Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics

Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah

Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

Syllabus: (As per ASTU regulation for Session 2023 - 24)

Module 4 (Class 1 and 2): Wave nature of the particle: De Broglie’s concept of matter
waves (de Broglie’s hypothesis), characteristics of matter wave, Davison and Germer
experiment, Phase velocity, group velocity, relation between phase velocity and group
velocity.

Quantum Physics at about the turn of 20th century a number of fundamental discoveries were
reported which could not be explained within the framework of the above classical theories of
physics. The inadequacy of classical theories was noticed first when they were applied to
explain the black body radiation emitted by a body hotter than its surroundings. To explain
the blackbody radiation, Max Planck put forward a revolutionary hypothesis that the
molecules in a source emit energy not continuously but in small discrete packets called
quanta. This was a radical departure from the classical theory and contrary to day-to-day
experience. Other experimental results also showed that the classical concepts were entirely
inadequate to explain the behaviour of atoms and subatomic particles. A new body of ideas
based on Planck’s work was developed, and the new theory came to be known as quantum
theory or quantum physics. Quantum physics explains the behaviour of matter and radiation
at the microscopic (atomic) level.

Dual Nature of Light:

The ability to produce interference effects is an essential characteristic of waves. We are

familiar with the Young’s famous double-slit experiment. In this experiment, light passes
through two closely spaced slits and produces a pattern of bright and dark fringes on a screen.
The fringe pattern is a direct indication that interference is occurring between the light waves
coming from each slit. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization give
exclusive evidence for the wave behaviour of light. These phenomena require two waves to
be present at the same position at the same time. It is impossible for two particles to occupy
the same position at the same time to produce the observed effects. However, blackbody
radiation, photoelectric effect, Compton effect etc give exclusive evidence for the particle
behaviour of light. Wave theory miserably failed to explain these effects. Thus, on one hand
light resembles a continuous wave of frequency, n and on the other hand it resembles a
collection of particles having energy E and momentum p. The particle nature and wave nature
are in fact contradictory.

(i) A particle occupies a definite position in space and hence it must be very small.
(ii) A wave spreads out and occupies a relatively large region of space and cannot be
attributed to a particular location in space.

As we need both descriptions to complete our understanding, we have to reconcile that light
behaves as an advancing wave in some phenomena and it behaves as a flux of particles in
some other phenomena. In short, light exhibits wave-particle duality.

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

Wave nature of particle (Dual nature of matter):

At the end of 19th century it as observed that classical laws are not applicable in atomic and
sub atomic particles.

There are sufficient evidences regarding dual nature of light. In optical processes such as
interference, diffraction, polarisation etc., light behaves like a wave. In the phenomena such
as blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, Compton Effect etc., light exhibits particle
nature and these phenomena cannot be explained by treating light as an electromagnetic
wave.

Wave particle duality established from

1. Young double slit experiment demonstrated wave nature of particle. Einstein photoelectric
effect confirms particle nature of wave.

Fig: 1 Bright and Dark fringes uniformly due to wave nature of electron.

Dual nature of particle and de Broglie’s hypothesis:

Light is a wave: It spreads out over space.

Light is also a particle (photon) that is at a point.

The phenomenon of Blackbody radiation, Einstein’s photoelectric effect show that

light behaves as particle. Einstein photoelectric effect visualised incident light as a particle
called photon on a metal surface and collide with electron bound to the metal. During the
collision, the photon transfers all its energy to an electron with result in photo emission.

E = hν

Compton effect show that X- ray that is electromagnetic wave also behave as particle.
Compton observed that X-ray radiation is scattered by an electron .The change in energy of
the radiation after the scattering was in conformity with the law of conservation of energy as
applicable in the case of elastic collision of two particles. So X-radiation assumed the status
of particle. Also X-rays are diffracted by crystals. Since diffraction is a wave phenomenon
this implies X-ray is a wave. Phenomena such as the photoelectric effect and the Compton

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

effect offer iron-clad evidence that when light and matter interact, the light behaves as wave
if it were composed of particles having energy hν and momentum h/λ. But the phenomenon
of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization, radiant energy exhibit wave
nature of light.

Louis de Broglie of France in 1924 forward a hypothesis that –‘A moving particle behaves
sometimes as a wave and sometimes as a particle or wave associated with moving particle’.
The waves associated with material particles are called matter waves or de-Broglie waves.
According to de-Broglie, electrons just like light have a dual particle-wave nature.
Accompanying every electron in a wave (not an electromagnetic wave).

Louis de- Broglie’s hypothesis was based on the following facts:

i. In universe, whole of the energy is in the form of radiation and matter. So both the
forms of energy should possess similar characteristics.
ii. Nature is symmetrical in many ways. As radiation has dual nature, matter should also
possess dual nature.
iii. Ordinarily, periodicity is associated only with the wave phenomena like interference
and diffraction, the patterns being governed by integral multiple of wavelength or half
wavelength. But some intrinsic properties are associated with electrons in the Bohr
orbit.
iv. Einstein in 1905 established a relation between mass and energy, E = mc2. He said
that both mass and energy were interconvertible. When energy E exhibits a dual
aspect, mass namely matter also should exhibit a duality.

According to de-Broglie, a moving particle behaves sometimes as a wave and sometimes

as a particle or wave associated with the moving particle. The waves associated with
material particles are called matter waves or de-Broglie waves. These waves are seen with
particles like electron, protons, deuterons etc. The wavelength of matter waves is called
de-Broglie wavelength and is given by

Where h is Planck’s constant and p is momentum of the moving particle. h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js

de-Broglie’s relation:

The dual nature of light possessing both wave and particle properties is clearly illustrated by
combining planck’s relation for energy of a photon, E = hυ with the mass energy relation
E = mc2

Considering the photon to be a particle of mass m, moving with it is given by the Einstein
mass-energy relation as

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

According to planck’s relation, energy of photon of frequency υ is given by

Momentum of photon,

As the matter also possesses dual nature, therefore, wavelength of the wave associated with a
matter particle of mass m moving with velocity v is

This is called de-Broglie wave relation. Hence, de-Broglie wavelength depends upon the
mass of the particle and its velocity.

de-Broglie relation for an electron:

Consider an electron of mass m is under the potential difference of V volts. Its kinetic energy
is

If is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, then

The above expression gives the relation of de-Broglie’s wavelength with the energy of the
particle.

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

Exercises:

1. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of virus particle of mass 1.0 x 10-15 kg moving at
a speed of 2.0 mm/s.

[Hint: Use the relation, ; Ans: 3.315 x 10-16 m]

2. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of

i. A particle accelerated by a potential difference of 10,000 V, and
ii. An electron moving with a velocity of 3x 106 m/s.

Solution: E = Ve = 1.6 x 10-19 x 30,000 Joule

Mass of the electron = 9.1 x 10-31 kg

Planck’s constant (h) = 6.63 x 10-34 Js

[Hint: (i) , Ans: 7.09 x 10-12 m

(iii) , Ans: 2.43 x 10-10 m or 2.43 Ǻ

Characteristics of matter wave:

1. The de Broglie’s wave length of a particle of mass m and velocity v is given by =

. Larger the mass, shorter will be the de Broglie’s wave length
2. The de Broglie’s waves are pilot waves i.e. these waves guide the particle.
3. The de Broglie’s waves are not electromagnetic wave.
4. Matter waves cannot be observed. It is a wave model to describe and study the matter.
5. The de Broglie’s waves are called probability waves. The amplitudes of wave reveals
the probability of finding the particle in space at particular instant .A large wave
amplitude means a large probability of finding the particle at that position.

Phase velocity and Group velocity:

Phase velocity: For a wave with no damping, the equation for displacement is given by Y =
A sin y is the displacement along y direction at the instant t, is the angular
velocity, k is the propagation constant, x is the displacement along x coordinate at the instant
t.

Therefore = 0 or =0 or =

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

A point marked on wave can be considered as representing a particular phase for the wave at
that point. is the velocity with which such a point would propagate. Hence is taken as
phase velocity. Therefore, Vphase =

When a group of two or more waves, differing slightly in wavelengths superimposed on each
other, a resulatant patteren emerges in the shape of variation in amplitude. Such variation
represents the wave group as a whole, and is called wave packet. If the velocities of the
component waves are equal, then the envelope enclosing the amplitude variation pattern also,
or the wave packet also travels with the same velocity as the common velocity of the waves.
Since the group consists of waves of different wave lengths, they are bound to move with
different velocities in dispersive medium, at which time, the envelop or the wave packet is
carried with a velocity with which will be different from the others. The velocity with which
the wave packet moves is called group velocity.

Group velocity can be defined as ... Group velocity is the velocity with which the envelope
enclosing a wave group – called wave packet formed due to superposition of two or more
travelling waves of slightly different wavelengths.

Expression for group velocity: Let us consider two travelling waves of same amplitude, but
of slightly different wavelengths and frequencies. The two waves can be represented by the
following two equations.

Y1 = A sin ----- (1) and Y2 = A sin -------- (2)

A is here Y1 and B is Y2

Y1 and y2 are the displacement in the direction normal to the direction of propagation, at the
instant t. A is common amplitude, and are the angular velocities, k and
are the wave number, x is common displacement, at the instant t, and are
the difference in angular velocity, and wave number and assumed to be small.

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

The resultant displacement Y due to the super position of two waves is given by,

Y = Y1 +Y2

Therefore, Y = A sin + A sin --------- (1)

Using the identity, sin A + sin B = 2cos sin

We get, Y = 2Acos sin

Since and are small 2 =2 and 2k+ = 2k

Therefore Y = 2Acos sin --------- (3)

This analytical expression for the group of waves i.e. the wave packet formed by the two
waves. The above equation is in the form of Y = A sin . Hence the amplitude of the
resultant wave is

R = 2Acos

The sine factor represents a carrier wave which travels with the velocity, Vphase =

From equation 4 it is seen that the amplitude of the resultant wave varies according to the
cosine term with the circular frequency

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

The group velocity (vg) is the velocity with which the maximum amplitude moves. At x = 0
and t = 0, the maximum amplitude is given by Rmax = 2A.

vgroup = in limit

Relation between phase velocity and group velocity: We have the equation for group
velocity and phase velocity as follows.

Vgr = ------- (1) and Vphase = -------- (2)

Where is the angular frequency of the wave, and k is the wave vector. kVph

And, Vgr = = (kVph)

Or Vgr = Vph + k

Or Vgr = Vph + k --------- (3)

We know that k =

Differentiating we get, = -2 λ2 or = - 2/2

Therefore k == =

Substituting in equation (3) we have, Vgr = Vph - λ

This is the relation between group velocity and phase velocity.

Relation between Group velocity and Particle velocity:

• We know the equation for group velocity as:

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 Class Notes (Class 1 and 2) on Quantum Mechanics
Dr. Neelanjan Buzarbaruah
Dept. of Physics
Assam Engineering College

Also we have,

Dividing equation (3) by equation (5)

But we know that,

Using the equation (6) we have,

From (1) and (7)

Example: An electron has a de-Broglie wavelength of 2pm. Find its kinetic energy and phase
& group velocities of its de-Broglie waves. Rest mass energy of electron = 511 keV.

Hints:

According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation

Rest mass energy = m0c2 = 511 keV

M0 = ??

Kinetic energy of the electron; = = = ?? (h = 6.63 x 10-34)

So, Particle velocity v = ??

As, vparticle = vgroup;