Reviewer kay MAAM ETHICS
certain decision when we are confronted with two
Ethics is a branch of philosophy
Philosophy- it comes from two Greek words “philo or
philein” means love or
friendship for, and “sophia” which means wisdom.
etymological definition leads to
its real definition which is “it is love of wisdom.”
Greeks speak of love, refers to passion, speak of
passion, does not mean an overwhelming emotion for
something. refers to an act or an activity.
Loving wisdom means lookines not to look for
something that he does not desire to find. To desire to
discover means to move, to do, and to act.
Philosophers’ desire or search always starts with a
question, ordinary mortals in the sense that they were
born in a community that has existing ideas, beliefs and
practices. A philosopher is in the activity of constantly
subjecting everything, even his own beliefs, knowledge,
and practices, to scrutiny or question. Philosophers are
in the constant activity of answering their chosen
questions by working carefully and systematically
through their ideas, convictions, and possible
prejudices to arrive at an answer that they believe to be
fair and rational.
Examples:
1. Saint Augustine, a bishop, tried to explain and
justify certain religious points of view.
2. René Descartes, a scientist, attempted to interpret
the meaning and importance of various scientific
discoveries and theories.
3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a writer and composer,
fomented the French Revolution, and provided a basic
framework for classical republicanism which we
presently experience in the forms of civil society, our
citizenship, and mixed governance.
4. Blaise Pascal, a mathematician and theologian,
attempted to help in computing large numbers by
inventing the Arithmetic Machine, or the first calculator
which evolved as the personal computer.
5. John Locke and Karl Marx, have philosophized in
order to effect certain changes in the political
organization of society.
6. Carol Gilligan, a psychologist, was interested in
justifying or promulgating the innate capacity of women
to effect change in the society through care-based
ethics. This later on evolved as the advocacy and
programs aimed at promoting women in nation building.
Ethics is about making a decision and acting on that
conflicting values which are both good but we cannot
choose both, or which are both evil but which we cannot
refuse to choose one.
Ethics is a philosophical science that deals with the
morality of human behavior viewed from the ultimate
principles insofar as these principles are known by
human reason.
Ultimate cause refers to the root cause or the
underlying cause of a problem
immediate cause refers to the proximate cause. So
when we deal with ethical decisions,
ethics should guide us to look at the ultimate, not
immediate, cause of dilemmas that may call our
decision-making in order to provide ultimate solutions,
too.
Immediate cause Merely addressing immediate
causes is a quick fix method of addressing the problem.
ultimate cause is eliminating the series of immediate
causes that will end up at the first cause. This is called
root cause analysis.
Meta-ethics deals with questions about the nature of
ethical theories and moral judgments. It explores
whether moral judgments are objective.
For example, it raises questions like "What is the nature
of 'good'?" and "Is the good whatever leads to the
greatest happiness or helps a person realize their
potential?":
Normative ethics seeks to establish norms or
standards of conduct for organizations, institutions,
countries, or professions. It includes ethical theories like
deontology, utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and the justice
principle.
These standards may vary from one context to another,
such as media ethics and business ethics.
Applied ethics involves the practical application of
normative ethical theories to real-world problems. It
uses philosophical methods to identify the morally
correct course of action in various areas of human life.
Some examples include euthanasia, abortion,
environmental ethics, and professional ethics. These
questions transcend cultural or regional boundaries and
pertain to all of humanity.
Role of Reason in Ethics:
In ethics, rational thinking plays a pivotal role,
overshadowing emotions. Ethical decision-making
involves choosing one course of action when faced with
conflicting values.
Reason is essential in assessing the consequences of
moral choices.
Examples of Ethical Dilemmas:
Ethical dilemmas can manifest as conflicts between
saving one life over another, like a doctor deciding
between Covid-19 patients.
They can also involve clashes between personal beliefs
and medical procedures, such as when a surgeon and
a patient's religious beliefs are in conflict.
Moral dilemmas may encompass situations where
personal gain clashes with ethical principles, such as a
taxi driver finding money for his wife's surgery.
Guidelines for Ethical Reasoning:
Begin by identifying ethical dilemmas.
Examine the available alternatives.
Assess the potential harms and benefits associated
with each choice.
In these ethical discussions, the importance of reason is
emphasized over emotions, and logical analysis is
encouraged for ethical decision-making. The examples
provided illustrate the need for ethical reasoning in
complex, real-world scenarios.
The Importance of Rules:
"Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior."
Rules play a crucial role in safeguarding society by
regulating individual behavior.
"Accepted rules are usually coupled with negative
consequences, that is why people follow them."
Compliance with rules is often ensured by attaching
negative consequences to their violation.
"Absolute freedom without absolute discipline is
dangerous."
Unrestricted freedom, without the counterbalance of
discipline, can lead to hazardous outcomes.
"Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and
freedom."
Rules are instrumental in securing rights and freedoms
for every individual, often codified in a constitution.
"The rule of the majority is essential for a society to
enjoy the privileges of these rules."
Majority consensus is vital to enable a society to benefit
from the privileges and protections established by rules.
"Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.”
Rules foster a shared perception of justice and fairness
in society.
"Rules are established to prevent the strong from
exploiting and dominating the weak."
Rules are created to prevent those with power from
exploiting and oppressing the less powerful.
"Both the strong and the weak will face the social and
criminal consequences if they transgress established
rules."
Rules apply uniformly, and those who breach them,
whether strong or weak, will encounter social and legal
repercussions.
"Rules are essential for a healthy economic system."
A well-functioning economic system relies on rules to
ensure fairness, integrity, and economic stability.
Moral vs. Non-Moral Standards:
"Not all rules are moral rules. Also, not all standards are
moral standards."
Rules can vary, with some being moral in nature and
others unrelated to ethical considerations.
"Moral Standards: These are the rules that people have
about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right
or wrong."
Moral standards dictate what actions are considered
morally right or wrong, encompassing values
associated with morally good and bad objects.
"Non-Moral Standards: These are the rules that are
unrelated to moral or ethical considerations."
Non-moral standards do not pertain to ethical
considerations and can include rules of etiquette,
fashion, games, and house rules.
Characteristics of Moral Standards:
"Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values."
Moral standards should take precedence over other
values when conflicts arise.
"Moral standards have overriding character or
hegemonic authority."
Moral standards hold authority even when they conflict
with non-moral standards or self-interest.
"Moral standards are not established by authority
figures."
Moral standards adhere to the principle that they are
not created by authority figures and thus cannot be
destroyed by them.
"Moral standards are universal."
Moral standards apply universally, as reflected in the
Principle of Justice, which emphasizes treating all
individuals fairly.
"Moral standards are based on impartial
considerations."
Moral standards are free from bias or prejudice and
typically consider the interests of all parties involved.
"Moral standards are prescriptive."
Moral standards are presented as injunctions or
imperatives, and violating them leads to feelings of guilt.
Dilemma and Moral Dilemma:
"The term ‘dilemma’ refers to a situation in which a
tough choice has to be made between two or more
options, especially more or less equally undesirable
ones."
Dilemmas encompass situations that demand difficult
choices between unattractive alternatives.
"Moral dilemmas, also called ‘ethical dilemmas,’ are
situations in which a difficult choice has to be made
between two courses of action, either of which entails
transgressing a moral principle."
Moral dilemmas present scenarios where a challenging
choice involves violating a moral principle.
"Conflict is the most common element in all kinds of
moral dilemmas."
Moral dilemmas inherently involve conflicts and
complex decisions.
Key Features of a Moral Dilemma:
"The agent is required to do each of two (or more)
actions."
In a moral dilemma, the agent must decide between two
or more actions.
"The agent can do each of the actions, but he/she
cannot do both (or all) of the actions."
The agent has the capability to perform each action
individually, but it's impossible to execute all available
actions.
"Neither of the conflicting moral requirements is
overridden."
In a moral dilemma, none of the conflicting moral
demands can be ignored or negated.
"In a moral dilemma, the agent seems to be condemned
to moral failure; no matter what he does, he will do
something wrong, or fail to do something that he ought
to do."
A moral dilemma often places the agent in a situation
where they are likely to make an ethically problematic
decision, no matter which choice they make.
Levels of Moral Dilemmas:
"Personal Dilemmas: These include those that are
experienced and resolved on the personal level."
Personal dilemmas are encountered and resolved at an
individual level, involving conflicts like conflicting
promises or life-saving decisions.
"Organizational Dilemmas: These include those ethical
cases encountered and resolved by social
organizations focused on business, medical field, and
the public sector."
Organizational dilemmas arise within social
organizations, such as healthcare institutions or
government entities, involving ethical choices like end-
of-life decisions or public service ethics.
"Structural Dilemmas: These include cases involving a
network of institutions and operative theoretical
paradigms."
Structural dilemmas are larger in scope and entail multi-
sectoral institutions and theoretical frameworks, raising
issues like budget allocation in universal healthcare
programs.
'Only Human Beings Can Be Ethical':
"Most philosophers hold that unlike animals, human
beings possess some traits that make it possible for
them to be moral."
Philosophers generally agree that humans, unlike
animals, possess distinct traits that enable them to
engage in moral behavior.
"Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-
conscious.
Human beings stand out due to their rationality,
autonomy, and self-awareness.
"Only human beings can act morally or immorally."
Moral agency is unique to humans, allowing them to
make ethical or unethical choices.
"Only human beings are part of the moral community."
Human beings are integral members of the moral
community, participating in ethical considerations and
interactions.
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