INTRODUCTION

TO
ANATOMY
 OBJECTIVES
To understand
✓ Definition of Anatomy
✓ Subdivisions of Anatomy
✓ Normal anatomical position
✓ Planes of the body
✓ Various terms of relation
✓ Various movements of the body
 DEFINITION
• The term Anatomy and Dissection are more or less
synanomous
ANA / TOM / Y

Apart / cut / process

Dis / sect / ion

 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Complex
Organism
Organ system
Organ
Tissue
Cell
Chemical
(molecular) Simple
SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
• Gross Anatomy
• REGIONAL ANATOMY

Considers organization of
human body as segments or
major parts based on form
and mass.
eg: Upper limb, Lower limb,
Thorax, Abdomen etc.
 Systemic anatomy

Recognizes the organization of

body’s organs into collective
apparatuses that work together
to carry out complex functions.

It has various subdivisions.

 HISTOLOGY
(MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY)

© 2010 Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute

 EMBRYOLOGY
(DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY)
SURFACE ANATOMY
CROSS SECTIONAL ANATOMY

Cross section at the level of

T10
A. Liver – right lobe
B. Liver left lobe
C. IVC
D. Body of stomach
E. Spleen
F. Right lung
G. Azygos vein
H. Aorta
I. Diaphragm

© 2010 Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute

RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

© 2010 Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute

CLINICAL ANATOMY

© 2010 Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute

ANATOMICAL POSITION

Refers to the body position as

1. The person standing upright.
2. Head, gaze & toes facing
front.
3. Arms hanging by the side
with the palms facing front.
4. Lower limbs close together
with both feet parallel & toes
directed towards front.
SUPINE AND PRONE POSITION
Supine

• Referred sometimes as normal

anatomical position.

• Lying position with face directed

upwards.

• Arms lie by the side of the body

with palm facing the roof

Prone -Opposite of supine position

OTHER POSITIONS

Lithotomy
• Lying in supine position but hip &
knee flexed .
• The patient lies in this position
during delivery & any surgical or
investigative procedures in groin.
Recumbent position
ANATOMICAL PLANES
ANATOMICAL PLANES
Coronal (Frontal) Plane
• Vertical plane passing
through the body at right
angles to the median plane.
• Asymmetrically divides the
body into front & back
halves.
ANATOMICAL PLANES

Transverse or Horizontal
plane
• Passes through the body at
right angles to both median
and frontal planes.

• Divides the body into upper &

lower halves.
ANATOMICAL PLANES
ANATOMICAL TERMS
ANTERIOR (Ventral)
• Towards the front.
POSTERIOR (Dorsal)
• Towards the back
Superior (Cranial)
• Towards the head.
INFERIOR (Caudal)
• Towards the feet
 ANATOMICAL TERMS

• Median – midline
• Medial – nearer to
midline
• Lateral – away from
midline
 ANATOMICAL TERMS

BILATERAL - Paired structures having right and

left members. i.e. present on both
sides of the body. E.g. Kidney.
UNILATERAL - Unpaired structures. Present on
any one side of the body.
E.g. heart & stomach
IPSILATERAL - Of the same side.
CONTRALATERAL - Of the opposite side.
 ANATOMICAL TERMS

• Superificial – closer to surface

• Deep – away from surface
• Proximal and Distal – nearer to or away from head
especially used in limbs.
Some terms used in hollow organs
• Interior and exterior
• Invagination and evagination.
MOVEMENTS

Flexion
• Bending forward or
decreasing in angle
between bones or parts of
the body
• Usually the movement is
in anterior direction
except knee joint
MOVEMENTS
Extension
• It is opposite of flexion
• Involves straightening
or increase in angle
• The movement is in
posterior direction
except knee joint.
MOVEMENTS

Abduction and Adduction

• The first is movement
away from the midline
• The second is towards
the midline.
• Both the movements
occur in frontal plane.
MOVEMENTS

Medial and lateral rotation

The first is inward rotation in
which the anterior surface of
the limb is brought close to
the median plane
The second is the outward
rotation in which the anterior
surface is taken away from
the median plane
 MOVEMENTS

Circumduction

• Combination of Flexion,
extension, abduction,
adduction, medial and lateral
rotation.
MOVEMENTS
Pronation and Supination
• Specific to forearm.
• Rotation of forearm so that
palm faces downwards is
called pronation
Rotation of forearm so that
palm faces upwards is
called Supination.
MOVEMENTS

Inversion and Eversion

Specific for foot.
• Inversion - Medial border
of foot is raised so the
sole faces towards the
median plane
• Eversion - lateral border
of foot is raised so the
sole faces away from
median plane.
MOVEMENTS

Elevation and Depression

More specific to Jaw

During elevation the jaw
moves superiorly (closure of
mouth)
During depression the jaw
moves inferiorly (opening of
mouth)
ARRANGEMENT OF STRUCTURES WITHIN THE BODY

From deep to superficial

• Bones : Forms the
supporting framework of the
body.
• Muscles: Act as levers
producing various
movements by anchoring to
bones.
ARRANGEMENT OF STRUCTURES WITHIN THE BODY
• Blood vessels and Nerves : Forms
the neurovascular bundles running
in between the muscles nourishing
them.

• Vital internal organs are placed

inside the thoracic & abdominal
cavities formed by the above
mentioned structures.
• The above structures are covered
by Deep fascia, superficial fascia
and skin from within outside
THANK YOU
Skeletal system
Objectives
▪ General features of bones
▪ Classification of bones
▪ Parts of a long bone
▪ Ossification – Types and laws of ossification
▪ Blood supply and nerve supply of long bone
▪ Classification of skeletal system
▪ Cartilages – general features
▪ Structure of different types of cartilage with examples
 Introduction

▪ Skeletal system
comprises of bones and
cartilages
▪ Mesodermal derivative
▪ Supporting framework of
the body
▪ Enable effective
movements by providing
attachment to the
muscles
General features of bones
▪ Hard connective tissue
▪ Impregnated with calcium salts
▪ It is hard and rigid (calcium) at the same time tough
and resilient (collagen).
▪ Highly vascular
▪ Shows a pattern of growth
▪ Subjected to disease and heals after fracture
▪ Moulds according to stress and strain
Classification of Bones
Classified based on

▪External appearance/form

▪Structure

▪Location

▪Development
Classification based on external
appearance
• Long bone
• Short bone
• Flat bone
• Irregular bone
• Pneumatic bone
• Sesamoid bone
• Accessory ( supernumerary )bone
• Heterotopic bone
Long bones – Humerus,
Femur

▪Long body called as shaft

with two ends.

▪Upper and lower ends

expanded.

▪Upper end is called as

head.

▪Long bones are involved

in weight bearing
Miniature long bones –
Epiphysis at one end. eg.
Metacarpals and metatarsals.
Modified long bone – lying
horizontal, no medullary cavity.
eg. clavicle.
Short bones – carpal and
tarsal bones
Flat bones – for protection.
Lines the cavity (cranial, thorax
and pelvic) eg. scapula, ribs ,
sternum, vault of skull.
Irregular bones – hip bone, ,
base of skull, vertebrae.
Pneumatic bones – contains
air spaces eg.maxilla, ethmoid,
sphenoid.
Sesamoid bone –
developed in tendons.
Lacks periosteum,
medullary cavity.
▪They minimise friction
▪Resist pressure
▪Alter the direction of pull of
muscle
▪Eg. patella, pisiform.

Accessory bones – not

always present. Eg. Sutural
bones .
Classification based on structure

▪Outer thick compact

bone.
▪Forms the cortex
▪Seen in shaft of long
bones
▪Extremely porous
▪Lined internally by
endosteum
▪Filled by yellow bone
marrow.
 Classification based on structure

▪Cancellous or spongy bone

▪Seen in ends of long bones

▪Trabeculated (mesh like) ,

▪Contains red bone marrow.

Structure of a long bone
▪The shaft is composed of
outer periosteum, cortex
and medulla.
▪The periosteum has a
outer fibrous layer and
inner cellular layer.
▪Has rich nerve and blood
supply
▪Cellular layer is osteogenic
▪Ends of long bone and
sesamoid bones lack
periosteum
Structure of a long bone
The cortex is made of
compact bone.

The cavity of shaft is red

marrow at birth but later
replaced by yellow
marrow.

Red marrow persists in

ends of long bones, ribs,
sternum, vertebrae and
skull bones.
Structure of long bone
▪The ends or tips of a
bone is called
Epiphysis.

▪Two types: simple and

compound epiphysis.

▪Based on function
▪4 types – vide infra.
Classification based on development
▪ Membranous
▪ Cartilagenous
▪ Membranocartilagenous
▪ The process of bone
formation is called as
Ossification.
Endochondral ossification:
• Long bone is preceded by a
model of Hyaline cartilage.
• Area where bone formation
begins in the cartilaginous
model- Ossification center.
Ossification of Bones
▪ One Primary ossification
center – shaft.
▪ Many secondary
ossification center – ends

Parts of a developing long

bone

▪ 1)Diaphysis – shaft
▪ 2)Epiphysis - two ends-
▪ 3)Epiphyseal plate of
▪ cartilage
▪ 4)Metaphysis - ends of
shaft
 Ossification of Bones
• Primary centre appear before birth, usually during the 8th
week of intrauterine life.Primary centre forms– Diaphysis
• Secondary centres appear after birth. (Exception: Lower
end of femur) Some appear even after puberty.
• Secondary centres form -Epiphysis. Fusion of epiphysis with
diaphysis starts at puberty & is complete by the age of 25yrs
(long bones).
Types of Epiphysis
Pressure Epiphysis:
Eg. head of femur, lower end
of radius
Traction Epiphysis
Eg. trochanter of femur,
tubercles of humerus
Atavastic Epiphysis
Eg. coracoid process of
scapula,
os trigonum
Aberrant Epiphysis
Eg: epiphysis at the head
of 1st metacarpal, bases of
other metacarpals
Ossification of Bones
Membranous ossification:
Direct condensation of
mesenchymal tissue – eg.
vault of skull
Membranocartilagenous –
Partly membranous and
partly cartilagenous. Eg.
Occipital, sphenoid.
▪ Law of ossification states
that the first formed
secondary ossification
center is the last to fuse.
▪ Fibula does not follow law
of ossification.
Blood supply of long bone
▪ Nutrient artery enters the
shaft through nutrient
foramen and supplies the
inner 2/3rd of cortex,
medullary cavity.

▪ Anastamoses with
epiphysial, periosteal and
metaphysial arteries.

▪ Periosteal arteries is
beneath the periosteum
and supply the periosteum
and outer 1/3rd of cortex.
Blood supply of long bone
▪Ephiphysial arteries
enters through
numerous foramina.

▪Metaphysial arteries
from systemic vessels
reinforce the branches
from nutrient artery.
Nerve supply of Bones
▪Nerves accompany the
arteries
▪They are sympathetic
and vasomotor in
function
▪Few are sensory mainly
to periosteum and
articular ends.
Definition of some common features found in bones

▪ Antrum - cavity
▪ Condyle - smooth, rounded articular eminence
▪ Epicondyle - prominence above the condyle
▪ Fossa - broad depression usually shallow
▪ Fovea - small shallow depression
▪ Hiatus - slit or gap
▪ Meatus - short canal
▪ Process - kind of projection
▪ Spine - sharp pointed process
▪ Sulcus - groove or furrow
▪ Trochlea - pulley shaped
▪ Tubercle - rough, rounded eminence
or tuberosity
 Some common diseases of bone
▪Osteomyelitis

▪Osteoporosis

▪Benign bone tumours

▪Osteosarcoma

▪Rickets

▪Osteomalacia
 ▪ A break in a bone
Bone fractures ▪ Types of bone fractures
▪ Simple fracture –
break that does not
penetrate the skin
▪ compound fracture
broken bone
penetrates through
the skin
▪ Treated by reduction
and immobilization

▪ Realignment of the bone

Functions of Bone

▪ Store house of calcium and

▪ Involved in Erythropoises (Red bone marrow)

▪ Reticuloendothelial cells ( Yellow bone marrow)

▪ Provide attachment for muscles, tendons and

ligaments

▪ Protects brain, heart, lung, spinal cord and some

abdominal organs
Classification of Skelatal system
Total bones in the body - 206
Axial skeleton:
Bones of midline of body.
Skull, vertebral column,
ribs , sternum.

Appendicular skeleton:
Bones of Upper and lower
limb, pectoral and pelvic
girdle.
Eg. Humerus, radius, ulna,
femur, tibia and fibula.
Classification of Skeletal system
Axial skeleton
Vertebral column 26
Skull 22
Hyoid bone 1
Ribs and sternum 25
Total 74

Appendicular skeleton
Upper extremities 64
Lower extremities 62
Total 126

Auditory ossicles 6

Total 206
Cartilage
Connective tissue composed of
▪ Cells (chondrocytes)

▪ Fibres (Collagen or elastic)

▪ Matrix or ground substance

▪ More resilient than bone

▪ Lacks blood vessels and nerves

▪ Surrounded by membrane
called perichondrium.

▪ Perichondrium absent in
articular cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage
▪ Glossy white and
translucent.
▪ Chondrocytes present in
single or in nests.
▪ Matrix composed of
collagen fibers, chondriotin
sulfate.
▪ Fibres present in matrix
invisible
▪ Preichondrium present.
Eg. Articular cartilage,
developing long bones.
Elastic cartilage
▪ Yellowish, opaque with
more branched fibres
▪ Chondrocyte are moderate
▪ Perichondrium present
▪ Eg. Pinna of ear, epiglottis

Fibrocartilage
White. opaque with
numerous fibres
strongest cartilage
Perichondrium absent
Eg. Intervertbral disc,
Intraarticular disc.
Joints
Objectives
At the end of the lecture you should be able to understand
• Definition of a joint
• Types of joints
• Subtypes of joints with examples
• Structure of a synovial joint
• Nerve supply of joints
• Various movements of joints
 Introduction
• Definition : Junction between two or more bones.
• There are movable and immovable joints in our body.
• Infants have more joints than adults. They are mostly
immovable and primarily for growth and fuses as age
advances.
 Classification of joints
Joints are broadly classified into
• Fibrous
• Cartilaginous
• Synovial joints
Based on degree of motion
1. Synarthroses – immovable (fibrous)
2. Amphiarthroses – Slightly movable
(cartilaginous)
3. Diarthroses – freely movable (synovial).
 Classification of joints
• Based on number of bones
involved
• Simple joint: when two
bones are involved
(interphalangeal).
• Compound joint: more than
two bones involved. (wrist
jt.,elbow jt.)
• Complex joint: when the
joint cavity is divided in to
two compartments by an
intraarticular
disc(Temporomandular jt,
Sternoclavicular jt.)
 Fibrous joints.
• Two bones held by
connective tissue.
Immovable.
Sutures of skull Serrate Denticulate
Types of sutures Plane
• Plane
• Serrate
• Denticulate Squamous

• Schindylesis
• Fontanelle: Membrane
filled gaps in vault of skull. Schindylesis
 Fibrous joints
• Syndesmosis: Fibrous union between two bones:
Inferior tibiofibular joint, Middle radioulnar joint.
• Gomphosis: Between tooth and socket. Periodontal
ligament connects the dentine to alveolar bone.
 Cartilagenous joints
• Primary cartilagenous
joints
• Synchondrosis.
• Two bones united by a
plate of cartilage.
• Joint between epiphysis
and diaphysis in a growing
long bone.
• Temporary, replaced by
bone after sometime
(synostosis).
• Xiphisternal jt, first rib and
sternum (chondrosternal
joint).
 Cartilagenous joints
• Secondary cartilagenous
joint: Slightly movable.
Typically present in midline
of the body. The articulating
ends of bone are covered by
hyaline cartilage and
fibrocartilage interposed
between them.
• Eg. Pubic symphysis,
Manubriosternal,
Intervertebral joints.
• Symphysis menti -(misnomer).
• Withstand forces and
involved in weight
transmission.
 Synovial joints
• Freely movable joints
• The articulating surface is
covered by hyaline cartilage
and enclosed in a capsule.
• The capsule internally lined
by synovial membrane
which secrets synovial fluid.
• Capsule is reinforced by
ligaments.
• There is a fluid filled joint
cavity .
• Articular cartilage is not
lined by synovial membrane.
• Articular cartilage has rich
nerve supply but no blood
supply.
Movements of synovial joints
• Gliding movements
• Angular movements
– Flexion
– Extension
– Adduction
– Abduction
• Rotary movements
Medial and lateral
rotation
Circumduction
Combination of rotary
and angular movements.
 Types of synovial joints
Plane joint
• Articulating surfaces are
flat and permit gliding
movements
• Eg; Intercarpal, Intertarsal,
Acromioclavicular joint.

Hinge joint
• Pulley shaped articular
surfaces
• Movement in one plane
(uniaxial)
• Eg: Elbow, Ankle joint.
 Types of synovial joints

Pivot joint
• Aricular surfaces consist
of a central pivot and a
ring.
• Eg: superior radioulnar
joint. Pivot is not fixed
and rotates. Ring is
osseocartilagenous.
• Median atlantoaxial joint.
Pivot is fixed. Ring
rotates.
 Types of synovial joints

Condyloid joint
• Convex (male) articulates
with concave (female) both
are called as condyles.
• Movements mainly in one
plane and partly (rotary) in
vertical axis.
• Eg: Knee joint ( modified
hinge). Temporomandibular
joint (bicondylar)
 Types of synovial joints
Ellipsoid joint.
• Oval convex surface fits in
to elliptical concave surface.
• Movements biaxial. Flexion
& extension (transverse
axis). Abduction and
adduction (anteroposterior
axis).
• Combination produces
circumduction (atypical).
Eg: Wrist joint, Atlanto occipital
joint (nodding your head)
 Types of synovial joints

Saddle Joint
Reciprocally concavoconvex
surfaces.
Movements biaxial with
conjunct rotation around
third axis.
Eg: Sternovlavicular joint,
First carpometacarpal joint.
 Types of synovial joints
Ball and socket joint.
• Articular surface is like a
round head (ball) fitting in
to a cup (socket). Shoulder joint
• Multiaxial freely movable
joint. (flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, Hip joint
medial and lateral rotation
and circumduction occur
freely)
 Joint Kinesiology
• Study on shape of articulating surfaces and its
associated movements
• Male surface –large and convex
• Female surface – smaller and concave
• Movements
• Rotation:
Eg: 1. Head of humerus rotates within the glenoid
fossa of scapula.(shoulder joint)
2. Head of femur rotates within the
acetabulum of hip. (Hip joint) .
 Angular movements
a) Flexion : Bending of parts towards each other (decrease in angle).
b) Extension : Straightening out of a part from other(increase in angle).
c) Adduction : Movement of a part towards midline
d) Abduction : Movement of a part away from midline
e) Pronation : Bending of ventral surface downwards or turning of
palm downwards (as in giving)
f) Supination : Turning of palm upwards (receiving))
g) Circumduction: Movement involving flexion, adduction, extension
and abduction in a sequence. ex: Movement in
Shoulder & Hip joint
h) Inversion : Turning the foot medially resulting in the sole moving
inward
i) Eversion : Turning the foot laterally resulting the sole moving
outward
 Gliding movements
Movement in which two flat surfaces move on each other.
Eg:- 1)Movement of carpal bones in wrist.
2)Movement of tarsal bones in foot
Components of a movement
Rolling
Sliding
Spin.
 Joint Positions
• Closed pack position: joint surface are congruent with
maximal contact. Most stable position of the joint
Eg: Elbow – extended position
Temporomandibular – clenched teeth.

• Loose packed position: Incongruent position

• Swing
• Cardinal swing: Mechanical axis moves in a short
pathway
• Arcuate swing: Mechanical axis moves in a long
pathway.
 Stablility of the joint
• Muscles
• Ligaments
• Bones
• Atmospheric pressure.

• Blood supply: periarticular

arterial plexus from
epiphysial branches of
neighbouring arteries.
• Articular cartilage is
nourished by the synovial
fluid.
 Nerve supply of joints
• Capsule and ligaments –
rich nerve supply
• Synovial membrane – poor
nerve supply
• Nerves are sensory and
autonomous
• Sensory – pain and
proprioception(joint and
muscle sense of position
and movement)
• Hilton’s law: A motor nerve
supplying a muscle acting
on a joint supplies a branch
to that joint and also the
skin covering it.
 Applied aspects
• Joint Displacement: The
articulating surface
moves out of the socket

• Congenital or acquired.

• Subluxation – partial
displacement eg: pulled
elbow.
• Disc prolapse in vertebral
joints.
Arthritis

• Inflammation of the joint

• Many types
• Osteoarthritis - common
in old age.
• Rheumatoid arthritis –
autoimmune disease
commonly affecting the
small joints.
• Reactive arthritis.

10/05/2019 25
Diseases of the joint
• Joint stiffness – Increase
in viscosity of synovial
fluid.
• Septic arthritis – Infection
from metaphysis enters
joint cavity.
• Neuropathic joint:
Denervation of joint
followed by painless
swelling, excessive
mobility.

10/05/2019 26
 Thank You

10/05/2019 27
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Definition :

It deals with the study of different muscles of the body, which

produce contractions that move the body parts including the
internal organs.

Latin word ‘Mus’ = mouse

Muscles are so named because, many of them resemble a mouse, with
their tendons representing the tail.
 Introduction
 A contractile tissue that
produces movement (body &
viscera).

 Maintains the position.

 Provides strength & power.

 Gives form to body.

 Provide heat to body.

 Pumps venous blood to the

heart
 Types of Muscle Fibers

Striated muscle Smooth muscle

Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle

 SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Skeletal muscle fiber length
varies from few mm. to 30 cm.

 Skeletal muscle fibers show

syncytium (multi nucleated).

 Skeletal muscle fiber nuclei

are elongated, lie peripherally.

 Skeletal muscle cell membrane

is called as sarcolemma.

 Skeletal muscle cell cytoplasm

is called as sarcoplasm.
 ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Contractile protein - Actin
And Myosin filaments

 Filaments are bundled into

myofibrils;

 Bundles of Myofibrils forms

individual muscle fiber (cell);

 Muscle fibers are bundled to

form fascicles and

 Fascicles are bundled to

form the muscle organ.
 Supporting tissue

 Endomysium – around single

muscle fiber

 Perimysium – around a
fascicle (bundle) of fibers

 Epimysium – covers the

entire skeletal muscle

 Fascia – on the outside of

the epimysium
 L.S. OF MYOFIBRILL
 The most striking feature of
skeletal muscle fibers is the
presence of transverse
striations in them.

 After staining with eosin &

haemotoxylin the striations are
seen as alternate dark and light
bands across the muscle fiber.

 The dArk bands are called A-

bands. A=Anistropic

 The light bands are called I-

bands. L=Isotropic
 SARCOMERE
 The centre of the A-band is
traversed by a lighter band
called the H-band or H-
Zone.

 Through the centre of the H-

band a thin dark line - M-
band.

 The centre of the light band

is dark called as Z-band.
 SARCOMERE
The part of a myofibril situated
between two consecutive Z-
bands is called a Sarcomere.

Sarcomere is the smallest

contractile unit in the myofibril.

Sarcomeres contract because the

Z-lines approximate.

As the sarcomeres contract the

myofibrils contract.

 As the myofibrils contract the

muscle cell contracts.
 Muscle Contraction
Thick filaments are
myosin filaments.
Composed of the protein
Myosin.
Has ATPase enzyme
Myosin filaments have
head (cross bridges).
Thin filaments are actin
filaments
Composed of the protein
Actin
 CLASSIFICATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

 Skeletal Muscle are of different

types depending upon their
arrangement of fibers.

 Convergent. e.g. Pectoralis major

 Circular. E.g. Orbicularis oris

 Parallel or strap muscle – e.g..

Sartorius.

 Fusiform.eg. Biceps brachii

 Oblique or Pinnate muscle:

– Unipinnate.eg. Ex.dig.longus
– Bipinnate. eg. Rectus femoris
– Multipinnate.eg. Deltoid
CLASSIFICATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Depend on Size:
➢Maximus = largest
➢Minimus = smallest
➢Longus = longest
➢Brevis = shortest
Depend on Number of origins:
➢Biceps = two origins
➢Triceps = three origins
➢Quadriceps = four origins
Depends on Relative shape
➢Deltoid = triangular
➢Trapezius = trapezoid
➢Serratus = saw-toothed
➢Rhomboideus = rhomboid or diamond-
shaped
Depend on region of skeletal system:
➢ Axial muscles - trunk and tail muscles
➢Branchiometric muscles - also called
visceral muscles, such as those associated
with the gills, jaws and hyoid apparatus
➢Appendicular muscles - Limb muscles
CLASSIFICATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

 Depending upon their speed of

contraction.

 1. Type I (slow) fibres:

 - Show a slow 'tonic' contraction.

 - Red in colour because of large amounts

of myoglobin.

 - Rich in mitochondria and oxidative

enzymes

 - Poor in phosphorylases.

 - Use oxygen to generate more

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) fuel

 - Highly resistant to fatigue.

CLASSIFICATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Type II (fast) fibres: Show a fast
'phasic' contraction required for
large-scale movements of body
segments.

 - Paler (white) in colour because of

small amounts of myoglobin.

 - Rich in glycogen and

phosphorylases,

 - Poor in mitochondria and oxidative

enzymes. Because of a glycolytic
respiration

 - Quite easily fatigued.

CLASSICIFICATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Intermediate fibres

 - Variant of type II (fast)

fibres

 - Relatively resistant to fatigue,

although less than type I (slow)
fibres.

 In man, most of the skeletal muscles

show a mixture of fibre types, but
any one type may predominate
Attachment of skeletal muscle
 Skeletal muscle usually connects one
bone to another bone commonly across
a joint

 When muscle contracts one

attachment usually remains stationary
while the other moves

 Each muscle has 2 bony attachments

 Origin : Least movement /

fixed end

 Insertion: Greatermovement/
movable end

 Belly: Fleshy part of the muscle

Attachment of skeletal muscle

 The muscle insertion may take

one of the following forms

 1. Tendon: condensed, cord-like or

rope-like fibrous tissue;
e.g. Gastronemeus.M
 2. Aponeurosis: flattened tendon,
e.g. external oblique .

3. Raphe: Median linear fibrous band

formed by interdigitation of the
tendinous or aponeurotic ends of the
muscles
e.g. Mylohoid raphe
 4. Muscle fibers themselves:
e.g. Orbicularis oculi
Different types of muscle action
 All movements are the result
of the coordinated action of
many muscles. A muscle may
work in the following 4 ways

• Prime mover

• Antagonist

• Synergist

• Fixator
Prime mover

 A muscle is a prime mover when it

is the chief muscle or one of the
chief group of muscles
responsible for a particular
movement . e.g. Quadriceps
femoris is a prime mover in
extension of knee joint.
 Antagonist

 Any muscle that opposes the action of the prime mover is an

antagonist. E.g. , biceps brachii opposes the action of triceps
brachii when the elbow joint is extended. Before a prime mover
can contract, the antagonist muscle must be equally relaxed .
 Synergist

 Synergist are other muscles that work together with the prime mover
to produce a common action .

 When the prime mover crosses 2 or more joints , synergists

prevent undesired action at the intermediate joints .
 Fixator
 A fixator contracts isometrically (i.e. contraction increases the tone but does
not produce movement) to stabilize the origin of the prime mover so that it can
act efficiently

 e.g., muscles attaching the shoulder girdle to the trunk contract as fixators to
allow the deltoid to act on the shoulder joint or Muscles around shoulder girdle
fixing the scapula so that movement of abduction can takes place at the
shoulder joint
 Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscle

 The nerve trunk to a muscle is a

mixed nerve, about 60% is motor
and 40% is sensory, and it also
contains some sympathetic
autonomic fibers.

 The nerve enters the muscle at

about the midpoint on its deep
surface, the place of entrance is
known as the motor point or
unit (neuromuscular junction)
 Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscle
 1. Motor fibres (60%):

 - Large myelinated alpha efferents which

supply extrafusal muscle fibres .

 - Smaller myelinated gamma efferents which

supply intrafusal fibres of the muscle
spindle which refine and control muscle
contraction.

 - Non-myelinated autonomic efferents which

supply smooth muscle fibres of the blood
vessels.

 2. Sensory fibres (40%): Myelinated

fibres distributed to muscle spindles for
proprioception, also to tendons
 Muscle spindles

 The motor nerve supply of the spindle

is derived from gamma motor neurons
of the spinal cord. Muscles spindles
act as stretch receptors.

 They record and help to regulate the

degree and rate of contraction of the
extrafusal fibres by influencing the
alpha neurons
 Muscle spindle- structure
 Spindle-shaped sensory end organs
of belly of skeletal muscle between
extrafusal muscle fibers.

 Covered by fibrous shearth

 Contains 6 to14 intrafusal muscle

fibres –

 Intrafusal fibres are 2 types.

 1. Large nuclear bag fibers – with

bunch of nuclei central region
(dynamic responders)

 2. Small nuclear chain fibers - with

rows of nuclei (static responders)
 Muscle spindle - innervation
 Spindle is innervated by both the
sensory and motor nerves.

 The sensory endings - 2 types,

 1. Primary sensory endings

(annulospiral endings) spirals
around and innervates the central
region of both nuclear bag and
nuclear chain fibers

 2. Secondary sensory endings

(flower spray endings) beyond the
nuclear region on either side of
these fibres. (Mostly innervate
distal ends of nuclear chain fibers)
 SMOOTH MUSLE
 Also called as involuntary/non
striated/plain muscle.

 Found in virtually all organ systems

to some extent.

 Length of the fiber varies from

15um to 500um.

 Innervated by autonomic nerves.

 Arrangement of the fibers in various

organs are different .

 Myofibrils are made up of actin &

myosin proteins.

 Arrangement of the proteins are not

in order as seen in striated muscle
 Smooth Muscle fiber/Cell

 Also called as
involuntary/non
striated/plain muscle.

 "FUSIFORM" or “Spindle
shaped “

 LONGER , TAPERED at
each end, and WIDEST in
the middle.

 Centrally placed nucleus

 Innervation of smooth muscle
 Innervations of smooth muscle divided
in to 2 types

 Single-unit type: Occur in intestines.

 The nerve impulse reaches one muscle

cell, is transmitted to other cells by
the mechanical pull through the fused
cell membrane. The nerve supply is
sparse.

 Multi-unit type: Occure in in the

muscles of the ductus deferens. Each
muscle cell receives a separate nerve
fibre. The contraction is simultaneous.
The nerve supply is rich
 Cardiac Muscle

 Involuntary

 Elongated cells

 Central nucleus

 Transverse striations

 Intercalated disc

 Striated
 Innervation of cardiac muscles
 Innervations of cardiac muscle both by
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve
fibres.

 Sympathetic nerves increases heart rate

and blood pressure and dilate the coronary
arteries.

 sensory fibres convey painful impulses

 Parasympathetic fibres decreases heart

rate. Their sensory fibres are involved with
visceral reflexes.

 Cardiac Muscle Innervation: The

autorhythmic cell delivers the action
potential to the gap junction, which carries
 APPLIED ANATOMY
- Paralysis

 Loss of motor power is called paralysis due

to damage to the motor neural pathways or
due to inherited myopathy.

 Upper motor neuron lesion leads to spastic

paralysis with exaggerated tendon jerks.

 Lower motor neuron lesion leads to causes

flaccid paralysis with loss of tendon jerks.

 Hemiplegia: paralysis of Half of the body

 Monoplegia: Paralysis of one limb

 Paraplegia: paralysis of Both lower limbs

 Quadriplegia: paralysis of 4 limbs

 Muscular spasm

 Spasm is a sudden
involuntary contraction
of a muscle, a group of
muscles

 Generalized muscle
spasms occur in
tetanus and epilepsy.
 Disuse atrophy and hypertrophy

 Muscles which are not

used for long times
become thin and weak.
This is called disuse
atrophy.

 Adequate or excessive
use of muscles causes
their better development,
or even hypertrophy
 Myasthenia gravis

 Myasthenia gravis is an
autoimmune disease of muscle of
unknown origin.

 Antibodies are produced that bind

to acetylcholine receptor and
block it. Transmission of nerve
impulses to muscle fibres is
therefore blocked.

 Extensive and progressive muscle

weakness although the muscles are
normal.
 Duchenne Muscular dystrophy

 Duchenne MD:
genetic disorder
characterized by
progressive muscle de
generation and
weakness due to
lacking a protein
(dystrophin) to
maintain the
sarcolemma
 Enthesopathy

 Illness of muscle
and tendinous
insertions usually
caused by
repeated
overstraining e.g.
tennis elbow
 Abnormal contraction

 Spasm – Involuntary contraction of one muscle

•cramp – painful spasm
•tetanus – multiple spasms of skeletal muscles
 Tic – Involuntary twiches of muscles, usually under voluntary
control

 Tremor – Rhythmical, involuntary contractions of opposite

groups of muscles

 Fasciculations – Involuntary, short twiches on motor unit

visible under the skin

 Fibrilace –Spontaneous contractions of fibres of one muscle

that aren´t visible under the skin
➢ Subdivisions of nervous system

➢ Components of central and peripheral nervous system

➢ Typical spinal nerve

➢ Neuron – Structure and function

➢ Classification of neurons and neuroglia

➢ Synapse – structure, function and types

➢ Autonomic nervous system

➢ Neuronal degeneration and regeneration

• Controlling and coordinating system of our body
• Made of Neurons - special type of cells which can sense,
conduct and respond
• Constantly receives impulses (Afferent - sensory) from within or
outside the body
• Process the impulses
• Send adequate response (efferent – motor) to effector organ
• Stores adequate information from past experiences
• Synchronizes with endocrine system for maintaining
homeostasis.
• Central Nervous system
Brain
Spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous system
Cranial
Spinal nerves
associated ganglia.
• Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic
parasympathetic
• Highest center of control for
sensory and motor functions.
• Also center for higher functions
such as intelligence, memory,
learning & emotions.
Components:
• Hind brain (Rhombencephalon) –
Medulla, pons and cerebellum
• Mid brain (Mesencephalon) –
Midbrain
• Forebrain (Diencephalon &
Telencephalon).
• Thalamus and Cerebrum
• Spinal cord
• Thick bundle of nerve fibres
• Situated within the vertebral
column
• Main pathway for sensory
and motor information.
• Various reflex centres are
also present.
• Connects the central and
peripheral nervous system.
 Cranial Nerves : 12 pairs
Spinal Nerves : 31 pairs
8- Cervical
12 – Thoracic
5 – Lumbar
5 - Sacral
1 – Coccygeal
Ganglia associated to the
above nerves

PNS provides senory input to the CNS and carries motor commands to the target organs
• Each spinal nerve is a mixed
nerve connected to spinal cord by
two roots.
• A ventral root (motor) & a dorsal
root (sensory)
• Dorsal root is characterized by
the presence of a ganglion at its
distal end, which lies in the
intervertebral foramen.
• Both roots unite at the
intervertebral foramen to
form the Typical spinal
nerve.
• The Typical spinal nerve
divides in to dorsal and
ventral primary rami after
its formation.
• Ventral primary rami of
cervical, lumbar and sacral
nerves joint with each other
to form plexus.
• Ventral primary rami of T2-
T11 passes independently
• The area of skin supplied
by a single spinal nerve is
called Dermatome
• Dermatomes usually
overlap.
• Definition: It is the basic
functional unit of nervous
system, which performs an
integrated neural activity.
• Components of a simple reflex
arc are
1. a receptor, eg: skin
2. a sensory or afferent
neuron
3. a motor or efferent neuron
4. an effector, eg: muscle
• A simple reflex arc is
monosynaptic.
• Polysynaptic reflex arc is
complex due to the
presence of neurons in
between afferent and
efferent neurons.
• A reflex is an involuntary
motor response of the body
following a sensory
stimulus.
The cells of the nervous system
• Neurons
• Supporting tissue.
Neuron
Excitatory cell
Has a body (soma) , one long
process (axon) and many short
process.
The soma forms the gray matter
in brain and spinal cord.
Around 10 million neurons in
cerebral cortex.
• Cell bodies of neuron present
outside the CNS are called as
ganglia
• The cell body of neuron has
nucleus, cytoplasm and
organelles.
• Nissl bodies are deep staining
substances in cytoplasm.
• Contain ribosomal granules for
protein synthesis
• chromatolysis is a process in
which nissl bodies disappear
during neuronal injury
Dendrite
• Short and repeatedly
branching cytoplasmic
extension
• Contains Neurofibrils and
Nissl substance
• Terminal branches of
dendrites contain Dendritic
spines for increases in
surface contact
Axon
• Single long process from cell body
• Axon hillock point of origin from cell body
• Terminates into small branches called telodendria
• Small bulbous swellings in terminal part of axon called bouton
terminaux at site of synapse
• Cytoplasm of Axon – Axoplasm
• Contains neurofibrils, microtubules
and vesicles rich in acetylcholine.
• semipermeable membrane covering
the axoplasm is called axolemma.
• Both myelinated and unmyelinated
axons are present
• Myelinated axons – Whitte matter
• Non myelinated axons – Grey matter
• Short unmyelinated axons - Post
ganglionic fibers of ANS and somatic
fibers less than 1µm diameter
• Myelin sheath is formed by
Schwann cells in PNS
• wound around nerve fibers
as concentric layers of
protein and lipid.
• The Schwann cell is
interrupted at regular
intervals
• An unmyelinated segment
of axon is called as nodes
of Ranvier
• Schmidt Lantermann segments:
Irregular cleft dividing myelin
sheath into irregular segments
seen in PNS absent in CNS.
• Schwann cell is covered by
neurolemmal sheath.
• Endoneurium is a sheath covering
neurilemma around each nerve
fibre.
• Fascicules of nerve fibre is
ensheathed by perinerium.
• Groups of Fascicules is covered by
epiineurium
• Oligodendrocyte forms
myelin sheath in CNS.
• Single oligodendrocyte
deposts myelin around
several axons in CNS.
Functions
• Insulation.
• Saltatory conduction
• Unipolar neurons – single process
• Eg: Mesencephalic nucleus of
Trigeminal nerve.
• Pseudounipolar – one process
dividing into central and peripheral.
Eg: dorsal root ganglia.
• Bipolar neurons – two processes
• Eg: Retina, Olfactory cells,
ganglionic cells of auditory nerve.
• Multipolar neurons – one axon and
any dendrites
• Eg:motor neurons of cerebral cortex
Based on function:
• Sensory neurons – bipolar and
psuedounipolar neurons.
• Motor – multipolar within CNS
• Internuncial neurons – connect
sensory and motor neurons –
multipolar
Based on length of axon:
Golgi Type I neurons – axons with 2
feet in length
Golgi Type II neurons – short axons
• Types of Axons

• Type A- largest 1-20 µm in diameter – 6mts/sec/dia

• Type B – thinly myelinated autonomic fibers 3mt/sec

• Type C- unmyelinated 2mt/sec

• The largest axon is around 15 feet In length.

• Two theories explain nerve
conduction
1.Membrane theory
2. Ionic theory.
Rate of conduction depends
on
• Thickness of fibers
• Degree of myelination.
Transmission of impulse is
always in one direction.
• Non-excitable supporting
cells of nervous system.
• Undergo mitosis
• 1. Neuroglia – in CNS
• Schwann cells -
myelination in PNS
• Satellite cells – in motor
and sensory ganglia
• Ependymal cells – lining
ventricles of brain.
4 types of neuroglial cells are
recognized in CNS
• 1. Astrocytes
• 2. Oligodendrocytes
• 3. Microglia
• 4. Ependyma
Microglia
• Mesodermal derivative
• Small cell with short fine process
• Present along perivascular coat of
blood vessels.
• Phagocytic in function
• Act as macrophage cells –
Scavenger cells
Astrocytes
• Star shaped with numerous
processes radiating in all
directions
• 2 types : Fibrous Astrocytes
Protoplasmic Astrocytes
Fibrous Astrocytes: contains thin
processes present in white matter
Protoplasmic Astrocytes: Thick
symmetrical processes found in
grey matter.
• Functions of Astrocytes:
• Processes form perivascular feet on
capillaries.
• Contributes to Blood-brain barrier.
• permits selective passage of
contents from blood to the nervous
tissue.
• Components of Blood brain barrier
Capillary endothelium without
fenestration
Basement membrane of endothelium
End feet of astrocytes covering the
capillary walls
• Oligodendrocytes:
• Cells have fewer process

• Found in grey & white matter

• Helps in formation & maintenance of
myelin sheath
Ependymal Cells:

• Line the ventricles of the brain & central

canal of spinal cord

• Help in exchange of substances

between brain and cerebrospinal fluid.

• Tanycytes: process of Ependymal cells

• Forms Blood CSF barrier

• Specialized junction between one or
more neurons.
• Types of Synapse
• Axodendritic
• Axosomatic
• Axoaxonic
• Axodendritic is the most common type
of synapse and excitatory in nature.
• Other types are involved in
presynaptic inhibition
• Based on secretion 2 types
• Electrical synapse (only in lower
vertebrates)
• Chemical synapse (neurotransmitters)
Structure of Synapse.
• Presynaptic membrane
• Synaptic cleft.
• Postsynaptic membrane.
• Type I synapse – post synaptic
memb. thicker than pre-synaptic
memb. Excitatory thru
depolarization Eg:Acetycholine
• Type II synapse – Pre and post
synaptic memb. thin, inhibitory
thru hyperpolarization. Eg.
GABA.
1. General somatic efferent (GSE): motor nerves to muscles
2. General visceral efferent (GVE): secretomotor to glands
3. Special visceral efferent (SVE): to muscles formed from branchial
apparatus.
4. General visceral afferent (GVA): sensations from viscera
5. General somatic afferent (GSA): sensations from skin, muscle and joints
6. Special somatic afferent (SSA): Hearing, olfactory sensations
7. Special visceral afferent (SVA): Taste sensatoin (Branchial apparatus)
Sub divisions:
➢ sympathetic
➢ Parasympatheitic
Control involuntary functions such as
➢ heartbeat
➢ blood pressure
➢ respiration
➢ perspiration
➢ digestion
Can be influenced by thought and emotion
• Sympathetic activity is
widespread, diffuse and act
during acute emergencies
• Thoracolumbar outflow (T1 – L2)
• Nerve endings release
noradrenalin
• Except nerves to sweat gland
and muscle – cholinergic.
• Vasomotor, sudomotor pilomotor
• Parasympathetic activity is
discrete and isolated
• Craniosacral outflow
• Nerve endings are
cholinergic
• Conservation and
restoration of energy.
 Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division (arousing) division (calming)

Pupils dilate EYES Pupils contract

Decreases SALVATION Increases

Perspires SKIN Dries

Increases RESPERATION Decreases

Accelerates HEART Slows

Inhibits DIGESTION Activates

Secrete stress ADRENAL Decrease secretion

hormones GLANDS of stress hormones
• Anterograde degeneration

• Retrograde degeneration

• Chromatolysis

• Transneuronal degeneration
10/5/2019 1
• Introduction
• Classification
• Circulation - types
• Structure of blood vessel
• Features of Arteries, veins and capillaries
• Sinusoids – Characters and function
• Anastomosis – Definition & Types
• Applied anatomy
10/5/2019 2
• Heart and blood vessels
comprise the circulatory
system.
• Arterial system ejects blood
(oxygenated, exception –
Pulmonary arteries)from the
heart.
• Venous system carries blood
(deoxygenated, exception –
Pulmonary veins)to the heart.
• 2 atria receives the blood
through SVC, IVC & pul. veins
• 2 ventricles pump the blood
through Aorta & pul. arteries. 3
• Blood is transported
through Arteries, veins and
capillaries.
• Lymphatic system is
accessory to venous
system.
• Cardiac output = 5 lts/min.
• Arteries branch out to form
arterioles and capillaries
• Venules are formed from
capillaries and unite to
from veins- tributaries.
10/5/2019 4
Conducting
• Large arteries
vessels

Distributing
• Smaller arteries
vessels-

Resistance
• Terminal Arterioles
vessels

• Capillaries, sinusoids,
Exchange
post capillary venules
vessels

• Larger venules and

Capacitanc
e/Reservoir Veins

10/5/2019 5
▪ Transport the following to and from the cell
➢ O2 an CO2

➢ Nutrients

➢ Hormones

➢ Waste products

➢ Components of immune system

▪ Thermoregulation

▪ Recording Blood pressure and pulse 6

• Systemic circulation

• Pulmonary circulation

• Portal circulation

• Fetal circulation

10/5/2019 7
Distribution of blood to all
parts of the body.
Blood from left ventricle is
pumped in to Aorta.
Distributed via arteries and
arterioles
Blood is collected from
venous end of capillaries
From venules and veins
blood reaches right atrium
via superior and inferior
vena cava.
10/5/2019 8
• venous blood from rt.
atrium enters rt.ventricle
• From rt. Ventricle blood
enters lungs through
pulmonary artery.
• After gasesous exchange
in the alveolar sacs
• Oxygenated blood enters
left atrium via pulmonary
veins.

10/5/2019 9
• Off shoot of systemic
circulation
• Blood passed through 2 sets
of capillaries before entering
systemic circulation
• Intestinal capillaries
Portain vein Sinusoids
systemic vein
• Eg: Hepatoportal circulation
• Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal
circulation
• Renal portal circulation

10/5/2019 10
• Umbilical vein from
placenta bypass the liver
and enters IVC
• Blood from SVC and IVC
enter Rt atrium and then
Rt. Ventricle
• Some blood shunted to
Lt. atrium.
• Blood is also shunted
from Pul.art to Aorta as
lung is not functional.
• Blood from aorta leaves
10/5/2019 11
thru umb.arteries.
Based on size and structure vessels are classified into

➢ Elastic artery
➢ Muscular artery

10/5/2019 12
• The vessel wall is made
of 3 tunics or coat
• From inside out
➢ Tunica intima

➢ Tunica media

➢ Tunica adventitia

10/5/2019 13
Tunica Intima
Characterized by presence of
• Flat endothelial cells
• Subendothelial layer
containing collagen fibres,
fibroblasts and myointimal
cells.
• Internal elastic lamina
contains fenestrated
elastic tissue
14
Tunica Media
• Thickest of three tunics
• Alternating layers of
smooth muscles &
fenestrated elastic tissue
• Smooth muscles may be
circular or spiral
• External elastic lamina
contains fenestrated
elastic tissue

10/5/2019 15
Tunica Adventitia
• Toughest of all coats
• Both collagen & elastic
tissue is present
• Resists outward pressure
of blood
• Prevents undue
stretching or distension
of artery
• Vasa vasorum (blood
vessel supplying artery)
• Nervi vascularis
(Autonomic) 16
• Also called as large
artery
• Elastic tissue
predominant and less
muscular tissue in
tunica media.
• Eg: Aorta, carotid
arteries, Common
Iliac arteries.

10/5/2019 17
• Medium sized artery
• More smooth muscle
fibers in tunica media
• Respond to nerve
stimulus to regulate
the size of lumen
• Eg: Brachial artery,
Radial and ulnar
artery, Femoral
artery.
10/5/2019 18
Divides to form
• Terminal arteriole
• Meta arteriole
• Ends in capillaries
• 50-100 micron thick.
• Presence of
precapillary sphincter,

10/5/2019 19
• Present in the form of
network.

• Absence of smooth
muscle fibres.

• Endothelium is smooth or
fenestrated
• Exchange of nutrients
and gases takes place.

10/5/2019 20
Continuous capillaries seen in
– Skin
– Connective tissue
– Muscle
– Lungs

Fenestrated capillaries seen in

– Renal glomeruli
– Endocrine glands
– Pancreas
– Intestinal villi

10/5/2019 21
• Large irregular spaces

• Thin walled, lined only by

endothelium.

• Replaces capillaries in
certain organs

• Seen in liver, spleen and

bone marrow.

• Contain phagocytic cells 22

 Applied aspects
• Used for recording
pulse and Blood
pressure
• Atherosclerosis
• Embolism
• Thrombus
• Heamorrhage.

10/5/2019 23
• Venules – smallest veins
• Medium veins - superficial
veins
• Large veins – deep veins
Characterized by
❖ Thin irregular lumen
❖ Less muscular and elastic
tissue
❖ Poorly developed tunica
media
❖ Thick tunica adventitia.
24
❖ Venae comitantes
• Well developed tunica
adventitia

• Bundles of smooth
muscle fibers in outer
coat

• Vaso vasorum

• Presence of valves

• Eg: Subclavian vein

25
• Formed by convergence of
two or more capillaries.
• Site of leucocyte migration
and extrvasation.
• Valves are absent in
certain veins
• Vena caval, vertebral,
hepatic, renal and
pulmonary veins.
• cranial venous sinuses,
retinal veins & veins of
cancellous bones lack
smooth muscle 26
• Intravenous injection
• Phlebitis
• Varicose veins
• Deep vein thrombosis

10/5/2019 27
 Feature Typical Artery Typical Vein
flattened or collapsed, relatively
Lumen round, with relatively thick wall
thin wall
Tunica intima
Endothelium
Usually rippled, due to vessel Often smooth
constriction
Internal elastic
Present Absent
lamina
Tunica media
Thick, abdundant smooth Thin, smooth muscle cells and
muscle cells and elastic fibres collagen fibres

External elastic
Present Absent
membrane
Collagen & elastic fibres and
Tunica externa Collagen and elastic fibres
smooth muscle cells

Valves Absent Present

• communication between
neighbouring vessels at
Pre or postcapillary level.
• When usual pathway is
obstructed due to
compression, ligation or
pathology.
• It becomes functional and
the circulation is called
collateral circulation.
• Coronary artery collaterals
in occlusion
10/5/2019 29
• Interarterial
• Arteriovenous
• Venous
Interarterial
Between adjacent arteries
• Actual
When arteries meet end to
end.
Eg. Palmar arches
• Potential
• Communication occurs
between arterioles.
30
Eg.Rt.&Lt.Coronary Arteries
Arteriovenous anastomoses
• Arterioles communicate
directly with venules by
anastomosing channels
• Regulates temperature
• Increases portal venous
pressure in intestinal villi
• Ex. In tips of nose, lips,
lobule of ear, finger
Venous anastomoses
• Between veins or
tributaries of veins

• Eg. Dorsal venous Arch

of hand & foot

10/5/2019 32
• No anastomoses with
neighboring arteries
• Central artery of
retina
• Central branches of
Cerebral artery,
• Splenic artery
• Renal Arteries,
• Vasa recta of small
gut
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 Introduction

 Components

 General features of lymph vessels

 Central lymphoid tissues

 Peripheral lymphoid tissues

 Applied aspects
 Accessory to venous system
 10-20% of tissue fluid passes through lymphatic
system.
 Involved in drainage of large particulate matter
(protein)
 Involved in phagocytosis ( reticuloenodthelial)
 Immune responses
 The vessels are called lymphatics
 The fluid in vessels are called Lymph
 Lymph is a colourless fluid except
 Lymph from intestine is milky white and is called
chyle and lymphatics are called Lacteals.
 Lymph Vessels

 Lymphoid tissue (central and peripheral)

 Circulating lymphocytes

 Epthelio-lymphoid tissue

 Reticuloendothelial system
 Start as capillaries from
tissue spaces
 Thin endothelium and
poor basement
membrane.
 Permeable to large
molecules.
 Absorbs tissue fluid
 Difficult to visualize.
 Lymph capillaries absent
in
 Brain, spinal cord, bone
marrow, articular
cartilage, Cornea, hair
and nail
 Capillaries joint to
form lymphatics.
 Superficial lymphatics
follow veins
 Deep lymphatics
accompany arteries.
 Lymphatics pass
through lymph nodes
for filteration.
 Then lymph pass
through large
lymphatics
 Thoracic duct: largest
lymph trunk drains
whole of body except:
Right upper limb, right
side of thorax, neck &
head.
 Right lymphatic duct
 Brs. of Thoracic duct
 Jugular lymph trunk
 Subclavian lymph trunk
 Cisterna chyli
 Int. & ext. iliac lymph
trunk.
 Bone marrow:
Lymphocyte production
– B lymphocytes takes
place.
 Thymus – T
lymphocytes.
 In fetal life liver and
spleen also form B-
lymphocytes.
 Enter the blood stream
 Immune response
 Active for many years.
 Lymph node:
collection of lymphoid
tissue (follicles).
 Oval or kidney shaped
 Occur in groups or
solitary.
 Each node has a hilum
 Many afferent lymph
vessels and 1
eff.vessel.
 Part: capsule,cortex
and medulla.
 Spleen: largest
lymphoid organ.
 Red pulp and white
pulp.
 RBC are destoyed
 Platelets and
leukocytes
phagocytosed.
 Stores 350 ml of blood.
 Produce T & B
lymphocyte
 Erythropoises in fetal
life.
 Mucosa associated
lym. tissue (MALT).
 Waldeyers ring.
 Peyer’s patches.
 Bronchus
associated lym
tissue (BALT)
 Macrophage
(phagocytic cells) include
 Monocytes
 Kupffer cells
 Microglia
They form first line of defense.
Specific immune responses
Absorb fat from intestine to be
transported to blood.
 Prominent at birth and grows rapidly at
childhood
 Immune system diminishes with age

 Increases vulnerability to infections and cancer

 Four Effects of Aging on the Immune Response

 Thymic hormone production is greatly reduced
 T cells become less responsive to antigens
 Fewer T cells reduces responsiveness of B cells
 Immune surveillance against tumor cells declines
 Lymphadenitis

 Hodgkin’s Lymphoma.

 Metastases

 Lymphangitis

 Filariasis
 One of the four basic
tissues of the body
 Widely distributed
 For support binding and
protection
 Cellular and
extracellular
components are
present.
 Bone and cartilage
special type of
connective tissue.
 Derived from mesoderm
germ layer.
CELLS:
 Fibroblast
 Adipocytes
 Macrophages
 Plasma cell
 Mast cell
 Pigment cell
(melanocytes)
Extracellular
Fibres
➢ Collagen
➢ Elastin
➢ Reticulin
 Ground substance
Based on type & density
of cells and fibres
2 types
❖ Loose connective
tissue
❖ Dense connective
tissue
 Loosely packed
 Cells and fibres are
moderate
 Lubrication
 Facilitates
movements
 Bursae around joint.
 Eg:Aerolar tissue,
Adipose tissue,
reticular tissue
 Dense regular
 Dense irregular
 Tendons are dense
regular connective
tissue.
 Abundant fibres.
 Tendon reflexes.
 Predominantly
collagen fibers.
 Bone and cartilage are
special type of
connective tissue.
 Mechanical support and packing material (fat)
 Deep fascia form intermuscular septa.
 Maintain contour of limbs
 Aids in venous return.
 Restrain mechanism
 Superificial fascia stores fat.
 Injury repair – fibroblast form scar tissue
 Macrophages are phagocytic
 Mast cells involved in allergic reactions.
 Antibodies are produced by plasma cells.
 Embryonic connective tissue capable to
transforming in to various types of connective
tissue.
 Helps in binding
bones.
 Present around joint
 Tough but flexible
 Made up of collagen
fibres
 Ligamenta flava and
ligaments of ear
ossicles are of
elastic fibres.
 Intrinsic surround the
joints
 Extrinsic – away from
joint.
 Some ligaments are
degenerated tendons.
 Maintain stability of the
joint.
 Nerve supply same as
joints.