Engineering Geology

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University of Baghdad
College of Sciences
Department of GEOLOGY
4 Stage
th
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
‫الجيولوجيا الهندسية‬
Dr. Thair Thamer Al-samarrai
1
The Basis of Engineering Geology
Engineering Geology: is defined by the Association of Engineering Geologists as

the discipline of applying geologic data, techniques, and principles to the study
both of:
a) naturally occurring rock and soil materials, and surface and sub-surface fluids.
b) the interaction of introduced materials and processes with the geologic
environment.
so that geologic factors affecting the planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of engineering structures (fixed works) and the development,
protection and remediation of ground-water resources are adequately recognized,
interpreted and presented for use in engineering and related practice.
Engineering geology may exist under, or be a part of, other titles, such as
“geological engineering”
“geotechnical engineering”
“earth science engineering”
“environmental geology”
“engineering geomorphology”
and so on. If there is a difference in the content of the disciplines described under
these names it probably lies in the training and experience of the practitioner.
Whatever their origins and training, engineering geologists contribute to the

task of providing a level of understanding of ground conditions that ensures
the engineering works are constructed to estimates of time and cost.
Engineering failures may cost lives and cause injuries, will certainly cost
money, and will result in consequential delay. To prevent such failures and
incidents occurring, the influence of the geology of the site on the design and
construction of the engineering work must be determined, understood and
clearly explained. The problem is how to achieve this level of understanding
or, in other words, how to attain the aims of engineering geology.
2
Attaining the Aims:
Behind every discipline there must be a basic philosophy or a way in which that
discipline approaches its problems. The philosophy of engineering geology is
based on three simple premises.
These are:
1. All engineering works are built in or on the ground.

2. The ground will always, in some manner, react to the construction of the
engineering work.
3. The reaction of the ground (its “engineering behaviour”) to the particular
engineering work must be accommodated by that work.
To determine the engineering behaviour of the ground the engineering

properties (in the broadest sense) of the ground mass and the proposed design of
the engineering work must be known. These two streams of data must be brought
together and processed in order to determine, by calculation, the engineering
behaviour of the ground. It is of vital importance that the acquisition and
processing of data is done systematically to ensure that no significant factors are
omitted from the analysis. To be followed to arrive at the engineering behavior of
the ground could be expressed by three verbal equations. These were:
material properties + mass fabric = mass properties
mass properties + environment = the engineering geological matrix

Matrix implies a database in which the relationship of the components is defined – a highly desirable but rarely
achieved goal in engineering geology.
the engineering geological matrix + changes produced by the engineering

work = the engineering behaviour of the ground
Materials and Mass Fabric

The terms used in these equations require some explanation. Materials may be
rocks, soils and the fluids or gases contained within them. Material properties are
the properties which are of significance in engineering, such as density, shear
strength, deformability and so forth. Mass fabric describes the manner in which the
materials are arranged within the mass (in beds, dykes, veins, sills, etc.) and
includes the discontinuities (joints, faults, etc.) which ramify through the mass.
3
This simple example shows the importance of understanding the subsurface
distribution of materials.
Fig. The importance of the distribution of materials in the groundmass relative to the position of
the structure.
Mass
It is necessary to decide what is meant by mass. The ground mass can be defined as
that volume of ground which will be influenced by, or will influence, the
engineering work. The ground influenced by the engineering work could be, for
example, that volume of ground stressed by the extra load of a building, a bridge or
a dam.
4
Environmental Factors
The environment includes such features as climate, stress in the ground, and
natural hazards, and can include time. The principal climatic factors are rainfall
(amount, time of occurrence, intensity etc.), temperature and wind. Rainfall is of
particular importance in that it relates to the moisture content of materials and
mass; it is well-known that moisture content is one of the factors which determine
the properties of materials and mass.
1- Climate
Every region of the Earth’s surface is subjected to a particular climate. This
climate might be considered to comprise the yearly average weather, including
such factors as rainfall, wind, temperature, hours of sunshine and so forth. In most
parts of the Earth none of these factors is constant throughout the year.
2- Stress
All materials exist under certain stress conditions. The magnitude and direction of
stress may strongly influence the reaction of the ground to the engineering process,
and particularly in the case of underground works. Stresses encountered in the
ground may result from the following causes:
Gravity. The weight of the material above any level below the ground surface will
cause material at that level to compress.
Tectonics. Tectonic stresses, which may be residual from past tectonic movements
or active from present tectonic activity. These stresses appear to be mostly
horizontal but are often strongly directional.
Erosion. Topographically related stresses can result from the redistribution of
stresses by the erosion of valleys especially in steep mountainous areas.
3- Natural Hazards
Many parts of the world are afflicted by recurring natural hazards. The most well
known of these in engineering terms are earthquakes, but hurricanes, typhoons,
sandstorms, floods, volcanism, tidal waves and snow avalanches can also be
included. No engineering work can be undertaken in areas where these problems
occur without recognising the significance of such natural hazards. The five most
prominent natural hazards are floods, windstorms, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes
and mass movements (landslides).
Floods. 0f all the natural hazards it is possible that floods are the most destructive.
5
Storms. The most well-known types of major storms are hurricanes and typhoons
which occur in regions of tropical and sub-tropical climate.
Volcanic Eruptions. There are over 500 volcanoes which are classified as ‘active’
and it is estimated that, in the last 500 years, some 200 000 people have lost their
lives as a direct consequence of volcanic eruptions. However, although this is a
large number and while all precautions must be taken to prevent such loss of life.
Earthquakes. Many textbooks handle the problem of earthquakes and civil
engineering exclusively from the viewpoint of the consequences to a structure
when subjected to earthquake vibrations.
Mass Movements. Mass movements are essentially landslides, but may also be
held to include avalanches; they can occur in almost any material, rock or soil.
Manmade Hazards. It may also be considered that the activities of man are also
part of the environment (perhaps as “un-natural hazards”) within which a
proposed engineering work will have to exist. The effect of such activities must be
taken into account when planning new works.
4- Dynamic Processes
It is also important to understand that the processes that modify landscape and
geology are dynamic. Such water-associated landscape features as beaches, bars,
sand spits.
5- Time
With regard to time it is well to remember that all materials, whether natural or
manmade, are subject to weathering and decay in the progress of time.
Consequently, the possible change in geotechnical properties of material and mass
with time must be considered when assessing engineering behaviour of the ground.
Analysis
All the factors leading up to the description of the engineering geological situation
defined in the three equations set out in Sect. 1.3 may be established through the
process of site investigation. Thereafter the engineering behaviour of the ground
with respect to the proposed engineering work is determined by calculation and
judgement.
Essential Definitions
Both geology and engineering suffer from a confusion of terminology.
6
More fundamental terminological problems are sometimes so deeply rooted that
change is more or less impossible. Thus, many geologists refer to sands, silts or
clays as ‘soft rock’, presumably working on the principle that, in geological time,
they will become ‘harder’, eventually becoming ‘hard rocks’. However, many
tunnelling engineers would think of soft rock as shale, weak sandstone,
mudstone, etc, rocks which can generally be excavated fairly easily.
Training and Professional Development in Engineering Geology

The preceding pages have reviewed the facets of engineering and natural sciences
that enter into the content of the discipline of Engineering Geology. This review
provides a guide to the content of the training that is required to develop a fully
rounded engineering geologist. Some of the basic subjects taught in any training in
engineering geology are presented in Fig. 1.3.
Fig. Subjects included in engineering geological training courses
7
College of Sciences
4 Stage
th
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
The analysis and classification of soils
Soils and soil formation
Engineering soils: Most of the Earth's land surface, and parts of the
bed of the sea, are covered with a layer of granular sediments, mainly derived from
the breakdown and decomposition of rocks. Where such sediments either remain
entirely un- cemented, or are so lightly cemented as not to change their essentially
particulate nature, or where cemented materials have been broken up by excavation,
they are described as soils.
Soil formation: The processes of soil formation are complex, but they need only
be considered here in so far as they directly affect the engineering properties of the
resulting material.
Most soils have been formed by the disintegration of rock as a result of weathering
processes which may be classified as mechanical or chemical.
1- Mechanical weathering is the fragmentation of the parent rock by physical
forces, such as those resulting from temperature stresses or from the forma-
tion of ice. Temperature stresses, caused by cooling of the rock mass or as a
result of daily temperature changes near the surface, lead to cracking. If
water percolates into these cracks and subsequently freezes, the resulting
expansion opens the cracks further, until eventually pieces are broken from
the rock mass. By the same processes, these pieces may then be broken
down into smaller and smaller fragments. In dry climates, the impact of sand
grains carried by high winds may also cause rapid erosion of rock surfaces.
Mechanical weathering leaves the crystal structure of the material
unchanged and clearly identifiable with that of the parent rock.
2- The products of chemical weathering, on the other hand, are the result of
attack on the rock minerals by water or oxygen or by alkaline or acid
materials dissolved in the soil water. Carbon dioxide from the air and
organic matter in the top soil are common sources of such dissolved acids.
2
The clay minerals are a group of complex crystalline materials consisting mainly
of aluminium silicates, but containing other materials as well. They are mainly the
products of chemical weathering, although there is evidence that they are
sometimes formed by hydrothermal action (that is, by the combined action of sub-
surface heat and water). Their crystal structures are mainly determined by the
climatic conditions under which they have been formed, and do not necessarily
reflect the crystal structure of the parent material.
Soil Constituents and Their Properties

Soil constituents: Any sample of soil will be found to contain some or all of the
following:
a- Solid phase:
(i) Primary rock minerals
(ii) Clay minerals
(iii) Intergranular cement
(iv) Organic matter
b- Liquid phase:
(i) Water
(ii) Dissolved salts
c- Gaseous phase:
(i) Air (and sometimes other gases)
(ii) Water vapour.
All these are constituent parts of the soil, and all will, to a greater or: lesser extent,
affect the engineering properties.
Primary rock minerals: These are pieces broken from the parent rock. They are
generally relatively large, being seldom less than 0·002 mm in diameter, although
some soils of glacial origin contain very small particles of rock flour.
3
Clay minerals: These are mainly the products of chemical weathering. The
particles are very small, their main dimension being seldom more than 0·002 mm,
and frequently very much less.
Intergranular cement: In some soils, a considerable quantity of cementing material
(such as calcite, iron oxide or silica) is deposited on the surfaces of the soil
particles.
Organic matter: Organic matter in the soil is derived from plant or animal remains.
It is generally concentrated in the top 0·3 to 0·5 m of the soil, Fresh organic matter
in the soil is liable, of air, to attack by bacteria. The end product of this attack is a
group of very complex organic compounds collectively known as humus.
All these organic materials have properties which are very undesirable in
engineering structures. These properties are summarised below.
1 Organic material will absorb large quantities of water (up to five times
its own weight). Increases in pressure applied to the material cause
large volume changes, as the water is expelled. There would also be
considerable swelling if the load were removed. Lowering the ground
water level by drainage may also cause a reduction in the volume of
the soil and a general settlement of the land.
2 The material has a very low shear strength and will adversely affect the
strength of any soil of which it forms a considerable part.
3 Humus has a very large base exchange capacity.
4 The presence of organic matter inhibits the setting of cement. Highly
organic soils cannot be stabilized with cement.
Water: Change in the water content of the soil is the greatest single cause of
variation in the engineering properties. Shear strength, compressibility and
permeability are all, directly or indirectly, related to the water content.
Dissolved salts: Wherever water passes through the soil, it can

transport salts in solution. From an engineering standpoint, the most important of
these are the sulphates, because of their destructive effect on concrete.
4
Air: Not all soils are fully saturated (that is, the voids between the soil particles are
not entirely filled with water). Even heavy clay soils may contain as much as I %
or 2% of air voids. Where the proportion of air in the soil is very small (less than
about 5 % of the voids), it is mainly in the form of very small bubbles, held in
position under high pressure by surface tension.
Water vapour: In partially saturated soils, the relative humidity of the air in the
pore spaces is high. The vapour pressure may vary from place to place, because of
differences in temperature- or for ot-her reasons.
Index Tests
Particle size analysis and the Atterberg limit tests: In view of the great diversity of
soils and soil materials, engineers have long recognised a need to characterise soils
simply, so that their engineering properties may be quickly assessed. Tests
developed for this purpose are called 'Index Tests', and are as follows:
1 Particle size analysis. To determine the grading. This allows an
estimate to be made of the engineering properties of coarse-grained
soils.
2 The Atterberg limit tests. These are a series of empirical tests, from
the results of which it is possible to estimate the engineering properties
of fine-grained soils.
1- Particle size analysis.

Particle classification by size: Soil particles may be classified on the basis of their
size. The system adopted in the Code of Practice for Site Investigations,
CP 2001: l 957 [1.2] is shown in the (Table.1)
5
Table 1: Particle size classification.
It is unfortunate that the terms clay, silt, sand and gravel are used here to define the
particle sizes of soil fractions. Elsewhere they are used to define types of complete
soil. Although a gravel soil will consist mainly of gravel sized.
Particle size analysis [l.4]. The coarse particles may be separated by sieving. After
treatment to remove organic matter and intergranular cement, the gravel and sand
sized particles are separated by passing the soil over a series of sieves of
decreasing mesh size. The weight of soil retained on each sieve is recorded.
Material passing the 75 µm sieve is too fine for further division by sieving, and is
separated by a process of sedimentation. The fine soil, passing the 75 µm sieve, is
first treated with a deflocculating agent to disperse the particles, so that they will
settle individually in the suspension. A dilute suspension of the treated soil is then
shaken up to disperse the particles evenly, and is allowed to stand.
Stokes's law states that the velocity of a spherical particle sinking in a still fluid.
The concentration of particles remaining in the suspension at any level and at any
time may be determined as follows:
a- By the pipette method.
b- By the hydrometer method.
6
Stokes's law assumes that
(a) the particles are spherical
(b) the flow around the particles is laminar, and
(c) the particles are much larger than molecular size.
Particle size distribution curves: The results of the particle size analysis are plotted
on a curve of the type (seen later). The particle size is shown on the horizontal
axis, on a logarithmic scale. The vertical scale shows the proportion (%) of the
whole sample which is smaller than any given size. From the shape of the grading
curve, it is possible to classify coarse-grained soils, and to make an estimate of
their engineering properties.
2-The Atterberg (Consistency) limits tests.

The Atterberg (consistency) limits [l .4]: Particle size analysis discloses very little
about the engineering properties of very fine-grained soils in which the clay
minerals predominate. A better indication of their properties is obtained by
measuring the water contents at which certain changes in the physical behaviour
can be observed.
As moisture removed from a fine -grained soil it passes through a series of states,
i.e liquid, plastic, semi-solid and solid (Fig.1). The moisture contents of a soil at
the points where it passes from one stage to the next are known as consistency
limits.
7
Fig.1. The Atterberg (consistency) limits.
These limits are defined as:

Liquid Limit (LL). Is the minimum water content at which the soil will flow
under a specified small disturbing force. The disturbing force is defined by the
conditions of the test.
Determination of liquid limit. The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus
(Fig.2, 3) that consists of a semispherical brass cup that is repeatedly dropped onto
a hard rubber base from a height of 10 mm by a cam-operated mechanism. The
apparatus was developed by A. Casagrande (1932) and the procedure for the test is
called the Casagrande cup method.
A dry powder of the soil, all passing the 0.425 mm sieve, is mixed with distilled
water into a paste and placed in the cup to a thickness of about 12.5 mm. The soil
surface is smoothed and a groove is cut into the soil using a standard grooving tool.
The crank operating the cam is turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and the
8
number of blows required to close the groove over a length of 12.5 mm is counted
and recorded. A specimen of soil within the closed portion is extracted for
determination of the water content. The liquid limit is defined as the water content
at which the groove cut into the soil will close over a distance of 12.5 mm
following 25 blows. This is difficult to achieve in a single test. Four or more tests
at different water contents are usually required for terminal blows (number of
blows to close the groove over a distance of 12.5 mm) ranging from 10 to 40.
Fig.2. (a) Liquid limit apparatus. (b) Standard grooving tool.
9
Fig.3 Cup apparatus for the determination of liquid limit.
The results are presented in a plot of water content (ordinate, arithmetic scale)
versus terminal blows (abscissa, logarithm scale) as shown in (Fig.4,5)
The best-fit straight line to the data points, usually called the flow line, is drawn.
We will call this line the liquid state line to distinguish it from flow lines used in
describing the flow of water through soils. The liquid limit is read from the graph
as the water content on the liquid state line corresponding to 25 blows.
Fig.4. Flow curve
10
Fig.5. Typical liquid limit results from the Casagrande cup method.
Plastic Limit (PL). is the minimum water content at which the soil can be
deformed plastically. It is defined as the minimum water content at which the soil
can be rolled into a thread 3 mm thick.
Determination of plastic limit. The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small
clay sample, all passing the 0.425 mm sieve, into threads and finding the water
content at which threads approximately 3 mm in diameter will just start to crumble.
Two or more determinations are made and the average water content is reported as
the plastic limit.
Shrinkage Limit (SL). Is the water content below which no further shrinkage
takes place as the soil is dried. If the water content is above the, shrinkage limit,
drying causes a loss of water without a corresponding increase in the air content of
the voids, and the volume decreases.
The plasticity index (PI). Is the range of water content over which the soil is in the
plastic condition.
PI= LL - PL
The liquidity index (LI). Expresses the natural water content in terms of the liquid
and plastic limits.
where w is the natural water content. The liquidity index varies from zero for
soils at the plastic limit to 1.0 for soils at the liquid limit. Exceptionally, certain
'quick' clays have a liquidity index greater than 1.0.
11
College of Sciences
4 Stage
th
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
Soil Classification Systems
The purpose of classification systems: The aim of any classification system is to
provide a set of common definitions which will permit useful comparisons to be
made between different soils. To be of general use, such a system must be simple,
precise and directly related to the engineering properties of the soil. There are,
unfortunately, a number of systems in use. Many of these are only of value for
special purposes, while others were originally derived from agricultural practice,
and are not really suitable for engineering use.
Analysis of grading curves: The important features of a particle size grading
curve (Fig. 1) may be expressed in terms of the effective size, the uniformity
coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of curvature (Cc).
Fig.1. Analysis of grading curves.
Three sizes are determined from the grading curve (Fig. 1):
(a) D10 = the size such that 10% (by weight) of the sample consists of particles
having a smaller nominal diameter
(b) D30, D60 = the equivalent sizes for 30% and 60; of the sample respectively.
Then:
(a) The effective size is defined as D10
(b) The uniformity coefficient (Cu) is
2
(c) The coefficient of curvature (Cc) is
Low values of the uniformity coefficient imply a uniform close grading. Ideally,
the coefficient of curvature should be about 2.
Casagrande's extended classification system (CP 2001 [1.2]): In this

system, each soil is allotted two letters; a prefix depending on the predominant
particle size, and a suffix related to the engineering properties (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Casagrande's extended classification system.
Coarse-grained soils are classed as gravels (G) or sands (S), depending on whether
the predominant size is greater or less than 2 mm. The suffix is allotted according
to the shape of the grading curve (Fig. 3).
(a) W = well graded material. The smaller particles will pack the spaces between
the larger, giving a dense mass of interlocking particles, with high shear strength
and low compressibility.
(b) U = uniform material. As the grains are almost all of one size, this material
cannot be tightly compacted. The shear strength is generally low.
3
(c) P =poorly graded. This implies that there is a gap in the grading. In the example
(Fig. 3) there is almost no material in the coarse sand range. Such a soil will not
generally compact well.
(d) C = well-graded material with some clay. This is an ideal fill material. It can be
closely compacted, and the small proportion of clay acts as a binder, giving a tough
dense material with a high shear strength and low compressibility. The
permeability is also low, as the clay fraction blocks the pores between the coarse
grains.
(e) F = well-graded material with an excess of fines. Where the fine material is
more than sufficient to fill the spaces between the larger particles, the latter are no
longer in contact with each other, but are embedded in a matrix of fine particles.
The fine material begins to control the properties of the whole soil.
Fig. 3. Typical grading curves.
Fine-grained soils are classified from the results of liquid and plastic limit tests,
plotted on Casagrande's plasticity chart (Fig. 4,5). Soils with plasticity indices
4
above the 'A' line (the equation of which is Ip 0.73(L.L.-20)) are usually inorganic
clays (C). Values below this line indicate silts (M) or organic soils (0).
The suffix is allotted on the basis of the liquid limit.
H = high plasticity (LL > 50%)
I = intermediate plasticity (35% < LL < 50%)
L = low plasticity (LL < 35 %).
Soils with liquid limits less than 20% are generally sands. Comparing soils with
equal liquid limits, high values of the plasticity index indicate toughness and dry
strength, but low permeability and consequently a low rate of volume change under
load. Both shear strength and compressibility are directly related to the plasticity
index.
Fig. 4. Casagrande's plasticity chart.
5
Fig. 5. Plasticity chart.
The Unified Soil Classification System [1.6]: In the United States, a system
known as the 'Unified Soil Classification System' has been developed. This is
based on Casagrande's original system [1.5], and is similar in many respects to that
described in the preceding section. It has been adopted-with trivial modifications-
in several other countries.
In this system, prefix letters are allotted as follows:
(a) Coarse-grained soils (more than half retained on the 75 µm sieve):

G = Gravel (more than half the coarse fraction in the gravel range)
S = Sand (less than half the coarse fraction in the gravel range).
(b) Fine-grained soils (less than half retained on the 75 µm sieve):

C = Inorganic clay (PI above the 'A' line and PI> 7)
M = Silt } (PI below the 'A' line or 0 = Organic clay PI < 4)
(c) Highly organic soils:

Pt =Peat.
6
Suffix letters are allotted as follows:
(a) Coarse-grained soils having less than 5% passing the 75 µm sieve:

W =Well graded (Cu > 4 (for gravel) or > 6 (for sand); I < Cc < 3).
P = Poorly graded (not meeting all the grading requirements for suffix W).
(b) Coarse-grained soils having more than 12% passing the 75 µm sieve:
C = with clay (PI above the 'A' line and PI> 7)
M = with silt (PI below the 'A' line or PI < 4).
(c) Fine-grained soils:

H = high plasticity (LL > 50%)
L = low plasticity (LL < 50%).
Soils having 5% to 12% passing the 75 µm sieve are given a dual classification
(e.g. GW-GM). Soils having PI above the 'A' line and 4 < PI < 7 are given a dual
classification (e.g. GC-GM, CL-ML).
Water Content and Density
Effect of changes in density and water content: Shear strength, permeability and
compressibility are all greatly affected by changes in the water content and in the
closeness of packing of the particles.
Water content: This is defined as
weight of water in the soil

weight of the solid matter
7
College of Sciences
4 Stage
th
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
Pressures in earth masses
Vertical Pressure at a Point. When the horizontal surface of a semi-infinite mass
is loaded, there are pressures and shears at all points of the mass. These stresses
may be estimated, using the formulas of the theory of elasticity developed for
idealized elastic bodies. Though soils, especially sand masses, are not elastic
bodies, the elastic formulas may give a fair idea of the stress patterns if applied at a
certain depth below the structure. According to an arbitrary practice, this depth, for
structures of limited dimensions, should not be less than three times the greatest
dimension of the structure in plan.
Boussinesq Formula. This formula is used to compute (or, more accurately, to
estimate) the vertical pressure pv at a point 0 within a semi-infinite elastic mass,
caused by a concentrated load P applied at point A of the surface (Fig.1). Imagine
that point 0 is located on a horizontal plane which is z units (e.g., feet) deep. If the
line of action of the load P is extended within the earth, it will strike that horizontal
plane at some point A'
Fig.1. Vertical pressure pv at a point within an earth mass.
2
Use symbol r for the distance from point A' to the given point 0. The
vertical pressure is
wherein NB is a coefficient found from the graph in (Fig. 2). To use

this graph the ratio r/z must first be computed.
Fig. 2. Boussinesq's (NB) and Westergaard's (NW) factors for determining the vertical pressure
pv. (Adapted from Taylor's "Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics," by permission.)
3
Example: Assume a load of 4,500 tons applied as a point concentration at the surface. Determine
the vertical pressure pv at a point 40 ft below the load and 15 ft
away horizontally, so that r = 15 ft, z = 40 ft, and r/z = 0.38. From graph,
NB = 0.34, and by Eq.
Westergaard Formula. This formula differs from the Boussinesq formula in the
value of the coefficient Nw.
The coefficient Nw is determined from the same graph in (Fig. 2). Be careful not to
confuse the coefficients NB and Nw.
Example: If the Westergaard formula is used in the preceding example, the vertical
pressure would be
As may be seen from Fig. 2, the Westergaard formula gives smaller values of the
vertical pressure than the Boussinesq formula. Westergaard derived his formula on
the assumption that the mass is prevented from being strained laterally by the
presence of exceedingly thin but very rigid horizontal sheets; this assumption
approaches the condition of sedimentary rocks and soils. The original Westergaard
formula contains Poisson's ratio.
4
Two-to-one Method. This purely practical method is convenient to estimate
roughly the vertical pressure pv within an earth mass. If the dimensions of the
loaded area are a and b, it is assumed that at a depth z, the load is spread over an
area (a + z) (b + z). The stresses are spread in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 3) with
the sides sloping 1 horizontal to 2 vertical. If there are two or more loaded areas
and their pyramids overlap, the load at the overlapping areas is not doubled.
Fig.3. The 2 : 1 method.
Example: A raft 20 ft by 60 ft is loaded with 6,000 psf. The total load is

6,000 X 20 X 60 = 7,200,000 lb
At a depth of 25 ft it is spread over an area of (20 + 25) (60 + 25) = 3,825 sq ft.
Hence the average (but not maximum) vertical pressure at that level is
Usually 50 per cent is added to the average pressure to obtain the maximum vertical pressure.
Accordingly, in this case, the maximum vertical pressure under the center of the raft would be
pv = 1,880 X 1.5 = 2,820 psf
5
Newmark's Chart. To compute the vertical pressure pv caused within the earth
mass by a flexible uniformly loaded area of any shape placed at or close to the
ground surface, Newmark's chart may be used. The point of the surface under
which the pressure in question is to be found may be under or outside the loaded
area. The chart is simple and may be drawn in half an hour by a person familiar
with drawing. The chart consists of nine concentric circles (Fig. 4). Their radii
measured in inches are shown in that figure. The circles are subdivided info 20
equal sectors. The depth z where the vertical pressure pv is to be determined
Fig. 4. Newmark's chart.
is represented by 1 in. Draw the plan of the loaded area on transparent paper to that
scale (e.g., if the depth is 40 ft, the scale will be 1 in. = 40ft). Place the plan of the
loaded area on the chart in such a way that the point of the surface under which the
pressure has to be determined coincides exactly with the center of the chart. Count
the number of subdivisions, both large and small, covered by the plan of the loaded
6
area. If a subdivision is only partially covered, estimate what part of it is covered.
Each subdivision equals 0.005 of the unit load at the area. Hence the vertical
pressure in question will be found by multiplying 0.005 of the unit load at the area
by the number of subdivisions counted. The Newmark chart is based on the
Boussinesq formula.
Example: A flexible area 40 by 50 ft placed at the ground surface is uniformly loaded with 4,000
psf. Determine the vertical pressure pv at the center of the area at a depth of 40 ft.
Solution: The scale to which the plan of the given area should be prepared is 1 in. = 40 ft. Since
the area is symmetrical with respect to both center lines, it is necessary to count subdivisions in a
quarter of the area only and multiply by 4. The count is 20.3 subdivisions for a quarter of the
area or 20.3 X 4 for 81.2 subdivisions for the whole area. The vertical pressure in question is
pv = 0.005 X 4,000 X 81.2 = 1,624 psf
A quick check by the 2:1 method gives 1,725 psf for pv.
Contact Pressures. In actual design practice it generally is assumed that the

pressure distribution under a uniformly loaded structure is also uniform.
Apparently, this assumption is fair, since no failure caused by using this
assumption has been reported. Theoretically, soil pressures are uniform only under
perfectly flexible structures, and even so, settlements of such structures are not
uniform. For example, a large built-up area in a compressible clay region would
tend to settle more at its center than at its edges.
Theory of Consolidation. Terzaghi's theory of consolidation is applicable to

saturated clays or similar materials with flexible particles.
The theory states that if a mass made of such material is suddenly loaded and the
load remains acting on it for a very long time, an instantaneous initial
compression first occurs as in any other loaded body. Then the pore moisture will
be gradually squeezed out with a consequent decrease in porosity and over-all
volume. This is the primary compression to which Terzaghi's theory can be
applied. The final stage of consolidation is the secondary compression, which is
thought to be some plastic rearrangement of flexible particles; it is rather small in
nonorganic clays but large in organic clays.
7
The term " consolidated sediment" as used in geology means a hardened, rocklike
material, e.g., shale that has been formed from sedimentary clay by gradual
compression or other means. To the engineer, however, consolidated clay is a clay
in which the consolidation process, as he defines it, has come to an end. If an
additional load acts on a clay thus consolidated, the consolidation process will start
again.
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College of Sciences
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ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering
Rock mechanics. is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

behaviour of rock and rock masses. Rock mechanics deals with the mechanical
properties of rock and the related methodologies required for engineering design.
The subject of rock mechanics has evolved from different disciplines of applied
mechanics. It is a truly interdisciplinary subject, with applications in geology and
geophysics, mining, petroleum, geotechnical engineering, building foundations,
dams, slopes, tunnels, caverns, civil engineering.
Rock mechanics involves characterizing the intact strength and the geometry and
mechanical properties of the natural fractures of the rock mass.
Rock engineering is concerned with specific engineering circumstances, for
example, how much load will the rock support and whether reinforcement is
necessary.
Index properties of rocks

The properties that are relatively easy to measure and used to classify the rocks
are known as the index properties of rocks.
The following are the main index properties of rocks
1- unit weight
2- porosity & permeability
3- durability
4- ultrasonic velocity
5- point load strength index
1- Unit weight
The weight of a rock per unit volume is known as unit weight.
a) bulk unit weight:
It is defined as the total weight per unit total volume.
2
b) Dry unit weight
It is defined as the weight of solids per unit total volume.
c) Saturated unit weight

It is the bulk unit weight when the rock is fully saturated in water.
d) True unit weight

It is equal to the ratio of the weight of solids to the volume of solids.
γtrue = Ws
Vs
e) Submerged unit weight

It is equal to the ratio of the submerged weight of the rock to the total volume of
the rock.
γsub = Wsub
VB
When the rock exists below water, it is in a submerged condition. The net mass of
the rock is reduced.
2- Porosity
Porosity of a rock is defined as the ratio of the void space to the total volume of
the rock.
n = Vv 100
VB
3
Permeability
The rocks ability to conduct fluids is termed as permeability. The permeability of
rock depends upon the interconnections of its pores and fractures.
Measurement of the permeability of a rock sample may have direct bearing on a
practical problem, for example:
- Pumping water, oil, or gas into or out of a porous rock formation.
- Storing fluids in mined caverns for energy conversion.
- Assessing the water tightness of a reservoir.
- Predicting water inflows into a tunnel.
The permeability of a rock specimen is worked out in the laboratory using a
cylindrical core of known dimensions, (Fig.1), placed in a specially designed cell
subjected to hydrostatical pressures. The quantity of water percolating through the
cross-sectional area of sample during a given interval time is measured and the
coefficient of permeability computed.
Figure 1. longitudinal permeability test set-up
4
The coefficient of permeability test shall be calculated as follows:
k= Q
ATH/L
Where
k = coefficient of permeability in (cm/s)
Q = quantity of water percolating over the entire period of test after steady state
has been reached in (ml)
A = cross-sectional area of specimen face in (cm²)
T = time in seconds over which Q is measured.
H/L = ratio of pressure head to length of specimen, both expressed in the same
units.
Elasticity of Rocks
Modulus of Elasticity E for Rocks. Referring to (Fig. 2), a certain load P' smaller
than the crushing load decreases the height L of the square prismatic sample
vertically by a value of ∆L and increases its width horizontally from B to B + ∆B.
If, after removal of the load, the sample tends to recover its original shape and size,
the rock is said to possess elastic properties. Rarely, however, does the sample
recover its original shape and size after one loading and unloading; a part of the
deformation generally remains. This is plastic or irreversible deformation. After
one or more consecutive loadings and unloadings, the sample may become elastic;
i.e., after each loading and unloading it recovers exactly the same shape and size as
before that particular loading.
5
Figure 2. (a) Deformations of a loaded prismatic rock sample, (b) Stress-strain
diagram for a granite.
If, in addition, at each loading the deformation ∆L is proportional to the load P' that
caused it, the material is said to obey Hooke's law of proportionality of stress to
strain ("perfect" elasticity):
Symbol E is the modulus of elasticity for the given rock in compression and
is also known as Young's modulus. It is expressed in terms of stress, i.e., pounds
per square inch, pounds per square foot, kips per square inch,* kilograms per
square centimeter, or metric tons per square inch.
Strictly speaking, E equation applies to an isotropic rock in which the
6
elastic properties are the same in all directions. In an isotropic material (rock in this
case) the modulus of elasticity is constant; i.e., it is the same in all directions. The
elastic properties of actual rocks are usually variable in different directions, and the
value of the modulus of elasticity depends on the direction of measurement.
For example, the smallest value of the modulus of elasticity generally occurs when
E is measured perpendicular (normal) to the bedding of a rock. This means that the
greatest deflections in a loaded rock occur when the load is placed perpendicular
to bedding. In a general case the elastic properties of a foundation rock are
adversely affected by various geological conditions such as fault zones, fractures,
small igneous intrusions in sedimentary rocks, and lenticularity of bedding, which
permits the introduction of occasional soft zones into generally hard rocks.
Modulus of Compression. Stress-Strain Diagram. The stress-strain diagram in

(Fig. 2. b) represents the results of an unconfined compression test performed to
determine the modulus of elasticity E of a granite. The sample was loaded,
unloaded, and loaded again. In each loading, the load was gradually increased.
Point A corresponds to the stage when the increasing unit load was 1,000 psi. The
corresponding deformation ∆L (Fig. 2a) divided by the height L of the sample at
that time is the strain at that stage (532 millionths). The modulus of elasticity Ec
corresponding to that stage is the slope of the secant OA, i.e., the straight-line
joining points O and A:
In reality what is obtained in the first loading of a sample is the modulus of

compression (or modulus of deformation) of the material, which includes both
elastic and plastic deformations. To obtain the true value of the modulus of
elasticity the sample should be unloaded and loaded again and this cycle repeated
until the stress-strain diagram becomes a straight line. In the present case the
second loading gives a fair approximation to a straight line, and
7
In practice, often no distinction is made between the modulus of compression and the modulus of
elasticity, and the former modulus is called modulus of elasticity at the first loading or the first
loading cycle. If a heavy structure, e.g., a large masonry dam with a large initial dead load and a
rather small live (moving) load, is considered, the modulus of compression should be used. If the
live load is relatively large, as in the case of an old high bridge pier and high tides when a large
portion of the weight of the pier is periodically relieved by the tide, the use of a true E value
should be recommended.
Poisson's Ratio. Poisson's ratio (symbol µ or mu) is the ratio of the lateral strain
∆B/B to the longitudinal strain ∆L/L (Fig. 2a). As in the case of the modulus of
elasticity, the experimental values of this ratio also depend on the character of the
stress-strain diagram at first loading and on the manner of performing the tests.
Though the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio often are called elastic
constants, their experimental values are variable and approximate. Values available
for Poisson's ratio fluctuate between 0.15 and 0.24 for granite, between 0.16 and
0.23 for limestone, between 0.08 and 0.20 for schist, and between 0.25 and 0.38 for
marble.
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ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
Engineering (mechanical) properties of rock
Mechanical properties are related to stresses and strains in the rock properties from
static or destruction test when loads are applied to rock sample, until the rock fail
by rupture, these include: -
1- Uniaxial compressive strength test.
2- Tensile strength test.
3- Triaxial compression test= shear test = cylinder test.
4- Shear box test.
5- Point load test.
The discontinuities determine the engineering character and behavior of rocks
more the physical properties.
Intact rock = rock material = rock containing no discontinuities like joints,
bedding, faults, cleavages.
Rock mass = rock cut by discontinuities = intact rock + discontinuities.
1- Uniaxial compressive strength test (σc).

It represents the resistance of rock to compression when the stress is applied
axially and the sides of sample are unconfined (test in the air) = there is no lateral
confined of the sample.
- Samples are either prism or cylinder with length
- Length : diameter ratio = 2/1
or range 2.5 – 3.0, and core ≈ 54 mm = 5.4 cm
2
σc = uniaxial compression strength in MPa or kg / cm2
P = axial load in N or kg
A = cross section area of the sample.
2- Tensile strength test of Intact Rock (σt).

By Brazilian (indirect method), when compression is set in one direction at a point
or line, tension is set in perpendicular direction resulting in tension crack or tension
fraction. This is the principle of the Brazilian indirect method for measuring tensile
strength test of rock.
Using sample, disc of diameter: thickness ratio = D/t = 2/1
σt = tensile strength MPa

P = applied force MN
D = diameter of disc m
t = disc thickness m
3
3- Triaxial compression test (shear strength test) cylinder test.
Using triaxial compression cell in which the sample cylinder is put surrounded by
fluid under confining pressure, (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Triaxial testing apparatus
4
1- Axial load P is applied until failure occur and recorded.
2- The fluid applies lateral confining pressure σ2 = σ3 on sample.
3- The results are recorded as:
Test No. σ1 σ3
1 (σ1)1 (σ3)1
2 (σ1)2 (σ3)2
3 (σ1)3 (σ3)3
4 (σ1)4 (σ3)4
4- After the first experiment another sample is used & experiment but under
higher confining pressure (σ3)2, then in preview experiment repeated
(σ3)2 ˃ (σ3)1, consequentially stress at failure (σ1)2 will be larger in prev.
exp. (σ1)2 > (σ1)1.
This indicate the rock strength increasing with increasing the confining pressure.
The test is repeated more with increasing the confining pressure.
Results representation: Mohr diagram is drown represent the relationship between

shear stress τ as ordinate and normal stress σ as abscissa, so for each test Mohr
circle is draw length dimeter = σ1- σ3 & the circle is draw, so the center of the
circle lies mid-way between σ1& σ3, (Figure 2).
The equation of the tangent line (Mohr Envelope) is:
τ = c + σ tan Ø
5
Figure 2. Mohr diagram
6
The line tangent to all circles is called Mohr Envelope, it is inclined at angle Ø.
Ø = Angle of internal friction, and cut τ axis at c = cohesion.
σ1 of the circle with (σ3 = 0) gives the compressive strength of rock (unconfined
strength).
To get the X value:
X + 2X = X + [ 90 + Ø]
2X = 90 + Ø
X = 45 + Ø/2
7
4- Shear Box Test.
This test is used to fined the shear strength of planar discontinuities to find its
cohesive (c) and its friction angle (Ø).
Test procedure: Assume a number of test samples were cut from a block of rock
containing a smooth, planar discontinuity. Furthermore, the discontinuity contains
a cemented infilling material such that a tensile force would have to be applied to
the two halves of the sample in order to separate them.
Each sample is subjected to a force at right angles to the discontinuity surface
(normal stress, σ), and a force is applied in the direction parallel to the
discontinuity (shear stress, τ) while the shear displacement (δs) is measured
(Figure 3(a)).
For a test carried out at a constant normal stress, a typical plot of the shear stress
against the shear displacement is shown in (Figure 3(b)). At small displacements,
the specimen behaves elastically and the shear stress increases linearly with
displacement. As the force resisting movement is overcome, the curve become
non-linear and then reaches a maximum that represents the peak shear strength of
the discontinuity. Thereafter, the stress required to cause displacement decreases
and eventually reaches a constant value termed the residual shear strength.
If the peak shear strength values from tests carried out at different normal stress
levels are plotted, a relationship shown in (Figure 3(c)) is obtained; this is termed a
Mohr diagram. The features of this plot are first, that it is approximately linear and
the slope of the line is equal to the peak friction angle φp of the rock surface.
Second, the intercept of the line with the shear stress axis represents the cohesive
strength c of the cementing material. This cohesive component of the total shear
strength is independent of the normal stress, but the frictional component increases
with increasing normal stress. Based on the relationship illustrated on (Figure1(c)),
the peak shear strength is defined by the equation:
τ = c + σ tan φp
If the residual shear stress values at each applied normal stress are plotted on the
Mohr diagram, the residual shear strength line is obtained as shown on
(Figure3(d)), and is defined by the equation:
τ = σ tan φr
8
where φr is the residual friction angle.
For the residual strength condition, the cohesion is lost once displacement has
broken the cementing action; on the Mohr diagram this is represented by the
strength line passing through the origin of the graph. Also, the residual friction
angle is less than the peak friction angle because the shear displacement grinds the
minor irregularities on the rock surface and produces a smoother, lower friction
surface.
Figure 3. Definition of shear strength of discontinuity surface; (a) shear test of discontinuity; (b)
plot of shear displacement vs shear stress; (c) Mohr plot of peak strength; (d) Mohr plot of peak
and residual strength.
5- Point Load Test.

The point load test is an appropriate method to estimate the compressive strength
(UCS) of intact rock (rock slope design) because it normally gives the tensile
strength of rocks (Figure 4).
9
The equipment is portable, and tests can be carried out quickly and inexpensively
in the field on both core and lump samples (ISRM, 1985).
The test procedure involves placing the sample between the two steel cones
(Figure 2) and applying a load (compressing the sample) with the hydraulic jack to
break the sample in tension, the load at which tension failure occurs is recorded.
The diameter of the sample (distance between the two points (cones) is also
recorded.
Figure 4. Point load testing: (a) diameter sample; and (b) test of irregular sample in the field
10
Tension failure means fraction of axial crack parallel to the axis of the axis of the
cones and apparatus. If the fraction is oblique to the axis it is shear fraction.
The point load index Is is:
Is = P/D2 1.5
Where:
P = load at failure
D = sample diameter
1.5 = is a factor of compression area which differs from one apparatus to another.
Types of Point Load Tests:

Three types of tests can be carried out, these:
1- Diameter test in which L ˃ 0.7 D
2- Axial test in which D/L = 1.1 +- 0.05
3- Irregular lump test in which D/L = 1.0 to 1.4
11
Compression strength from strength index
The compression strength (σc) or (unconfined compressive strength (UCS)) can be
found by multiplying the strength index (Is) by a factor k whose value depend on
the core diameter of the used sample, so:
σc = (UCS) = k Is
k value depends on sample diameter, for 50 mm = 22.5.
The Is value differ for different diameter, therefore a standard diameter of 50 mm
is used to find the strength index. If the sample diameter is smaller or larger than
50 mm, a correction chart (Figure 5) must be to find the strength index (Is) that
corresponds to diameter of 50 mm.
Size correction of strength index (Is) can be done using the chart of Bienawski,
1975, (Figure 5), which shows the strength index (Is) value as ordinate plotted on
log. scale, and core diameter in mm plotted on abscissa (x-axis) on normal scale.
Curved correction lines are shown in the chart (Figure 5).

If the (Is) of sample of 30 mm diameter is plotted at (a), move along the curved
line to the right until it intersect, the Is(50) at (b) vertical line. From the point of
intersecting move horizontally toward (Is) axis point (c) this gives Is(50).
If the (Is) of sample of 70 mm diameter is plotted at (ā) move along the curved
line to the left until it intersect the Is(50) vertical line at (bˉ), then from the point of
intersecting move horizontally toward (Is) axis point (cˉ) this gives Is(50).
12
Figure 5. Correction chart, (Bienawski, 1975)
To find the compressive strength σc apply the equation:
σc = k Is(50) = 22.5 Is(50)
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College of Sciences
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ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
Rock slope stability
Slope stability is a specialized subject in engineering geology, in civil engineering,
and in geotechnical engineering.
In the history of rock mechanics and rock engineering, more attention has been
paid to slope instability considerations than any other topic, and this topic remains
one of the most important today. One of our first considerations must be to identify
the basic mechanisms of slope instability. Analysis may then proceed treating the
unstable mass as a continuum or discontinuum.
Earth surface is not always flat or horizontal surface bat in many region, lake
mountainous and hilly regions, the earth surface is inclined in different directions
at different angles.
Slope surface is not always simple planar surface, it can have different shapes,
inclinations, and heights, like overhanging, vertical, steep, gentle, irregular,
concave, convex.
Slope Failure: is a geologic process that involves the downslope movement of an

earth mass under the influence of gravity and under its own weight, it involves
vertical, inclined, or horizontal movement, its change in position of a mass
downslope.
The movement occurs when the strength of the slope is exceeded by the stress
inside it, when stress (special shear stress) in the mass exceeds its strength.
Types (Modes) of Rocks Failure: -

There are many ways by which failures can be classified. Generally, one way
is based on the type of movement, (Hoek and Bray,1981). Accordingly, the failures
of rock slope mainly occur in: -
1- Sliding
a- Translation
i- Plane
2
ii- wedge
iii- Slab
b- Rotational or Circular
2- Toppling
3- Rock fall
4- Creep
5- flow
1- Sliding: -
Sliding is a shear movement of rock mass down slope, the failure occurs upon
surface that lies inside the rock mass and called (slip surface), it is divided into two
types according to the shape of slip surface: -
a- Translational Sliding: -
Translational slides involve shear failure on almost planar surfaces, and they
are divided into two types:
i- Plane Sliding: -
Sliding along single plane surface.
3
The general conditions for plane failure are:
1- The plane on which sliding occurs must strike parallel or nearly parallel
(within approximately ± 20°) to the slope face.
2- The sliding plane must "daylight" in the slope face, which means that the dip
angle of the plane (Ψp) must be less than slope inclination (Ψf) that is Ψp< Ψf.
3- The dip angle (Ψp) of the sliding plane must be equal or greater than the angle
of friction (  ) of this plane, that is Ψp ≥  .
4- The upper end of the sliding surface either intersects the upper slope, or
terminates in a tension crack.
4
5- Release surfaces that provide negligible resistance to sliding must be present
in the rock mass to define the lateral boundaries of the slide, (figure 1).
6- Cohesion = zero.
Figure (1) Geometry of slope exhibiting plane failure: (a) cross-section showing planes
forming a plane failure (b) release surfaces at ends of plane failures.
5
ii- Wedge Sliding: -
Wedge failure is concerned with the slope failure of a rock mass containing
discontinuities striking obliquely to the slope face where sliding of a wedge of rock
takes place along the line of intersection of the two planes.
The general conditions for wedge failure are as follows:

1- The line of intersection of the two planes must plunge down slope in the same
general direction of slope inclination.
2- The two planes will always intersect in a line that plunges at angle (Ψi) smaller
than slope inclination angle (Ψf), and equal to or steeper than the friction angle (
 ) of the two slide planes, that is Ψf>Ψi≥  , (figure 2).
3- Cohesion = zero.
6
b
Figure (2) Geometric conditions for wedge failure: (a) pictorial view of wedge failure (b)
view of slope at right angles to the line of intersection.
7
iii – Slab Sliding: -
is a plane sliding in which the sliding mass is tabular and its upper and lower
surface are parallel.
b-Rotational (Circular) Sliding: -

Rotational sliding or (slump) occurs in weak material such as highly
weathered or closely fractured rock, rock fills and soil. In such materials, failures
occur along surface that approaches a circular shape. The slide mass is free to find
the surface of least resistance through the slope material, (figure 3).
8
Figure (3) Pictorial view of circular failure.
9
2- Toppling: -
Toppling is a failure mode which involves rotation of columns or blocks of
rock about a fixed base axis. Consider a block of rock resting on an inclined plane
at angle (Ψ), (figure 4).
10
11
In this case, the dimensions of the block are defined by height (h) and a base
length (b) and it is assumed that the force resisting downward movement of the block
is due to friction only, cohesion (c) =0.
When the vector representing the weight (W) of the block falls within the base
(b), (figure 4-a), toppling will not occur and the ratio b/h>tan Ψ, but sliding of the
block will occur if the inclination angle of the plane (Ψ) is equal or greater than the
angle of friction (  ). However, when the block is tall and slender and the ratio b/h
is <tan Ψ, (figure 4-b), the weight vector (W) will fall outside the base (b) and, when
this happens, the block will topple. It rotates about its lowest contact edge (base
axis).
12
(a) (b)
b/h>tan Ψ b/h<tan Ψ
Ψ
Ψ
h
h
b
W W b
Ψ
Ψ
Figure (4) Block of rock resting on a plane inclined at angle (Ψ), (a) no toppling when
Ψvector lies outside the base.
(W) vector lies inside the base. (b) toppling occurs when (W)
The conditions for sliding and/or toppling for this single block are defined in,
(figure 5), the four regions in this diagram are defined as follows: -
13
❖ Region 1: Ψ<  and b/h> tan Ψ, the block is stable and will neither slide nor
topple.
❖ Region 2: Ψ>  and b/h> tan Ψ, the block will slide but it will not topple.
❖ Region 3: Ψ<  and b/h< tan Ψ, the block will topple but it will not slide.
❖ Region 4: Ψ>  and b/h< tan Ψ, the block can slide and topple simultaneously.
Region 1
Region 2
Ψ< Ø and b/h> tan Ψ

b\h Ratio
Ψ> Ø
b/h> tan Ψ Region 4
Ψ> Ø and b/h< tan Ψ

Region 3
Ψ< Ø and b/h< tan Ψ
Figure (5) Identification of sliding and toppling blocks, conditions for sliding and
toppling of block on an inclined plane.
14
3- Rock Fall: -
Rock fall consists of free-falling blocks (rocks) of different sizes which are
detached from a steep rock slope or cliff, (figure 6).
Figure (6) Rock fall
The start of rock fall movement involves an initial block detachment from the
surrounding mass followed by free fall down slope. This condition is induced by a
rock slope failure. The initial block velocity, at the start of the free-falling
15
movement, depends on the instability mode and on the block displacement which
occurs before the block is thrown into the air.
4- Creep: -
Is very slow movement of earth materials downslope.
5- Flow: -
Is downslope movement of saturated earth materials that behave as liquid due to
its high water content.
Identification of modes of slope instability

Different types of slope failure are associated with different geological
structures and it is important that the slope designer be able to recognize potential
stability problems during the early stages of a project. Some of the structural patterns
that should be identified when examining pole plots, (figure 7) shows the four types
of failure, and typical pole plots of geological conditions likely to lead to such
failures.
Note that in assessing stability, the cut face of the slope must be included in
the stereo plot since sliding can only occur as the result of movement towards the
free face created by the cut.
16
Figure 7. Main types of block failures in slopes, and structural geology conditions likely to cause
these failures: (a) plane failure in rock containing persistent joints dipping out of the slope face,
and striking parallel to the face; (b) wedge failure on two intersecting discontinuities; (c) toppling
failure in strong rock containing discontinuities dipping steeply into the face; and (d) circular
failure in rock fill, very weak rock or closely fractured rock with randomly oriented discontinuities.
17
Factors Influencing Rock Slope Stability: -
This includes:
1- Natural and Geological Factors: -
Different natural and geological factors are influence on rock slope stability
as follows:
A- Structural Factors: -
Structural geological data are usually the most important factor. This
information includes the orientation of discontinuities (such as bedding planes,
joints, faults, foliation, cleavage and schistosity).
B- Weathering: -
Weathering denotes the degradation or rock under the impact of water, wind,
temperature, chemical decomposition …etc. In arid and cold regions, weathering is
mainly due to physical actions. It preferably follows joints and other weak zones
C-Water Effects: -
Water is required for most –indeed possibly all- weathering processes both
physical and chemical. The presence of water (ground water, rainfall,..) in a rock
slope can have a detrimental effect upon stability for the following reasons:
1- Water pressure reduces the stability of the slopes by diminishing the shear
strength of potential failure surfaces.
2- Changes in moisture content of some rock, particularly shales and claystone
can cause accelerated weathering and a decrease in shear strength.
3- Freezing of ground water can cause wedging in water-filled fissures due to
temperature dependent volume changes in the ice. Also, freezing of surface water
on slopes can block drainage paths resulting in a build-up of water pressure in the
slope with a consequent decrease in stability.
18
4-Erosion of weathered rock by surface water and of low strength infillings by
ground water can result in local instability where the toe of a slope is undermined,
or a block of rock is loosened.
D- Geomorphology and Topography: -

The combination roles of slope characteristics (slope height and slope angle)
with the orientation of discontinuities, determine the initial stability of slopes.
Therefore, many slopes are stable at steep angles and large heights of several
hundreds of meters. While, many gentle slopes fall at low heights of only few of
meters. This difference is due to the fact that the stability of rock slopes varies with
inclination of discontinuity surfaces, such as faults, joints and bedding planes, within
the rock mass.
E- Gravity: -
Failed rock mass tends to move down slope under the influence of gravity, a
rock block resting on an inclined plane surface, the weight vector (W) of this block
is resolved into two components, the shear component that acts down slope and tends
to cause sliding is (W sinΨp), while the normal component which acts across the
block basal plane and which tends to stabilize the block is (W cosΨ p). The block will
just on the point of sliding or in condition of limiting equilibrium when the disturbing
force acting down the plane is exactly equal to the resisting force, (figure 8).
19
Figure (8) Gravity influence upon slope stability.
F- Seismic Activity and Vibration: -

In seismically active areas of the world, the design of rock slopes should take
into account the effects on stability of earthquake-induced ground motions.
five slope parameters have the greatest influence on stability during
earthquakes: Slope angle, Weathering, Induration, Discontinuity, and Water:
2- Artificial Factors: -
Human activities account for many landslides. The construction of highway,
hillside housing developments, dams, reservoirs, drainage and utility structures
normally involve the movement of substantial amounts of soil or rocks on slopes. If
the operation consists of addition of material to the top of the slope or the removal
of soil or rock from its base, then the slope is nudged toward failure. In extreme
cases, failures take place during or immediately following the construction process.
20
Improvement of Slope Stability and Protection: -
This includes:
1- Improvement of Slope Stability: -
When an analysis was carried out for the possible mode of failure of the rock
slope and if the factor of safety is found to be lower than the required value, it could
be improved in the following ways:
A- Drainage:
Ground water and surface water in rock slopes are often a primary or
contributory cause of instability. Methods of improvement include: -
1- Drainage Holes:
By decreasing the seepage pressure with the introduction of drainage holes
into the rock, cutting many cross joints as possible.
2- Catch Water Drains:
By suitably providing catch water drains to prevent rain water into the tension
cracks.
3- Drainages Gallery behind the Toe:
By providing, in special circumstances, drainage gallery behind the toe at
some distance and connecting it to horizontal and vertical or inclined drainage
holes, the slope may be made effectively free of seepage water.
B- Removal of Unstable Rocks:
Stabilization of rock slopes can be accomplished by the removal of potentially
unstable rocks. In general, rock removal is a preferred method of stabilization
because the work will eliminate the hazard, and no future maintenance will be
required. Methods of improvement include: -
1- Resloping:
Where overburden or weathered rock occurs in the upper portion of a cut, it
is often necessary to remove and cut this material at an angle flatter than the more
21
competent rock below it. Removal of loose rock on the face of a slope is not
effective where the rock is highly degradable, such as shale.
2- Trimming:
In these circumstances, removal of the overhang by trim blasting may be the
most appropriate stabilization measure.
3- Scaling:
Scaling describes the removal of loose rock, soil and vegetation on the face of
a slope using hand tools such as scaling bars, shovels and chain saws.
C- Slope Height Reduction:
By reducing the height of the slope or depth of excavation, this may not be
possible in some situations.
D- Using Rock Bolts, Anchors, and Concrete Walls or Shotcrete:
By providing rock bolts or rock anchors distributed over slope and orienting
them as advantageously as possible with respect to the location and attitude
(strike and dip) of the joints. If tensioned rock bolts are used to support closely
fractured rock, the fractured rock may degrade and ravel from under the reaction
plates of the anchors, and eventually the tension in the bolts will be lost. In these
circumstances, a reinforced concrete wall (reaction wall) can be constructed to
cover the area of fractured rock, and then the holes for the rock anchors can be
drilled through sleeves in the wall. Finally, the anchors are installed and tensioned
against the face of the wall. The wall acts as both a protection against raveling of
the rock, and a large reaction plate for the rock anchors. Where necessary,
reinforced shotcrete can be substituted for concrete.
2- Protection of Slope Stability (Against Rock Fall): -

An effective method of minimizing the hazard of rock fall is to let the falls
occur and control the distance and direction in which they travel. Protection
22
methods are always used in areas of extreme rock fall hazard where stabilization
of the slope would be very costly.
A- Gabions:
Gabions are effective protection tools for falling rock. Gabions are rock filled,
typically measuring 0.91m by 0.91m in cross-section, that are often constructed
on-site with local waste rock. Advantages of gabions are the ease of construction
on steep hillside and where the foundation is irregular, and their capacity to
sustain considerable impact from falling rock.
B- Ditches:
Catch ditches at the toe of the slope are often a cost-effective means of
stopping rock fall, provided there is adequate space at the toe of the slope.
C- Wire Mesh:
Wire mesh hung on the face of a rock slope can be an effective method of
containing rock falls close to the face and preventing them from bouncing on to
the road by absorbs some of the energy of the falling rock.
23
College of Sciences
4 Stage
th
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
Tunnels
Tunnel is a horizontal or near-horizontal excavation or holes that is open to the
ground surface at each end.
Uses of tunnels
The general uses of tunnels are:
1- Tunnels often are used to transportation and conduct the line under a natural
obstacle such as a hill, ridge, or mountains.
2- Tunnels use, in cities, carry underground railroads and highways which,
because of the complexity of traffic problems, cannot be built above the
ground.
3- Used for passengers and freight to pass under main roads.
4- Tunnels also carry fluids, for example, there are water supply and sewage
disposal tunnels and water tunnels used in producing hydroelectric energy.
5- Subaqueous tunnels (constructed under water) replace bridges, e.g., the
British - France Tunnel (Calos - Dover Tunnel).
Terminology
- Overburden: for engineer, all materials (soil or loose) above tunnel.
For geologist, implies unconsolidated, or mostly soil, material.
- A shaft: vertical or near-vertical direction excavation or holes and is open to
the ground surface only at the top.
- A drift (or adit): excavation is similar to a tunnel, it is open to the surface at
one end only. Use for exploration of the ground (lithology, structure, water,
discontinuities).
- Raise or stope: inclined excavation driven from the main tunnel or drift in an
upward direction, usually for exploratory purposes.
- Stope: indicates rock fall from tunnel roof during excavation process, or use as
"stoping upward" (Fig. 1).
2
Fig.1. Longitudinal section parallel to the tunnel.
There are four terms commonly used to describe the location of parts
of the tunnel cross section (Fig. 2). There is:
- The floor or invert: for the ground of the tunnel, if flat strut, that sometimes, is
used instead of an arch is called an invert strut.
- Back, roof, or crown: are used for the peak or top of the tunnel cross section.
- Tunnel walls: sides of the tunnel section.
- The spring line: is the point where the curved portion of the roof intersects the top
of the walls.
Fig.2. Tunnel cross- section.
3
Pressure-relief Phenomena
The rocks in nature, especially the deep ones, are affected by the weight of the
overlying strata and by their own weight. Stresses develop in the rock mass
because of these factors. In general, every stress produces a strain and displaces the
individual rock particles. To be displaced, a rock particle needs freedom to do so;
in other words it needs to have space available for movement. If the rock is
confined and its motion thus prevented, there will be only a partial rock
displacement, if any.
The stress that could not produce displacement because of the confinement of the
rock mass still remains in the rock and is said to be in storage in the rock. A more
appropriate technical term for such stored stresses is residual stresses. As soon as a
rock particle acted upon by a residual stress is permitted to move, a displacement
occurs. The amount of movement depends upon the magnitude of the stored stress.
There may be only a small displacement with an insignificant rupture of the rock,
or the displacement may be very large and involve the violent movement of a
considerable yardage. The rate at which the released rock mass moves is not
necessarily great, and there may be very quiet evidence of pressure relief, as such
cases are termed.
Summarizing, a pressure relief is a decrease of a residual stress or a system of
stresses, instantaneous or slow in character, accompanied by the movement of the
rock mass with variable degrees of violence. An opening in the rock mass, such as
an excavation for the tunnel, causes the adjacent rock to flow into the opening; this
in turn may liberate the previously confined rock masses and relieve the pressure.
Methods of pressure-relief
1- In deep tunnels, i.e., driven at great depths below the surface, rock bursts
may occur. This generally is manifested by the popping, or ''blowing out," of
slabs from seemingly sound rock in the tunnel section.
2- In platy or fissile rock such as shale, the platy beds may slowly deform and
"bow" into the tunnel. In this case the rock is not necessarily detached from
the main mass, but the deformation may cause fissures and hollows in the
rock surrounding the tunnel.
3- Bumping ground, or " bumps." The term refers to a sudden and somewhat
violent earth tremor which disturbs deep underground strata.
4
There are several classifications of bumps, all local in nature. In general, bumps
are evidenced by:
a- A sudden heaving of the tunnel floor and, in some extreme cases, the roof.
b- The sudden release of large masses of rock from the tunnel walls.
c- shock waves transmitted through the tunnel floor that sometimes are of
sufficient intensity to kill a man.
Arching around a Tunnel

Even if there are no residual stresses in a rock mass, the construction of an opening
makes the adjacent rock move into it. This rock is then pulled away by tensile
stresses from the rest of the mass, which remains in place. In many cases, this
tendency can be stopped only by providing adequate supports during construction
and lining afterward. Sometimes the opening can stand safe without any support,
both in rock and in firm clay.
In any case, construction of the opening destroys the existing state of equilibrium
in the material around the opening, and a new state of equilibrium is established.
Nature does it by developing self-balanced systems of shearing stresses that
produce the phenomenon known as arching around the tunnel.
The process of picking up the weight of the overburden by the shearing forces
requires that the shearing strength of the material above the opening be not less
than the corresponding shearing stress. Otherwise, if no lining is provided, the
overburden will fail and crumble down into the opening. In the case of a tunnel
with a lining, the weight of the overburden is divided between the lining and the
systems of shears around the tunnel. As already stated, the systems of shearing
stresses around an opening should be and are self-balanced, since they do not
create or eliminate pressures but simply redistribute them.
An appraisal of the arching capacity of the rocks around a proposed tunnel is an
important item in the geological study preceding construction. In badly fissured
rocks, arch patterns cannot be sufficiently well developed. Massive igneous rocks
generally offer favorable arching possibilities.
5
The same also is true of the following layered formations: (1) horizontal or slightly
dipping ones with the strike parallel to the axis of the tunnel and (2) steeply
dipping formations with the strike perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel. These
two types of layered formations in their limiting positions, i.e., with horizontal and
vertical layers, respectively, are shown in (Fig.3a and c).
Influence of Rock Stratification on Lining Pressure

The total amount of pressure on the tunnel lining and the way in which the pressure
is distributed along the lining depend primarily on the stratification of the rock in
which the tunnel is built. (Figure 3) shows different tunnel locations in rock strata.
(Figure 3a, b, and c) shows more or less uniform vertical pressure on the lining,
whereas (Fig. 3d and f) shows the pressure concentration at one side of the tunnel
caused by oblique strata. (Figure 3e) shows a case of heavy pressure at the key of
the arch. The locations shown in (Fig. 3a, d, and e) are favorable for office study of
pressures, since in these cases, a two-dimensional stress distribution may be
assumed.
Fig.3. Influence of rock stratification on the tunnel lining.
6
Anticlines and Synclines
Location of the tunnel in an anticline tends to relieve the vertical pressure on the
lining (Fig. 4a), whereas in a tunnel located in a syncline, there will be an increase
in pressure. Furthermore, if located in water- bearing strata, the "anticlinal" tunnel
(Fig. 4a) will have water flowing from it, whereas water tends to flow into the
tunnel located in a syncline (Fig. 4b).
Consideration also should be given to the fact that in an anticline, the upper strata
are more bent and hence more fissured by tensile stresses than the lower strata.
Fig.4. Tunnel located in anticline and syncline.
Therefore, it is advisable to locate the tunnel at a depth where this fissuring will
not be consequential. A deep tunnel in this case also will be less subject to the
percolation of meteoric water from above. (Figure 5a and b) shows cases where a
tunnel intersects an anticline and syncline, respectively.
In the anticline, lateral pressure on the tunnel is greater close to the portals
(entrances) than at the middle of the tunnel, whereas in the syncline, the converse
is true.
7
Fig. 5. Tunnel crossing (a) an anticline and (b) a syncline.
Tunnels near Steep Slopes

In some cases, the stability of the entire tunnel is endangered by the unfavorable
stratification of the surrounding rock. (Figure 6) shows a situation which often
occurs when a railroad or highway follows steep, rocky slopes dipping toward a
river or a lake. The line in such cases is located alternately in tunnels and on
viaducts or retaining walls.
To decrease the cost of the line, tunnels should be located as close as possible to
the steep rock slopes; however, such locations demand that their stability be
thoroughly investigated. (Figure 6a, d, and e) shows stable tunnels, whereas (Fig.
6b) corresponds to an unstable structure. Fissuring of rock as in (Fig. 6f) also
impairs the safety of the tunnel. The structure in (Fig. 6c) is only mediocre from
the stability point of view.
It must be kept in mind, however, that the above examples are rather simplified.
Usually there are other circumstances that must be taken into account in locating a
tunnel, e.g., water pressure in an unlined water supply tunnel. In the latter case if
the overburden is fissured or fractured as in (Fig. 6f), a blowout may occur.
Because of the leakage of water through fissures or fractures, the resistance of the
8
overburden to lifting is gradually decreased until the overlying beds are actually
pushed or blown off the surface.
Fig. 6. Tunnels close to a steep slope.
9
Tunnels in Faulted Zones
Figure 7 illustrates different positions of the tunnel with respect to faults. (Figure
7a) shows a tunnel located within the faulted zone, whereas (Fig. 7b and c)
corresponds to the location of the tunnel in the foot wall and in the hanging wall,
respectively. The tunnel in (Fig. 7d and f) crosses the fault, obliquely in the latter
case. In (Fig. 7e) the tunnel is outside the fault.
Fig. 7. Different positions of a tunnel with respective to a fault.
The geologist should determine if the faulting has occurred in recent times, i.e.,
within the recorded history of the area, and therefore can be considered "active." If
the tunnel is to be built far from a fault but in a region intersected by numerous
faults, the possibility of new faulting action should be considered.
Generally speaking, if a tunnel intersects an active fault, little can be done to
protect the structure. In this case it is best to shift the alignment to avoid the fault
or to use open cut within the active fault if possible. Whether the fault is active or
inactive, the rock material within a faulted zone generally is shattered and unstable,
and there may be considerable water inflow, as in the case of the syncline tunnel
10
location (Fig. 5b). The space between the fault walls may be filled with gouge. If a
section of a tunnel follows the gouge zone, swelling of this material may occur and
cause displacement or breakage of tunnel supports during construction. Sometimes
the space between the fault walls is filled with sand-sized crushed rock that has a
tendency to flow into the tunnel and thus is often mistaken for sand. If, in addition,
the tunnel is located under the water table, a kind of sandlike suspension may rush
into the tunnel. When the tunnel crosses an active fault, as in (Fig. 7d and f), the
tunnel may be acted upon suddenly by a shearing force so great as to disrupt any
lining completely. The shear displacement may be in any plane, according to the
relative position of a tunnel to the fault.
11
College of Sciences
4 Stage
th
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
1
Dams and Reservoirs
Dams are engineering hydraulic structures usually built across valleys to impound
the river water and from a lake.
Three features distinguish dams from other engineering structures:
1- unusual accumulation of large masses of building materials and water on a
limited area of the earth's surface and, hence, exceedingly heavy pressures
on the foundation.
2- destructive influence of the water in the reservoir on the foundation and on
the structure itself which may cause leakage, erosion, or even failure of the
structure.
3- Emplacement always in a valley. Consequently, dams depend on the
environmental conditions, particularly on the geology of the site, more than
other engineering structures, and in the case of large dams, adequate
geologic studies are always made. Even in small dams, however, it
sometimes is more economical to retain a geologist than to suffer the
consequences of a dam failure due to unforeseen conditions.
Uses of Dams
The uses and aims of dams constructed are:
1- Water storage for community and industrial use.
2- Irrigation and flood control.
3- The development of hydroelectric power.
4- River canalization.
5- Silt or debris control.
Classifications of dams
-A multipurpose dam: A dam that serves more than one such purpose.
-A diversion dam: is one which serves primarily for diverting water from the river.
-Dams also are classified according to the material from which they are
constructed. Thus, there are masonry, earth, and rock-fill dams.
2
-Dams are rarely built of steel or timber. Timber generally is used only if the dam
is temporary, and steel occasionally is used as the upstream face of a rock-fill dam.
At the present time, most large masonry dams in the United States are built of
concrete (some foreign dams still are being built of large blocks of cut stone).
Terminology and Definitions

Some of the more common terms used to describe certain portions of a dam (Fig.1)
are as follows:
-Abutments: Either the sloping sides of the valley upon which the dam is built or
the actual part of the dam that rests on this portion of the valley. The geologist
generally uses the word " abutment" in the former sense, whereas the engineer
commonly uses the latter definition, by analogy with bridge abutments.
-River or Channel Section: The center portion of the dam that directly overlies the
river channel or that portion of the valley that is so situated.
-Heel of the Dam: The upstream portion of the dam where it contacts the bearing
surface (i.e., the ground or rock foundation).
-Toe of the Dam: The downstream portion of the dam where it contacts the bearing
surface.
-Crest: The top of the dam.
-Parapet Walls: Walls are placed along the top of the dam to afford safety to a road
or walkway.
-Freeboard: The distance between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the
top of the dam.
-Axis of the Dam: An arbitrary imaginary line drawn either along the exact center
of the plan of the crest or along the contact between the upstream part of the crest
with the upstream face of the dam.
-Dam Cross Section: Usually drawn on a vertical plane that is perpendicular
(normal) to the dam axis.
-Galleries: Formed openings within the dam. They may run either transversely or
longitudinally and may be level or have a sloping grade.
3
-Dead-storage Water Surface: The elevation of the reservoir below which water
stays permanently in the reservoir and cannot be withdrawn. Also includes the silt
storage, which is that portion of the reservoir basin reserved for storing any silt
which may enter and be deposited.
-Tail Water: Water at the downstream base of the dam resulting from backup of
water discharged through the spillway, outlet works, or powerhouse. The term
sometimes is used to refer to the extreme upper end of the reservoir, i.e., the "
reservoir tail water."
-Minimum Water Surface: The lowest elevation to which the reservoir can be
lowered and water still withdrawn by means of the outlet works or powerhouse
penstocks.
-Maximum Water Surface: The highest elevation at which water can be stored in
the reservoir without overtopping the dam or being released through the spillway.
Fig.1. Schematic cross section of a dam.
4
Geology, primarily planning and investigation of dam’s construction
The geology of a valley, and the available supplies of suitable construction
material, will influence the location of a dam site and the type of dam that is
constructed. Beneath every dam is built a cut-off. This is a thin barrier that extends
into the foundation and either prevents or reduces the leakage of reservoir water
under the dam.
The cut-off reaches from one abutment to the other and often de extends some
distance from the abutments into the side slopes of the valley. The depth and lateral
extent of a cut-off is governed by the geology of the valley base and sides.
Every dam must be protected against sudden influxes of flood water into its
reservoir, by an overflow structure such as a spillway, or other outlet that
discharges downstream of the dam. To construct a dam, it is necessary to divert the
existing river and its flood waters either by retraining it to the side of the valley or
diverting it into a tunnel that passes through the abutment and discharges
downstream of the dam site. The geology of sites for appurtenance such as
overflow structures and river diversion works must be considered.
Safety is the first consideration, then cost, which involves both the initial
expenditure and the annual maintenance. Safety considerations require that the
foundation and abutments be adequate for the type of dam selected. Cost studies
must, among other factors, take into account the construction treatment of the
foundations, the suitability of the topography, and the availability of construction
materials.
Types of dam
Three types of dam:
1- Embankments dams.
2- Concrete dams.
3- Composite dams.
1- Embankment dams.
Made from sediment and rock (earth-fill and rock-fill are the terms used to
describe suitable sedimentary material such as clay and sand, and rock
5
blocks that can be placed to form a safe embankment), These consist
essentially of a core of impermeable material, such as rolled clay or
concrete, supported by permeable shoulders of earth and rock fill. When a
clay core is used it is normally flanked by filters of permeable material, such
as sand, to protect the core from erosion by the seepage of reservoir water
through the dam (Fig. 2).
Embankment dams, by virtue of the slopes required for their stability, have a
broad base and impose lower stresses on the ground than concrete dams of
similar height. Their fill is plastic and can accommodate deformations, such
as those associated with settlement, more readily than rigid concrete dams.
For this reason, they can be built in areas where foundation rocks of high
strength are not within easy reach of the surface, they are also the safest of
all dam types against the risk of damage by earthquake. Their large volume
requires copious supplies of suitable materials for earth and rock fill.
Fig. 2. Cross-section through an embankment dam. An impermeable core retains the reservoir
and its underground extension (the cut-off) prevents leakage that would otherwise occur beneath
the dam.
2- Concrete dams.
The masonry dams, three main designs; gravity, buttress and arch (Fig. 3).
All require strong foundations that will deform little when loaded by the
dam.
6
i- A gravity dam: is a massive impermeable concrete monolith of
triangular cross-section, (Fig. 3a), having dimensions that give it
sufficient weight to resist the load from the reservoir. They require ample
supplies of concrete aggregate and cement.
ii- A buttress dam: consists of a series of inclined watertight slabs as its

upstream face, supported by a series of buttresses which are triangular in
vertical section (Fig. 3b and c). It is less massive than a gravity dam and
uses smaller quantities of construction material.
iii- An arch dam: is an impermeable concrete shell shaped as an arch in

plan: when curved in vertical section it forms a cupola (Fig. 3c). Many
gravity dams are arched in plan but the characteristic of an arch dam is
that it takes advantage of the arching effect to reduce its cross-section:
arch dams are thin.
Fig. 3. Typical cross section for concrete dams, a) gravity, b) buttress, c) arch.
3- Composite dams.
Which are usually structures composed of more than one type of concrete
dam but are occasionally composites that have concrete and embankment
sections. These are favoured at sites which are unsuitable for one particular
design.
7

Engineering Geology

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Engineering Geology 1 Dr. Thair.pdf ················································································································ 1

Engineering Geology: is defined by the Association of Engineering Geologists as

Whatever their origins and training, engineering geologists contribute to the

1. All engineering works are built in or on the ground.

To determine the engineering behaviour of the ground the engineering

material properties + mass fabric = mass properties

mass properties + environment = the engineering geological matrix

the engineering geological matrix + changes produced by the engineering

Materials and Mass Fabric

Training and Professional Development in Engineering Geology

Fig. Subjects included in engineering geological training courses

Soils and soil formation

Soil Constituents and Their Properties

Dissolved salts: Wherever water passes through the soil, it can

1- Particle size analysis.

2-The Atterberg (Consistency) limits tests.

These limits are defined as:

Fig.2. (a) Liquid limit apparatus. (b) Standard grooving tool.

Fig.4. Flow curve

Fig.1. Analysis of grading curves.

Casagrande's extended classification system (CP 2001 [1.2]): In this

Fig. 2. Casagrande's extended classification system.

Fig. 3. Typical grading curves.

Fig. 4. Casagrande's plasticity chart.

(a) Coarse-grained soils (more than half retained on the 75 µm sieve):

(b) Fine-grained soils (less than half retained on the 75 µm sieve):

(c) Highly organic soils:

(a) Coarse-grained soils having less than 5% passing the 75 µm sieve:

(c) Fine-grained soils:

Water Content and Density

Water content: This is defined as

weight of water in the soil

Fig.1. Vertical pressure pv at a point within an earth mass.

wherein NB is a coefficient found from the graph in (Fig. 2). To use

Fig.3. The 2 : 1 method.

Example: A raft 20 ft by 60 ft is loaded with 6,000 psf. The total load is

Fig. 4. Newmark's chart.

Contact Pressures. In actual design practice it generally is assumed that the

Theory of Consolidation. Terzaghi's theory of consolidation is applicable to

Rock mechanics. is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

Index properties of rocks

c) Saturated unit weight

d) True unit weight

e) Submerged unit weight

Figure 1. longitudinal permeability test set-up

Modulus of Compression. Stress-Strain Diagram. The stress-strain diagram in

In reality what is obtained in the first loading of a sample is the modulus of

1- Uniaxial compressive strength test (σc).

2- Tensile strength test of Intact Rock (σt).

σt = tensile strength MPa

Figure 1. Triaxial testing apparatus

Results representation: Mohr diagram is drown represent the relationship between

5- Point Load Test.

Types of Point Load Tests:

Curved correction lines are shown in the chart (Figure 5).

To find the compressive strength σc apply the equation:

σc = k Is(50) = 22.5 Is(50)

Slope Failure: is a geologic process that involves the downslope movement of an

Types (Modes) of Rocks Failure: -

The general conditions for wedge failure are as follows:

b-Rotational (Circular) Sliding: -

Ψ< Ø and b/h> tan Ψ