Human Development A Cultural

Approach 2nd Edition Arnett Solutions

Manual
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CHAPTER 7: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 204
Section 1: Learning Objectives ............................................................................................. 204
Section 2: Learning Objectives ............................................................................................. 204
Section 3: Learning Objectives ............................................................................................. 205
KEY TERMS............................................................................................................................. 205
Section 1: Key Terms............................................................................................................ 205
Section 2: Key Terms............................................................................................................ 205
Section 3: Key Terms............................................................................................................ 206
CHAPTER OUTLINE.............................................................................................................. 206
LECTURE NOTES................................................................................................................... 207
I. Section 1: Physical Development....................................................................................... 207
A. Growth in Middle Childhood ........................................................................................ 207
1. Physical Growth and Sensory Development ............................................................... 207
2. Motor Development ..................................................................................................... 208
B. Health Issues .................................................................................................................. 208
1. Malnutrition and Obesity ............................................................................................. 208
3. Illness and Injuries ........................................................................................................ 209
I. Section 2: Cognitive Development .................................................................................... 210
A. Theories of Cognitive Development ................................................................................ 210
1. Concrete Operations....................................................................................................... 210
a. Advances in Concrete Operations ........................................................................................ 210
b. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory .................................................................................................. 210
2. Information Processing ................................................................................................... 211
3. Intelligence and Intelligence Tests.................................................................................. 212
C. Language Development ................................................................................................. 214
1. Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pragmatics ....................................................................... 214
2. Bilingualism ................................................................................................................. 214
D. School in Middle Childhood ......................................................................................... 215
1. School Experiences and Achievement ........................................................................... 215
2. Learning the Cognitive Skills of School: Reading and Mathematics ............................ 216
I. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development................................................................. 217

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 A. Emotional and Self-Development ................................................................................. 217
1. Smooth Sailing: Advances in Emotional Regulation .................................................. 217
2. Self-Understanding ...................................................................................................... 217
3. Gender Development ................................................................................................... 218
B. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Middle Childhood ............................................... 219
1. Family Relations .......................................................................................................... 219
2. Friends and Peers ......................................................................................................... 221
3. Work ............................................................................................................................ 223
4. Media Use .................................................................................................................... 223
LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES ....................................... 224
Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Obesity .................................................................................... 224
Section 2 Activity: Conservation of Mass, Number, and Length ......................................... 225
Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ............... 226
Section 2 Discussion and Lecture Launcher: Concerns with Medicating ADHD Children and
Adolescents ........................................................................................................................... 228
Section 2 Lecture Launcher: What Is Intelligence? .............................................................. 230
Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Do Rewards Affect Motivation and Learning? ...................... 231
Section 3 Activity: Cooperative Versus Competitive Learning and Performance ............... 232
Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Effects of Divorce................................................................... 233
Section 3 Activity: Popularity ............................................................................................... 234
Section 3 Activity: Bullying Intervention and Prevention .................................................... 234
CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT ........................................................... 235
Correlation, Causality, and Directionality ............................................................................ 235
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS.............................................................................................. 237
MULTIMEDIA IDEAS ............................................................................................................ 239
TEXTBOOK FEATURES ....................................................................................................... 243
Video Guide .......................................................................................................................... 243
Middle Childhood (8:42; p. 289) ........................................................................................ 243
Gross Motor Development in Middle Childhood (p. 292) ................................................. 243
Seriation (p. 301) ................................................................................................................ 243
A Boy Talks About Having ADHD (2:05; p. 303) ............................................................. 243
Robert Sternberg on Cultural Influences (2:32; p. 311) ..................................................... 243
School and Education in Middle Childhood Across Cultures (6:56; p. 317) ..................... 243
A Family with Two Fathers (2:32; p. 330) ......................................................................... 243
Pam: Divorced Mother of a 9-year-old (3:09; p. 331) ........................................................ 243

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 Cultural Focus: Friendships and Peer Relationships in Middle Childhood Across Cultures
(4:18; p. 338)....................................................................................................................... 243
Research Focus: TV or Not TV (3:30; p. 343) ................................................................... 243
Applying Your Knowledge as a Professional Career Focus: Zoo Director (3:30; p. 345) ... 243
Cultural Focus Review Questions and Answers ................................................................. 243
Cultural Focus Review Question and Answer (p. 338) ...................................................... 243
Research Focus Review Question and Answer (p. 343) ..................................................... 244
Critical Thinking Questions and Answers ............................................................................ 244
Handouts .................................................................................................................................... 245
Handout 7-1: Diagnostic Criteria for ADHD........................................................................ 245
Handout 7-2: ADHD—Hyperactivity/Impulsivity ................................................................. 246
Handout 7-3: ADHD—Inattention .......................................................................................... 247
Handout 7-4: Encouraging Positive Social Relationships ..................................................... 248

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Section 1: Learning Objectives

7.1 Identify the changes in physical and sensory development that take place during middle
childhood.
7.2 Explain how motor development advances in middle childhood and how these
advancements are related to participation in games and sports.
7.3 Describe the negative effects of both malnutrition and obesity on development, and
identify the causes of obesity.
7.4 Explain why rates of illness and injury are relatively low in middle childhood.
Section 2: Learning Objectives

7.5 Explain the major cognitive advances that occur during Piaget’s concrete operations
stage.
7.6 Describe how attention and memory change from early childhood to middle childhood,
and identify the characteristics of children who have ADHD.
7.7 Describe the main features and critiques of intelligence tests, and compare and contrast
Gardner’s and Sternberg’s approaches to conceptualizing intelligence.
7.8 Identify the advances in vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics during middle childhood.
7.9 Explain the consequences for cognitive development of growing up bilingual.
7.10 Summarize the variations worldwide in school enrollment socialization practices, and
academic achievement during middle childhood.
7.11 Describe how reading and math skills develop from early childhood to middle childhood
and the variations in approaches to teaching these skills.

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Section 3: Learning Objectives

7.12 Describe the main features of emotional self-regulation and understanding in middle
childhood and how other life stages compare.
7.13 Explain how different ways of thinking about the self are rooted in cultural beliefs, and
summarize how self-concept and self-esteem change in middle childhood.
7.14 Describe how beliefs and behavior regarding gender change in middle childhood,
including cultural variations.
7.15 Explain the distinctive features of family relations in middle childhood, and describe the
consequences of parental divorce and remarriage.
7.16 Explain the main basis of friendships in middle childhood, and describe the four
categories of peer social status and the dynamics between bullies and victims.
7.17 Describe the kinds of work children do in middle childhood, and explain why work
patterns differ between developed and developing countries.
7.18 Summarize the rates of daily TV-watching among children worldwide, and describe the
positive and negative effects of television, especially the hazards related to TV violence.

KEY TERMS

Section 1: Key Terms

cultural models p. 290
body mass index (BMI) p. 290
myopia p. 291
overweight p. 295
obese p. 295
asthma p. 297
Section 2: Key Terms
concrete operations p. 300
seriation p. 300
selective attention p. 302
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) p. 302
mnemonics p. 303
rehearsal p. 303
organization p. 304
elaboration p. 304
metamemory p. 304
intelligence p. 305
intelligence quotient (IQ) p. 305
median p. 305
normal distribution p. 306
intellectual disability p. 306
gifted p. 306
Flynn effect p. 308
theory of multiple intelligences p. 309
triarchic theory of intelligence p. 310

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bilingual p. 312
metalinguistic skills p. 314
multilingual p. 314
phonics approach p. 318
whole-language approach p. 319
dyslexia p. 319
learning disability p. 319
numeracy p. 319
Section 3: Key Terms
Experience Sampling Method (ESM) p. 323
ambivalence p. 323
self-concept p. 324
social comparison p. 324
self-esteem p. 325
coregulation p. 329
family process p. 332
coercive cycle p. 332
divorce mediation p. 332
selective association p. 334
age graded p. 335
social status p. 335
social skills p. 336
social information processing (SIP) p. 336
bullying p. 337
industry versus inferiority p. 339
media multitasking p. 340

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Section 1: Physical Development

A. Growth in Middle Childhood
1. Physical Growth and Sensory Development
2. Motor Development
B. Health Issues
1. Nutrition and Malnutrition
a. Malnutrition
b. Obesity
2. Illness and Injuries
II. Section 2: Cognitive Development
A. Theories of Cognitive Development
1. Concrete Operations
a. Advances in Concrete Operations
b. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
2. Information Processing
a. Attention and ADHD

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 b. Memory
3. Intelligence and Intelligence Tests
a. The Wechsler Intelligence Tests
b. Influences on Intelligence
c. Other Conceptions of Intelligence: Gardner’s and Sternberg’s Theories
4. Learning the Cognitive Skills of School: Reading and Mathematics
a. Approaches to Reading
b. Learning Math Skills
B. Language Development
1. Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pragmatics
2. Bilingualism
C. School in Middle Childhood
1. School Experiences and Achievement
2. Learning the Cognitive Skills of School: Reading and Mathematics
III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development
A. Emotional and Self-Development
1. Smooth Sailing: Advances in Emotional Self-Regulation
2. Self-Understanding
a. Self-Concept
b. Self-Esteem
c. Culture and the Self
3. Gender Development
B. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Middle Childhood
1. Family Relations
a. Diverse Family Forms
b. Children’s Responses to Divorce
c. Out of the Frying Pan: Children’s Responses to Remarriage
2. Friends and Peers
a. Making Friends
b. Playing with Friends
c. Popularity and Unpopularity
d. Bullies and Victims
3. Work
4. Media Use

LECTURE NOTES
I. Section 1: Physical Development

A. Growth in Middle Childhood

1. Physical Growth and Sensory Development

a. The pace of physical development in middle childhood is slow and steady.
b. For each year during middle childhood, the typical child grows 2–3 inches and
adds 5–7 pounds.

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 c. Slight gender differences exist with boys being taller, weighing more and
having more muscle mass and strength than girls.
d. This age group is most likely to be slim and have the lowest body mass index
(BMI), which is a ratio of weight to height.
e. All of the baby teeth are lost and replaced by larger, permanent teeth.
f. Sight and vision change in middle childhood. Sight often gets worse and
hearing improves. The risk for ear infections diminishes in middle childhood.
g. There is a sharp increase in the incidence of myopia or nearsightedness,
particularly for children in developed countries who spend a lot of time
reading, writing, and using computers and for children who are genetically
predisposed. About 25% need glasses.

2. Motor Development
a. Gross Motor Development and Physical Activity
i. Children’s gross motor development continues to improve in
middle childhood.
ii. These children have better balance, are stronger, more coordinated,
more agile, and are faster as they get older, which allows them to
enjoy a wide range of games and sports.
iii. Their faster reaction time is thanks to the increasing myelination of
the corpus callosum.
iv. Boys are better at skills emphasizing strength or size, while girls
are better at body-coordination activities.
v. Most girls and boys are involved in organized sports at this age.
vi. According to public health advocates, children need 60 minutes of
daily physical activity and the days of that happening at school are
in the past.
a. Fine Motor Development
i. Fine motor development reaches nearly an adult level at this age,
and across cultures, advances are especially evident in two areas:
drawing and writing.
ii. Most are able to draw objects with 3 dimensional characteristics
and in greater detail.
iii. Writing becomes smaller, neater, and written with more
consistency.
B. Health Issues

1. Malnutrition and Obesity

a. Malnutrition
i. Early malnutrition can lead to permanent cognitive or behavior
deficits.

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 ii. Results in research studies have shown that better-nourished
children are more energetic, less anxious, show more positive
emotion, and score higher than malnourished children score on a
wide range of cognitive measures in middle childhood.
b. Obesity
i. In middle childhood, children are considered to be overweight
if their BMI exceeds 18 and obese if their BMI exceeds 21.
ii. Across countries, rates of overweight and obesity are highest in
developed countries, especially in the most affluent regions
(North America and Europe) where an abundance of food is
available. In the United States, low SES groups have the
highest incidence of obesity.
iii. Obesity is a cultural phenomenon, and a variety of social and
cultural changes have contributed to this problem, including diets
that include more fast food and high rates of sedentary activity like
watching TV.
iv. Socially, being obese increases the likelihood that a child will
be socially excluded and the object of ridicule by peers.
v. Physically, obesity can result in diabetes in middle childhood,
which in turn can lead to problems such as blindness, kidney
failure, and stroke.

3. Illness and Injuries

a. Illness
i. In both developed and developing countries, middle childhood
is a time of unusually good health and safety.
ii. In developed countries, there are lower rates of illnesses and
diseases due to higher immunization rates, stronger immune
systems, and better public health policies regarding the safety
of foods and toxins in the environment.
iii. Rates of asthma, a chronic illness of the lunges characterized
by wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath, are highest in
middle childhood.
a. Children, who are boys, had low birth weight, have
parents who smoke, are poor, and obese are at the highest
risk of developing asthma.

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 b. Asthma may be higher in developed countries because of
home interiors and extreme cleanliness. However, in
developing countries, air pollution may be the biggest
contributor.
c. African-American children are at a greater risk than other
children in the United States for developing asthma, but
their parents seem to be the most responsive in creating
an environment that avoids asthma triggers.
iv. Injury rates are low in middle childhood.
v. Compared to younger children, children in middle childhood are
more agile and better at anticipating situations that may cause
injury.
vi. Compared to older children, children in middle childhood are
more closely supervised and engage in less risky behaviors.
vii. Car accidents are the most common cause of injury.

I. Section 2: Cognitive Development

A. Theories of Cognitive Development

1. Concrete Operations
i. Children develop a more true-to-life understanding of the
world and have a better grasp of what the physical world is like
and what is and is not possible.
ii. Around 7-years-old, children become better at being
systematic, planful, and logical thinkers.
iii. The concrete operations stage, from age 7–11, is when children
begin using mental operations to organize and manipulate
information mentally, thus allowing them to perform tasks such
as conservation, classification, and seriation.
a. Advances in Concrete Operations
The concrete operational child is able understand conservation.
i. Classification is another important milestone of concrete
operations. With this ability, children can sort objects or events
that share common characteristics into the same class and into
categories that are more general. During middle childhood,
they can perform this task physically and now mentally.
ii. Seriation, the ability to arrange things in a logical order, is
another achievement of middle childhood. Seriation can be
done visually or mentally, which is called transitive inference.
b. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

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 i. The primary criticisms of Piaget’s theory are similar to the
previous criticisms.
ii. Children are capable of performing some tasks at a younger
age.
iii. They do not need a complete mastery of the tasks associated
with the stage to be able to think concretely in some areas.
iv. Piaget believed that children could not be taught to do concrete
operations, but the research contradicts this notion.
v. The acquisition of concrete operations depends on exposure to
similar tasks and materials and thus would differ culturally
based on the test.
2. Information Processing
In middle childhood, children have more advanced attention and memory
due to increased myelination of the brain, especially of the corpus
callosum, which speeds information processing and reduces the time
needed on certain tasks.
a. Attention and ADHD
i. Children are better able to focus their attention on relevant
information and disregard irrelevant information, termed
selective attention.
ii. Selective attention is important for succeeding in school.
iii. When a child is inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive, this
leads to difficulty following instructions, and waiting their
turn. These children are diagnosed with attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
a. In the United States, it is about 7% of children ages 4–
10, mostly boys, and is usually first diagnosed when
beginning formal schooling.
b. The causes of ADHD are unclear, but may include
genetics, prenatal teratogens, and brain abnormalities and
functioning (restricted blood flow to the frontal cortex).
c. Treatment in the United States is usually Ritalin or other
hyperactivity-suppressing drug. In Europe, they tend to
have a more varied approach to treatment.
d. Children with ADHD may suffer from emotional
problems and being bullied (more often girls), or conduct
problems (more often boys). All had problems with peer,
teacher, and parental relationships.

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 b. Memory
i. Throughout middle childhood, we see an increase in working
memory, with recall of digits expanding from 4 at 7 years old to 7
by 12 years old, which is the same as adults.
ii. Children begin using memory strategies (mnemonics), such as
rehearsal, organization, and elaboration to aid their retrieval of
information. However, most people, even children rely on more
concrete, practical methods to aid memory, such as writing a note
to themselves.
iii. Memory also improves during this period because their
knowledge base is growing and it is easier to remember new
information when you can relate it to something you already know.
iv. Additionally, children now have a better understanding of how
memory works. This is called metamemory. Similarly, children
can more accurately assess their memory abilities in middle
childhood.

3. Intelligence and Intelligence Tests

a. It is important to acknowledge that although theorists describe general
patterns of cognitive development and functioning based on age, there
are individual differences that create a range of abilities within an age
group. These differences become more prominent in middle childhood,
especially for intelligence, which is a person’s capacity for acquiring
knowledge, reasoning, and solving problems.
b. The Wechsler Intelligence Tests
i. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) is an
IQ (or Intelligence Quotient) test that measures several
intelligence subtests including verbal and performance skills.
ii. It is a good predictor of school performance and success in
adulthood.
iii. Critics have cited problems with the test, such as measuring a
narrow range of abilities and being culturally biased; however, no
one can make a completely fair cultural test.
c. Influences on Intelligence
i. IQ scores are standardized and fall into a normal distribution or
bell curve where about 68% of people fall at or near the mean

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 score of 100. Those who fall below 70 (intellectually disabled) or
above 130 (gifted) only make up a small percentage of individuals.
ii. Both genetics and the environment contribute to intelligence as
evidenced by numerous research studies, most notably those using
adoptees and twins.
a. Genetics contribute strongly to IQ scores with the
correlation in IQ being much lower for adopted siblings
and highest among MZ twins.
b. However, research also shows that environment plays a
bigger role in the reaction-range for intelligence, meaning
a range of possible developmental paths. The best
environmental path to intelligence is one that is healthy and
stimulating, which leads children to score at the top of their
reaction-range for IQ.
c. In fact, the influence of the environment on IQ is
stronger for poor children than for children in affluent
families because a less stimulating environment suppresses
potential.
d. The significant rise in IQ scores during the 20th century
is known as the Flynn effect. The rise is thought to be from
environmental causes, such as better prenatal care, smaller
families with fewer children competing for resources,
attending preschool, and even watching educational
children’s programming. But the most likely and influential
reason for the rise in IQ scores is the decline of infectious
diseases, which drains the body of energy that is needed for
physical and cognitive growth.
a. Other Conceptions of Intelligence: Gardner’s and Sternberg’s Theories
i. Gardener’s Theory
a. This theory of multiple intelligences includes eight
types of intelligence, linguistic, logical-mathematical,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal. Gardner believed that only the first two
were measured by traditional IQ tests and the rest were
ignored.

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 b. This measure has not yet been found to be reliable or
valid for analyzing intelligence.
ii. Sternberg’s Theory
a. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence includes
three related, but distinct, forms of intelligence:
analytical, creative, and practical. The tests to measure
these types of intelligence focus on problem solving,
knowledge application, and use of creative strategies.
b. Sternberg believed these intelligences to be universal.
iii. Both of these tests of intelligences have not been widely
used, especially outside of the United States due to the
extended amount of time they take to administer and score.
iv. Deciding which test is used to measure intelligence should
really depend on the intended use for the score.

C. Language Development

1. Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pragmatics

a. Children’s language ability expands quickly in middle childhood as
they learn new words from reading and in conversation.
b. Six-year-olds know about 10,000 words, while 10- or 11-year-olds
know about 40,000.
c. Grammar usage becomes more complex and conditional, “if, then”
sentences become common.
d. Children during this period are very aware of the social context and
conventions of language, called pragmatics. This is evident in their use
of humor.
e. Pragmatics are culturally grounded; to use pragmatics well, one must
know the culture of the people using the language well.

2. Bilingualism
a. When someone knows two languages, then they are considered
bilingual. The number of bilingual people is increasing due to
migration between countries and a focus on learning a second
language in school.
b. English is the most common second language spoke around the world.

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 c. Children who learn two languages become fluent in both and have a
developmental advantage.
d. The second language does not interfere with the child’s ability to
master their primary language.
e. The only minor problem seen in bilingual children is that they have a
tendency to intermix the syntax of the two languages, but by middle
childhood they can easily keep the two separate.
f. If children master their primary language first, then it can take 3–5
years longer to learn a second language than if they had learned both
languages simultaneously.
g. After middle childhood, it is harder to learn a new language with the
same proficiency as a native speaker.
h. Children’s biological readiness to learn language declines as they age.
i. Bilingual children have better metalinguistic skills or knowledge of
the underlying structure of language and its use than single-language
learners.
j. Being a multilingual child, one who speaks three or more languages
fluently is also not uncommon around the world due to a desire to
participate in the global economy.

D. School in Middle Childhood

1. School Experiences and Achievement

a. Attending school is a relatively recent historical development (within the
last two centuries) in children’s lives.
b. Attending school is typical, but not universal. Even today, 18–23% of
children in developing countries do not attend primary school.
c. In many developing countries, there has been a change in focus to
schooling from working for the family so that the children would be able
to have a wider range of employment opportunities in the future.
d. Much research has focused on comparisons between the United States
and Asian countries. Asian children typically spend more time on
academic subjects and have longer school days and years.
e. Approaches to schooling vary widely around the world depending on
cultural beliefs about how children should learn, but it is economic
development not school philosophy that mainly determines children’s
performance on international tests.

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2. Learning the Cognitive Skills of School: Reading and Mathematics
a. Approaches to Reading
i. Children usually learn to read when they enter school at age 6 or
7. Reading requires direct instructions and the ability to learn
symbols and understanding meanings.
ii. The two main approaches to reading are phonics and whole
language.
a. The phonics approach advocates teaching children to
read by breaking down wording into their sound
components and then putting them together into words.
b. For the whole-language approach, the emphasis should
be on the meaning of written language in whole passages,
so that children can guess at the meaning of words based
on the context.
c. The approach that works best appears to be a combination
of the two approaches, beginning with phonics and later
supplementing with the whole-language approach.
iii. Most children become able readers by the third grade, but some
suffer from conditions such as dyslexia, which includes difficulty
sounding out letters, difficulty learning to spell words, and a
tendency to misperceive the order of letters in words.
iv. Other children have difficulty reading due to a range of
learning disabilities, which are cognitive disorders that impede
the development of learning a specific skill, such as reading or
math.
b. Learning Math Skills
i. Humans, and some non-human primates, have an awareness of
numeracy, which means understanding the meaning of numbers.
ii. Typically, at 2, children begin to count; at 5 they being to do
simple addition and subtraction; and later they become proficient
at multiplication and division, with increased speed of processing.
iii. There is cultural variation in when and how math skills are
taught to children. Although most children learn their math skills

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 in school, sometimes math is taught in practical settings where
math is necessary in the real world.
I. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development

A. Emotional and Self-Development

1. Smooth Sailing: Advances in Emotional Regulation

a. The Experience Sampling Method (ESM) is often used to measure
individuals’ emotional and physical states by having them respond to
beepers that go off randomly.
b. Emotionally, middle childhood is generally a time of stability and
contentment.
c. Emotional self-regulation becomes firmly established, as children are
increasingly involved in contexts that require maturity.
d. Emotional understanding advances as they learn to recognize their
emotional states, such as ambivalence. They also learn to conceal their true
emotions in favor of displaying socially acceptable emotions. They realize
that other people conceal their true emotions as well. Additionally, they
have increased capacity for empathy.

2. Self-Understanding
a. Self-Concept
i. Our self-concept, or the me-self, is how we view and evaluate
ourselves, which changes from an external basis to an internal
basis during middle childhood.
ii. If you ask a child age 5–8 to tell you about himself, he would
likely say, “I am a boy; I am tall, I like to play soccer.” All of these
are concrete characteristics. However, in mid- to late middle
childhood, the child is likely to include internal characteristics,
such as, “I am friendly; I am nice; I am smart.”
iii. During this period, children begin making more accurate social
comparison, and those comparisons become more complex as the
children get older.
b. Self-Esteem
i. Self-esteem is a person’s overall sense of worth and well-being
that declines slightly during the transition from early to middle
childhood.

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 ii. For most of middle childhood, self-esteem is high and becomes
more differentiated as they develop self-concepts for a variety of
areas. The combined self-concepts are valued and create overall
self-esteem.
a. Physical appearance is the strongest predictor of
self-esteem during middle childhood and
adolescence.
b. The characteristics that children value are learned
from their culture and influences their self-esteem.
c. Culture and the Self
i. Cultural differences in self-concept are substantial in middle
childhood, as evidenced by the independent self and the
interdependent self.
ii. Individualistic cultures promote the independent self and
encourage self-reflection and pride in the self.
iii. Collectivistic cultures promote the interdependent self; that is, the
self as defined by relationships with others. They are encouraged
to put others’ needs before their own. High self-esteem is not
encouraged. This works if it is consistent with cultural values and
expectations
iv. Many cultures combine elements of each concept of self, rather
than being so extreme.

3. Gender Development
a. Children’s ideas of gender roles become more sharply defined.
b. Children are socialized to develop gender specific personality
traits, especially in more traditional cultures.
c. In developed countries, gender norms are not enforced as rigidly
and during this developmental period.
d. Children’s gender attitudes and behavior become more
stereotyped, such as certain personality traits, occupations, and
school subjects.
e. Play becomes more gender-segregated in middle childhood
regardless of the type of culture.

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 f. In terms of gender self-perceptions, boys want to have “masculine”
traits, while girls want to have “feminine” and some “masculine”
traits.

B. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Middle Childhood

1. Family Relations
i. Across cultures, the family provides children with care and direct,
close supervision.
ii. During middle childhood, they move toward coregulation, in
which parents provide guidelines, assistance, and instruction, but
the child is now capable of independent, self-directed behavior.
iii. They no longer need constant supervision and monitoring as they
demonstrate that they have learned rules and routines and have
taken on responsibilities.
iv. In part, the amount of independence the child is given is dependent
upon their gender, particularly in developing countries.
v. Having siblings tends to be mutually beneficial for the children,
but sibling rivalry and jealousy continues to be a problem and
peaks in middle childhood.
a. Diverse Family Forms
i. Families come in many different forms such as married parents,
single parent, divorced parents, stepfamilies, or blended families.
Parents or caregivers can also have varying sexual orientations,
which changes the makeup of families.
ii. In the United States, only 59% of children live with their biological
parents through middle childhood.
iii. In some U.S. states and European countries, lesbian and gay
couples adopt. Others pursue reproductive technology to achieve
the family they desire. Children of gay and lesbian couples do not
differ in their developmental outcomes from other children, and
most are heterosexual.
iv. Single-parent families, children born to single mothers or are
single as a result of divorce, are more common now, with mostly
women raising their child(ren) alone or with their unmarried
partner. Single motherhood is most prevalent among African
Americans in the United States and mothers in northern Europe.

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 a. Children in single parent households must contribute
more to household duties than other children.
b. Unfortunately, children in single parent families are most
likely to be raised in poverty, which often results in
behavioral problems and low academic achievement
compared to their peers.
c. Some single parent families fair well if they have a higher
SES and social support, particularly from extended
family.
b. Children’s Responses to Divorce
i. Divorce has become increasingly common in developed
countries, except for Southern Europe, with about half of
children confronted with this problem by middle childhood.
ii. Children (especially boys) respond negatively to divorce
especially in the first two years, particularly when it includes
high conflict between parents.
a. Children of divorce are more likely to have externalizing
problems such as conduct issues, and internalizing
problems like depression and anxiety. They may also
blame themselves for the divorce.
b. About 25% of children of divorce have severe emotional
or behavioral problems.
c. The worst outcomes are usually experienced about 1 year
post-divorce and improve to near normal by year two for
girls, but boys continue to experience problems.
d. However, if the quality of the relationships between
family members (called family process) is good then
children have minimal problems.
e. Mothers’ parenting tends to suffer from a divorce due to
increased household responsibilities and limited financial
support, which causes stress that may make her less
responsive and warm and more punitive.
f. This can result in a coercive cycle between mothers and
sons because the sons’ behavioral problems cause
mothers to react more harshly, which perpetuates the
problems.

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 iii. About 90% of mothers retain custody of their children
following a divorce and fathers have visitation.
iv. Paternal contact tends to diminish over time, especially if he
remarries.
v. Divorce mediation is an arrangement in which the parents
meet with a professional mediator to help them arrive at
decisions that are in the best interest of the child/children with
the least amount of conflict.
c. Out of the Frying Pan: Children’s Responses to Remarriage
i. When divorced parents remarry, they create a stepfamily or
blended family.
ii. Parents’ remarriage is experienced negatively in middle
childhood, even though it improves the family’s economic
situation and the mothers’ well-being is enhanced.
iii. Remarriage is generally harder on girls than it is on boys and
recovering children tend to have a setback; worse yet if they
are to become a blended stepfamily.
iv. Remarriage is problematic because it’s disruptive, stepfathers
are viewed as interlopers, and children resist stepfathers’
authority. However, if the new family process is good because
the stepfather is warm and the children are younger, the
transition tends to be better.

2. Friends and Peers

a. Making Friends
i. Similarity is the main basis of friendship. It is based on
selective association, which is when people prefer to be with
those who are like themselves, especially same gender friends.
ii. Friendships become less about shared activities and more about
trust in middle childhood; this is truer for girls than boys.
b. Playing with Friends
i. Children’s play becomes more complex and rule-based in this
stage.
ii. Children at this stage enjoy the challenge of mastering more
complex information and rules that require organization and
planning.

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 iii. Children still enjoy simple games, particularly in developing
countries.
iv. Children in middle childhood also begin to get more involved
in organized and informal sports that advance gross motor
development.
c. Popularity and Unpopularity
i. Popularity and unpopularity become prominent in peer
relations once children spend a considerable part of their day in
age-graded schools.
ii. Age is a key determinant of social status in mixed age groups
with older children having greater status.
iii. Popularity is one aspect of social status, which has been
divided into four categories.
a. Popular children (most liked)
b. Rejected children (most disliked)
c. Neglected children (neither liked nor disliked;
forgettable)
d. Controversial children (liked and disliked by some)
iv. Although most children fall primarily into one category, they
can be mixed.
v. Social skills are the biggest influence on popularity; followed
by intelligence, appearance, and (for boys) athletic ability.
vi. Rejected children have the greatest problems in peer relations
and the poorest long-term prospects for social development,
mainly due to their aggressiveness and a failure in their social
information processing (SIP).
vii. Some rejected children are withdrawn due to shyness and
perhaps fearfulness. Although these are also characteristics
found in neglected children.
viii. Rejected-withdrawn children have more internalizing
problems than neglected children and worse outcomes.
ix. Controversial children have good social skills, but are also
aggressive.
x. Rejected children are at the greatest risk for poor
developmental outcomes and interventions have shown some
success.

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 d. Bullies and Victims
i. Bullying is an extreme form of peer rejection that consists of
aggression (physical or verbal), repetition, and power
imbalance.
ii. Bullying is a worldwide problem in middle childhood, peer
relations that peak in early adolescence.
iii. About 20% of children are the victims of bullies during this
stage.
iv. There are two types of bullies.
a. Rejected children who are bully-victims. They are bullied
and subsequently bully lower status children.
b. Controversial children are another type of bully.
v. Any child can be the victim of a bully, but rejected-withdrawn
children are most likely to be victimized.
vi. When children observe bullying, about 50% of the time they
intervene and end the bullying. However, 20–30% of bullying
is encouraged by their peers.

3. Work
a. During middle childhood, children become capable of doing useful work
as well as their own self-directed projects (industry), unless they are
overly criticized (developing inferiority).
b. Although illegal or strictly regulated (in developed countries), many
children in middle childhood are employed in developing countries.
c. Many children in developing countries perform paid work by the time
they reach middle childhood, in a wide range of jobs ranging from
agricultural work to factory work.
d. Children are the cheapest form of labor and often suffer in miserable
working conditions.
e. Many children in developing countries have to work to provide for the
basic needs of the family such as food, shelter, and clothing.
f. The International Labor Organization (ILO) and UNICEF have worked
hard to help reduce the number laborers.

4. Media Use
a. Children’s media use remains similar from early to middle childhood.

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 b. Children in the United States watch about 1 hour of television per day
and a total of about 2 ½ hours a day using all types of electronic media.
c. Children simultaneously begin to use different media, called media
multitasking.
d. Concerns about media use have focused mainly on the problems
associated with heavy media use and the contribution of violent media
content to children’s aggressive behavior.
e. Research has found that watching shows with prosocial content has
positive effects on children; using the Internet is a valuable resource for
school work and for fun.
f. The effects of media are dependent on the amount, type of use, and the
content of the media. Heavy usage, especially with violent content is
detrimental, even long term.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Obesity

According to recent statistics, the number of obese or seriously overweight children and
adolescents in the United States has more than doubled during the last 30 years. A study
released by the National Center for Health Statistics shows that 4.7 million American children
and adolescents are severely overweight. According to the American Medical Association,
children who weigh more than the following are considered overweight:

Boys Girls

Age Height Weight Age Height Weight

6 3'9" 56 6 3'9" 57
8 4'2" 75 8 4'3" 80
10 4'6" 96 10 4'6" 104
12 5'0" 123 12 5'1" 137
14 5'5" 164 14 5'2" 151

The researchers defined obesity as those in the 95th percentile of BMI (Body Mass Index).
BMI = (weight X 2.2 and height X .0254)2
The study examined a national sample of nearly 3,000 children and adolescents from 1988 to
1991 and found some of the steepest increases among African American girls. Among boys,
those least likely to be overweight were whites from 6–11 years old and African Americans from
12–17.

Experts believe that children are overweight for the same reasons adults are: lack of physical
activity as a result of too much TV, video games, and computers, in addition to eating a diet with
too many calories.

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In addition to being a serious health hazard (increased risk of heart attacks, high blood pressure,
strokes, and diabetes), being obese carries a social stigma. You can ask the class for any
volunteers to talk about whether they were obese when young or anyone they knew in grade
school that was overweight. What were the consequences?

Sources:

Gibbs, W.W. (August, 1996). Gaining on fat. Scientific American, 88–94.

This article is very informative about obesity and the fact that in all industrialized
nations, people are getting heavier. It also dispels the myth that Americans are the heaviest in
the world (Western Samoa and several Pacific islands are worse). There is a good chart showing
the health risks of being over a certain BMI.

Squires, S. (October 3, 1995). Study sees alarming growth in ranks of overweight kids. The
Arizona Republic, A7.
Section 2 Activity: Conservation of Mass, Number, and Length
In addition to the conservation of liquid task, Piaget investigated other types of conservation
problems. In fact, three other conservation tasks are easily replicated and provide a good
opportunity for students to see preoperational and concrete operational thought in action.

Have students find a family member or friend who is between 4–6 years old and another child
who is 9–10 years old. They should obtain permission from the children’s parents or guardians
first before assigning the following three tasks:

Conservation of Mass
A classic way to demonstrate conservation of mass is to give a child two identical balls of Play-
Doh or some other clay compound. Show the child the balls and ask them if they both have the
“same amount.” If the answer is “no,” roll the balls until the answer is “yes.” At this point, roll
one of the balls into a long, narrow, “snake-like” shape, and ask again if they have the same
amount. Because of their lack of reversibility, the young child should now believe that one of the
balls “has more.” If you ask them which one has more, they typically pick the unrolled, snake-
shaped ball and say, “This has more because it’s taller.” Some pick the snake simply because it’s
longer.

Conservation of Number
The conservation of number is a fun and easy demonstration that can be done using ten poker
chips or identical coins. Simply place the coins into two identical rows (see Figure 1) and ask the
child if the rows contain the same amount. When they say “yes,” take one of the rows and spread
the objects out (see Figure 2). Now ask if the rows have the same amount. The younger child
(and some older children) will likely say that one of the rows now has more. When asked to
identify the one that has more, most kids will pick the row that has the chips or coins spread out.

O O O O O
O O O O O

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Figure 1

O O O O O
O O O O O

Figure 2

Conservation of Length
In this task, the children are presented with two identical long rectangles in the position seen in
Figure 3, and they’re asked if the two items have the same amount. After they respond “yes,”
simply shift one object to the right (see Figure 4) and then ask if they still have the same amount.
Once again, the younger child will likely indicate the shifted object now has more.

Figure 3

Figure 4

On each of the above-mentioned conservation tasks, the older children will show little problem
in conserving (in fact, they may view you as being stupid for asking whether the items are
changing). Having a preoperational and concrete operations child complete these tasks at the
same time provides a powerful demonstration of the dramatic change in thought during
childhood.
Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
The topic of attention deficit disorder still strikes a nerve among most people in middle America.
There are those who believe it is not a real disorder. These individuals believe that the diagnosis
serves as a medical excuse for badly behaved children. On the other hand, the scientific
community increasingly views the disorder as real, brain-based, and very responsive to drug
treatment.

The lecture can focus on the practice issue of how children get diagnosed. The diagnosis may be
prompted by behavioral problems or difficulties in school. Research shows that boys are
diagnosed at higher rates than girls. It remains unclear whether the sex difference in the
prevalence of the disorder is a sex difference in the occurrence of the disorder or is due to bias in
the diagnosis process.

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Students are fascinated with the concept of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder because they
all seem to be aware of someone who has been diagnosed with it. Your lecture would be
enhanced by concentrating on three areas: (a) the diagnostic criteria for ADHD (see Handouts 7-
1, 7-2, and 7-3, which you may want to use in a PowerPoint or on the doc cam); (b) the effects
on school performance and social interactions; and (c) the treatment of the disorder, which
includes stimulants, such as Ritalin and Dexadrin and cognitive behavior training.

It is important to note that gifted children who are bored are sometimes misdiagnosed with
ADHD because they exhibit some of the same behaviors, such as:

Characteristics of Gifted But Bored Students

• Does not pay attention to details and makes careless errors for tasks that are not
challenging

• Failure to see projects through to completion

• Very active

• Talks excessively and may interrupt

• Lose materials and may appear disorganized

• May appear careless

(Cline & Schwartz, 1999; Webb & Latimer, 1993)

The following websites provide useful, up-to-date information on ADHD:

• The National Institutes of Mental Health Page

(http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/adhd-listing.shtml)

• Web MD Page (http://www.webmd.com/content/article/89/100394.htm) and

http://www.webmd.com/content/article/89/100405.htm)

• Center for Cognitive Liberty & Ethics Page

(http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/makingchoices/ritalin.htm)

Sources:

Barkley, R.A. (1990). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and
treatment. New York: Guilford Press.

Cline, S., & Schwartz, D. (1999). Diverse populations of gifted children. NJ: Merrill.

Kohn, A. (November, 1990). Suffer the restless children. The Atlantic Monthly, 90–100.

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 This is an informative article about attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and
the use of Ritalin.

Landau, S., & McAninch, C. (May, 1993). Young children with attention deficits. Young
Children, 49–58.

Pellegrini, A. D., & Horvat, M. (1995). A developmental contextualist critique of attention

deficit hyperactivity disorder. Educational Researcher, 24(1), 13–19.

Wallis, C. (July 18, 1994). Life in overdrive. Time, 43–50.

This article debates the issue whether the symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder are indicators of “personality or pathology.”

Webb, J.T. & Maker, C.J. (1993). ADHD and children who are gifted, ERIC EC Digest E522.

Section 2 Discussion and Lecture Launcher: Concerns with Medicating ADHD Children
and Adolescents
Although it’s common, the use of psychoactive medications to treat children with ADHD
remains controversial. For this reason, it is a great idea to discuss some of the reasons for this
controversy. Ask students as a large group (or working in small groups) to generate the pros and
cons for medicating children with ADHD. When do they feel medication is warranted? Should
parents be forced by the school (state) to medicate their child for ADHD? Why or why not?

Your students will be able to generate some, if not all, of the major concerns associated with
using psychoactive medication to treat ADHD.

For more information on this topic, you may wish to review some of the reference material listed
below to extend the discussion and lecture.

The major concerns associated with the uses of psychoactive medication to treat ADHD fall into
five major categories:

1. Over diagnosis: One of the major concerns with the use of mediations is based on the
likelihood that ADHD is being over diagnosed, with children who don’t actually have the
disorder being given powerful medications. Data to support this contention is found in
studies on the number of prescriptions written for the stimulant in the United States in
recent years. Although APA guidelines indicate the prevalence for ADHD should be
around 4–6%, 14 million prescriptions were written for children between zero and
nineteen years of age in 2003, representing a population of about 79 million children. If
you do the math, this equates to a rate of over seventeen percent. Although some of these
perceptions could have been written for disorders other than ADHD, virtually no other
disorders would call for the use of this type of medication in children.

2. Medication use will lead to drug abuse or can be used for recreation: A second
concern is that children who spend years taking stimulants in order to feel “normal” may
be at risk for developing other drug habits. Research on this topic has yielded mixed
support, with several recent studies finding no increased risk of drug use. A different

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 problem involves the recreational use of stimulants like Ritalin, which is chemically
similar to cocaine, by children without ADHD. Evidence substantiating this concern has
come from several sources. One 1997 study found that seven percent of high school
children had used Ritalin as a recreational drug. In addition, Ritalin is one of the top ten
drugs stolen from pharmaceutical companies, presumably to be used recreationally or
sold to others for recreational use.

3. Sense of loss of control: A growing concern is that children put on these medications for
an extended period may begin to develop an external loss of control (i.e., their behavior
doesn’t matter, since events are controlled by external forces). A strong sense of external
control is associated with a lack of motivation (i.e., “Why try if what I do doesn’t
matter?”), and this may contribute to the poor academic performances found in many
ADHD children even after they’re on medication (i.e., studies of grade and GPA
improvements for children on medication have yielded mixed results, with some children
showing improvement while others still struggle). Unfortunately, parents often
unknowingly reinforce this external sense of control (i.e., the pill’s in charge) when they
say things like, “Take your medicine—it will make you better,” or “Billy is a good boy
when he takes his meds, but is a bad boy when he isn’t on medication.”

4. Side effects: A major concern with the use of psychoactive medications to treat ADHD is
they can have significant side effects. For example, the side effects of Ritalin include
insomnia, nausea, shaking, drowsiness, agitation (nervousness), and rapid heart rate.
Although these usually aren’t dangerous, the side effects may continue to hamper success
in school and at home. In addition, there are some growing concerns about the long-term
use of these medications, especially when they’re prescribed in the preschool years (e.g.,
some research has shown that long-term use may suppress the natural growth pattern and
neural development). The concern over early use is because the manufacturer of Ritalin
explicitly states the medication is for children over age seven. It makes this claim because
it doesn’t know what negative impacts might occur when brain-altering medications are
given to an infant or preschooler whose brain is still rapidly changing.

5. Mentality of cure/only option. The final major concern is that many teachers and
parents are under the mistaken impression that taking a pill will cure ADHD. At best,
these medications are able to mask some of the symptoms, especially hyperactivity and
reactivity to the environment (i.e., taking medication may make a child less active).
However, the key to real treatment is to help the child learn self-regulation skills that will
allow them to sit still, resist temptation, and pay attention to relevant information in the
classroom and at home. There is no pill that makes you pay attention. There is no pill that
makes you decide to not blurt out an answer or run around in circles for no apparent
reason. The best way to think about these medications is that they may be able to inhibit
some behaviors, and this inhibition can open a window for children to acquire the skills
they need to no longer be hyperactive, impulsive, or inattentive.

Unfortunately, the pill is the only intervention used in most cases. Additional interventions are
what’s really needed:

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 • Psychotherapy—To discuss feelings and actions
• Behavioral therapy—To teach appropriate behavior and eliminate unwanted behavior
• Family therapy—To deal with the stresses of living in an ADHD household
• Social skills training—To teach children proper ways of acting around others
• Parenting skill training —To assist children with being more successful at home and in
school

Recommended Reading:

Hardman, M. L., Drew, C. J., Egan, M. W. (2002). Human exceptionality: Society, school, and
family (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Stubbe, D. E. (2000). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder overview: Historical perspective,

current controversies, and future directions. Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of
North America, 9(3), 469–479.
Section 2 Lecture Launcher: What Is Intelligence?
You might begin this lecture with a brief history of intelligence testing beginning with the work
of Binet in France. Binet was hired by the French government to develop a method of detecting
children who, because of low intelligence, could be better educated in special schools. He
coined the term IQ and based it on mental age and chronological age. Terman, from Stanford,
was intrigued by Binet’s test because he was collecting data on gifted children and needed a way
to assess them. He adapted Binet’s test for children in the United States and it became known as
the Stanford-Binet, a test still used today.

Wechsler thought that the Stanford-Binet had too much emphasis on verbal skills and devised his
to measure verbal and performance skills. Eventually such theorists as Spearman, Thurstone,
and Guilford became interested in defining intelligence. Most of them used factor analysis to
determine if intelligence was one or many abilities. Most agree now that intelligence is
hierarchical with a general, overall intelligence —“g,” which consists of a number of special
abilities that influence overall intelligence.

Cattell and Horn thought intelligence could be divided into two major dimensions: fluid and
crystallized. This theory was truly developmental because Cattell and Horn found that
crystallized intelligence increases throughout the life span while fluid intelligence levels off
during adulthood and decreases with age.

Gardner and Sternberg thought that intelligence was multiple, not unidimensional, and should
include items besides mathematical, verbal, or visual-spatial skills. Gardner believes there are at
least seven intelligences and that all of us have each of them in some degree. Sternberg’s
triarchic theory of intelligence takes into account those intelligent behaviors typically measured
on IQ tests (analytical) in addition to “street smarts,” the ability to successfully adapt to the
environment (practical), and the ability to generate novel responses and fresh insights (creative).
Both Sternberg and Gardner have written extensively on the educational implications of
intelligence.

Sources:

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Carrol, J. B. (1982). The measurement of intelligence. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of
human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational implications
of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4–10.

Hunt, E. (1995). The role of intelligence in modern society. American Scientist, 83, 356–368.

Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T.J., Boykin, A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D.F.,
Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R.J., & Urbana, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns
and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51(2), 77–101.
This article is the joint effort of a task force put together by the American Psychological
Association to set out an authoritative report on what exactly is known about intelligence.

Sternberg, R. J. (1996). Myths, countermyths, and truths about intelligence. Educational

Researcher, 25(2), 11–16.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Do Rewards Affect Motivation and Learning?

Does giving children rewards, such as toys, candy, or money undermine their interest in
learning? Long ago E.L. Thorndike concluded that learning is controlled by its consequences. If
a behavior is reinforced, it is more likely to be repeated. Ever since then, generations of
educators and parents have been rewarding children hoping to reinforce their motivation to learn.
Unfortunately, many studies have shown that when children are given rewards for their behavior,
they often lose interest in that behavior compared to students who are not given rewards.

Should we abolish grades, incentives, and even praise? First, it is important to make a
distinction among various types of rewards. Intrinsic rewards are ones that naturally follow from
performing a behavior well, such as seeing a tennis ball go over the net when it is hit well.
Extrinsic rewards come from an outside source, such as praise from a teacher, or candy for
reading a certain number of books. Extrinsic rewards have been shown to negatively affect
motivation—but only under certain conditions.

Rewards can be categorized into three types of contingencies (what the reward is predicated on).

Task-contingent rewards: Children are rewarded merely for participating in an activity

without regard to any standard of performance. Most studies find that motivation and
interest decline in task-contingent situations.

Performance-contingent rewards: Children are rewarded when they meet certain

performance criteria. Research is mixed here; sometimes these rewards reduce interest in
an activity and sometimes they don’t.

Success-contingent rewards: Children are given rewards for a good performance that is
linked to achievement of a goal. These types of rewards have been shown to increase
interest and motivation.

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Alfie Kohn believes that a system of rewards (regardless of whether they are task, performance,
or success contingent) are inherently limiting because they serve only to manipulate people’s
behavior. Once the rewards stop, argues Kohn, children’s attitudes toward the learning or their
commitment to learning may not change. Therefore, for learning to be rewarding in and of itself,
it must be made meaningful—something children want to do because it helps them make sense
of their world. Kohn suggests the following ways to tap children’s motivation and sense of
discovery. You might want to ask your own students for ways teachers, parents, and coaches can
specifically implement these suggestions.

Allow for active learning.

Give reasons for assignments.
Elicit their curiosity.
Set an example.
Welcome mistakes.

Sources:

Chance, P. (November, 1992). The rewards of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 200–207.

Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise,
and other bribes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Murray, B. (June, 1997). Rewards should be given when defined goals are met. APA Monitor,
26.

Section 3 Activity: Cooperative Versus Competitive Learning and Performance

Research indicates that individualistic cultures foster competition, whereas collectivistic cultures
foster cooperation (Friedman, Todd, & Kariuki, 1995). In fact, children from Westernized,
middle class cultures are more likely to choose a competitive strategy rather than a cooperative
strategy when given a choice, even when cooperation is more likely to produce a better result.

Following a brief description of cooperative and competitive learning strategies, the instructor
can divide students into several small groups (4 or 5 students per group). Select a short problem-
solving task (e.g., solving five scrambled words, crossword puzzle, Tower of Hanoi, creating a
unique contraption such as a dog walking machine). Instruct one group (or set of groups) to work
on the task cooperatively (sharing ideas, praising each other for good suggestions, presenting a
collective decision). Instruct the other group (or set of groups) to solve the task individually and
present the project of the person who finished first as the representative group project. How do
students in different groups describe their experience? Which group did better? Which group is
more satisfied with the overall outcome? Discuss the cooperative versus competitive condition as
an aspect of the ecological system in which performance takes place.

Source:
Friedman, A., Todd, J., & Kariuki, P. W. (1995). Cooperative and competitive behavior of urban
and rural children in Kenya. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26(4), 374–383.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Effects of Divorce
Hetherington conducted a longitudinal study in an attempt to assess the long-term effects of
divorce on parents and children. She began with a sample of 144 middle class, White children
and their parents. Half were from divorced, mother-custody homes; the other half were from
intact homes. Half were boys and half girls. The mean age was 10. Six years later, the sample
included 124 of the original families, some of whom had remarried, some of whom had re-
divorced, and some of whose children had changed custody arrangements. More families were
added to bring the second sample to 180 families. Using a variety of measures, this is what
Hetherington found:

1. There were few differences between the mothers who remained single and the ones who
remarried. Mostly the remarried mothers reported greater life satisfaction. The non-
remarried mothers reported more loneliness and depression and a sense of less control
over their lives.
2. Both sets of remarried fathers reported that the relationship with their stepchildren
adversely affected the marital relationship.
3. Mother-son relations are problematic in divorced, non-remarried homes. Relationships
with daughters are problematic in remarried families. Divorced mothers spend less time
with their sons and report less closeness and rapport with them.
4. Divorced mothers were ineffectual in their control attempts and their instructions were
ignored. They tended to nag and complain to their sons. Sons, however, admit they
don’t listen to their mothers and that their mothers can’t control them, but they report
warm feelings for their moms. Remarried mothers have more control over their sons, but
less control over their daughters.
5. Both sons and daughters in divorced families had more responsibilities and independence
than children in non-divorced families.
6. Divorced mothers monitored their children’s behavior less closely than mothers in intact
families. Children in divorced families were less likely to have adult supervision in their
parent's absence.
7. Stepfathers report low affection for their stepchildren. The interchanges between
stepfathers and stepdaughters and the conflicts between divorced mothers and sons are
rated as the highest on hostility of any dyad.

In another article, Hetherington describes the individual characteristics of children that play an
important role in protecting them from the ill effects of divorce. These include a positive
temperament and personality, a supportive family milieu, and external social agencies to
reinforce and strengthen the child's coping efforts.

Sources:
Hetherington, E.M. (1989). Coping with family transitions: Winners, losers, and survivors.
Child Development, 60, 1–14.

Hetherington, E. M. (1987). Family relations six years after divorce. In K. Pasley & M. Ihinger-
Tollman (Eds.), Remarriage and stepparenting today: Current research and theory.
New York: Guilford.

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Section 3 Activity: Popularity

Break your class into groups with the assignment that each group must make up a list of all the
qualities that make up a popular child and the qualities of unpopular children and why these
qualities help or hinder friendships. Arnett lists some most- and least-liked behaviors. Ask them
to devise ways of helping unpopular children learn better social skills (see Handout 7-4). Some
common approaches are:

1. Reinforcing socially appropriate behaviors

2. Modeling social skills
3. Coaching
4. Role playing

One modern approach being used by schools involves conflict resolution training and peer
mediation. These approaches are particularly effective in teaching children how to handle bullies
and fighting. For information on school-based conflict resolution programs contact:

The National Institute for Dispute Resolution

1726 M Street N.W.
Suite 500
Washington, DC 20036-4502

Sources:
Chance, P. (January/February, 1989). Kids without friends. Psychology Today, 29–31.

Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1990). Peer group behavior and social status. In
S. R. Asher & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

DeAngelis, T. (June, 1997). Abused children have more conflicts with friends. APA Monitor, 32.

Hartup, W.W. (1996). The company they keep: Friendships and their developmental
significance. Child Development, 67, 1–13.

Zarbatany, L, Hartmann, D. P., & Rankin, D. B. (1990). The psychological functions of

preadolescent peer activities. Child Development, 61, 1067–1080.

Section 3 Activity: Bullying Intervention and Prevention

For this activity, students should research bullying intervention and prevention methodologies
and work in small groups. I provide the following scenario to them:

As graduates of this college, you have been hired by Anytown Elementary school to design a
bullying intervention and prevention plan that the school can easily implement. Remember as
consultants, you must consider the empirical support for your plan, who will implement the plan

234
and how (including necessary training), the resources required (assume they are on a tight
budget), and the developmental level of the students. As a small group, students write a brief
report to the principle of the school and/or do a 10 minute oral presentation of their
recommendations.

CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

Correlation, Causality, and Directionality

A big topic in psychology today is “resilience.” When discussing children, resilience refers to a
child’s ability to maintain well-being and meet life span challenges successfully although they
encountered trauma, neglect or other difficult obstacles while growing up. The word resilient
means an ability to “bounce back” after stress or pressure. We would like to know how to
increase resilience if possible.

Assuming we have our operational definition of resilience, we could try to determine what is
different between resilient children and those who are not resilient. In essence, we are asking
what correlates positively with resilience.

Our first problem is the large number of factors to consider. Just to name a few, we could
consider genetic make-up, physical responses to stress, intelligence, access to information,
creativity, personality, Social Economic Status (SES), type of trauma, social support, beliefs,
mental health, physical health, and prenatal conditions. Can you think of more? We must also
examine the interactions between intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental factors.

To correctly interpret our data, we will have to remember NOT to make certain common
thinking errors about causation, directionality, and third factor variables.
We must remember:

• CAUSALITY: CORRELATION DOES NOT EVER EQUAL CAUSATION.

• DIRECTIONALITY: CORRELATION DOES NOT TELL US THE DIRECTION OF
INFL UENCE.
• THIRD FACTOR VARIABLES: THE CORRELATION WE SEE MAY ONLY
REFLECT OTHER INFLUENCES.

Critical Thinking Challenge, Use the Concept

1. If we see a positive correlation of 0.7 between SES and resilience in our population sample
will we know that higher SES increases resilience and lower SES reduces resilience?

2. What can we say with certainty that we do know?

3. Is it possible that SES is not really the influence on resilience despite this strong correlation?

Mastery Exercise, Capstone

235
We see a positive correlation of 0.7 between SES and resilience in our population sample.

1. Despite this strong correlation, we find children from low SES homes who are very resilient.
How might you explain this?

2. If SES is only a guidepost to a “third factor variable” that has influence on resilience, what
might those other variables be? What factors tend to go along with SES?

3. If we also found a positive correlation of 0.5 between IQ scores and resilience would we know
that it is the lower IQ scores influencing the resilience? Why or why not?

Bringing It Home

What can result from making these common errors in thinking? Why does it matter? It matters
because we may waste time, money and even increase human suffering if we act upon an
incorrect theory or hypothesis. In addition, we reduce public trust in our profession, limiting
opportunities to do the real good we can do.

As an example, discuss what might result if we operated on the hypothesis that raising family
income would increase resilience in children—and it did not. What might happen if we decide
that only children with above average IQ can be resilient? You may come up with other error
scenarios you would like to examine.

Instructor’s Guide
This exercise can be delivered as an individual assignment, small group, or class discussion.
Online, it can be posted as discussion threads that require completion of each section before the
student can continue.

Critical Thinking Challenge, Use the Concept

1. If we see a positive correlation of 0.7 between SES and resilience in our population sample
will we know that higher SES increases resilience and lower SES reduces resilience?
The only correct answer is “no” because correlation does not equal causation.

2. What can we say with certainty that we do know?

The only correct answer will indicate that we only know that there is a 0.7 positive correlation
(r .7) between SES and resilience in our sample.

3. Is it possible that SES is not really the influence on resilience despite this strong correlation?
The only correct answer is yes. Additional mastery is indicated if the student suggests this could
be due to a third factor variable

Mastery Exercise, Capstone

236
1. Despite this strong correlation, we find children from low SES homes who are very resilient.
How might you explain this?
Correct answers may include that this is due to error in our measurement or error in our
hypothesis. The desired answer is that this could indicate one or more third factor variables are
influencing resilience and these factors vary within similar SES levels.

2. If SES is only a guidepost to a “third factor variable” that has influence on resilience, what
might those other variables be? What factors tend to go along with SES?
This question calls on students to think about the broad effects of SES. There are many correct
answers including access to information, chronic stress, lack of prenatal care, exposure to toxins,
parental level of education, childhood nutrition, etc.

3. If we also found a positive correlation of 0.5 between IQ scores and resilience would we know
that it is the lower IQ scores influencing the resilience? Why or why not?
No. The desired answer is that there may be a directionality error. (Lack of resilience could
influence scores on IQ tests.) Discussing in addition third factor variables and the limits of
correlational evidence indicates greater mastery of the concepts.

Bringing It Home
This is a wide-ranging discussion that may cover who gets included and who gets left out of
interventions, what failure means to intervention recipients and how it impacts funding sources
and the profession.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS

Abrams, D. & Hogg, M. A. (Eds.) (1990). Social identity theory: Constructive and critical
advances. New York: Springer-Verlag.
If you would like to learn more about Tajfel’s theory about social identity and how
minority groups enhance their self-esteem in the face of prejudice and discrimination, this book
has a theory. Chapter 3 is especially relevant.

Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological testing (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan.

This is the bible of psychological testing and is a good reference for the various tests used
to assess intelligence and school aptitude.

Armstrong, T. (1993). 7 kinds of smart: Identifying and developing your many intelligences.
New York: Plume.
Based on Gardner’s seven intelligences, this book includes checklists that you can use in
your class to let students determine which of their intelligences are strongest.

Bane, M. J. & Jencks, C. (1976). Five myths about your IQ. In N.J. Block & G. Dworkin (Eds.),
The IQ controversy. New York: Pantheon.

Baumeister, R. (Ed.) (1993). Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard. New York: Plenum.
Susan Harter’s (Chapter 5) writing on the causes and consequences of low self-esteem in
children and adolescents offers an easy-to-read explanation of her research on the self-concept.

237
Briggs, D. C. (1975). Your child's self-esteem. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
This is a classic book for parents and educators on how to raise happy children with high
self-esteem.

DelCampo, R. L. & DelCampo, D. S. (1995). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial

issues in childhood and society. Guilford, CT: Dushkin.
This is a good source for classroom discussions. There is an instructor’s manual
available to help with methods and techniques for classroom discussions.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.

Hallowell, E. M. & Ratey, J.J. (1994). Driven to distraction: Recognizing and coping with
attention-deficit disorder from childhood through adulthood. New York: Touchstone.
An excellent reference on ADHD.

Herbert, W. & Daniel, M. (June 3, 1996). The moral child. U.S. News & World Report, 52–59.

Hetherington, E. M., Hagan, M. S., & Anderson, E. R. (1989). Marital transitions: A child’s
perspective. American Psychologist, 44(2), 303–312.

Hock, R. R. (1999). Forty studies that changed psychology: Explorations into the history of
psychological research (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hock summarizes and comments on several studies relevant to this chapter. The
Pygmalion effect (teacher expectations) study is on p. 94, Kohlberg’s work on morality is on p.
202, and Rotter’s study about control is on p. 191.

Hoffman, L. W. (1989). Effects of maternal employment in the two-parent family. American

Psychologist, 44(2), 283–292.

Patterson, G. R., DeBarsyshe, B.D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on

antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44(2), 329–335.

Perkins, D. (1995). Outsmarting IQ. New York: Free Press.

A researcher at Harvard presents a compelling argument that intelligence can be taught.

Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), (1982). The handbook of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
This is an excellent reference on intelligence and intelligence testing.

Sternberg, R. J. & Killigian, J., Jr. (Eds.) (1990). Competence considered. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
An excellent source on people’s perceptions of competence and efficacy. Phillips and
Zimmerman’s chapter (Chapter 2) charts the developmental course of competence.

Wallerstein, J. S. & Blakeslee, S. (1989). Second chances: Men, women, and children a decade
after divorce. New York: Ticknor & Fields.

238
 This book is the follow-up to Wallerstein’s first book Surviving the Breakup: How
Children and Parents Cope with Divorce. This book looks at a sample of children and their
parents 10 years later.

Special Issues
1. The October 31, 1994, issue of The New Republic devoted nearly the entire issue to critiques
of Herrnstein & Murray’s The Bell Curve. Two other sources of information are:
Morganthau, T. (October 24, 1994). IQ: Is it destiny? Newsweek. 53–60.
Gould, S. J. (November 28, 1994). Curveball. The New Yorker. 139–149.

2. The February 1989 issue of American Psychologist has some articles especially pertinent for
Chapter 9. It is worth buying a back copy for reference. Some especially relevant articles
include:
Chalfant, J. C. (1989). Learning disabilities: Policy issues and promising
approaches, 392–398.
Hakuta, K. & Garcia, E. E. Bilingualism and education, 374–379.
Henker, B. & Whalen, C. K. Hyperactivity and attention deficits, 216–223.
Landesman, S. & Ramey, C. Developmental psychology and mental retardation:
Integrating scientific principles with treatment practices, 409–415.
Reis, S. M. Reflections on policy affecting the education of gifted and talented
students: Past and future perspectives, 399–408.
Weinberg, R. A. Intelligence and IQ: Landmark issues and great debates, 98–104.
3. The March 1992 issue of Educational Researcher is a special issue devoted to bilingual education.

MULTIMEDIA IDEAS

An American Stepfamily (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 26 minutes)

The problems of dealing with his, hers, and ours, and the conflicting loyalties.

Aspects of Intelligence (Insight Media, 1983, 30 minutes)

Discusses aspects of defining and measuring intelligence.

Being a Single Parent (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 19 minutes)
Explores three types of single parents: divorced, an unmarried woman, and a single
father.

The Changing Face of the American Family (ABC News/Prentice Hall Video Library, 1994,
7:22 minutes)
A Nightline program where a judge and a politician (William Bennett) are asked to
comment on the statistics which show that only half of all children in America will live in
a “traditional” family.

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Child Development: The Middle Years (Harper & Row, 1978, 30 minutes)
Discusses relationships with siblings, parents, and friends and talks about sex roles and
morality.

Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes)

This video illustrates Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

Concrete Operations (Davidson Films, 1994, 30 minutes)

David Elkind uses Piaget’s clinical interview with children 4–9 years old illustrating
centering and reversibility.

Conservation (Davidson Films, 29 minutes)

A video showing children of various ages performing conservation tasks.

Coping With Attention-Deficit Disorder in Children (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 27
minutes)
Explains the causes, symptoms, and treatments for ADHD.

Coping With Learning Disabilities (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes)
Adults explain what life was like as a child with learning difficulties.

The Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit Disorder in Children (Films for the
Humanities and Sciences, 27 minutes)
Shows the various diagnostic and treatment options for ADHD.

Dealing with Dyslexia (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 24 minutes)
The warning signs and benefits of early diagnosis and treatment and their effects on
academic performance.

Down Syndrome (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes)

A Phil Donahue program about children with Down syndrome and the remarkable
progress made with their training and education today.

Dyslexia: Diagnosis and Prognosis (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 26 minutes)
Explores the nature and probable reasons for this learning disability.

Dyslexia: Diagnosis and Therapy (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes)
Eight children help show the symptoms and therapies used to treat this reading disorder.

Dyslexia: Diagnosis and Treatment (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes)
This program explores the many ways in which dyslexia is manifested.

The Elementary Mind (Insight Media, 30 minutes)

A video that explores Piaget’s concrete operational stage. Also discusses intelligence
testing.

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Emotional Intelligence (PBS Home Video, 1999, 70 minutes)
Daniel Goleman presents his theory.

Family & Survival (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes)
Phil Donahue discusses how fewer than 5% of American households fit the stereotype of
the traditional nuclear family. The program stresses how children have the greatest
burden to bear with disrupted families.

Family in Crisis (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes)

A specially adapted Phil Donahue program that explores the plight of poor children
growing up in single-parent homes.

Fatherless in America (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 26 minutes)

A video that explores the fact that 40% of American children grow up in fatherless
homes.

For the Love of Ben (The Cinema Guild, 1989, 27 minutes)

Examines the relationship between a boy and his father after a divorce.

I’m Not Stupid: Learning Disabilities (University of Wisconsin, 1986, 28 minutes)

In a Class of His Own (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 26 minutes)
This film captures how difficult it is to be an exceptionally bright child.

Intelligence (RMI Media, 1990, 30 minutes)

Discusses the problems in defining and measuring intelligence.

IQ Testing and the School (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes)

Discusses the issues of reliability and validity of such tests as the WISC-R. Also
discusses the special needs of learning-disabled children and gifted children.

A Kid’s Guide to Divorce (Learning Tree, 1990, 36 minutes)

A video that addresses all aspects of separation, divorce, and remarriage.

Latchkey Families (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 23 minutes)

Offers guidance for parents whose children are alone at home while the parents are at
work.

Learning Disabilities (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 19 minutes)

What are learning disabilities? This program discusses how they are often misdiagnosed
and misunderstood.

Out of Control (Filmmakers Library, 1988, 14 minutes)

A video about hyperactivity.

Overweight Kids (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 18 minutes)

Insights into the social and emotional effects of being overweight as a child.

241
Peer Culture (Worlds of Childhood Series, University of Nebraska, 30 minutes)
Looks at peer relationships in different cultures.

Peers in Middle School (International Film Bureau, 1974, 23 minutes)

Shows the influences of the peer group.

Personality: Middle Childhood (CRM/McGraw-Hill, 1978, 19 minutes)

Portrays how personality develops during the school years.

Productivity and the Self-fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect (CRM/McGraw-Hill, 31

minutes)
Shows the role of expectations on school performance.

Ritalin: A Drug Treatment for Attention-Deficit Disorder (Films for the Humanities and
Sciences, 20 minutes)
Explores the pros and cons of drug use as treatment for attention disorders.

Sean’s Story—A Lesson in Life (ABC News/Prentice Hall, 1994, 16:36 minutes)
This ABC News special presents two Down syndrome boys, one (Sean) who is in a
regular classroom, called “inclusion,” and Bobby, who is attending a special school for
handicapped children. The special explores the pros and cons of both situations by
interviewing the boys' mothers and teachers.

Social-Cultural Differences (Insight Media, 30 minutes)

This video looks at how culture, socioeconomic status, and gender affect children’s
learning and school experiences.

Stuttering (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes)

The impact of stuttering and therapies designed to help stutterers from childhood through
adulthood.

Tube of Plenty (ABC News/Prentice Hall, 1995, 7:17 minutes)

This Prime Time Live segment presents Dr. Milton Chen who wrote the book Smart
Parent’s Guide to Kids’ TV and his suggestions about how to control the amount of TV
watching. An interesting statistic is that by graduation from high school, the average
American child has watched 18,000 hours of TV (versus 13,000 hours in the classroom).

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TEXTBOOK FEATURES

Video Guide

Middle Childhood (8:42; p. 289)

Gross Motor Development in Middle Childhood (p. 292)

Seriation (p. 301)

A Boy Talks About Having ADHD (2:05; p. 303)

Robert Sternberg on Cultural Influences (2:32; p. 311)

School and Education in Middle Childhood Across Cultures (6:56; p. 317)

A Family with Two Fathers (2:32; p. 330)

Pam: Divorced Mother of a 9-year-old (3:09; p. 331)

Cultural Focus: Friendships and Peer Relationships in Middle Childhood Across Cultures (4:18;
p. 338)

Research Focus: TV or Not TV (3:30; p. 343)

Applying Your Knowledge as a Professional Career Focus: Zoo Director (3:30; p. 345)

Cultural Focus Review Questions and Answers

Cultural Focus Review Question and Answer (p. 317)
What common educational themes do you see among the individuals in this video?
The common educational threads that we see among the individuals in this video segment
are that education is valued, balance is necessary, they see education as a path toward a
better future, they see a link between education and learning manners and respect, and
that through education they will gain more experiences and will be exposed to things that
they would not commonly be able to experience at home.
Cultural Focus Review Question and Answer (p. 338)
Many of those interviewed discuss how friendships in middle childhood are often same gender.
Why do you feel this self-segregation takes place?
Answers will vary because this is an open-ended question. However, friendships,
especially with the same gender, increase during the middle childhood years because
there is more socialization that takes place with other same gender children of similar
ages who have similar interests. They spend more time at school and at activities that
allow for these friendships to unfold. Additionally, these friendships provide
reinforcement, support, and validation from like-minded, same gender friends.

243
Research Focus Review Question and Answer (p. 343)
1. b

Critical Thinking Questions and Answers

Why do you think overweight and obesity are most common among low-income American
ethnic groups even though, internationally, overweight and obesity are highest in the
highest income countries? (p. 296)
Many low-income families seek foods or food products that fill the stomach but may be
higher in fat and lower in nutritional value. Some foods that appear economical, e.g., fast
foods, may cost less but are loaded with sugar and fat. The diet in many low-income
families is high in fat, sugar, and other processed foods. Across most income groups in
the United States and other high-income countries, there is fairly constant access to
calories. The choice of calories does make a difference, however.

Do you agree that all the mental abilities described by Gardner are different types of
intelligence? If not, which types would you remove? Are there other types you would add?
(p. 310)
Students will have a variety of answers to this based on their experience. A lively
discussion might include evidence for the various kinds of intelligence. Some students
might assert that we should not depend on anecdotes, but that we should try to find these
kinds of intelligence in populations. Some may say that understanding that there may be
different kinds of intelligence can help us design our teaching to better meet more
student’s needs.

244
Handouts

Handout 7-1: Diagnostic Criteria for ADHD

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR ATTENTION-DEFICIT

HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

• SYMPTOMS MUST PERSIST FOR AT LEAST SIX MONTHS

• SYMPTOMS SHOULD HAVE BEGUN BEFORE AGE SEVEN

• SYMPTOMS PRESENT IN AT LEAST TWO SITUATIONS

• DISORDER IMPAIRS FUNCTIONING

• SYMPTOMS NOT EXPLAINED BY ANOTHER DISORDER SUCH AS

ANXIETY

SCHIZOPHRENIA

MANIA

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER

PERSONALITY DISORDER

DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER

245
Handout 7-2: ADHD—Hyperactivity/Impulsivity

ADHD—HYPERACTIVITY/IMPULSIVITY

HYPERACTIVITY

• SQUIRMS OR FIDGETS

• INAPPROPRIATELY LEAVES SEAT

• INAPPROPRIATELY RUNS AND CLIMBS

• HAS TROUBLE QUIETLY PLAYING

• APPEARS DRIVEN OR “ON THE GO”

• TALKS EXCESSIVELY

IMPULSIVITY

• ANSWERS QUESTIONS BEFORE ASKED

• HAS TROUBLE WAITING TURN

• INTERRUPTS OR INTRUDES ON OTHERS

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Handout 7-3: ADHD—Inattention

ADHD—INATTENTION

• FAILS TO PAY CLOSE ATTENTION TO DETAILS

• MAKES CARELESS ERRORS

• DOESN’T APPEAR TO LISTEN

• DOES NOT FOLLOW THROUGH ON INSTRUCTIONS OR CHORES

• HAS TROUBLE ORGANIZING TASKS OR ACTIVITIES

• DISLIKES OR AVOIDS SUSTAINED MENTAL EFFORT

• LOSES MATERIALS

• EASILY DISTRACTED

• FORGETFUL

247
 Handout 7-4: Encouraging Positive Social Relationships

What Encourages Positive Social Relationships?

• Showing empathy and kindness

• Helping

• Giving

• Accepting help graciously

• Sharing

• Showing positive verbal and physical contact

• Comforting another in distress

• Donating to others who are less fortunate

• Showing concern

• Responding to others who are sad

• Taking the perspective of another person

• Showing affection

• Cooperating with others to complete a task

Source: Wittmer, D.S. & Honig, A.S. (July, 1994). Encouraging positive social development in
young children. Young children, 4–12.

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