacher could have used some of the L2 when teaching, most of the instruction
was in the L1. Audio-Lingualism in its pure form is seldom found in today’s
classroom but the techniques and exercises live on in many language teaching lessons.
Many language teachers use repetition and substitution drills as a way to practice new
language structures.

An Example of an ALM Lesson Could Look

Like This:

Key Elements of the Audio-Lingual Method

Audio-Lingual Method–2

Let’s look at a number of points from the chart above (ALM).

(1) Speaking in Patterns and Structures

Similar to the DM, the belief is that language is speech based (oral); however, unlike
the DM, there is a strong belief that language is made up of patterns and structures
which can be acquired by the learner. This is the other half of the equation with
ALM–structural linguistics.

(2) Speaking, Listening and Some Grammar

Notice that with Audio-Lingualism, grammar is back on the plate. ALM is based in
structural linguistics therefore relies heavily on building up grammatical structures.
This contrasts to the DM but is not quite as overt as GTM.

(3) Based on Behaviorism

Behaviorism taught that all living things were organisms

or biological machines that responded to some kind of stimulus. Therefore, our
actions and reactions are simply learned behaviors, or habits. For language learning
then, L1 is a behavior and L2 is a behavior; but in this case, L1 is a habit that needs to
be broken so that a new habit L2 can be formed. The way you get at the new behavior
is through drilling and correction. In fact, no error should ever go uncorrected. It was
the Army Method, so imagine if your teacher was a drill sergeant, you did what you
were told and had no opinion of your own.
(4) Speaking Fluency is the Goal
The objectives for the ALM and DM are exactly the same; however, the way to reach
the objectives were quite different. The ALM is also called the “Drill and Kill
Method” because it adhered to different drill patterns. As students drilled these during
classes, they would find greater fluency and would begin to recognize these patterns
in longer dialogues and texts.

(5) Teacher is Essential

It should be noted that the role of the teacher and learner is very similar to a
traditional or transmissional approach to education with some fundamental
differences. In an ALM approach, the student is a biological organism and plays a
reactive role. The student responds to the linguistic stimuli that the teacher provides.
The teacher is the textbookand the model of the new behavior/L2. There was also the
use of language labs, where learners could listen and repeat the same forms, patterns,
and dialogues over and over.

(6) Clear, Efficient Strategy and Goals

The classroom procedure was intentional; you never got off target. In fact, if you were
to compare the key words for ALM to the previous methods, you would almost be
right in thinking it was a combination of both of these methods. However, it is not that
simple.

(7) Demanding Requirements

The strict procedures of the ALM were highly
successful in classrooms around the world.
Intensive study and high contact frequency
with very small classrooms and almost one-to-
one tutoring were necessary in these courses.
The average class would meet for 8-10 hours
per day, 6 days per week for approximately 6
weeks. The demographic of the students is also
notable; most were mature students and highly
motivated because of their specific L2 goals.
Example of ALM Lesson

Example of ALM Lesson

Some Common ALM Techniques and Drills

Larsen-Freeman (2000, p.47-50) provides expanded descriptions of some common or

typical techniques closely associated with the audio-lingual method. You might want
to go back to the ALM Lesson video in the previous part and look at how the teacher
uses some of the following techniques and drills. Click HERE to get a downloadable
version of the chart below.

Common ALM Techniques and Drills

While these drills and techniques became the base for language curriculum around the
world and were utilized in language labs everywhere, they were not the only activities
representative of the method. Most ALM activities have the following components
– repetition and control. While students can add new information/vocabulary to the
activity, it all happens within a familiar frame. It should be becoming clear that in
ALM there is not much room for creativity or reliance on the knowledge that students
already bring into the classroom.
Pros & Cons and Applications

Section 3.7: Communicative Language Teaching

Introduction to Communicative Language Teaching

Introduction
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also referred to as Communicative
Approach, has become the widely accepted approach in language teaching. With an
emphasis on teaching language for the purpose of communication, this approach relies
on grammatical competence, discourse competence, socio-linguistic competence, and
strategic competence.

In its purest form, CLT uses a curriculum based on the needs of the learners. The
teacher, as facilitator, should choose course goals, topics, skills, and functions based
on student needs. Textbooks may be constricting but other materials, such as realia,
should be brought into create as authentic a context as possible. Typical activities
include information gap, jigsaw, and role-play. Use of the L1 is discouraged in favor
of using the L2 as much as possible. To achieve this, the language of instruction is
taught as well as language for communication.
 The CLT instructor gives students a reason to talk to each other. Ideally the students
are led into a place of discovery because the instructor has “set the scene” and has
activated the students’ background knowledge prior to the activity.

Communicative activities should be:

 rooted in context
 interesting to the learners
 directly related to the other activities within the lesson
 providing choice for the students
 giving learners the opportunity to make errors
 focused on content over form
 followed by feedback from the teacher

Transition to the Communicative Language Teaching Method

Historical and Philosophical Foundations

The emergence of CLT follows the development of education and psychology in
North America. By the 1960s and 70s, major shifts in education and psychology
changed the landscape of what language learning looked like. English speaking
countries found their classrooms full of non-native English speakers and teaching
English as a second language became a multi-billion dollar industry.

The move from ALM to Communicative Language teaching was perhaps the biggest
paradigm shift. There was a psychological switch (behaviorism to cognitivism), an
educational shift (from traditional/transmission to learner-driven/transaction), an
ideological shift (system of best practices and the role of teacher and student), and a
linguistic shift (structural linguistics to cognitive linguistics to socio-linguistics).
Noam Chomsky and Modern Linguistics

In 1959, Noam Chomsky wrote a review of B.F. Skinner’s book Verbal Behavior.
Skinner’s book was his treatise on language, linguistics and speech. Chomsky posed
the following questions:
 “We can appreciate the rejection of the behaviorist view
by asking the question: if all language is learnt behavior, how is it that young
children can say things that they have never said before? How is it possible that
adults all through their lives say things they have never said before? How is it
possible that a new sentence in the mouth of a four-year-old is the result of
conditioning?”

These questions saw the emergence of a new brand of linguistics (generative

linguistics). What Chomsky was saying was simple – behaviorist-type beliefs
regarding language learning suggest that we can only say what we’ve imitated – we
can’t create something new. It was theorized that the L2 is a new habit that
can only be established through acquiring patterns and structures in controlled
contexts. The external world was the key stimulus that we responded to, not the
internal world.

Chomsky created an approach to linguistics, called “Generative Linguistics”, or

“Transformational Generative Grammar.” Chomsky proposed the following:

1) Language is a system of grammatical rules.

 The system is internal and resides at the level of the subconscious. He called this “Deep
Structure”.
 The system of rules is finite. There are only so many rules that we have.

2) Based on one’s knowledge of this system (subconscious knowledge), an individual

can produce an infinite number of novel utterances. Chomsky called this “Surface
Structure”.

Chomsky is suggesting that we are “hardwired” for language. He called it a language

acquisition device–kind of like an internal black box. In our formative years, as we
are inundated with linguistic input, the rules (grammatical rules, spelling rules,
pronunciation rules, etc.) somehow manage to engrain themselves in us. We just
know when something is wrong. Chomsky suggests that the rules reside deeply (deep
structure).
For Chomsky, he simplified it through the notions of competence and
performance. Competence is our internal knowledge of the structural system of
language. This is the deep structure that Chomsky penned. Performance is the
surface structure, or actual production of the language and our ability to comprehend
another speaker. When Chomsky debated Skinner’s beliefs, he suggested that
behaviorism could only account for performance. From Skinner, we learn to perform
and from Chomsky, we acquire competence.

Two main conclusions that linguists and second language acquisition theorists were
able to take from Chomsky were:

. We all have the potential for learning, as all are born with some kind of language
acquisition device.
. A language learning methodology should focus on competence rather than performance.
If we focus on competence, then performance will naturally result.

While these two conclusions might seem simplistic, as you look at the chart
describing CLT, you’ll see exactly how the development of competence would (or
should) look. Take a few moments to read through the chart and think through the
CLT in light of the previous methods it reacted to and adapted from.
Key Elements of Communicative Language Teaching

Key Elements of Communicative Language

Teaching
Before moving on, let’s consider a few elements from the chart by viewing the
following video:

Now let's look more closely at a few other key points from the above chart.

(1) Language Learning is Learning to

Communicate Using the Target Language
A language learning methodology should focus on competence rather than
performance. If we focus on competence, then performance will naturally result. The
language used to communicate must be appropriate to the situation, the roles of the
speakers, and socio-linguistic factors in play. Therefore topics selected to study are
influenced by students’ age, needs, level, interests, and goals.

(2) Communicative Activities are

Essential
Activities should be presented in a way that gives students actual conversational,
authentic practice whenever possible. Target language should be repeated many times
to help students achieve communicative competence not merely memorize it.

(3) The Role of the Teacher is that of a

Guide, a Facilitator or an Instructor.
This diverges greatly from previous methodologies that put the teacher at the center of
learning and the text.

(4) Communicative Competence is King, NOT

accuracy
Students are encouraged to use trial and error as part of the learning process.
Accuracy is assessed at times but the overall emphasis is on communicative
competence regardless of the errors it may include.

(5) PPP Model

CLT often follows the PPP model (Presentation, Practice, Production)
Task-based Language Teaching TBLT

A more thorough discussion of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) can be found

in an upcoming unit, but here we offer a few comments about the place of TBLT in
CLT.

First, TBLT fits easily under the umbrella of CLT: the view that language is for
communication and that language learning happens and is enhanced through
meaningful and negotiated communication among students; the principles of student-
centeredness and student-autonomy; the role of teacher as facilitator and designer of
relevant and engaging tasks and activities; the importance of pair and group work; and
the high value of authentic materials.

Second, according to Nunan (2004), Long (2015), and others, TBLT uses tasks as the
units of analysis rather than linguistic items or even functions. The tasks are derived
from daily life activities, and should be those that meet the needs of the students we
are teaching. Going to the bank, buying an airline ticket, and returning an item to the
store are real-world tasks. In a foreign language context, getting out into the real
world to do these tasks is near impossible, so the target tasks are reshaped for use in
the classroom to promote language learning.

A third point to note is that both CLT and TBLT agree that certain language forms
naturally arise from the meaning-focused tasks. Though CLT supports this notion, it
tends to overlook grammar in its effort to prioritize meaning-focused communication.
In contrast, or perhaps as a remedy to this, TBLT recognizes that explicit attention to
grammar, as well as vocabulary and pronunciation, facilitates explicit learning of the
target language (Nunan, 2004 & Long, 2015). Therefore, it makes a place in the
curriculum and the lesson plan for explicit attention to language forms through form-
focused tasks after students have engaged in meaning-focused tasks.
Examples of CLT in the Classroom
As you read through and listen to examples of CLT in the classroom, note how they
differ dramatically from what we’ve looked at thus far - GTM, DM, and ALM. The
driving force behind these differences is the main value of CLT: language must be
meaningful!

Listen to how a teacher describes what a typical CLT classroom sounds and feels like.
As you can see from the activities above, language learning involves a lot of fun
interaction in CLT.
Pros/Cons of CLT and Application in Chinese Context

Pros/Cons of the Communicative Language

Teaching Method
Application to Chinese Context and Modern
TEFL
Teachers in non-Western contexts may choose to use a more eclectic form of CLT.
This works best in China since teachers can use techniques from any of the
methodologies mentioned above: Grammar-Translation-like exercises help to lower
students’ affective filters while introducing learners to a more communication-
focused experience. Many Chinese students have never been exposed to
communicative activities and when they are, they find them quite challenging because
they are used to GTM or ALM activities. Using an eclectic form of CLT, teachers
may choose to incorporate Audio-Lingualism’s substitution drills and TPR’s physical
activities in order to build up the components needed to later produce language
fluently. Textbooks may be used but supplemented with listening texts and more
opportunities for free practice.

It’s easy to see that CLT fits under a transaction approach to education. The success
of this approach is based on the success of the students (their perception), but also
how well the teacher facilitates or manages the learning context. It is definitely a
move towards a more holistic approach to learning where students rely greatly on
their prior knowledge to gain success in class.
 It’s important to note that CLT has been the favored ESL/EFL methodology for the
past 40-50 years. This is generally the preferred method expected of foreign teachers
in China but not always. Our modern understanding of fluency is expressed in the
acceptance and endurance of CLT as the dominant language teaching methodology.

Section 3.8: BICS and CALP

BICS and CALP

Introduction
Building on the concept of communicative competence, James Cummins also
proposed a distinction that is helpful in understanding some of the challenges our
students might face. Cummins identified BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills) and CALP (Cognitive /Academic Language Proficiency).

 BICS describes the development of conversational fluency that all children acquire in order to be
able to function in daily interpersonal exchanges. It is the ability all human beings need in order to
participate in social interactions and includes language functions and skills needed to perform
everyday tasks in the world.
 CALP, on the other hand, is a particular dimension of proficiency that learners use in academic
situations. It includes the language functions, skills, and strategies needed in order to participate
successfully in school-related tasks, including:
 understanding classroom management language
 being able to understand and answer different types of test questions.
 participating in class discussions
 reading, listening to, and writing academic discourse
 giving oral reports

Again, also included here is strategic competence and the ability to compensate when
language proficiency is not enough.

Cummins' model has proved helpful in identifying and developing appropriate tasks
for new language learners. Learners should start with contextualized tasks and
practical activities that are of low cognitive demand, such as naming items or a simple
matching exercise. More proficient learners would require contextual support, but
would need more cognitively demanding tasks. Cummins suggests that it takes
learners, on average, approximately two years to achieve a functional, social use of a
second language but that it may take five to seven years or longer, for some learners
to achieve a level of academic linguistic proficiency.
Application to Chinese Context and Modern
TEFL
In the Chinese education system, emphasis has been placed more on CALP through a
transmission approach to education. In China, for the majority of their pre-university
education students have been gearing themselves toward exams with the prospect of
studying abroad. Since very little has been done to develop their BICS in English,
Chinese students are often surprised when they attend a native-English speaker’s
class.

One of the most important ramifications of this is that much of our work as foreign
teachers is done to establish a communicative environment in our classrooms and to
provide a place where students can develop their needed BICS. With careful planning
and more context-embedded activities, some of the higher level structures that
students have memorized throughout the years may become the springboard for
greater communication.

BICS and CALP function more as a guiding principle to help teachers better identify
and help students meet their language needs and goals. The key is to remember that a
student with high level BICS (social language abilities) may not necessarily have
CALP (academic language abilities) and vice versa. The theory was developed with
the goal of helping ESL/EFL students have a better and more successful language
learning experience. Remembering the distinction between these aspects of language
learning can also help teachers be more patient and design more targeted lessons.

Section 3.9: Designer Methodologies

Introduction
In the next few parts, we will look at some “methods” that can be quite useful in the
communicative classroom. We use the term “method” loosely here. While many have
identified these as language learning methods, they are actually more similar to a
group of strategies or techniques centered around a belief about the best way to learn
a language, rather than a full-fledged method. We call them “designer methods” as
they were developed with a more specific set of beliefs and audience in mind.
Nevertheless, you will find some of these techniques quite useful in your classrooms.
Total Physical Response TPR

Total Physical Response (more commonly known as TPR) began in the 1980s and is a
technique used in teaching developed by James Asher in 1972, falling under the
umbrella of comprehension-based approaches. He believed that the best and least
stressful way to acquire a language was by listening to directions and physically
responding to them. Since children begin life silently observing and later responding
to commands, TPR instructors sought to mimic early language learning. Emphasis is
placed on creating a relaxed, enjoyable, low-pressure setting where comprehension of
language is the focus.

Initially learners silently observe the teacher. Later, the teacher may say, “Stand up,”
and model the appropriate response for the learners. Then the teacher would repeat,
“Stand up,” and all students would stand up. Only the target language would be used
in these lessons. This method can be particularly beneficial for young learners and
beginner level students. It allows them to mimic L1 language learning, thereby,
minimizing the stress of having to produce language immediately, which is often
contrary to what happens in most language classrooms (Lightbown and Spada, 2006).
Ideal TPR class sizes are between 8–10 students. Realia, such as pictures, images, and
objects are encouraged as meaningful tools for demonstrating the meaning of
vocabulary items.

Application to Chinese Context and Special Consideration

The necessity for action might cause embarrassment with some personality types, so
be aware of how students are responding with their actions. Chinese are typically
culturally reserved but have also been known to be active, loud language learners in
foreign teachers’ classrooms. Generally speaking if the teacher is participating
(demonstrating the TPR movements), then students will follow your lead though may
require some coaxing.

TPR is not a technique to teach the language completely, it should only be viewed as
suitable for beginning levels and basic vocabulary because of the difficulty involved
in using TPR for the purpose of teaching "abstract" language.
TPR can become very monotonous, as there is much repetition, and can cause those
who grasp language quickly to become easily frustrated.
The Series Method

The initial movement from the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) to the Direct
Method (DM), included reform movement that helped bring about that change. Henry
Sweet was considered the champion of the movement with the development of the
IPA; however, Francois Gouin, took some of the initial steps to help bring about this
change.

Gouin was a Latin teacher in France in the late 19 thcentury and had a strong desire to
learn German. Using GTM, Gouin memorized thousands of words and a complete
book on German grammar. He then traveled to Germany, only to be frustrated
because he was unable to hold a conversation in German. He returned to France,
where he found his young nephew had learned to speak French. He observed that
children are exposed to the same routines, and the language accompanying those
routines, time after time, and he developed a method (technique) that he felt best
mirrored childhood immersion. (Howatt, A. P., & Widdowson, H. G. 2004)

Notice the similarities already between the Direct Method and Gouin’s beliefs. In fact,
Berlitz was influenced by Gouin’s book “The Art of Teaching and Studying
Languages”, published in 1894. Gouin should have received the credit for the Direct
Method; however, he had long since passed when the method gained popularity.

What is surprising is the technique he actually created. It relies more on a series of

connected events and behaviors to create meaning. Gouin believed that all behavior
could be described in a series of events. The teacher should describe that series of
events and do actions along with each sentence, and then have students mimic the
actions.

For an example, refer to “How to Ride a Taxi” below. The teacher begins by telling
the students what he is going to perform and then acts out the story silently. Then, he
acts out the story while explaining what he’s doing. Finally, he tells the story and has
the students do the actions. It is not important for the students to repeat the story,
although they may do it once they’re comfortable doing it.

“How to Ride a Taxi”

 First, walk
to the street.

Then look for an empty taxi.

When you see an empty taxi, hold out your hand.

If the taxi stops, get in the back seat.

Greet the taxi driver and tell him where you want to go.

Make sure the taxi driver has reset the meter.

When you get to your destination, pay the driver the

amount that the meter says and say “Goodbye”.

Get out of the taxi and close the door behind you.

Gouin proposed some key principles –

 Language learning should be as a child learns.

 Function is more important than form (what you do with language is more important than the
grammatical system).
 Grammar should therefore be taught deductively.
 Memorization does NOT lead to language learning.

Application to Chinese Context and Modern

TEFL
The Series Method is an invaluable resource for some EFL classrooms and students.
Why are students learning English? Will they continue on to higher academic levels?
Will they use it to pass certain exams? Do they plan to study abroad? All of these
considerations will affect your lesson design and overall curriculum choices.

If a student is planning to go to college or graduate school abroad in an English

speaking country, a Series Method lesson on “how to take the bus” or “how to behave
as a guest in someone’s home” takes on a much more pragmatic and engaging quality.
For students that only study English for exams or as required courses with no
intention of leaving their L1 environment, this lesson may provide a welcome
difference but not be of much practical importance. All students can still learn
important vocabulary and phrases but without much real-world practice and
application, likely only those aspects that overlap with their English learning purposes
will stick.

Knowing your students, their educational goals, English language learning goals, can
always help you be a better teacher. In the case of the Series Method, this is especially
true.

The Silent Way

Introduction
In 1963, Caleb Gattegno, a designer of mathematics and reading programs, published
a book entitled “Teaching Foreign Language in Schools." Gattegno felt that language
learning was a process of discovery, where the teacher should guide the way, but the
student should set the course. He believed that teachers should concentrate on how
students learned, not on how to teach. He posited that learning consists of trial and
error, experimentation, and constantly revising conclusions. Gattegno was firm that
the teacher should not interfere in the learning process and that learners needed to
draw on their previous knowledge, especially their native language. What transpired
was a very specialized learning system, best suited to smaller class sizes or one-on-
one learning (tutoring).

In a typical class, this would be the normal format:

1) The teacher stays silent except for starting the

lesson with a few vocabulary words, usually tied to
concrete objects such as colored rods (called Cuisenaire
rods).
 2) The students then repeat the words and sentences as
the teacher manipulates the rods quietly.

3) If one student repeats the vocab with closer to the

correct pronunciation, the teacher indicates via gestures
that they should repeat it, so that other students can
then mimic and come closer to the correct pronunciation.

4) The teacher also uses simple gestures to aid with

vocab describing actions, such as “give” and “take”.

5) If students seem very off-track, a “stop” gesture is

used, and the teacher may repeat gestures and words –
but words are only repeated as a last resort.

6) It is the students who guide and control the speed of

the lessons, as well as which direction the limited
instruction from the teacher should take.

As you could imagine, it seems quite simple, but the silence of the “teacher” could be
unnerving, especially if students were used to the centrality of the teacher.

The rods could be used for pronunciation as well, with different lengths and colors
representing different short or long vowel sounds. As teachers put the rods together,
students could attempt the words the teacher was intending.
Pronunciation Example of the Silent Way
in the Classroom
One classic example is how the Cuisenaire rods have been used to aid in students’
pronunciation of the plural suffix –s in English. There are actually three distinct
sounds that occur at the ends of words when this suffix is added - /-s/, /-z/, and /-iz/.
The teacher would demonstrate the individual sounds made by the suffixes and assign
a colored rod for each. For example,

First the teacher might read some words in their plural form and raise the correct color
of rod each time. When the teacher said “dogs”, they would hold up a yellow rod
because the sound at the end is /-z/. For “cats”, a red rod would be held up, and so on.
The students then work with a word list in their singular form, such as dog, pig, bat,
page. Students would place the corresponding rods beside the words and say them
aloud. They could correct each other using the rods, or orally. The teacher would
remain silent throughout, only “stopping” them if truly necessary. The teacher might
ask at the end of class what they discovered about the plural suffix and take answers
at the end.
Application to Chinese Context
While this too might seem like a stretch for the Chinese classroom, we can take away
a few key points from Gattegno's work.
Discovering rules and structures in language through trial and error (deductively)
often embeds the structure deeper in the student’s knowledge bank and often works
better than overt instruction.

Teachers should do whatever possible to draw on students’ previous knowledge and

build from there (scaffolding).

Teachers should design their plans so that student to student interaction outweighs
teacher instruction.
The Community Approach

Introduction
In many Western countries, the 1970s and 80s ushered in a time of more humanistic
ideas about language learners. The Community Approach was born out of this
period’s sensitivity to the individual’s psychological needs.

The teacher behaves more like a counselor, encouraging learners and using L1 until
learners feel safe enough to use L2. The teacher’s job is to lower any psychological
barriers to language learning by shaping the learners into a circle rather than the
traditional classroom seating. Learners may ask the teacher how to say something in
the L2 and the teacher will give them the translation. There is no textbook since
Community Approach instructors let the needs of the learners direct the lessons.
Application in Chinese Context
The Community Approach may be difficult to apply physically in the classroom as
many rooms have desks/tables and chairs/benches attached to the floor. These
arrangements often reflect the traditional classroom with rows of desks all facing the
teacher, who often stands just above students on a stage/podium area.

As a foreign teacher your use of students’ L1 (Mandarin Chinese or their local dialect)
will probably be very limited. Therefore, the commitment to staying in the L1 before
moving students’ to use L2 is unrealistic. Most likely your classroom will be a L2
immersion experience for students which can be stressful. So applying the
Community Approach of paying attention to and students as holistic beings is
valuable and achievable.
Situational Language Teaching SLT

Introduction
Situational Language Teaching (SLT) is an approach developed by British applied
linguists, starting in the 1930’s, that adhered to a structural view of language and a
more behaviorist view of language learning. Though it has some similarities to Audio-
Lingualism in its objectives, it did not rely on intensive drilling for desired outcomes.
In an SLT course, lexical items and grammatical structures are carefully graded so
that students can practice these basic structures in meaningful situation-based
activities. At the heart of SLT is the idea that all students in the class can witness the
items being referred to (hence, the term situational because the items are situated
within their reach) and can verify the structures as they are learning.

SLT follows the PPP lesson planning/curriculum model exclusively – presentation,

practice and production. At first, the material is presented (through visuals, word lists,
and teacher instruction), then, it is acquired through practice (often involving some
kind of repetition to help fix the knowledge or material in the students’ memory), and
finally, students produce accurate and meaningful L2.

Here is an example of a typical SLT lesson.

1) Before
class, the teacher would decorate the classroom with
large color pictures/posters of the items to be covered.
 2) In addition to the pictures, the teacher would bring
in realia.

3) Presentation- The first lesson would focus on the

structure, “this is” and “that is,” as well as
“what's this?” and “what's that?”
The situationcreated, then, is that the teacher could
stand nearby an item, point to it, and say “this is a
hat,” and then move further away from the item and say
“that is a hat” and continue to move about the room
pointing to objects.

4) Practice - Moving into the next section of the same

lesson, the teacher could point to an item, and ask
students, “what's that?” or “what's this?”

5) Production - Finally, students could ask each other

the same questions and give correct answers. This
structure could be elaborated in subsequent lessons with
“these are” and “what are those?” and so on.

Image:https://en.islcollective.com/english-esl-
worksheets/vocabulary/clothes-and-fashion/clothes-and-
accessories-poster/45751

As students increase in their abilities, more complex pictures can be shown with
multiple activities and students can begin piecing information together, thereby
building their discourse abilities. The key is realia in real life settings.

While the belief system (behaviorism) that supports SLT may be questionable, the
actual classroom practice can be quite helpful in teaching simple vocabulary to
beginners and young children. It also works for large classrooms.

Application to Chinese Context

As with the other designer methods, consider your physical classroom layout and
space for SLT using realia. It can be a tremendous help in engaging students while
also giving them excellent vocabulary practice.

SLT lends itself to the beginning levels of language learning but can always be part of
a lesson when introducing new vocabulary, as long as the words/ideas are not too
abstract.
 Chinese students often have learned mostly from British English textbooks and
resources in their formal schooling. This mixes with their media intake of mostly
American English sources. Realia/picture use in SLT can clear up small
misunderstandings between British and American vocabulary such as “pants.” In the
UK, pants are what you wear under your trousers, whereas in the U.S. pants are what
you wear over your underwear/underpants.

Designer Methods Review

Think back to Miller and Sellner’s three approaches to language learning:

transmission, transaction, transformation.

 In a transmission approach, the purpose of education is to transmit facts, skills and values. It
would be considered our most traditional approach to education.
 A transaction approach to education is often referred to as a learner-driven approach where the
student and teacher work together and the student’s prior knowledge and experience is just as
important as the discovery of new information. The focus of this approach is the interaction of the
teacher, students and knowledge.
 The goal of a transformation approach is to give students tools (language) to effect change
outside of the classroom – into their world.

Think About It – Reflective Teacher’s Response

Section 3.10: Review
Example Activity

Example Activity – Reflective Teacher’s Response

 Section 3.11: Essential Abilities and Skills
Essential Abilities and Skills

 Teachers will be able to identify key characteristics of the most common teaching methods.
 The roles of the teacher and student are a massive indicator of the approach and methodology
used.
 More traditional methods like GTM, DM and ALM the teacher is the central figure, with students
following, repeating, and producing language as structures/patterns.
 More modern methods, chiefly CLT, focus on the teacher acting as a facilitator, student
needs/desires alongside authentic language use drives curriculum and lesson decisions.


Teachers will be able to understand how different approaches to education lead

to different methodological choices and the advantages or disadvantages of those
choices.

 The transmission approach arose from a need for accurate translation of dead languages and non-
oral, academic use of modern languages, GTM.
 Each iteration since has been some form of transaction between teacher and student to equip
students for real-life language use.
 DM, ALM, CLT, TPR and other designer methods give students more speaking and listening
practice.
 CLT has become the foremost methodology utilizing the transaction approach.
 The transformation approach is much newer and not as common. Moving language from the
classroom out into students’ lives and impacting their world.

Teachers will be able to Identify the benefits of CLT and student-centered

learning.

 Focuses on the four communicative competencies: grammar, discourse, socio-linguistic, and

strategic.
 Authentic language creates an engaging classroom experience
 Student needs, personalities, and future language goals are curricular considerations for CLT
teachers.
 CLT provides the TEFL instructor with the advantage of using L2 (usually the teacher’s L1) in the
classroom almost exclusively.
 The shift to emphasizing understandability, not an intensive focus on accurate grammar and
pronunciation.

Teachers will know relevant vocabulary and concepts and be able to use them to
describe different approaches and methods.

 Transaction, transmission, transformation approach

 Communicative Competencies: grammar/structure, discourse, socio-linguistic, strategic
 Grammar Translation Method (GTM)
 Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)
 Total Physical Response (TPR)
 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
 Teacher-centered
 Student-centered