Introduction to Stress Analysis (ME-419)

Dr. Tariq Jamil

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Approaches for Solving
Engineering Problems
• The methods employed in the solution
of an engineering problem can be
divided into three types (Tannehill,
Anderson and Pletcher, 1997).

Analytical Experimental Numerical 2

Main Resources Used
• Book:
1. Experimental Stress Analysis (3rd Edition) by James W. Dally (Author), William F. Riley
2. Advanced Strength and Applied Stress Analysis (2nd edition) by Richard G. Budynas
3. Various online lecture notes

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Stress Analysis
• Choosing the appropriate material is an important step in mechanical design.

• Stress analysis is the study to understand effect of stresses and strains developed by

different types of loads acts on structure or machine element. Critical regions that

possesses higher intensity of stresses and strains are identified. In order to avoid failure,

these critical regions are re-designed and strengthen, and address over design areas.

Source:
YouTube ANSYS 17.0 Tutorial 4
Stress
Stress is force per unit area

• Spreading out the weight

reduces the stress with the
same force.

Normal Stress is skier’s weight distributed over

skis surface area. F=mg

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Forces Acting on a Control Volume
Responsible to Produce Stress
• Surface forces: Act on the control surface. Pressure, point of
control.
• Expressed as force per unit area e.g. lb/in2

• Body forces: Act through the entire body of the control volume.
Gravity, centrifugal, electric, and magnetic forces.
• Small compared to surface forces and can be neglected in many situations
without introducing serious errors
• Expressed as force per unit volume e.g. lb/in3

A control volume can be thought of as an arbitrary volume

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in which the mass of the continuum remains constant.
Pressure versus Engineering Stress
(N/m2 or Pa)
• Pressure is often used with fluids (gases or
liquids)
• Pressure is applied force per unit area.
• Pressure only acts perpendicular to a surface, it
• Pressure is a scalar quantity.
Force
• Pressure can not be negative.
• Stress is more often used with solids.
• Stress is internal force per unit area.
• Stress can also be parallel to a surface as well
as perpendicular to it
• Stress can not simply defined. To defined stress
we need to defined magnitude, direction and
orientation.
• Stress can be negative.
Metal Stress: Fundamentally, it is the way that
we think about a situation rather than the
situation itself that causes stress. 7
Engineering Stress and Stains

• In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces
that neighboring particles of a continuous material exert on each other,

• Strain is the measure of the deformation of the material.

Source: https://www.mm.ethz.ch/research_animations.html
(Please visit the link for animated version)
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Stress Strain Diagram
(Refresher)
• Elastic region
Necking
• pl – Proportional limit

• y – yield limit (offset)

• u – ultimate tensile strength

• f – fracture
• %El – Percentage elongation
at fracture
• < 20% ductile materials
• > 5% brittle materials

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Strength, Stiffness and Hardness
(Refresher)

• Strength of materials usually refers to the yield strength.

• Stiffness is an indicator of the tendency for an element to return to its original form after being
subjected to a force. The lesser the deformation, the stiffer the material.

• In the elastic region, “Stiffness” refers to Young’s modulus. The higher the E the higher the
stiffness.

• Hardness measures a material's resistance to surface deformation. For some metals, like steel,
hardness and tensile strength are roughly proportional.

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Ductile and Brittle Materials
(Refresher)

Ductility measures the degree of plastic deformation

sustained at fracture
• A Ductile material is one that exhibits a large amount
of plastic deformation before failure.
• It shows necking before fracture.
• Example: Steel %El > 20%

• A Brittle material exhibits little or no yielding before

facture.
• Usually defined as materials having %EL < 5%
at fracture.
• Its shows little or no necking before fracture.
• It is much stronger in compression than in
tension.
• Examples: Gray cast iron & Glass

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Source: https://www.fictiv.com/
True vs. Engineering Stress

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Classification of Materials

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 Strength - Density

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http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/interactive_charts/strength-density/basic.html
 Metals and Alloys

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http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/interactive_charts/strength-density/basic.html
Tensor
• Tensors, defined mathematically, are simply arrays of numbers, or functions, that transform according to certain rules
under a change of coordinates.

• Zeroth-Order Tensors (Scalars) e.g. pressure of gas = P

• A scalar is a single function (i.e., one component) which is invariant under changes of the coordinate systems.
Such quality needs only one number to define, that has no particular arrangement to write. Thus no suffix is
needed to locate that single number. These quantity are called as zero order tensor or zero dimensional array.

• First-Order Tensor (Vectors) e.g. Force F = [Fx Fy Fz]

• Second-Order Tensor e.g. Stress

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Engineering Stress

• Sign conventions
• Positive stress: (+) face & (+) direction or (-) face & (-) direction
• Negative stress: (-) face & (+) direction or (+) face & (-) direction
• Thus, for normal stress tensile stress is positive and compressive
stress is negative.
Outer normal parallel to x-axis

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Stresses on Cubical Element

or

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 Euler–Cauchy Stress Principle

The Euler–Cauchy stress principle states that upon any surface (real or imaginary) that divides the
body, the action of one part of the body on the other is equivalent (equipollent) to the system of
distributed forces and couples on the surface dividing the body, and it is represented by a field, called
the stress vector, defined on the surface S and assumed to depend continuously on the surface's unit
vector {n} .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_stress_tensor
 Stress at a Point
Tnx = σxx cos n, x + τyx cos n, y + τzx cos n, z
Tn𝑦 = τxy cos n, x + σ𝑦𝑦 cos n, y + τzy cos n, z
Tn𝑧 = τx𝑧 cos n, x + τy𝑧 cos n, y + σ𝑧𝑧 cos n, z

2 2 2
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛𝑥 + 𝑇𝑛𝑦 + 𝑇𝑛𝑧

𝑇𝑛𝑥 𝑇𝑛𝑦 𝑇𝑛𝑧

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑧 =
𝑇𝑛 𝑇𝑛 𝑇𝑛
c𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑛 = c𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛, 𝑥 + c𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛, 𝑦 + c𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛, 𝑧 Angle between Tn and n

𝜎𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑛 τ𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑛 , 𝑛 Components of stress on area with outer normal n

Method 2 𝜎𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛, 𝑥 + 𝑇𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛, 𝑦 + 𝑇𝑛𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛, 𝑧

τ𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛2 − σ2𝑛

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_stress_tensor
Stress Equilibrium Equation
(ΣF = 0)

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Stress Equilibrium Equation
(ΣM = 0)

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 Stress Equilibrium Equation
(ΣM = 0) …. (continue)
11 12 13 
 
Symmetry…
 i, j   21  22  23

 31  32  33

 i, j   j,i



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Equilibrium Equation Example
Assuming no body forces,show that the following
stressessatisfy the equilibrium equations
3Pxy N 3P y2
x   3
 ,  y  0 ,  xy   (1  2 )
2c 2c 4c c
_______________________________________
 x  yx 3Py 3Py
 0  3  3 0
x y 2c 2c
 xy  y
  0  00  0
x y

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 Principal stresses
Because the matrix is symmetric,  11 0 0   1 0 0 
  0  22 0    0  2 0 
there is coordinate frame
such that….  i, j

 0 0  33   0 0  3 

Engineering sign convention

tension is positive,
Geology sign convention
compression is positive…

1   2   3
Plane perpendicular to
principal direction
has no shear stress… 25
 Principal Stresses and Directions
( x  )n1   xy n2   xz n2  0 (  x   )  xy  xz   n1 
 
 xy n1  ( y  )n2   yz n3  0    xy ( y   )  yz  n2   0
 xz n1   yz n2  ( z  )n3  0   xz  yz ( z  )  n3 

Homogeneous System of Algebraic Equations, Non - Trival Solution Roots of the characteristic equation are the principal stresses 1 2 3
( x   )  xy  xz Corresponding to each principal stress is a principal direction n1 n2 n3
 xy ( y   )  yz  0   3  I12  I 2   I 3  0 that can be used to construct a principal coordinate system
 xz  yz ( z   )
y 2
2
yx 1
yz n2
xy
zy n1
1
𝐼1 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 y x
zx
2 − 𝜏2 − 𝜏2 xz
𝐼2 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥 3
z
2 − 𝜎 𝜏 2 − 𝜎 𝜏 2 + 2𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
𝐼3 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑥 𝑧𝑧 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥
x n3
3
Ii = Fundamental z (General Coordinate System) (Principal Coordinate System)
Invariants
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Representation of the Stress State in 3-D using
the Mohr Circles.
This circle represent the state of
stress on planes perpendicular to 2
The state of stress of a plane
with any orientation plots in
 this domain

3 2 1 n

This circle represent the state of

This circle represent the state of stress
stress on planes perpendicular to 1
on planes perpendicular to 3

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The Deviatoric Stress Tensor…

  11   22   33    ii
1 1
M
3 3

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 Factor of Safety
Equipment
- FOS -
Factor of Safety Aircraft components 1.5 - 2.5
Boilers 3.5 - 6
Bolts 8.5
in engineering, a factor of safety (FoS), Cast-iron wheels 20
expresses how much stronger a system is than Engine components 6-8
it needs to be for an intended load.
Heavy duty shafting 10 - 12
Many systems are intentionally built much Lifting equipment - hooks .. 8-9
stronger than needed for normal usage to allow Pressure vessels 3.5 - 6
for emergency situations, unexpected loads,
Turbine components - static 6-8
misuse, or degradation (reliability)
Turbine components - rotating 2-3
Spring, large heavy-duty 4.5
Structural steel work in buildings 4-6
Structural steel work in bridges 5-7
Wire ropes 8-9

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Deformation

• The Cauchy strain or engineering strain (e) is expressed as the ratio of total deformation
to the initial dimension of the material body in which the forces are being applied.

∆𝐿 𝑙 −𝐿
𝑒= =
𝐿 𝐿

• The stretch ratio or extension ratio is defined as the ratio between the final length l and
the initial length L of the material line.
𝑙
𝜆=
𝐿
• The logarithmic strain ε, also called, true strain or Hencky strain and is obtained by
integrating this incremental strain.
𝑙
𝛿𝑙 𝑙
𝛿𝜀 = 𝜀 = ln = ln 𝜆
𝐿 𝑙 𝐿
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Deformation
Two-Dimensional Theory
u
dy
y D'
C'
Strain Displacement Relations

v(x,y+dy) u
ex 
x
v
y C D B' ey 
y
A' 
1  u v  1
dy v exy       xy
v(x,y) x
dx 2  y x  2
A dx B
u(x+dx,y)
u(x,y)

x
 ex exy exz 
 
Three-Dimensional Theory e  [e]  e yx ey e yz 
 ezx ezy ez 

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Engineering Strain vs. Tensor Strain

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Strain Compatibility Compatibility Equation

1 2

y
3 4

x
Discretized Elastic Solid Undeformed Configuration

1 2 2
1

3 4 3
4

Deformed Configuration Deformed Configuration

Continuous Displacements Discontinuous Displacements 33
Strain Compatibility Example
Check to see if the following strain field
ex  Ay 3 , e y  Ax 3 , exy  Bxy( x  y )
satisfies the two - dimensional compatibility equation
__________________________________________
 2 ex  e y  2 exy
2

 2 2  6 Ay  6 Ax  2 B(2 x  2 y )
y 2
x xy
2
 6 A  4B  A  B
3
2
 only satisfies equation with A  B
3

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