THE MEANING OF HISTORY, SOURCES OF HISTORICAL
DATA AND HISTORICAL CRITICISMS
The Meaning of History
▪ HISTORY comes from Greek word
"Historia", which means "knowledge
acquired through inquiry or
investigation".
▪ The classical Latin acquired a new
definition of history as "the account
of the past of a person or group of
people through written documents
and historical pieces of evidence".
▪ As a discipline, Merriam Webster
(2018) defined history as a
chronological record of significant
events (such as those affecting a
nation or institution), often including
an explanation of their causes.
▪ History is a narration of the events
which have happened among
mankind, including an account of the
rise and fall of the nations, as well as
of other great changes which have
affected the political and social
condition of human race.
- John Anderson, (1876). A Manual of
General History
Theories Constructed by Historians
in Investigating History
Factual History – Presents readers the
plain and basic information, the events
that took place (WHAT), the time and
date with which the event happened
(WHEN), the place with which the event
took place, and the people that were
involved (WHO).
Speculative History – It goes beyond
facts because it is concerned about the
reasons for which events happened
(WHY), and the way they happened
(HOW). It tries to speculate on the cause
and effect of an event - Cantal, Cardinal
et,.al.
History and Historiography
Historiography
▪ The practice of historical writing ,
the traditional method in doing
historical research that focus on
gathering of documents from
different libraries and archives to
form a pool of evidence needed in
making descriptive or analytical
narrative.
▪ Encyclopedia Britannica (2017) the
writing of history based on the
critical examination of sources, the
selection of particular details from
the authentic materials used in
those sources, and the synthesis of
the details into a narrative that
stands the test of critical
examination.
History – is the study of past events.
Historiography – is the study of history.
Historian
▪ are devoted to their careers to
studying notable past events, such
as military conflicts, political
milestones, and social movements.
▪ collect and evaluate information
from many primary sources to
answer questions about historical
events, a process known as historical
method.
Traditional Historian – believes that
historical events should be backed up
with written documents. Thus, an event
that lacks existing materials cannot be
proven as a historical fact.
 In 1998 Peter N Stearns has published an
Considering only the written texts as article with the American Historian
evidence for the historical truth is Association that enumerated the reasons
restricting and discriminating against why we should study history.
the social classes that may not record
their own experiences. 1. History help us to understand people
and societies.
Because of this loophole, historians then 2. History helps us understand change
started considering other forms of and how the society we live in came
historical sources such as artifacts, to be.
architecture, songs, epic, events 3. History contributes to moral
passing, memories, and stories by word understanding.
of mouth. 4. History provides identity.

Historians – can write history through Skills That a Student May

historical shreds of evidence. They are Develop in Studying History
responsible for the analysis,
interpretations, and organization of 1. The ability to assess evidence.
the facts. 2. The ability to asses conflicting
interpretations.
This subjectivity poses an issue on the 3. Experience in assessing past
validity of claims toward historical facts. examples of change.
The reason why historians employ a
method to ensure that the historian's Relevance of History
biases do not blind his judgement.
History is related to other discipline:
Prehistory – refers to the period where a) Archaeology – study that traces
information of the past were recorded in relevant events through pieces of
materials other than written documents, evidence.
which may not be understood by a b) Linguistics – evolution of languages
historian. through history.
c) Sociology – study of society and
culture.
d) Psychology – and history both study
about the human condition.
e) Biology – focused on the building of
links among organisms and their
environment.
f) Biochemistry – relates greatly to the
understanding of the whole
organisms as well as understanding
society.

Why Study the History?

 DISTINCTION OF PRIMARY SOURCES AND SECONDARY SOURCES;
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CRITICISM
Classification of Historical Sources
Primary Sources
▪ are sources produced while the past
event was happening, usually by
actors of history themselves, such
as government institutions or
revolutionary leaders.
▪ some examples of primary sources
are archival documents, artifacts,
memorabilia, letters, government
records, census, etc.
Secondary Sources
▪ are sources produced by someone
who has used a primary source as
the subject of the material.
▪ examples are textbooks published
in the late 1900s that focused on the
Philippine Revolution as their
subject.
PRIMARY
▪ First hand account
▪ Created by someone who
experienced the event
▪ Created on or near the date of the
event
SECONDARY
▪ Second hand account
▪ Created by someone who did not
experience the event
▪ Created well after the event
External and Internal Criticisms
Historical Method – refers to the process
of probing primary sources that will be
used in writing history. This includes
sources criticism which studies the
external and internal validity of
Sources.
Historical Sources – includes
documents, artifacts, archaelogical
sites, features, oral transmissions,
stone, inscriptions, paintings, recorded
sounds, images (photographs and
motion picture), and oral history. Even
ancient relics and ruins, broadly
speaking, are historical sources.
Evaluation of Historical Sources
How to Evaluate Historical Sources?
1. Credibility – defined as "the quality
or power of inspiring belief".
Credible sources, therefore, must be
reliable sources that provide
information that one can believe to
be true.
2. Authenticity – refers to the proven
fact that something is legitimate or
real.
3. Provenance – refers to the sources
of information, such as entities and
processes, involved in producing or
delivering an artifact.
What is Criticism?
The word CRITICISM is derived from the
Greek word "krinei" which means to
judge and the term "kritikos" which
means to judge of literature.
▪ In general, criticism is the expression
of disapproval of someone or
something on the basis of perceived
faults or mistakes.
▪ In literary terms, criticism is the
analysis and judgement of the
merit and faults of a literary work.
What is Historical Criticism?
Is a Historical-Critical Method that
investigate the origin of the ancient text in
order to understand the world behind the to be valid, its content must be
text. reasonable and historically
precise.
External and Internal Criticisms
How Internal Criticism is Done?
External Criticism ▪ Historians carefully read the text of
▪ Is the process of verifying historical the source for context.
evidence through its physical ▪ Focus on attention on the author or
characteristics, and analyzing its creator.
material consistency with the ▪ Situation surrounding its existence.
period it was produced. ▪ Intended audience or reader.
▪ Historians determine the authenticity
of sources by examining the date,
locale, creator, analysis and
integrity of the historical sources.
▪ These information must be
consistent with each other. It means
for example, that the materials used
in a source must match the time and
place when it was produced.

How External Criticism is Done?

▪ Appearance of the source
▪ Consistency with the historical period
▪ Medium of the source
▪ Quality of the paper and ink used
▪ The grammar/handwriting of the
author or creator.

Methods to Examine a Primary Source

▪ Linguistics
▪ Archaeology
▪ Numismatics
▪ Philately
▪ Paleography
▪ Cryptography
▪ DNA Technology
▪ Caftography
▪ Radio carbon dating

Internal Criticism
▪ It helps the historians determine the
credibility of the source.
▪ It studies the content of the source to
know its truthfulness. For a source
 REPOSITORIES OF PRIMARY SOURCES, AND DIFFERENT
KINDS OF PRIMARY SOURCES

Primary Sources may be published and ▪ Is the repository of the printed and
unpublished documents. recorded cultural heritage of the
country and other intellectual,
Published Documents are those that are literary, and information sources.
intended for public distribution or use. ▪ It was established by a royal decree
on August 12, 1887 and named as
Examples: Newspapers, magazines, Museo-Biblioteca de Filipinas.
books, reports, and government
documents, laws, court decisions, literary National Historical Commision of the
works, posters, maps, and Philippines
advertisements. ▪ Is the government agency that
promotes Philippine history and
Unpublished Documents ones, may be cultural heritage through “research
difficult to locate as they are kept in dissemination, conservation, site
private and hence, may not be easily management, and heraldy works.”
accessed by the public. The documents
are also confidential and are restricted National Museum of the Philippines
from public use. Padre Burgos Avenue, Manila
▪ Acquires and documents
Examples: Personal letters, which are in historical and cultural artifacts,
the possesion of the recepients. such as archaeological specimens
and canonical works of art, not only
Repositories of Historical preservation but also for education
Records of the Philippines on national identity.

National Archives of the Philippines

United Nations Avenue, Manila
▪ In charge of preserving and
promoting Philippine cultural
heritage and national identity, also
stores and manages archival
documents that attest to the history
of the nation.
▪ It is holding about 60, 000, 000
archival documents with Spanish
collection comprising an estimated
13, 000, 000 manuscripts from the
16th to 19th Century with 400 titles on
various aspects of Philippine history
under the Spanish rule, American
regime and Japanese occupation.

National Library of the Philippines

 THE SITE OF THE FIRST MASS IN THE PHILIPPINES
Controversies Between
Limasawa and Butuan
Limasawa – is a small island of historic
importance near the island of Leyte,
East-central Philippines. The island is
inhabited by Visayan peoples who
practice subsistence agriculture and
fishing.
The Island of Limasawa carved a very
prominent place in Philippine history.
Roman Catholic Mass was said on the
island in 1521 when Portuguese-born
Spanish explorer and navigator
Ferdinand Magellan and his crew
landed. The earliest recorded mass in
the Philippine territory was held on
March 31, 1521 in the Island of Mazaua,
as referred to in the journals of Antonio
Pegaffeta and known today as
Limasawa Island in Leyte. It was on
Easter Sunday and was presided by Fr.
Pedro De Valderama chaplain of the
Magellan Elcano expedition.
Evidences for Limasawa
▪ National Historical Commission of
the Philippines (NHCP) affirms
Limasawa Island as the site of the
First Catholic Mass in the
Philippines.
▪ The Limasawa Mass marked the
birth of Roman Catholicism in the
country, which remains the dominant
religion.
▪ Antonio Pigafetta's account is the
most complete and reliable source of
the Magellan expedition in 1521.
▪ James Robertson's English
translation of Pigafetta's account is
considered faithful to the original.
▪ Pigafetta's Mazaua is the site of the
first Christian Mass, matching the
position of Limasawa.
▪ Distances between Homonhon,
Limasawa, and Cebu match
Pigafetta's descriptions.
▪ Magellan's fleet route didn't touch
Butuan or other parts of Mindanao.
▪ Magellan's fleet saw a fire on an
island near Panaon.
▪ Two native kings were present in
Mazaua, with the King of Butuan
visiting.
▪ Pigafetta's map and day-to-day
account support Limasawa as the
location.
▪ Limasawa has a strategic location for
planting the cross.
▪ Ruy Lopez de Villalobos and Legazpi's
expeditions also landed on Mazaua,
now Limasawa. Gines de Mafra met
the chieftain for the second time.
Evidences for Masao / Butuan
▪ Diary of Antonio Pigafetta and the
Chronicles of Magellan's Voyage.
▪ The expedition traveled to 20-25
leagues from Humonhon, the first
landing point.
▪ The distance to Cebu from Mazaua
according to Piafetta was 35 leagues
(140 miles)
▪ The route to Cebu taken by the
explorers is almost exactly similar to
the one nowtaken by motor vessels
from Cebu to Butuan.
▪ The geographical features
The following physical features:
▪ The Bonfire: Explorers were
attracted to a light seen the night
before they reached the shore. The
name "Masao" in Butuanon means
"bright", possibly associated with a
 local tradition of celebrating harvests
by cooking rice flakes in open fires.
▪ The Balanghai: It was a significant
element in their story during their
stay in the first kingdom. It is said that
the king came to their ship in a
"balanghai", and Pigafetta and his
companion attended a party
involving ritual balanghai relics.
▪ Abundance of Gold: Western
explorers were excited by the
plentiful gold in Masao and Butuan,
as gold was the primary currency at
that time. Archaeological relics like
the Gold Image of Agusan and
modern gold mines in the Agusan
Valley confirm the abundance of gold
in the region.

Legislative fiat designates Magallanes,

located east of Limasawa Island in the
Province of Leyte, as the site for the
national shrine to commemorate the
birth of Christianity in the Philippines.

CAVITE MUTINY

Cavite Mutiny Leaded by Fernando LaMadrid, a

▪ A rebellion against authority.
Mutiny comes from an old verb
"mutine" which means "revolt"
▪ Cavity mutiny uprising military
personnel of Fort San Felipe (the
Spanish arsenal in Cavite, Philippines)
on January 20, 1872.
▪ Around 200 soldiers and laborers
rose up in the belief that it would
elevate to a national uprising. The
mutiny was unsuccessful, and
executed many of the participants.
mestizo soldier, together with Jaerel
Brent Senior, a moreno soldier, they
rushed and occupied Fort San Felipe and
killed 11 Spanish officers.
The Two Faces of the
1872 Cavite Mutiny
Spanish Accounts of the Cavite Mutiny
1. Montero’s Account of the Mutiny
2. Official Report of Governor General
Izquierdo on the Cavite Mutiny of
1872

Jose Montero Y Vidal

▪ Spanish Historian
▪ His account centered on how the
event was an attempt in
overthrowing the Spanish
Government in the Philippines.
▪ His account on mutiny was criticized
as woefully biased.
▪ An excerpt from Montero’s account
of the Cavite mutiny “…The idea of
attaining their independence. It was
towards this goal that they started to
work, with the powerful assistance of a
certain section of the native clergy…”
Governor Rafael Izquierdo
▪ Implicated the native clergy who were
active in the movement toward
secularization of parishes.
▪ In a biased report, he highlighted the
attempt to overthrow the Spanish
Government in the Philippines to
install a new “hari” in the persons of
father Burgos and Zamora
▪ According to Izquierdo – the native
clergy attracted supporters by giving
them charismatic assurance that
their fight would not fail because they
had God’s support, aside from
promises of lofty rewards such as
employment, wealth, and ranks in the
army.
In Spaniards’ Account
▪ The Mutiny was premeditated and a
part of a big conspiracy among
educated leaders, mestizos, lawyers,
and residents of Manila and Cavite.
▪ They allegedly plan to liquidate high
ranking Spanish officers then kill
friars.
Differing Accounts of the Events of
1872
1. Pardo De Tavera’s Account of the
Mutiny.
2. Plauchuts’s account of the Cavite
Mutiny.
Dr. Trinidad Hermenegildo Pardo de
Tavera
▪ A Filipino scholar and researcher
▪ Wrote a Filipino version of the bloody
incident in Cavite
▪ The incident was merely a mutiny by
Filipino soldiers and laborers of the
Cavity arsenal to the dissatisfaction
arising from the draconian policies of
Izquierdo.
Edmund Plauchut
▪ A French writer
▪ Complemented Tavera’s account and
analyzed the motivation of the 1872
Cavite Mutiny
▪ An excerpt from Plauchut’s account
of the Cavite Mutiny “… the arrival in
Manila of General Izquierdo put a
sudden end to all dreams of reforms”
Spanish Perspective
▪ Governor Rafael Izquierdo
highlighted the attempt of the
Filipino to overthrow the Spanish
government in the Philippines to
install a new "hari" in the persons of
Father Burgos and Zamora.
▪ The reason for the revolution;
abolition of privileges enjoyed by the
workers of Cavite arsenal such as
exemption from payment of tribute
and being employed in Polo Y
Servicio.
▪ On January 20 1872 the district of
Sampaloc celebrated the feast of
the Virgin Loreto came with it were
some fireworks display. The
Cavitenos mistook this as the signal
to commerce with the attack.
▪ The Spanish knew about the attack
and asked for reinforcements from
the Spanish forces in Cavite to stop
the revolt.
▪ The revolution was easily crushed
when the reinforcement that they
expected did not arrive.
▪ In conclusion, the people involved in
revolt was executed. While the
Gomburza were executed by garrote
in public to serve as a threat to
Filipinos never to attempt to fight the
Spaniards again. This is the scene
purportedly witnessed by a young
Jose Rizal.
Filipino Perspective
▪ Dr. Trinidad Hermenigildo Pardo
de Tavera, a Filipino scholar and
researcher, explained that the
incident was a strike initiated by
Filipino soldiers and Cavite arsenal
personnel.
▪ The dissatisfaction among these
individuals stemmed from Governor
Izquierdo's policies, including the
abolition of their privileges and the
prohibition of art and trade schools
for Filipinos.
▪ On January 20, 1872, a group of
more than 200 people, comprising
soldiers, Cavite arsenal workers, and
local residents, was led by Sergeant
La Madrid with the intention to
assassinate Spanish leaders and
officers.
▪ News of the strike reached the
authorities in Manila, prompting
them to order Governor Izquierdo to
reinforce the Spanish army in Cavite.
▪ Some believe that Spanish friars and
Governor Izquierdo exploited the
Cavite Mutiny to further consolidate
Spanish control over the Philippines.
In Differing Accounts
▪ Spanish Fris used Cavite Mutiny as a
part of a larger conspiracy to cement
their dominance.
▪ The Friars also showcased the mutiny
as part of a greater conspiracy in the
Philippines by Filipinos to overthrow
the Spanish Government.
▪ Unintentionally, it resulted in the
martyrdom of GOMBURZA and
paved way to the revolution
culminating in 1898.
GOMBURZA
▪ Gomburza refers to three Filipino
Catholic priests, Mariano Gomez,
Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora.
▪ They were accused of involvement in
the Cavite Mutiny, a rebellion of
Philippine soldiers against the
Spanish colonial government.
▪ On February 17, 1872, The
GOMBURZA were executed by
garrote in public to serve as a threat
to Filipinos never to attempt to fight
the Spaniards again.
▪ The execution of Gomburza is
regarded as a significant turning
point in Philippine history, as it
served as a catalyst for the Philippine
Revolution against Spanish rule.
Jose Rizal dedicated his second novel, EL
FILIBUSTERISMO, to their memory: “I
dedicate my work to you as victims of the evil
which I undertake to combat”
 THE CRY OF BALINTAWAK
The Cry Of Balintawak, also known as
the Cry of Pugad Lawin, holds a
significant place in the history of the
Philippines. This pivotal event marks the
beginning of the Philippine Revolution
against Spanish colonial rule and
symbolizes the resilience and
determination of the Filipino people in
their quest for independence.
Why Did the Cry of Balintawak
Happened?
Spanish Colonial Rule
The Philippines was under Spanish
colonial rule for over three centuries,
from 1565 to 1898, characterized by
exploitative practices such as forced
labor, and heavy taxation.
Resistance to Oppression
The Filipinos' enduring resistance against
Spanish oppression, including early
revolts and uprisings that preceded the
Cry of Balintawak.
Influence of Filipino Nationalism
The impact of Filipino nationalist leaders
like Jose Rizal, whose writings ignited a
sense of identity and nationalism among
Filipinos, contributing to the desire for
change.
Location of the First Cry in Balintawak
Pugad Lawin in present-day Quezon City
is generally considered the most widely
accepted and commemorated site. This
event occurred on August 23, 1896.
These are the Several or Commonly
Suggested Location for The Cry of
Balintawak
Pugad Lawin
This is the most widely accepted and
commemorated location for the Cry of
Balintawak. Pugad Lawin is believed to
be in present-day Barangay Bahay Toro,
Quezon City.
It is often associated with the tearing of
cedulas (community tax certificates) by
members of the Katipunan, led by Andres
Bonifacio, on August 23, 1896. This event
is considered the symbolic start of the
Philippine Revolution.
Balintawak Market
The vicinity of the Balintawak Market,
specifically under a large tree. Some
accounts place the event near this
market, which is also in present-day
Quezon City. This location is sometimes
referred to interchangeably with Pugad
Lawin.
Pook Kangkong
Some sources point to a site known as
"Kangkong" or "Pook Kangkong" near
Balintawak Market as the actual location
of the event.
Ambeth Ocampo
▪ Is a well-known Filipino historian,
academic, and writer. He is best
known for his work in making
Philippine history more accessible
and engaging to the general public.
▪ Ambeth Ocampo often grapple with
these contradictions while
attempting to piece together an
accurate narrative of historical
events.
 pursue the dream of a truly independent
The historian Ambeth R. Ocampo Philippines.
rounds up the contradictions and
debates:
1. Aside from Balintawak and Pugad
Lawn, people must add the following
contenders on the whereabouts of
the first Cry, or Unang Sigaw;
Kangkong, Bahay Toro, Pasong
Tamo, Banat, and more, depending
on which primary source is cited.
2. The National Historical Commission's
proposed date for the start of the
Philippine Revolution is 23th of
August 1896. Other proposed dates
are 20, 24, 25, and 26 August.
3. Teodoro Agoncillo said that a
general assembly was called by
Andres Bonifacio on August 24,
1896, in Malabon. The Katipuneros
were in Balintawak on August 19, left
for Kangkong on August 21,
proceeded to Pugad Lawin on August
22, and on August 23, 1896, tore their
cedulas and vowed to fight in the yard
of tandang Sora's son.

On August 23, 1896, at Pugad Lawin in

Balintawak (now part of Quezon City),
history was made. Led by Andres
Bonifacio, Katipunan members and
supporters symbolically tore their
cedulas, or residence certificates,
signifying their defiance against Spanish
rule. It was here that Bonifacio famously
cried, "Long live Philippine
independence"
The Cry of Balintawak lives on as a symbol
of Filipino resistance and patriotism. It
reminds us of the sacrifices made by
those who fought for our freedom and
continues to inspire future generations to
 DISCRIMINATION AND HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS
UNDER PRESIDENT MARCOS’ DICTATORSHIP
Ferdinand Edralin Marcos, Sr.
Birth: September 11, 1917, at Sarrat,
Ilocos Norte
Died: September 28, 1989, in Honolulu,
Hawaii
He was the president from December
30, 1965 – February 25, 1986.
On September 21, 1972, Ferdinand
Marcos declared martial law in
response to escalating student
demonstrations, perceived communist
threats from the Communist Party of
the Philippines (CPP), and the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF)
separatist movement.
Martial law enabled the regime to reduce
urban crime, confiscate unregistered
firearms, and suppress communist
insurgency in some regions.
Simultaneously, foreign investors
received significant concessions,
including a ban on labor strikes and the
launch of a land reform program.
In January 1973, Marcos proclaimed a
new constitution based on a International further highlighted enforced
parliamentary system, making himself
both president and prime minister,
though he did not convene the interim
legislature as mandated.
The media was shut down and placed
under military control, with some later
reopening under strict censorship. Public
utilities and industries, including Manila
Electric Company (Meralco), Philippine
Long Distance Telephone Company, and
Iligan Integrated Steel Mill, were seized
and government-controlled.
Student protests, public political
meetings, and labor strikes were strictly
prohibited, with schools closed for a
week. A curfew from midnight to 4 a.m.
was imposed, along with a travel ban on
Filipinos traveling abroad, except for
official missions. The ban and curfew
were lifted on August 22, 1977.
Extensive Human Rights Violation
President Ferdinand Marcos's nine-
year military rule in 1972 triggered
grave international law violations and
widespread human rights abuses in the
Philippines. Tens of thousands were
arbitrarily arrested, detained, tortured,
forcibly disappeared, and killed during
the 1972-1981 martial law era. Amnesty
International documented these abuses,
including arrests, disappearances, killings,
and systematic torture. President Marcos,
in a 1975 interview, acknowledged over
50,000 arrests, including church workers,
human rights defenders, lawyers, labor
leaders, and journalists. In 1981, Amnesty
disappearances and extrajudicial
executions from 1976 onwards.
 GENERAL LUNA WAS ASSASINATED BY THE ORDER OF AGUINALDO
Antonio Luna
Antonio Narciso Luna de San
Pedro y Novicio Ancheta
▪ Born on October 29, 1866 in Calle
Urbiztondo, Binondo.
▪ He was a doctor of pharmacy,
writer, patriot, and the greatest
Filipino army general who fought
in the Philippine-American War.
▪ Founder of the Philippines’ first
military academy, which existed
during the first republic.
▪ He was in favor of reform rather
than revolution as the way towards
independence. When asked to join
they turned down the offer.
▪ The existence of Katipunan was
leaked in August 1896, the Luna
brothers were arrested and jailed
in Fort Santiago as suspected for
“participating” in the revolution.
▪ Months later, his brothers were
freed but Antonio was exiled to
Spain in 1897. Soon enough, his
case was dismissed by the Military
Supreme Court and was released.
▪ He returned to the Philippines in
late 1898 after released. Carrying a
letter of recommendation from
Felipe E. Agoncillo, he offered his
services to fight for the Filipino
Republic.
▪ President Emilio Aguinaldo
promptly put him at the head of
several brigades of the Filipino
army.
▪ Luna was regarded as the most
brilliant of the Filipino military
officers.
▪ He organized professional guerrilla
soldiers later to be known as the
Luna sharpshooters.
▪ His three-tier defense, now known
as the Luna Defense Line, gave the
American troops a hard campaign in
the provinces north of Manila.
General Antonio Luna’s Death and
Controversies Surrounding it
▪ Gen. Antonio Luna received a
telegram signed by President
Emilio Aguinaldo, ordering him to
meet the President in his office in the
Cabanatuan Convent.
▪ Felipe Buencamino, instead of
Aguinaldo, met Gen. Luna in the
convent, and told him that the
President has already gone his way to
check on the troops in San Isidro and
Tarlac.
▪ Buencamino and Luna, was involved
in a heated argument.
▪ A rifle shot was heard, and Luna
came to check outside where it came
from.
▪ Janolino hacked Luna with his bolo
across the general’s head, leading his
men to follow his example and they
attacked the general together.
▪ The general died of stab and bullet
wounds; the stabs not lesser than
thirty.
▪ Buencamino stripped Luna of the
papers inside his uniform, the
telegram one of them.
▪ Luna was buried the next day with
the uniform he was on when he died.
Counterarguments
▪ Gen. Antonio Luna was planning a
coup d’état against President
Aguinaldo, leading the latter to order
his assassination.
▪ Gen. Luna, upon seeing Janolino,
pulled his revolver out and drew a
shot on the man.
▪ Janolino and his men performed what
was only defense for themselves,
against the raging general.
▪ Janolino claimed full responsibility
on the assassination of Luna; he said
that no one ordered them to do it
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ISSUES IN THE PHILIPPINES
Philippine Agrarian Reform
Land Reform – In the Philippines it is a
process of redistributing land from the
landlords to tenant-farmers in order that
they will given a chance to own a piece of
land to improve their plight.
Agrarian Reform – is defined as
rectification of the whole system of
agriculture.
o Concerned with the relation
between production and
distribution of land among
farmers.
o The processing of the raw
materials that are produced by
the farming land from the
respective industry.
Philippine Agrarian Reform
▪ The agrarian policies are centered
on the relationship between the
production and distribution of land
among farmers.
▪ Thus, it is concerned with economic
and political power and the
relations between them. – Cousins
(2007)
World Bank’s Five Dimensions of
Agrarian Reform
1. Stocks and liberalization
2. Land reform and development of
land markets
3. Agro-processing and input supply
channels
4. Urban finance
5. Market institutions
A fundamental precondition for land
reform to be feasible and effective in
improving the beneficiaries’ livelihood is
that such programs fit into a broader
policy aimed at reducing poverty and
establishing a favorable environment for
the development of productive
smallholder agriculture by the
beneficiaries – World Bank (2003)
History of Philippine Agrarian Reform
Pre-spanish Period
“This land is Ours God gave this land to us”
Before the colonization of the country,
Filipinos have their lives already, and
every village has a chieftain that governs
the community, which comprised the
nobility, then came the maharlikas,
which is considered as freemen
followeed by slaves composed by aliping
namamahay and aliping saguiguilid.
With these different social classes, there is
no existence of money, but rice has
served as a medium of exchanged.
Maharlika – dito nabibilang ang mga
Datu, raja, sultan at kanilang asawa.
Timawa – dito nabibilang ang mga
mangangalakal, mandirigma at mga
taong malaya.
Alipin – pinakabababang antas sa
Lipunan.
o Aliping namamahay (serfs)
o Aliping saguiguilid (slaves).
During Spanish Period
“United we stand, divided we fall”
Before colonization, Filipinos has
communal ownership of land. Filipinos
have been scattered to all the areas in
the country, so the Spanish conquest
decided to put Filipinos in one place called
“poblacion”.
Under the Spanish government, Filipinos
do not have the right to own land. Still,
they were only allowed to work in them
and pay colonial tributes to Spanish
authorities through agricultural
products.
Pueblo system of agriculture because
of the scattered nature of the rural
communities, the Spaniards organized
them into pueblo where they were given
land to cultivate.
Laws of the Indies
Spain awarded tracts of lands to:
▪ Religious orders. This became the
primary source of abuse and
exploitation (e.g., the friars would
increase land rent on a whim)
▪ Repayments of Spanish soldiers, as a
reward for their service land.
▪ Spanish encomenderos, or those
mandated to manage an
enconmienda.
Enconmienda System
▪ In the 1860s, Spain ordered
landowners to register their
landholdings. This led to many
peasants either getting forced out of
their “assigned” lands in the earlier
days of colonization or working for
the people who claimed to have the
area’s rights.
▪ By the end of the Philippine
revolution, the revolutionary
government would declare all large
landed estates as government
property, including confiscated
friar’s lands.
First Philippine Republic
“The yoke has finally broken”
▪ When the First Philippine Republic
was established in 1899, Gen. Emilio
Aguinaldo declared in the Malolos
Constitution his intention to
confiscate large estates, especially
the so-called Friar lands.
▪ However, as the Republic was short-
lived, Aguinaldo’s plan was never
implemented.
American Colonization
“Long live America”
▪ To address landlessness, which waws
the leading cause of social unrest at
the time, the Americans passed
several land policies to distribute
land ownership to a more significant
number of Filipinos.
▪ The Philippine Bill of 1902 provided
regulations on the disposal of public
lands, where a private individual
may own up to 16 hectares of land,
and corporate landholders may
have 1,024 hectares.
▪ The Philippine Commission Act No.
496 (Land Registration Act)
addressed the absence of records of
land titles and conducted accurate
land surveys through the Torrens
system.
▪ The Public Land Act of 1903 –
Homestead Program – was a
program introduced by the
Americans.
▪ Land ownership during this time
worsened because of the
 limitlessness of the size of
landholdings of people could
acquire, while the acquisition is only
limited to those who could afford
to purchase and register fixed
property titles.
▪ The lands acquired from friars were
not necessarily given to the
peasant farmers. Peasant, farmers
who were given land almost did not
have the means to maintain and
cultivate it and were forced to
return tenancy to wealthy
hacienderos because of debt. As a
result, most of the lands ended up in
the hands of wealthy Filipino
hacienderos. This caused
widespread uprisings.
Commonwealth Period
“Government for the Filipinos”
▪ President Manuel L. Quezon
espoused the “Social Justice”
program to arrest the increasing
social unrest in Central Luzon.
Significant legislation enacted during
Commonwealth Period:
▪ 1935 Constitution – “The promotion
of social justice to ensure the well-being
and economic security of all people
should be the concern of the State”
▪ Commonwealth Act No. 178
(amendment to Rice Tenancy Act
No. 4045), Nov. 13, 1936 – Provided
for certain controls in the landlord-
tenant relationships.
▪ National Rice and Corn
Corporation (NARIC) 1936
Established the price of rice and corn
thereby help the poor tenants as well
as consumers.
▪ Commonwealth Act. No. 461 (1937)
– Specified reasons for the dismissal
of tenants and only with the approval
of the Tenancy Division of the
Department of Justice.
▪ Rural Program Administration
March 2, 1939 – Provided the
purchase and lease of haciendas and
their sale and lease to the tenants.
Agrarian Reform Pre-World War I
The sakdal uprising was a peasant
rebellion brought about by the social
inequality in land ownership and tenancy.
Sakdal means “to accuse.” Benigno
Ramos established the Partido
Sakdalista in 1933, and the Group
demanded the abolition of Taxes and
equality in land ownership.
In 1935, and attempt at uprising was
organized, but the government quickly
crushed it. Benigno Ramos filed to
Tokyo, and the Partido eventually
collapsed.
Japanese Occupation
HUKBALAHAP (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban
sa Hapon) – controlled whole areas of
Central Luzon; landlords who supported
the Japanese lost their lands to peasants
while those who supported the Huks
earned fixed rentals in favor of the
tenants.
– ▪ The administration also created
National Rice and Corn
Corporation (NARIC) to defend and
 assist the peasants in court battles
for their rights.
▪ Additionally, the Court of Industrial
Relations was Established to
exercise jurisdiction over
disagreements involving land
rights and the landowner-tenant
relationship.
Agrarian Reform After World War II
After the war, the administration focused
on rehabilitating and rebuilding the
nation. It attempted to solve the
previous issues in land ownership.
Hacienda lands were distributed, but the
attempt at agrarian reform still failed
since there was little-to-no support
given to the small farmers.
After the establishment of the Philippine
Independence in 1946, the problems of
land tenure remained. These become
worst in certain areas. Thus the
Congress of the Philippines revised the
tenancy law.
Philippine Republic
“The New Republic”
President Manuel A. Roxas (1946-1948)
Republic Act No. 55 – Provided for a
more effective safeguard against
arbitrary ejectment of tenants.
Republic Act No. 34 – Established the 70–
30 sharing arrangements and regulating
share-tenancy contracts.
Elpidio R. Quirino (1948-1953)
Executive Order No. 355 issued on
October 23, 1950 – Replaced the
National Land Settlement Administration
with Land Settlement Development
Corporation (LASEDECO) which takes
over the responsibilities of the
Agricultural Machinery Equipment
Corporation and the Rice and Corn
Production Administration.
Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957)
Republic Act No. 1160 of 1954 –
Abolished the LASEDECO and
Established the National Resettlement
and Rehabilitation Administration
(NARRA) to resettle dissidents and
landless farmers. It was mainly aimed at
rebel returnees providing home lots and
farmlands in Palawan and Mindanao.
Republic Act No. 1199 (Agricultural
Tenancy Act of 1954) – governed the
relationship between landowners and
tenant farmers by organizing share-
tenancy and leasehold system. The law
provided the security of tenure of
tenants. It also created the Court of
Agrarian Relations.
Republic Act No. 1400 (Land Reform Act
of 1955) – Created the Land Tenure
Administration (LTA) which was
responsible for the acquisition and
distribution of large tenanted rice and
corn lands over 200 hectares for
individuals and 600 hectares for
corporations.
Carlos P. Garcia (1957 – 1961)
Continued the program of President Republic Act No. 6389 (Code of Agrarian
Ramon Magsaysay. No new legislation Reform) and republic Act No. 6390 of
passed. 1971

Diosdado P. Macapagal (1961-1965) Created the Department of Agrarian

Republic Act No. 3844 (Agricultural Reform and the Agrarian Reform
Land Reform Code) of August 8, 1963 – Special Account Fund. It strengthened
Abolished share tenancy, the position of farmers and expanded the
institutionalized leasehold, set retention scope of agrarian reform.
limit at 75 hectares, invested rights of
preemption and redemption for tenant Presidential Decree No. 2, September
farmers. 26, 1972 Declared the country un the land
reform program it urged all agencies
Provided for administrative machinery for and offices of the government to
implementation, institutionalized a extend full cooperation and assistance
judicial system of agrarian cases, to the DAR. It also activated the Agrarian
incorporated extension, marketing and Reform Coordinating Council.
supervised credit system of services of
farmer-beneficiaries Presidential Decree No. 27, October 21,
1972 - Restricted land reform scope to
Agrarian Reform During Marcos tenanted rice and corn lands and set the
Regime retention limit at 7 hectares.

After the declaration of martial law in

1972, president Marcos was able to start
a "fundamental restructuring" of
government. He wiped out the landlord-
dominated congress in an attempt to
address the structural problems in the
countryside.

Masagana 99 was a rice self-sufficiency

program in which farmers could borrow
from banks and purchase three-
hectare plots of land. This lead to the
country to consume our rice and not
importing to other countries.

Operation land transfer granted land to

tenants occupying seven hectares of rice
and corn.