Second language

learning and teaching

By Mariam AbdulKarim Majeed

MA student in applied linguistics

2023/2024
Introduction

Second language learning and teaching is a complex and dynamic field that explores
the acquisition and instruction of languages beyond one's native tongue. It
encompasses the study of various languages, teaching methodologies, and the
cognitive processes involved in language acquisition. Effective second language
teaching strategies aim to facilitate communication and proficiency in the target
language, considering factors such as cultural context, age, and individual learning
styles. This field plays a crucial role in fostering cross-cultural understanding and
facilitating international communication in an increasingly interconnected world.

Second language learning and teaching theories:

1. Behaviorist Theories: These theories, influenced by behaviorism, view language

learning as a process of habit formation through repetition and reinforcement.
Behaviorist approaches focus on imitation and drilling.

2. Cognitive Theories: Cognitive theories emphasize the role of mental processes in

language learning. This includes memory, attention, and problem-solving. Cognitive
approaches focus on understanding language structures and rules.

3. Constructivist Theories: Constructivist theories argue that learners actively

construct their knowledge of language through interaction and problem-solving. They
emphasize the importance of meaning-making in language learning.

4. Sociocultural Theory: Rooted in the work of Vygotsky, sociocultural theory

highlights the role of social interaction and cultural context in language development.
It views learning as a collaborative process.
5. Input Hypothesis (Stephen Krashen): Krashen's theory proposes that language
acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to language input that is slightly beyond
their current level but still comprehensible. This is known as the "i+1" concept.

6. Interlanguage (Larry Selinker): Interlanguage theory suggests that learners go

through a transitional linguistic stage characterized by systematic errors as they
progress toward target language proficiency.

7. Affective Filter Hypothesis (Stephen Krashen): This theory posits that emotional
factors, such as motivation and anxiety, can act as filters that either facilitate or
impede language acquisition.

8. Universal Grammar (Noam Chomsky): Chomsky's theory suggests that humans are
born with an innate ability to acquire language and that there is a universal grammar
underlying all languages.

9. Competence and Performance (Noam Chomsky): Chomsky's distinction between

linguistic competence (knowledge of grammar) and linguistic performance (actual
language use) has been influential in understanding language learning and
production.

10. Input-Interaction-Output (Merrill Swain): Swain's theory emphasizes the

importance of producing language (output) in the learning process, not just receiving
input. She argues that producing language helps learners notice gaps in their
knowledge.

These theories offer different perspectives on how second languages are learned and
used. Applied linguists often draw from these theories to inform language teaching
practices and develop effective instructional methods. Schmitt's book likely provides
more in-depth information and discussions on these theories, helping readers
understand their significance in the field of applied linguistics.
Second language learning and teaching approaches:

Applied linguistics is a multidisciplinary field that examines the practical aspects of

language acquisition and use. When it comes to second language learning and
teaching, it draws from various linguistic and educational theories to develop
effective approaches. Some key principles include:

1. Communicative Competence: Applied linguistics emphasizes the importance of

equipping learners with the ability to communicate effectively in real-world
situations. This approach aligns with the communicative language teaching (CLT)
method, focusing on meaningful language use and interaction.

2. Input and Output: Drawing from theories like Krashen's Input Hypothesis, applied
linguistics suggests that learners benefit from comprehensible input (language they
can understand) and opportunities for language output (speaking and writing) to
develop language proficiency.

3. Interlanguage: Applied linguistics recognizes that learners go through stages of

language development, often creating a linguistic system called "interlanguage" as
they progress toward fluency. Teachers should be aware of these stages to provide
appropriate support.

4. Task-Based Learning: This approach, mentioned in "An Introduction to Applied

Linguistics" and "The Study of Language, by George Yule" advocates structuring
lessons around tasks that require learners to use the target language to achieve
specific goals. It aligns with real-world language use.

5. Language Input: Applied linguistics emphasizes the importance of input-rich

environments where learners are exposed to authentic language in various forms,
including listening and reading materials.
6. Contextualization: Language learning is often more effective when taught within
meaningful contexts.

7. Individualized Learning: Applied linguistics recognizes that learners have diverse

needs and learning styles. Tailoring instruction to the individual can enhance
language acquisition.

8. Cultural Competence: Understanding the cultural context of the language being

learned is crucial. Language and culture are intertwined, as discussed in "The
Handbook of Applied Linguistics, by Alan Davies".

These principles, informed by applied linguistics, guide the development of language

teaching methods and materials. Educators often blend these ideas to create
comprehensive and adaptable language learning experiences.

Second language learning and teaching methods

Second language learning and teaching methods encompass a wide range of strategies
and techniques. Here are some commonly used methods in the field:

1. Grammar-Translation Method: This traditional approach focuses on teaching

grammar rules and translating between the target language and the native language.

2. Direct Method:Also known as the Natural Method, it emphasizes teaching in the

target language without the use of the native language. Vocabulary and grammar are
introduced through context and conversation.
3. Audio-Lingual Method: This method emphasizes repetition and mimicry, with a
focus on oral skills. It was widely used in the mid-20th century, particularly in the
United States.

4. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): CLT focuses on real communication

and interaction. Learners engage in meaningful conversations and activities to
develop their language skills.

5. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT):In TBLT, learners perform language tasks

or projects to achieve specific goals. The focus is on the practical use of language.

6. Content-Based Instruction (CBI): Language is taught through subject matter

content. Learners acquire language skills while studying topics of interest.

7. Total Physical Response (TPR): TPR uses physical actions and commands to teach
language, particularly effective for beginners and young learners.

8. The Silent Way: In this method, the teacher is mostly silent, and learners are
encouraged to discover and construct language independently.

9. The Suggestopedia Method: This method uses relaxation and positive suggestion to
create a comfortable learning environment. Music and art are often incorporated.

10. Community Language Learning (CLL): CLL fosters a sense of community among
learners. The teacher acts as a counselor, and learners help each other.

11. Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL):Similar to TBLT, TBLL emphasizes

learners actively using language in problem-solving tasks.
12. Language Exchange Programs: Learners exchange languages with native
speakers for real-life practice. Websites and apps like Tandem, HelloTalk, and
ConversationExchange facilitate this.

13. Language Immersion Programs: Learners immerse themselves in a target

language-speaking environment for intensive practice and cultural exposure.

13. Self-Directed Learning: Many learners take charge of their language acquisition
by setting their own goals, choosing resources, and self-assessing progress.

The choice of method depends on various factors, including the learners' age, goals,
and proficiency level, as well as the teaching context and available resources. Often,
a combination of methods and approaches is used to create a well-rounded language
learning experience.

Conclusion

In conclusion, second language learning and teaching theories, approaches, and

methods are diverse and interconnected aspects of the field of applied linguistics.
These theories, such as behaviorism, cognitive theories, and sociocultural theory,
provide frameworks for understanding how language is acquired and used.
Approaches like communicative language teaching and task-based learning guide
educators in designing effective language lessons, while methods like the grammar-
translation method and total physical response offer specific teaching techniques.

Educators and researchers in the field often draw from these theories, approaches,
and methods to create comprehensive language learning experiences that cater to the
diverse needs of language learners. By understanding the theoretical foundations and
practical applications of these concepts, language educators can better support their
students on their language acquisition journeys.
References

- Davies, A. (2018). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. 4th Edition.

- Davies, A., & Elder, C. (Eds.). (2004). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics.

- Schmitt, N. (2010). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. 2nd Edition.

- Yule, G. (2018). The Study of Language. 6th Edition.