III V: Oreword

CONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
PREFACE v
1. Prehistoric Rock Paintings 1
2. Arts of the Indus Valley 9
3. Arts of the Mauryan Period 19
4. Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and 27

Architecture
5. Later Mural Traditions 61
6. Temple Architecture and Sculpture 69
7. Indian Bronze Sculpture 103
8. Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic 109

Architecture
GLOSSARY 126
Map showing prehistoric sites
(Outline map not to scale)
PREHISTORIC ROCK
1
PAINTINGS
T HE distant past when there was no paper or language
or the written word, and hence no books or written
documents, is called prehistory, or, as we often say,
prehistoric times. How people lived in those times was
difficult to surmise until scholars began to discover the
places where prehistoric people lived. Excavation at these
places brought to light old tools, pottery, habitats, bones
of ancient human beings and animals, and drawings on
cave walls. By piecing together the information deduced
from these objects and the cave drawings, scholars have
constructed fairly accurate knowledge about what
happened and how people lived in prehistoric times. When
the basic needs of food, water, clothing and shelter were
fulfilled people felt the need to express themselves. Painting
and drawing were the oldest art forms practised by human
beings to express themselves, using the cave walls as their
canvas.
Why did prehistoric people draw these pictures? They
may have drawn and painted to make their homes more
colourful and beautiful or to keep a visual record of their
day-to-day life, like some of us who maintain a diary.
The prehistoric period in the early development of
human beings is commonly known as the Old Stone
Age or the Palaeolithic Age.
Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of

the world. We do not really know if Lower Palaeolithic people
ever produced any art objects. But by the Upper Palaeolithic
times we see a proliferation of artistic activities. Around
the world the walls of many caves of this time are full of
finely carved and painted pictures of animals which the
cave-dwellers hunted. The subjects of their drawings were
human figures, human activities, geometric designs and
symbols. In India the earliest paintings have been reported
from the Upper Palaeolithic times.
2 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART
It is interesting to know that the first discovery of rock

paintings was made in India in 1867–68 by an
archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle, twelve years before the
discovery of Altamira in Spain. Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra
and Ghosh were the early archaeologists who discovered a
large number of sites in the Indian sub-continent.
Remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls
of the caves situated in several districts of Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Bihar. Some
paintings have been reported from the Kumaon hills in
Uttarakhand also. The rock shelters on banks of the River
Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty kilometres on the Almora–
Barechina road, bear these prehistoric paintings.
Lakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves.The paintings
here can be divided into three categories: man, animal and
geometric patterns in white, black and red ochre. Humans
are represented in stick-like forms. A long-snouted animal,
a fox and a multiple legged lizard are the main animal motifs.
Wavy lines, rectangle-filled geometric designs, and groups
of dots can also be seen here. One of the interesting scenes
depicted here is of hand-linked dancing human figures.
There is some superimposition of paintings. The earliest are
in black; over these are red ochre paintings and the last
group comprises white paintings. From Kashmir two slabs
with engravings have been reported. The granite rocks of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh provided suitable canvases
to the Neolithic man for his paintings. There are several such
sites but more famous among them are Kupgallu, Piklihal
and Tekkalkota. Three types of paintings have been reported
from here—paintings in white, paintings in red ochre over
a white background and paintings in red ochre. These
Hand-linked dancing figures, Lakhudiyar,

Wavy lines, Lakhudiyar, Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand
PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS 3
paintings belong to late historical, early

historical and Neolithic periods. The subjects
depicted are bulls, elephants, sambhars,
gazelles, sheep, goats, horses, stylised
humans, tridents, but rarely, vegetal motifs.
But the richest paintings are reported from
the Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and
their Kaimurean extensions into Uttar
Pradesh. These hill ranges are full of
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains, and they
are also full of forests, wild plants, fruits,
streams and creeks, thus a perfect place for
Stone Age people to live. Among these the
largest and most spectacular rock-shelter is
located in the Vindhya hills at Bhimbetka in
Madhya Pradesh. Bhimbetka is located forty-
five kilometres south of Bhopal, in an area of
ten square kilometres, having about eight
hundred rock shelters, five hundred of which
bear paintings.
The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered
in 1957–58 by eminent archaeologist V.S.
Wakankar and later on many more were
discovered. Wakankar spent several years in
surveying these inaccessible hills and jungles Cave entrance, Bhimbetka,
to study these paintings. Madhya Pradesh
The themes of paintings found here are of great variety,
ranging from mundane events of daily life in those times to
sacred and royal images. These include hunting, dancing,
music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey
collection, decoration of bodies, and other household scenes.
The rock art of Bhimbetka has been classified into
various groups on the bases of style, technique and
superimposition. The drawings and paintings can be
Can you figure out what the
catagorised into seven historical periods. Period I, Upper artist is trying to depict in
Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period III, this painting?
Chalcolithic. After Period III there are four
successive periods. But we will confine
ourselves here only to the first three phases.
Upper Palaeolithic Period
The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic phase
are linear representations, in green and dark
red, of huge animal figures, such as bisons,
elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides
stick-like human figures. A few are wash
paintings but mostly they are filled with
geometric patterns. The green paintings are of dancers

and the red ones of hunters.
Mesolithic Period
The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that
covers the Mesolithic paintings. During this period the
themes multiply but the paintings are smaller in size.
Hunting scenes predominate. The hunting scenes depict
people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears,
pointed sticks, arrows and bows. In some paintings these
primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably
to catch animals. The hunters are shown wearing simple
clothes and ornaments. Sometimes, men have been
adorned with elaborate head-dresses, and sometimes
painted with masks also. Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer,
antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard,
squirrel and at times birds are also depicted. The
Mesolithic artists loved to paint animals. In some pictures,
animals are chasing men. In others they are being chased
and hunted by men. Some of the animal paintings,
especially in the hunting scenes, show a fear of animals,
but many others show a feeling of tenderness and love
for them. There are also a few engravings representing
mainly animals.
Though animals were painted in a naturalistic style,
humans were depicted only in a stylistic manner. Women
are painted both in the nude and clothed. The young and
the old equally find place in these paintings. Children are
painted running, jumping and playing. Community dances
provide a common theme. There are paintings of people
gathering fruit or honey from trees, and of women grinding
and preparing food. Some of the pictures of men, women
One of the few images showing and children seem to depict a sort of family life. In many
only one animal, Bhimbetka of the rock-shelters we find hand prints,
fist prints, and dots made by the
fingertips.
Chalcolithic Period
Period III covers the Chalcolithic period.
The paintings of this period reveal the
association, contact, and mutual
exchange of requirements of the cave
dwellers of this area with settled
agricultural communities of the Malwa
plains. Many a time Chalcolithic ceramics
and rock paintings bear common motifs,
e.g., cross-hatched squares, lattices.
Pottery and metal tools are also shown. But

the vividness and vitality of the earlier
periods disappear from these paintings.
The artists of Bhimbetka used many
colours, including various shades of white,
yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown,
green and black. But white and red were
their favourite colours. The paints were
made by grinding various rocks and
minerals. They got red from haematite
(known as geru in India). The green came
from a green variety of a stone called
chalcedony. White might have been made out of limestone. Painting showing a man
The rock of mineral was first ground into a powder. This being hunted by a beast,
may then have been mixed with water and also with some Bhimbetka
thick or sticky substance such as animal fat or gum or
resin from trees. Brushes were made of plant fibre. What
is amazing is that these colours have survived thousands
of years of adverse weather conditions. It is believed that Why has the animal been
the colours have remained intact because of the chemical shown so big and man
reaction of the oxide present on the surface of the rocks. so small?
The artists here made their paintings on the walls and
ceilings of the rock shelters. Some of the paintings are
reported from the shelters where people lived. But some
others were made in places which do not seem to have been
living spaces at all. Perhaps these places had some religious
importance. Some of the most beautiful paintings are very
high up on rock shelters or close to the ceilings of rock-
shelters. One may wonder why early human beings chose
to paint on a rock in such an uncomfortable position. The
paintings made at these places were perhaps for people to
be able to notice them from a distance.
The paintings, though from the remote past, do not lack
pictorial quality. Despite various limitations such as acute
working conditions, inadequate tools, materials, etc., there
is a charm of simple rendering of scenes of the
environment in which the artists lived. The men shown in
them appear adventurous and rejoicing in their lives. The
animals are shown more youthful and majestic than
perhaps they actually were. The primitive artists seem to
possess an intrinsic passion for storytelling. These pictures
depict, in a dramatic way, both men and animals engaged
in the struggle for survival. In one of the scenes, a group
of people have been shown hunting a bison. In the process,
some injured men are depicted lying scattered on the
ground. In another scene, an animal is shown in the agony
of death and the men are depicted dancing. These kinds
HUNTING SCENE
Hunting scenes predominate in Mesolithic paintings. This is one such scene

where a group of people are shown hunting a bison. Some injured men are
depicted lying scattered on the ground. These paintings show mastery in the
skill of drawing these forms.
DANCING SCENE
In this picture hand-linked figures in dancing mode are shown. In fact, this is a
recurrent theme. It also recalls the dancing scene from the Lakhudiyar rock
painting found in Uttarakhand.
of paintings might have given man a sense of power over

the animals he would meet in the open.
This practice is common among primitive people of
today also. They engrave or paint on rocks as part of
the rituals they perform at birth, at death, at coming
of age and at the time of marriage. They dance,
masked, during hunting rites to help them kill
animals difficult to find or kill.
The paintings of individual animals show the mastery

of skill of the primitive artist in drawing these forms. Both,
proportion and tonal effect, have been realistically
maintained in them.
It is interesting to note that at many rock-art sites
often a new painting is painted on top of an older painting.
At Bhimbetka, in some places, there are as many as 20
layers of paintings, one on top of another. Why did the
artists paint in the same place again and again? Maybe,
this was because the artist did not like his creation and
painted another painting on the previous one, or some of
the paintings and places were considered sacred or special
or this was because the area may have been used by
different generations of people at different times.
These prehistoric paintings help us to understand about
early human beings, their lifestyle, their food habits, their
daily activities and, above all, they help us understand
their mind—the way they thought. Prehistoric period
remains are a great witness to the evolution of human
civilisation, through the numerous rock weapons, tools,
ceramics and bones. More than anything else, the rock
paintings are the greatest wealth the primitive human
beings of this period left behind.
EXERCISE
1. According to your observation how did the people of
prehistoric times select themes for their paintings?
2. What could have been the reasons for depicting more animal
figures than human figures in cave paintings?
3. Many visuals of prehistoric cave paintings have been given
in this chapter. Among these which one do you like the
most and why? Give a critical appreciation of the visual.
4. Other than Bhimbetka, which are the other major sites
where these prehistoric paintings have been found? Prepare
a report on different aspects of these paintings with pictures
or line drawings.
5. In modern times, how have walls been used as a surface to
make paintings, graphics, etc?
TAN Peshawar
I S Srinagar
AN
GH
AF Manda
Gumla
Rehmandheri
Nagar Kathpalon
Harappa
Dadheri Ropar
Bhagwanpura
Banawali Hulas
Kalibangon
Balu
Alamgirpur NE
PAKISTAN PA
Siswal
Delhi L
Mohenjo-daro Kot diji
Kagen-dor Chanhu-daro
INDIA
Sokhtakhoh Amri
Karachi
Surkotada
Lothal
Rangpur Kolkata
Rojdi
Bhagatrav
Daimabad
Mumbai
A
R
A
B
I
A
N
BAY
Chennai
S
OF
E
A
Ancient cities
Modern towns BENGAL
Sri
Map of Indus Valley sites Lanka
ARTS OF
2
THE INDUS VALLEY
T HE arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation emerged during
the second half of the third millennium BCE. The forms
of art found from various sites of the civilisation include
sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery, terracotta figures,
etc. The artists of that time surely had fine artistic
sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Their delineation of
human and animal figures was highly realistic in nature,
since the anatomical details included in them was unique,
and, in the case of terracotta art, the modelling of animal
figures was done in an extremely careful manner.
The two major sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation,
along the Indus river—the cities of Harappa in the north
and Mohenjodaro in the south—showcase one of earliest
examples of civic planning. Other markers were houses,
markets, storage facilities, offices, public baths, etc.,
arranged in a grid-like pattern. There was also a highly
developed drainage system. While Harappa and
Mohenjodaro are situated in Pakistan, the important sites
excavated in India are Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat,
Bust of a bearded priest
Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in the Punjab,
Kalibangan and Balathal in Rajasthan, etc.
Statues whether in stone, bronze or terracotta
found in Harappan sites are not abundant, but refined.
Stone Statues
The stone statuaries found at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of handling three-
dimensional volumes. In stone are two male figures—
one is a torso in red sandstone and the other is a
bust of a bearded man in steatite—which are
extensively discussed.
The figure of the bearded man interpreted as a
priest, is draped in a shawl coming under the right
arm and covering the left shoulder. This shawl is
decorated with trefoil patterns. The eyes are a little
elongated, and half-closed as in meditative
concentration. The nose is well formed and of medium
size; the mouth is of average size with close-cut moustache

and a short beard and whiskers; the ears resemble double
shells with a hole in the middle. The hair is parted in the
middle, and a plain woven fillet is passed round the head.
An armlet is worn on the right hand and holes around the
neck suggest a necklace.
Bronze casting Bronze Casting
techniques of the
same nature are The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by
practised even now the Harappans. Their bronze statues were made using the
in many parts of the ‘lost wax’ technique in which the wax figures were first
country, having a covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry. Then the
continuous wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out
tradition. through a tiny hole made in the clay cover. The hollow
mould thus created was filled with molten metal which
took the original shape of the object. Once the metal cooled,
the clay cover was completely removed. In bronze we find
human as well as animal figures, the best example of the
former being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing
Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with
its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns and the goat
are of artistic merit. Bronze casting was popular at all the
major centres of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The copper
dog and bird of Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from
Kalibangan are in no way inferior to the human figures of
copper and bronze from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Metal-
casting appears to be a continuous tradition. The late
Harappan and Chalcolithic sites like Daimabad in
Maharashtra yielded excellent examples of metal-cast
Mother goddess, terracotta A terracotta figurine

ARTS OF THE INDUS VALLEY 11
sculptures. They mainly consist of human and animal

figures. It shows how the tradition of figure sculpture
continued down the ages.
Terracotta
The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but
compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta
representations of human form are crude in the Indus
Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and
Kalibangan. The most important among the Indus figures
are those representing the mother goddess. In terracotta,
we also find a few figurines of bearded males with coiled
hair, their posture rigidly upright, legs slightly apart, and
the arms parallel to the sides of the body. The repetition of
this figure in exactly the same position would suggest that
he was a deity. A terracotta mask of a horned deity has
also been found. Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles,
birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered
in terracotta.
Terracotta
Seals
Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, usually
made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper,
faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals,
such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison,
goat, buffalo, etc. The realistic rendering of these animals
in various moods is remarkable. The purpose of producing
seals was mainly commercial. It appears that the seals
were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their
owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards. The
standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square
inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite.
Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is
yet to be deciphered. Some seals have also been found in
gold and ivory. They all bear a great variety of motifs, most
often of animals including those of the bull, with or without
Unicorn seals
the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat and also
monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures
were also depicted. The most remarkable seal
is the one depicted with a figure in the centre
and animals around. This seal is generally
identified as the Pashupati Seal by some
scholars whereas some identify it as the female
deity. This seal depicts a human figure seated
cross-legged. An elephant and a tiger are
depicted to the right side of the seated figure,
while on the left a rhinoceros and a buffalo
are seen. In addition to these animals two
antelopes are shown below the seat. Seals
such as these date from between 2500 and
Pashupati seal/female deity
1500 BCE and were found in considerable
numbers in sites such as the ancient city of
Mohenjodaro in the Indus Valley. Figures and
animals are carved in intaglio on their
surfaces.
Square or rectangular copper tablets, with
an animal or a human figure on one side and
an inscription on the other, or an inscription
on both sides have also been found. The figures
and signs are carefully cut with a burin. These
copper tablets appear to have been amulets.
Unlike inscriptions on seals which vary in each
case, inscriptions on the copper tablets seem
to be associated with the animals portrayed
on them.
Pottery
A large quantity of pottery excavated from the sites, enable
us to understand the gradual evolution of various design
motifs as employed in different shapes, and styles. The
Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel-
made wares, very few being hand-made. Plain pottery is
more common than painted ware. Plain pottery is generally
of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes
knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs. The black
painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which
geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black
paint.
Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small
vases decorated with geometric patterns in red, black, and
green, rarely white and yellow. Incised ware is also rare
and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of
the pans, always inside and to the dishes of offering stands.
Perforated pottery includes a large hole at the bottom and
small holes all over the wall, and was probably used for
straining liquor. Pottery for household purposes is found
in as many shapes and sizes as could be conceived of for
daily practical use. Straight and angular shapes are an
exception, while graceful curves are the rule. Miniature
vessels, mostly less than half an inch in height are,
particularly, so marvellously crafted as to evoke admiration.
Beads and Ornaments

The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with
a large variety of ornaments produced from every
conceivable material ranging from precious metals and
gemstones to bone and baked clay. While necklaces, fillets,
armlets and finger-rings were commonly worn by both
Perforated pot Pottery

sexes, women wore girdles, earrings and anklets. Hoards

of jewellery found at Mohenjodaro and Lothal include
necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones, copper
bracelets and beads, gold earrings and head ornaments,
faience pendants and buttons, and beads of steatite and
gemstones. All ornaments are well crafted. It may be noted
that a cemetery has been found at Farmana in Haryana
where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
The bead industry seems to have been well developed
as evident from the factories discovered at Chanhudaro
and Lothal. Beads were made of cornelian, amethyst,
jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc.
Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and shell, faience and
terracotta or burnt clay were also used for manufacturing
beads. The beads are in varying shapes—disc-shaped,
cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented. Some
beads were made of two or more stones cemented together,
some of stone with gold covers. Some were decorated by
incising or painting and some had designs etched onto
them. Great technical skill has been displayed in the
manufacture of these beads.
The Harappan people also made brilliantly naturalistic
models of animals, especially monkeys and squirrels, used
as pin-heads and beads.
It is evident from the discovery of a large number of
spindles and spindle whorls in the houses of the Indus
Beadwork and jewellery items

Valley that spinning of cotton and wool was very common.

The fact that both the rich and the poor practised spinning
is indicated by finds of whorls made of the expensive faience
as also of the cheap pottery and shell. Men and women
wore two separate pieces of attire similar to the dhoti and
shawl. The shawl covered the left shoulder passing below
the right shoulder.
From archaeological finds it appears that the people of
the Indus Valley were conscious of fashion. Different
hairstyles were in vogue and wearing of a beard was popular
among all. Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic and face-
paint, lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner) were also known to
them. Many stone structural remains are also found at
Dholavira which show how the Indus Valley people used
stone in construction.
The artists and craftsmen of the Indus Valley were
extremely skilled in a variety of crafts—metal casting, stone Terracotta toys
carving, making and painting pottery and making terracotta
images using simplified motifs of animals, plants and birds.
EXERCISE
1. Would you agree that the people of the Indus Valley
Civilisation were great art lovers? Give reasons for your
answer.
2. What kind of similarities and differences do you find
between present-day terracotta and the Indus Valley
terracotta?
3. Seals were made of different materials. With the Indus
Valley seals as a reference try to make seals with a
different medium. Which are the animals that you would
like to carve on your seals and why?
4. What do the art objects that have survived tell us about
the daily life of the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation?
5. Imagine you are a curator working in a museum and you
have been given the task to create a museum exhibit on
Indus art. Collect illustrations of at least ten objects made
of stone, metal and terracotta produced and used during
the Indus Valley Civilisation and create this exhibit.
DANCING GIRL
One of the best known artefacts from the Indus Valley
is this approximately four-inch-high copper figure
of a dancing girl. Found in Mohenjodaro, this
exquisite casting depicts a girl whose long hair is
tied in a bun. Bangles cover her left arm, a bracelet
and an amulet or bangle adorn her right arm, and
a cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck.
Her right hand is on her hip and her left hand is
clasped in a traditional Indian dance gesture. She
has large eyes and flat nose. This figure is full of
expression and bodily vigour and conveys a lot of
information.
BULL
This bronze figure of a bull from
Mohenjodaro deserves mention. The
massiveness of the bull and the fury
of the charge are eloquently
expressed. The animal is shown
standing with his head turned to the
right and with a cord around the
neck.
MALE TORSO
In this red sandstone figure, there are socket holes in the neck
and shoulders for the attachment of head and arms. The frontal
posture of the torso has been consciously adopted. The
shoulders are well baked and the abdomen slightly prominent.
PAINTED EARTHEN JAR

Found in Mohenjodaro, this jar is made on a
potter’s wheel with clay. The shape was
manipulated by the pressure of the crafty
fingers of the potter. After baking the clay
model, it was painted with black colour. High
polishing was done as a finishing touch. The
motifs are of vegetals and geometric forms.
Designs are simple but with a tendency
towards abstraction.
MOTHER GODDESS
The mother goddess figures are usually crude standing female
figures adorned with necklaces hanging over prominent breasts
and wearing a loin cloth and a girdle. The fan-shaped head-dress
with a cup-like projection on each side is a distinct decorative
feature of the mother goddess figures of the Indus Valley. The
pellet eyes and beaked nose of the figures are very crude, and the
mouth is indicated by a slit.
Map showing Mauryan sites
ARTS
OF THE
3
MAURYAN PERIOD
S IXTH century BCE marks the beginning of new
religious and social movements in the Gangetic valley
in the form of Buddhism and Jainism which were part of
the shraman tradition. Both religions became popular as
they opposed the varna and jati systems of the Hindu
religion. Magadha emerged as a powerful kingdom and
consolidated its control over the other regions. By the fourth
century BCE the Mauryas established their power and by Pillar capital and abacus
with stylised lotus
the third century BCE, a large part of India was under
Mauryan control. Ashoka emerged as the most powerful
king of the Mauryan dynasty who patronised the shraman
tradition in the third century BCE. Religious practices had
many dimensions and were not confined to just one
particular mode of worship. Worship of Yakshas and mother-
goddesses were prevalent during that time. So, multiple
forms of worship existed. Nevertheless, Buddhism became
the most popular social and religious movement. Yaksha
worship was very popular before and after the advent of
Buddhism and it was assimilated in Buddhism and Jainism.
Pillars, Sculptures and Rock-cut Architecture

Construction of stupas and viharas as part of monastic
establishments became part of the Buddhist tradition.
However, in this period, apart from stupas and viharas,
stone pillars, rock-cut caves and monumental figure
sculptures were carved at several places. The tradition of
constructing pillars is very old and it may be observed
that erection of pillars was prevalent in the Achamenian
empire as well. But the Mauryan pillars are different from
the Achamenian pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut
pillars thus displaying the carver’s skills, whereas the
Achamenian pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason.
Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan Empire
with inscriptions engraved on them. The top portion of the
pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the
lion, the elephant, etc. All the capital figures are vigorous
and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses

are decorated with stylised lotuses. Some of the existing pillars
with capital figures were found at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-
Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath.
The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly
known as the Lion Capital is the finest example of Mauryan
sculptural tradition. It is also our national emblem. It is
carved with considerable care—voluminous roaring lion
figures firmly standing on a circular abacus which is carved
with the figures of a horse, a bull, a lion and an elephant
in vigorous movement, executed with precision, showing
considerable mastery in the sculptural techniques. This
pillar capital symbolising Dhammachakrapravartana (the
first sermon by the Buddha) has become a standard symbol
of this great historical event in the life of the Buddha.
Monumental images of Yaksha, Yakhinis and animals,
pillar columns with capital figures, rock-cut caves belonging
to the third century BCE have been found in different parts
of India. It shows the popularity of Yaksha worship and
how it became part of figure representation in Buddhist
and Jaina religious monuments.
Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many
places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. These monumental
Yaksha, Parkham images are mostly in the standing position. One of the
distinguishing elements in all these images is their polished
surface. The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced
cheeks and physiognomic detail. One of the finest examples
is a Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, which is tall and
well-built. It shows sensitivity towards depicting the human
physique. The image has a polished surface.
Terracotta figurines show a very different delineation of
the body as compared to the sculptures. Depiction of a
monumental rock-cut elephant at Dhauli in Orissa shows
modelling in round with linear rhythm. It also has Ashokan
rock-edict. All these examples are remarkable in their
execution of figure representation. The rock-cut cave carved
at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar is known as the Lomus
Rishi cave. The facade of the cave is decorated with the
semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The elephant
frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows
considerable movement. The interior hall of this cave is
rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. The
entrance is located on the side wall of the hall. The cave
was patronised by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect. The Lomus
Rishi cave is an isolated example of this period. But many
Buddhist caves of the subsequent periods were excavated
in eastern and western India.
ARTS OF THE MAURYAN PERIOD 21
Due to the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, stupas

and viharas were constructed on a large scale. However,
there are also examples of a few Brahmanical gods in the
sculptural representations. It is important to note that the
stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at
Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama,
Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalvina. The textual
tradition also mentions construction of various other stupas
on the relics of the Buddha at several places including
Avanti and Gandhara which are outside the Gangetic valley.
Stupa, vihara and chaitya are part of Buddhist and Jaina
monastic complexes but the largest number belongs to the
Buddhist religion. One of the best examples of the structure
of a stupa in the third century BCE is at Bairat in
Rajasthan. It is a very grand stupa having a circular mound
with a circumambulatory path. The great stupa at Sanchi
(which will be discussed later) was built with bricks during
the time of Ashoka and later it was covered with stone and
many new additions were made.
Subsequently many such stupas were constructed which
shows the popularity of Buddhism. From the second
century BCE onwards, we get many inscriptional evidences
mentioning donors and, at times, their profession. The
pattern of patronage has been a very collective one and
there are very few examples of royal patronage. Patrons
range from lay devotees to gahapatis and kings. Donations
by the guilds are also mentioned at several sites. However,
there are very few inscriptions mentioning the names of
artisans such as Kanha at Pitalkhora and his disciple
Balaka at Kondane caves. Artisans’ categories like stone
carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers, carpenters, etc. are
also mentioned in the inscriptions. The method of working
Elephant, Dhauli Lomus Rishi cave-entrance detail

LION CAPITAL, SARNATH

The Lion Capital discovered more than a hundred years ago

at Sarnath, near Varanasi, is generally referred to as Sarnath
Lion Capital. This is one of the finest examples of sculpture
from the Mauryan period. Built in commemoration of the
historical event of the first sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana
by the Buddha at Sarnath, the capital was built by Ashoka.
The capital originally consisted of five component parts:
(i) the shaft (which is broken in many parts now), (ii) a lotus
bell base, (iii) a drum on the bell base with four animals
proceeding clockwise, (iv) the figures of four majestic addorsed
lions, and (v) the crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large
wheel, was also a part of this pillar. However, this wheel is
lying in a broken condition and is displayed in the site museum
at Sarnath. The capital without the crowning wheel and the
lotus base has been adopted as the National Emblem of
Independent India.
Now kept in the archaeological museum at Sarnath, the
capital has four lions firmly seated back to back on a circular
abacus. The lion figures of the capital are very impressive and
massive. The monumentality of the image is easily noticeable.
The facial musculature of the lions is very strong. The inversed
lines of the lips and its subsequent effect of projection at the
end of the lips show the sculptor’s observation for naturalistic
depiction. The lions appear as if they have held their breath.
The lines of the mane are sharp and follow the conventions
that were in practice during that time. The surface of the
sculpture is heavily polished which is typical of the Mauryan
Period. Their curly manes have protruding volume. The weight
of the body of each lion is firmly shown by the stretched muscles
of the feet. The abacus has the depiction of a chakra (wheel)
having twenty-four spokes in all the four directions and a bull,
a horse, an elephant and a lion between every chakra is finely
carved. The motif of the chakra becomes significant as a
representation of the Dhammachkra in the entire Buddhist art.
Each animal figure, despite sticking to the surface, is
voluminous, its posture creating movement in the circular
abacus. Despite having limited space between each chakra,
these animal figures display considerable command over the
depiction of movement in a limited space. The circular abacus
is supported by an inverted lotus capital. Each petal of the
lotus is sculpted keeping in mind its density. The lower portion
has curved planes neatly carved. Being a pillar image, it was
conceived to be viewed from all the side, thus there are no
boundations of fixed view points. A lion capital has also been
found at Sanchi but is in a dilapidated condition. The motif of
lion-capital-pillar continued even in the subsequent period.
DIDARGUNJ YAKSHINI
The life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk)

from Didargunj near modern Patna is another good example of the
sculptural tradition of the Mauryan Period. Kept in Patna Museum,
it is a tall, well-proportioned, free-standing sculpture in round made
in sandstone with a polished surface. The chauri is held in the right
hand whereas the left hand is broken. The image shows
sophistication in the treatment of form and medium. The sculptor’s
sensitivity towards the round muscular body is clearly visible. The
face has round, fleshy cheeks, while the neck is relatively small in
proportion; the eyes, nose and lips are sharp. Folds of muscles are
properly rendered. The necklace beads are in full round, hanging to
the belly. The tightening of garment around the belly creates the
effect of a bulging belly. The lower garment has been rendered with
great care. Every fold of the garment on the legs is shown by
protruding lines clinging to the legs, which also create a somewhat
transparent effect. The middle band of the garment falls till the feet.
Thick bell-ornaments adorn the feet. The image stands firmly on its
legs. Heaviness in the torso is depicted by heavy breasts. The back
is equally impressive. The hair is tied in a knot at the back. The
back is bare. Drapery at the back covers both legs. The flywhisk in
the right hand is shown with incised lines continued on the back of
the image.
was collective in nature and at times only a specific portion

of the monument is said to have been patronised by a
particular patron. Traders recorded their donation along
with their place of origin.
In the subsequent century, stupas were elaborately built
with certain additions like the enclosing of the
circumambulatory path with railings and sculptural
decoration. There were numerous stupas constructed earlier
but expansions or new additions were made in the second
century BCE. The stupa consists of a cylindrical drum
Stupa worship, Bharhut and a circular anda with a harmika and chhatra on the
top which remain consistent throughout with minor
variations and changes in shape and size. Apart from the
circumambulatory path, gateways were added. Thus, with
the elaborations in stupa architecture, there was ample
space for the architects and sculptors to plan elaborations
and to carve out images.
During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted
symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne,
chakra, etc. This indicates either simple worship, or paying
respect, or at times depicts historisisation of life events.
Gradually narrative became a part of the Buddhist
tradition. Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the
Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and torans of
the stupas. Mainly synoptic narrative, continuous narrative
and episodic narrative are used in the pictorial tradition.
While events from the life of the Buddha became an
important theme in all the Buddhist monuments, the Jataka
stories also became equally important for sculptural
decorations. The main events associated with the Buddha’s
life which were frequently depicted were events related to
the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakra-
pravartana, and mahaparinibbana (death). Among the
Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta
Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
EXERCISE
1. Do you think that the art of making sculptures in India
began during the Mauryan period?
2. What was the significance of the stupa and how did stupa
architecture develop?
3. Which were the four events in the life of the Buddha which
have been depicted in different forms of Buddhist art? What
did these events symbolise?
4. What are the Jatakas? How do the Jatakas relate to
Buddhism? Find out.
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN
4
INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
F ROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulers
established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in souther n and wester n India.
Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as
the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sites
dating back to the second century BCE in India. Some of
the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found
at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra). Yakshini, Bharhut
Bharhut
Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of the
sculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.
Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panels
depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is
shown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative is
enhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrative
panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time
progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space. At times
more than one event at one geographical place is clubbed
in the picture space or only a single main event is depicted
in the pictorial space.
Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by
the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as
single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown
flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in
later times, the hands are shown with the natural
projection against the chest. Such examples show how
artisans who were working at a collective level had to
understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing the

surface of stone slabs appears as the main concern. Later
the human body and other forms were sculpted. Due to
shallow carving of the picture surface, projection of hands
and feet was not possible, hence, the folded hands and
awkward position of the feet. There is a general stiffness
in the body and arms. But gradually, such visual
appearance was modified by making images with deep
carvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalistic
representation of human and animal bodies. Sculptures
at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta
are good examples.
Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used
the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.
In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (mother
of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant is
shown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas
an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the womb
of Queen Mayadevi. On the other hand, the depiction of a
Jataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events
according to the geographical location of the story like the
depiction of Ruru Jataka where the Boddhisattva deer is
rescuing a man on his back. The other event in the same
picture frame depicts the King standing with his army and
about to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was
Jataka panel , Bharhut Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut

POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 29
rescued by the deer is also shown along with the king

pointing a finger at the deer. According to the story, the
man promised the deer after his rescue that he would not
disclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makes
a proclamation of reward for disclosing the identity of the
deer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same jungle
where he had seen the deer. Such Jataka stories became
part of stupa decoration. Interestingly, with the rise in the
construction of stupas in various parts of the country,
regional stylistic variations also began to emerge. One main
characteristic in all the male images of first–second
centuries BCE is the knotted headgear. In many sculptures
it is very consistent. Some of the sculptures found at
Bharhut are displayed in Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Sanchi
The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1,
Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District)
is noteworthy in the stylistic progression. Stupa-1 at Sanchi
has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated
toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha
and the Jatakas. Figure compositions are in high relief,
filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture gets
naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body. Heads
have considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity
Chhatri
Harmika
Pradakshina
patha
Anda
Medhi
Vedika
Torana Plan of Stupa-1, Sanchi
in the contours gets reduced and images are given

movement. Narration gets elaborated. Carving techniques
appear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continue
to be used representing the Buddha and the Manushi
Buddhas or the past Buddhas (according to the textual
tradition, there are twenty-four Buddhas but only the first
one, Dipankar, and the last six are pictorially represented).
At Sanchi Stupa-1, narratives get more elaborated;
however, the depiction of the dream episode remains very
simple showing the reclining image of the queen and the
elephant at the top. The historical narratives such as the
siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of
Ashoka to the Ramgrama Stupa are carved with
considerable details. In Mathura, images of this period
bear the same quality but are different in the depiction of
physiognomic details.
Stone carving, Stupa-1,
Sanchi
Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools
The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan),
Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh
emerged as important centres of art production. Buddha
in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and
Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the
confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara
tradition. The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became
so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern
India. The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures
found at Sanghol in the Punjab. The Buddha image at
Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images
whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.
Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various
forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas)
faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are
found in large numbers. It may be noted that the images
of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas
(weapons). There is boldness in carving the large images,
the volume of the images is projected out of the picture
plane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in the
sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garments
of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left
shoulder. Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis,
Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are
profusely sculpted. In the second century CE, images in
Mathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they become
fleshier. In the third century CE, treatment of sculptural
Part of railing, Sangol
volume changes by reducing the extreme fleshiness,
movement in the posture is shown by increasing distance
between the two legs as well as by using bents in the body

posture. Softness in the surface continues to get refined.
The trend continues in the fourth century CE but in the
late fourth century CE, the massiveness and fleshiness is
reduced further and the flesh becomes more tightened,
the volume of the drapery also gets reduced and in the
fifth and sixth centuries CE, the drapery is integrated into
the sculptural mass. Transparent quality in the robes of
the Buddha images is evident. In this period, two important
schools of sculptures in northern India are worth noting.
The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art
production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged
as important centres of art production. Many Buddha
images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering
both shoulders, and the halo around the head has very
little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha images
continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha images
and the halo around the head is profusely decorated. One
can visit museums at Mathura, Sarnath, Varanasi, New
Delhi, Chennai, Amaravati, etc. to study the features of
early sculptures.
Meditating Buddha, Gandhar, Bodhisattva, Gandhar, fifth–sixth century CE

third–fourth century CE
Early Temples
While construction of stupas continued, Brahmanical
temples and images of gods also started getting
constructed. Often temples were decorated with the images
of gods. Myths mentioned in the Puranas became part of
narrative representation of the Brahmanical religion. Each
temple had a principal image of a god. The shrines of the
temples were of three kinds—(i) sandhara type (without
pradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type (with
pradakshinapatha), and (iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be
accessed from all sides). Some of the important temple
sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran,
Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya
Pradesh. These temples are simple structures consisting
of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear. They will be
discussed in detail in the next chapter.
Among the important stupa sites outside the Gangetic
valley is Devnimori in Gujarat. In the subsequent centuries
sculptures had little variations while slender images with
transparent drapery remained a dominant aesthetic
sensibility.
Chatur Mukhlinga,
Nachna- Kuthara (Inset)
Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE
Buddhist Monuments of South India

Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites like
Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda,
Goli, etc. Amaravati has a mahachaitya and had many
sculptures which are now preserved in Chennai Museum,
Amaravati Site Museum, National Museum, New Delhi and

the British Museum, London. Like the Sanchi Stupa, the
Amaravati Stupa also has pradakshinapatha enclosed
within a vedika on which many narrative sculptures are
depicted. The domical stupa structure is covered with relief
stupa sculptural slabs which is a unique feature. The torana
of the Amaravati Stupa has disappeared over a period of
time. Events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka
stories are depicted. Though in the Amaravati Stupa there
is evidence of construction activity in the third century
BCE, it was best developed in the first and second centuries
CE. Like Sanchi, the early phase is devoid of Buddha images
but during the later phase, in the second and third
centuries CE, the Buddha images are carved on the drum
slabs and at many other places. Interior space in the
composition is created by different postures of the figures
such as semi-back, back, profile, frontal, semi-frontal,
side, etc.
Sculptural form in this area is characterised by intense
emotions. Figures are slender, have a lot of movement,
bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the
sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi.
Linearity becomes flexible, dynamic movement breaks the
staticness of form. The idea of creating three-dimensional
space in the relief sculpture is devised by using pronounced
volume, angular bodies and complex overlapping. However,
Carving on outer wall of Stupa, Amaravati Stupa drum slab, Amravati, second
century CE
absolute attention has been paid to the clarity of form

despite its size and role in the narrative. Narratives are
profusely depicted which include events from the life of
the Buddha and the Jataka stories. There are a number of
Jataka scenes that have not been completely identified. In
the depiction of the birth event, the queen is shown
reclining on a bed surrounded by female attendants and a
small-sized elephant is carved on the upper frame of the
composition showing the dream of Queen Mayadevi. In
another relief, four events related to the birth of the Buddha
are shown. These represent varied ways of depicting the
narratives.
The animated movement in the figures gets reduced in
the sculptures of Nagarjunkonda and Goli in the third
century CE. Even within the relatively low relief volume
than in the Amaravati sculptures, artists at
Nagarjunkonda and Goli managed to create the effect of
protruding surfaces of the body which is suggestive in
nature and look very integral. Independent Buddha images
are also found at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda and
Guntapalle. Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave site near Eluru.
Small apsidal and circular chaitya halls have been
excavated belonging to the second century BCE. The other
important site where rock-cut stupas have been excavated
is Anakapalle near Vishakhapatanam. In Karnataka,
Sannati is the largest stupa site excavated so far. It also
has a stupa like the one in Amaravati decorated with
sculptural relief.
Panel, Nagarjunkonda
Construction of a large number of stupas does not mean

that there were no structured temples or viharas or chaityas.
We do get evidences but no structured chaitya or vihara
survived. Among the important structured viharas, mention
may be made of the Sanchi apsidal chaitya structure, i.e.,
temple 18, which is a simple shrine temple having front
pillars and a hall at the back. Similar structured temples
at Guntapalle are also worth mentioning. Along with the
images of the Buddha, other Buddhist images of
Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Vajrapani,
Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha started getting sculpted.
However, with the rise of Vajrayana Buddhism many
Boddhisattva images were added as a part of the personified
representations of certain virtues or qualities as propagated
by the Buddhist religious principles for the welfare of
the masses.
Cave Tradition in Western India

In western India, many Buddhist caves dating back to the
second century BCE onwards have been excavated. Mainly
three architectural types were executed—(i) apsidal vault-
roof chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja); (ii)
apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall (found at Thana-Nadsur);
and (iii) flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular
chamber at the back (found at Kondivite). The front of the
chaitya hall is dominated by the motif of a semi-circular
chaitya arch with an open front which has a wooden facade
and, in some cases, there is no dominating chaitya arch
window such as found at Kondivite. In all the chaitya caves
a stupa at the back is common.
In the first century BCE some modifications were made
to the standard plan of the apsidal vault-roof variety where
the hall becomes rectangular like at Ajanta Cave No. 9
Unfinished chaitya cave, Kanheri Chaitya hall, Karla

with a stone-screen wall as a facade.

It is also found at Bedsa, Nashik,
Karla and Kanheri. Many cave sites
have the standard first type of chaitya
halls in the subsequent period. In
Karla, the biggest rock-cut chaitya
hall was excavated. The cave consists
of an open courtyard with two pillars,
a stone screen wall to protect from
rain, a veranda, a stone-screen wall
as facade, an apsidal vault-roof
chaitya hall with pillars, and a stupa
at the back. Karla chaitya hall is
decorated with human and animal
figures. They are heavy in their
Nashik Cave No. 3
execution, and move in the picture space. Further
elaboration over the Karla chaitya hall plan is observed at
Kanheri Cave No.3. Though the cave’s interior was not
fully finished, it shows how the carving progressed from
time to time. Subsequently, the quadrangular flat-roofed
variety became the most preferred design and is extensively
found at many places.
The viharas are excavated in all the cave sites. The
plan of the viharas consists of a veranda, a hall and cells
around the walls of the hall. Some of the important vihara
caves are Ajanta Cave No. 12, Bedsa Cave No. 11, Nashik
Cave Nos. 3, 10 and 17. Many of the early vihara caves are
carved with interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches
and the vedica designs over the cell doors of the cave.
Facade design in Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10, and 17 became a
distinct achievement. The vihara caves at Nashik were
Chaitya, Cave No. 12, Bhaja excavated with front pillars carved
with ghata-base and ghata-capital
with human figures. One such vihara
cave was also excavated at Junnar
which is popularly known as
Ganeshleni because an image of
Ganesha belonging to a later period
was installed in it. Later, a stupa was
added at the back of the hall of the
vihara and it became a chaitya-vihara.
The stupas in the fourth and fifth
centuries CE have Buddha images
attached. Junnar has the largest
cave excavations— more than two
hundred caves around the hills of the
town—whereas Kanheri in Mumbai
has a hundred and eight excavated caves. The most

important sites are Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik,
Bhaja, Junnar, Karla, Kanheri. Ajanta, Ellora, and Kanheri
continue to flourish. Earlier it was presumed that because
of the absence of the Buddha image, the caves were
considered belonging to the orthodox faith of Buddhism,
i.e., the Thervadins, but with the discovery of the Konkan
Maurya inscription mentioning the Saka era 322, i.e., 400
CE, it is now satisfactorily proved that the cave activity in
western Deccan was an ongoing process and many caves
had been carved with Buddha images where the image
does not exist any more. It may also be noted that many
caves are converted into modern Hindu shrines and have
become popular worshipping sites.
Ajanta
The most famous cave site is Ajanta. It is located in
Aurangabad District of Maharashtra State. Ajanta has
twenty-nine caves. It has four chaitya caves datable to the
earlier phase, i.e., the second and the first century BCE
(Cave Nos. 10 and 9) and the later phase, i.e., the fifth
century CE (Cave Nos. 19 and 26). It has large chaitya-
viharas and is decorated with sculptures and paintings.
Ajanta is the only surviving example of painting of the
first century BCE and the fifth century CE. The caves at
Ajanta as well as in western Deccan in general have no
precise chronology because of the lack of known dated
inscriptions.
Cave Nos. 10, 9, 12 and 13 belong to the early phase,
Caves Nos. 11, 15 and 6 upper and lower, and Cave No. 7
belong to the phase earlier than late fifth century CE. The
rest of the caves belong to late fifth century CE to early
sixth century CE. The chaitya Cave Nos. 19 and 26 are View, Ajanta Caves
elaborately carved. Their
facade is decorated with
Buddha and, Boddhisattva
images. They are of the
apsidal-vault-roof variety.
Cave No. 26 is very big and
the entire interior hall is
carved with a variety of
Buddha images, the biggest
one being the Mahaparinibbana
image. The rest of the caves
are vihara-chaitya caves. They
consist of a pillared veranda,
a pillared hall and cells along
Sculptural panel in the veranda of Cave No. 2, Ajanta

the walls. The back wall has the main Buddha shrine.
Shrine images at Ajanta are grand in size. Some of the
vihara caves are unfinished such as Cave Nos. 5, 14, 23
Painting of the Buddha, 24, 28 and 29. Among the important patrons at Ajanta
Yashodhra and Rahul, were Varahadeva (patron of Cave No. 16), the prime minister
Cave No. 17, Ajanta of the Vakataka king, Harishena; Upendragupta (patron of
Cave Nos. 17–20) the local king of the region and
feudatory of the Vakataka king, Harishena;
Buddhabhadra (patron of Cave No. 26); and
Mathuradasa (patron of Cave No. 4). Many
paintings have survived in Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16
and 17.
Paintings have a lot of typological variations.
Outward projections are used in the Ajanta
paintings of the fifth century CE. Lines are clearly
defined and are very rhythmic. Body colour gets
merged with the outer line creating the effect of
volume. The figures are heavy like the sculptures
of western India.
The caves of the early phase also have paintings
especially Cave Nos. 9 and 10. Paintings in Cave
No. 10 are an afterthought as is evident from the
plastering over the early inscriptions inside the
cave. On the other hand the paintings in Cave No.
9 are part of the preplanning. They belong to the
first century BCE. The figures are broad with heavy
proportion and arranged in the picture space in a
linear way. Lines are sharp. Colours are limited.
Figures in these caves are painted

with considerable naturalism and
there is no over -stylisation.
Events are grouped together
according to geographical
location. T iered, horizontally-
arranged figures appear as a
convenient choice of the artisans.
Separation of geographic location
has been indicated by using
outward architectural bands.
Figures appear like the Sanchi
sculptures which indicate how
the lithic and painting traditions
were progressing simultaneously.
The frontal knot of the headgear of the figures follows the Apsara, Cave No. 17, Ajanta
same pattern as that of the sculptures. However, there
are a few different patterns of headgear.
The second phase of paintings can be studied from the
images of the Buddhas painted on the walls and pillars of
Cave Nos. 10 and 9. These Buddha figures are different
from the figures painted in the fifth century CE. Such
developments in paintings need to be understood in the
context of the religious requirement. Cave excavation and
Painted ceiling, Cave No. 10, Ajanta

Paintings, Cave No. 9, Ajanta
painting were simultaneous processes and dating of the

paintings follows the date of the cave excavations. The
next stage of development is observed mainly in the
paintings of Cave Nos. 16, 17, 1, and 2. However, it does
not mean that pictures had not been painted in other caves.
Infact almost in all the finished excavations, pictures have
been painted but very few have survived. Paintings have
typological variations in these caves. It may also be
observed that various skin colours are used in the paintings
such as brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre,
etc. which represent a multicoloured population. Paintings
of Cave Nos. 16 and 17 have precise and elegant painterly
quality. They do not bear the ponderous volume of the
sculptures in the caves. Movements in the figures are very
rhythmic. Brown thick dark lines are used as contours.
Lines are forceful and full of energy. Attempts are also
made to give highlights in the figural compositions.
The paintings of Cave Nos. 1 and 2 are very orderly and
naturalistic, well integrated with the sculptures in the caves.
Architectural setting is simple and the arrangement of
figures is delineated in the circular form to create three-
dimensionality and the special effects. Half-closed, elongated
eyes are employed. Different guilds of artisans seem to have
worked on the paintings of these caves which can be inferred
from their typological and stylistic variations. Naturalistic
postures and unexaggerated facial features are used as
exceptional types.
The themes of the paintings are the events from the
life of the Buddha, the Jatakas and the Avadanas. Some
paintings such as Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka

and Vidhurpundita Jataka cover the entire wall of the cave.
It is worth noting that Chaddanta Jataka has been painted
in the early Cave No. 10 with many details and events
grouped according to their geographical locations. Events
that happened in the jungle and events that happened in
the palace are separated by their locations. In Cave No. 10
Chaddanta faithfully follows the Pali text whereas the one
painted in Cave No. 17 is very different. In one of the events,
the Boddhisattva, Chaddanta, is shown removing his own
tusk and giving it to the hunter, Sonuttar. The other
important paintings are the famous Padmapani and
Vajrapani in Cave No. 1. However, it may be observed that
the images of Padmapani and Vajrapani are very common
in Ajanta but the best preserved paintings are in Cave No.
1. Some figures in Cave No. 2 have affiliation with the
Vengi sculptures and at the same time, the influence of
the Vidarbha sculptural tradition is also observed in the Part of Mahajanaka Jataka
panel, Cave No. 1, Ajanta
delineation of some sculptures. The subsequent
development of the painting tradition has been discussed
in the next chapter.
Ellora
Another important cave site located in Aurangabad District
is Ellora. It is located a hundred kilometres from Ajanta
and has thirty-two Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain caves.
It is a unique art-historical site in the country as it has
monastries associated with the three religions dating from
the fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE.
Courtyard, Kailash Temple, Seated Buddha, chaitya hall,

Cave No.16, Ellora Cave No. 10, Ellora
It is also unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e.,

confluence of many styles at one place. The caves of Ellora
and Aurangabad show the ongoing differences between the
two religions—Buddhism and Brahmanical. There are
twelve Buddhist caves having many images belonging to
Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya,
Avalokiteshwara, Maitrya, Amitabha, etc. Buddhist caves
are big in size and are of single, double and triple storeys.
Their pillars are massive. Ajanta also has excavated
double-storeyed caves but at Ellora, the triple storey is a
unique achievement. All the caves were plastered and
painted but nothing visible is left. The shrine Buddha
images are big in size; they are generally guarded by the
images of Padmapani and Vajrapani. Cave No. 12, which
is a triple-storey excavation, has images of Tara,
Avalokiteshwara, Manushi Buddhas and the images of
Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha,
Amoghsiddhi, Vajrasatva and Vajraraja. On the other hand,
the only double-storey cave of the Brahmanical faith is
Cave No. 14. Pillar designs grow from the Buddhist caves
and when they reach the Jain caves belonging to the ninth
century CE, they become very ornate and the decorative
forms gain heavy protrusion.
The Brahmanical cave Nos. 13–28 have many
sculptures. Many caves are dedicated to Shaivism, but
the images of both Shiva and Vishnu and their various
Gajasur Shiva, Cave No.15, Ellora

forms according to Puranic narrative are depicted. Among

the Shaivite themes, Ravana shaking Mount Kailash,
Andhakasurvadha, Kalyanasundara are profusely depicted
whereas among the Vaishnavite themes, the different
avatars of Vishnu are depicted. The sculptures at Ellora
are monumental, and have protruding volume that create
deep recession in the picture space. The images are heavy
and show considerable sophistication in the handling of
sculptural volume. Various guilds at Ellora came from
different places like Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
and carved the sculptures. Thereby it is the most diverse
site in India in terms of the sculptural styles. Cave No. 16
is known as Kailash leni. A rock-cut temple has been carved
out of a single rock, a unique achievement of the artisans,
which will be discussed in the next chapter. Among the
important Shaivite caves are Cave No. 29 and Cave No. 21.
The plan of Cave No. 29 is almost like that of the main cave
at Elephanta. The sculptural quality of Cave Nos. 29, 21,
17, 14 and 16 is amazing for its monumentality and vigorous
movements in the picture space.
Elephanta Caves and Other Sites

The Elephanta Caves located near Mumbai, were originally
a Buddhist site which was later dominated by the Shaivite
faith. It is contemporary with Ellora, and its sculptures
show slenderness in the body, with stark light and dark
effects. The other noteworthy cave site is Bagh located
near Indore in Madhya Pradesh.
Entrance to Elephanta Caves

The tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccan

and they are found not only in Maharashtra but also in
Karnataka, mainly at Badami and Aiholi, executed under
the patronage of the Chalukyas; in Andhra Pradesh in the
area of Vijayawada; and in Tamil Nadu, mainly at
Mahabalipuram, under the patronage of the Pallavas. The
post-sixth-century development of art history in the country
depended more on political patronage than the collective
public patronage of the early historic periods.
Mention may also be made of the terracotta figurines
that are found at many places all over the country. They
show a parallel tradition with the religious lithic sculptures
as well as the independent local tradition. Many terracotta
figures of various sizes are found which show their
popularity. They are toys, religious figurines as well as
figurines made for healing purposes as part of the belief
systems.
Cave Tradition in Eastern India
Like in western India, Buddhist caves have also been
excavated in eastern India, mainly in the coastal region of
Andhra Pradesh, and in Odisha. One of the main sites in
Andhra Pradesh is Guntapalle in Eluru district. The caves
have been excavated in the hills along with the structured
monasteries. Perhaps it is among the very unique sites
where the structured stupas, viharas and the caves are
excavated at one place. The Guntapalle chaitya cave is
circular with a stupa in the circular hall and a chaitya
arch carved at the entrance. The cave is relatively small
when compared to the caves in western India. A number
of vihara caves have been excavated. The main vihara caves,
despite the small dimensions, have been decorated with
Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar Details of the veranda, Udaigiri-Khandagiri

chaitya arches on the exterior. They are rectangular with

vaulted roof and are carved single-storeyed or double-
storeyed without a large central hall. These excavations
date back to the second century BCE. There are some
excavations which were added in the subsequent centuries
but all are of the vihara type. Apart from Guntapalle, the
other important cave site is Rampaerrampallam which has
very moderate small excavations but there are rock-cut
stupas on the hillock. At Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam,
caves were excavated and a huge rock-cut stupa was carved
out of the hillock during the fourth–fifth centuries CE. It
is a unique site as it has the biggest rock-cut stupas in
the country. Many votive rock-cut stupas all around the
hillock have also been excavated.
The rock-cut cave tradition also existed in Odisha. The
earliest examples are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the
vicinity of Bhubaneswar. These caves are scattered and
have inscriptions of Kharavela kings. According to the
inscriptions, the caves were meant for Jain monks. There
are numerous single-cell excavations. Some have been
carved in huge independent boulders and given the shape
of animals. The big caves include a cave with a pillared
veranda with cells at the back. The upper part of the cells
is decorated with a series of chaitya arches and narratives
that still continue in the folklores of the region. The figures
in this cave are voluminous, move freely in the picture
space, and are an excellent example of qualitative carving.
Some caves in this complex were excavated later, some
time in the eighth–ninth centuries CE.
EXERCISE
1. Describe the physical and aesthetic features of Sanchi
Stupa-I.
2. Analyse the stylistic trends of the sculptures in North India
during the fifth and sixth centuries.
3. How did cave architecture develop in different parts of
India, from cave shelters to the monolitic temple at Ellora?
4. Why are the mural paintings of Ajanta renowned?
STUPA-1, SANCHI
Sanchi, about 50 km from Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh,
is a world heritage site. Along with other relatively small stupas,
there are three main stupas at Sanchi. Stupa-1 is presumed to have
the relics of the Buddha, Stupa-2, the relics of ten less famous arhats
belonging to three different generations. Their names are found on
the relic casket. Stupa-3 has the relics of Sariputta and
Mahamougalayana.
Stupa-1, known for the carvings on its gateways is one of the
finest examples of stupa architecture. Originally the stupa was a
small brick structure which expanded over a period and was covered
with stone, vedika and the torana (gateways). The Ashokan lion-
capital pillar with an inscription is found on the southern side of
the stupa, indicating how Sanchi became a centre of monastic and
artistic activities. The south gateway was made first followed by the
others. The pradakshinapath around the stupa is covered with the
vedika. There is also the upper pradakshinapath which is unique to
this site. The four gateways are decorated profusely with sculptures.
Buddha is shown symbolically as an empty throne, feet, chhatra,
stupas, etc. Toranas are constructed in all four directions. Their
stylistic differences indicate their possible chronology from the first
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
century BCE onwards. Though Stupa-1 is the oldest stupa, the

carving of images on the vedica of Stupa-2 are earlier than those on
Stupa-1. Jatakas also become an important part of the narratives
in stupas. The figures at Sanchi, despite being small in dimension,
show considerable mastery of sculpting. Their physiognomic
treatment of the body shows both depth and dimension which are
very naturalistic. There are guardian images on pillars and the
shalbhanjika (i.e., lady holding the branch of a tree) sculptures are
remarkable in their treatment of volume. The rigidity of the earlier
sculptures of Stupa-2 is no more there. Each torana consists of two
vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on the top. Each horizontal
bar is decorated with different sculptural themes on the front as
well as at the back. Supporting the extensions of the lowermost
horizontal bar from below are the images of shalbhanjikas.
47
SEATED BUDDHA, KATRA MOUND, MATHURA

Mathura was a great centre for making sculptures

during the early historic period and many images have
been found here. A large number of images dating
back to the Kushana Period is from Mathura. A
distinct way of sculpting practised at Mathura makes
the images found here different from those at other
centres in the country. The image of the Buddha from
the Katra mound belongs to the second century CE.
It represents the Buddha with two Boddhisattva
attendants. The Buddha is seated in padmasana
(cross-folded legs) and the right hand is in the
abhayamudra, raised a little above the shoulder level
whereas the left hand is placed on the left thigh. The
ushanisha, i.e., hair knot, is shown with a vertically
raised projection. Mathura sculptures from this period
are made with light volume having fleshy body. The
shoulders are broad. The sanghati (garment) covers
only one shoulder and has been made prominently
visible covering the left hand whereas while covering
the torso, the independent volume of the garment is
reduced to the body torso. The Buddha is seated on a
lion throne. The attendant figures are identified as
the images of the Padmapani and Vajrapani
Boddhisattvas as one holds a lotus and the other a
vajra (thunderbolt). They wear crowns and are on
either side of the Buddha. The halo around the head of the Buddha
is very large and is decorated with simple geometric motifs. There
are two flying figures placed diagonally above the halo. They bear a
lot of movement in the picture space. Flexibility replaces the earlier
rigidity in the images giving them a more earthy look. Curves of the
body are as delicately carved. The upright posture of the Buddha
image creates movement in space. The face is round with fleshy
cheeks. The bulge of the belly is sculpted with controlled
musculature. It may be noted that there are numerous examples of
sculptures from the Kushana Period at Mathura, but this image is
representative and is important for the understanding of the
development of the Buddha image in the subsequent periods.
BUDDHA HEAD, TAXILA

The Buddha head from Taxila in the Gandhara region, now in

Pakistan, dates back to the second century CE and belongs
to the Kushana Period. The image shows hybridised pictorial
conventions that developed during the Gandhara period.
It has Greco-Roman elements in the treatment of
sculpture. The Buddha head has typical Hellenistic
elements that have grown over a period of time. The
curly hair of the Buddha is thick having a covered
layer of sharp and linear strokes over the head.
The forehead plane is large having protruding
eyeballs, the eyes are half-closed and the face
and cheeks are not round like the images found
in other parts of India. There is a certain amount
of heaviness in the figures of the Gandhara
region. The ears are elongated especially the
earlobes. The treatment of the form bears linearity
and the outlines are sharp. The surface is
smooth. The image is very expressive. The
interplay of light and dark is given
considerable attention by using the curving
and protruding planes of the eye-socket and
the planes of the nose. The expression of
calmness is the centre point of attraction.
Modelling of the face enhances the naturalism
of three-dimensionality. Assimilating various
traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian
traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark
of the Gandhara style. The Gandhara images
have physiognomic features of the Greco-Roman tradition
but they display a very distinct way of treating physiognomic
details that are not completely Greco-Roman. The source of
development of Buddha images as well as others has its
genesis in its peculiar geo-political conditions. It may also
be observed that the north-western part of India, which is
now Pakistan, always had continuous habitation from proto-
historic times. It continued in the historical period as well.
A large number of images have been found in the Gandhara
region. They consist of narratives of the life of the Buddha,
narrations from the Jataka stories, and Buddha and
Boddhisattva images.
SEATED BUDDHA, SARNATH

This image of the Buddha from Sarnath belonging to the late fifth
century CE is housed in the site museum at Sarnath. It has been
made in Chunar sandstone. The Buddha is shown seated on a
throne in the padmasana. It represents dhammachackrapravartana
as can be seen from the figures on the throne. The panel below the
throne depicts a chakra (wheel) in the centre and a deer on either
side with his disciples. Thus, it is the representation of the historical
event of dhammachakrapravartana or the preaching of the dhamma.
This Buddha image is a fine example of the Sarnath school of
sculpture. The body is slender and well-proportioned but slightly
elongated. The outlines are delicate, very rhythmic. Folded legs are
expanded in order to create a visual balance in the picture space.
Drapery clings to the body and is transparent to create the effect of
integrated volume. The face is round, the eyes are half-closed, the
lower lip is protruding, and the
roundness of the cheeks has
reduced as compared to the earlier
images from the Kushana Period
at Mathura. The hands are shown
in dhammachakrapravartana
mudra placed just below the chest.
the neck is slightly elongated with
two incised lines indicating folds.
The ushanisha has circular curled
hairs. The aim of the sculptors in ancient India had always been to
represent the Buddha as a great human being who achieved nibbana
(i.e., cessation of anger and hate). The back of the throne is profusely
decorated with different motifs of flowers and creepers placed in a
concentric circle. The central part of the halo is plain without any
decoration. It makes the halo visually impressive. Decoration in halo
and the back of the throne indicates the artisan’s sensitivity.
Sarnath Buddha images of this period show considerable softness
in the treatment of the surface and volume. Transparent drapery
becomes part of the physical body. Such refinement comes over a
period of time and these features continued in subsequent periods.
There are many other Buddha images in the standing position
from Sarnath having features like transparent drapery, subtle
movement, carved separately and
placed about the memorial stupas
around the Dharmarajika Stupa. These
images are now preserved in the
Sarnath Museum. They are either
single or with the attendant figures of
Boddhisattvas, Padmapani and
Vajrapani.
PADMAPANI BODDHISATTVA
AJANTA CAVE NO. 1
This painting on the back wall of the interior

hall before the shrine-antechamber in Cave No. 1
at Ajanta dates back to the late fifth century
CE. The Boddhisattva is holding a padma (lotus),
has large shoulders, and has three bents in the
body creating a movement in the picture space.
The modelling is soft. Outlines are merged with
the body volume creating the effect of three-
dimensionality. The figure of the Boddhisattva
is wearing a big crown in which detailed
rendering is visible. The head is slightly bent to
the left. The eyes are half-closed and are slightly
elongated. The nose is sharp and straight. Light
colour all over the projected planes of the face
is aimed at creating an effect of three-
dimensionality. The beaded necklace too has
similar features. Broad and expanded
shoulders create heaviness in the body. The
torso is relatively round. Lines are delicate,
rhythmic, and define the contours of the body. The right hand is Ajanta Cave No. 2
holding a lotus and the left hand is extended in the space. The
Boddhisattva is surrounded by small figures. The foreshortened right
hand of the Boddhisattva makes the image more solid, and effectively
dense. The thread over the torso is shown with fine spiral lines
indicating its dimensions. Each and every part of the body is given
equal attention. Light red, brown, green and blue colours are used.
Nose projections, incised end of lips with lower lip projection and
small chin contribute to the overall effect of solidity in the figure
composition. The paintings in Cave No.1 are of good quality and are
better preserved. One can observe certain typological and stylistic
variations in the paintings of Ajanta indicating different guilds of
artisans working on the cave paintings at Ajanta over the centuries.
On the other side of the image Vajrapani Bodhisattva has been
painted. He holds a vajra in his right hand and wears a crown. This
Painting of Mahajanak Jataka,
image also bears the same pictorial qualities as the Padmapani. Ajanta Cave No. 1
Cave No. 1 has many interesting paintings
of Buddhist themes such as Mahajanak
Jataka, Umag Jataka, etc. The Mahajanak
Jataka is painted on the entire wall side and
is the biggest narrative painting. It may be
observed that the paintings of Padmapani
and Vajrapani and the Bodhisattvas are
painted as shrine guardians. Similar such
iconographic arrangement is also observed
in other caves of Ajanta. However
Padmapani and Vajrapani in Cave No. 1 are
among the best survived paintings of Ajanta.
MARA VIJAYA, AJANTA CAVE NO. 26

The theme of Mara Vijaya has been painted

in the caves of Ajanta. This is the only
sculptural representation sculpted on the
right wall of Cave No. 26. It is sculpted near
the colossal Buddha image of
Mahaparinibbana. The panel shows the
image of the Buddha in the centre
surrounded by Mara’s army along with his
daughter. The event is part of the
enlightenment. It is a personification of the
commotion of mind which the Buddha
went through at the time of
enlightenment. Mara represents desire.
According to the narrative, there is a
dialogue between the Buddha and Mara,
and the Buddha is shown with his right hand indicating towards
earth as a witness to his generosity. This relief sculptural panel is
highly animated and shows a very matured sculptural style at
Ajanta. The composition is very complex with highly voluminous
images. Their complex arrangement in the picture space is highly
dynamic and generates considerable movement. The figure on the
right shows Mara coming with his army consisting of various kinds
of people including some with grotesque animal faces. The dancing
figures at the lower base with the musicians have forward bulging
waist, and one of the dancing figures has expanded her hands in
the dancing posture with an angular frontal look. On the left lower
end, the image of Mara is shown contemplating how to disturb
Siddhartha, the name of the Buddha before enlightenment. The
army of Mara is shown marching towards the Buddha in the first
half of the panel whereas the lower half of the panel shows the
departing army of Mara giving him adorations. The centrally placed
Buddha is in padmasana and a tree at the back is shown by dense
leaves. Some of the facial features of the Mara army has tacit
characters of the sculptures from
Vidarbha. The artisans at Ajanta worked
in guilds and their stylistic affiliations can
be traced by identifying such stylistic
features. This is the largest sculptural
panel at Ajanta. Though there are several
big images in the caves of Ajanta and
especially located in the shrine-
antechamber as well as facade walls, such
a complex arrangement of figures is
unique. On the other hand, painted panels
exhibit such complexities in their
arrangement. A similar kind of
arrangement of dancing figures in a panel
is also observed at the Aurangabad caves.
MAHESHMURTI, ELEPHANTA
The image of Maheshmurti at Elephanta dates back to the early
sixth century CE. It is located in the main cave shrine. In the
tradition of western Deccan sculpting it is one of the best
examples of qualitative achievement in sculpting images in rock-
cut caves. The image is large in size. The central head is the
main Shiva figure whereas the other two visible heads are of
Bhairava and Uma. The central face is in high relief having a
round face, thick lips and heavy eyelids. The lower lip is
prominently protruded showing a very different characteristic.
The all-inclusive aspect of Shiva is exhibited in this sculpture
by soft-modelling, smooth surface and large face. The face of
Shiva-Bhairava is clearly shown in profile in anger with bulging
eye and mustache. The other face showing feminine characters
is of Uma who is the consort of Shiva. One of the shilpa texts
mentions five integrated faces of Shiva and this image, despite
being shown with only three faces, is considered as of the same
variety and the top and back faces are deemed as invisible. Each
face has a different crown as per its iconographic prescription.
This sculpture has been sculpted on the south wall of the cave
along with the sculpture of Ardhanarishwara and the
POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Gangadhara panel. Elephanta sculptures are known for their

remarkable qualities of surface smoothness, elongation and
rhythmic movement. Their composition is very complex. The
iconographic arrangement of this cave is replicated in Cave No.
29 at Ellora.
59
MURAL TRADITIONS OF INDIA
A
B
C
A. Anantha from Ananthapadmanabh

Temple, Kasarghod
B. Shiva chasing the boar—a scene from
Kiratarjuniya, Lepaksh temple
C. Chola king Rajaraja and court poet
Karuvar Dever, Thanjavoor, eleventh
century
D. Shiva killing Tripuraasura, Thanjavoor
E. Rama kills Ravana, a scene from
Ramayana panel, Mattancheri Palace
F. Shasta, Padmanabhapuram Palace,
Thakkala
E F
LATER MURAL
5
TRADITIONS
E VEN after Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have

survived which provide valuable evidences to
reconstruct the tradition of paintings. It may also be noted
that the sculptures too were plastered and painted. The
tradition of cave excavations continued further at many
places where sculpting and painting were done
simultaneously.
Badami
One such site is Badami in the State of Karnataka. Badami
was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty which Queen and
ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. With attendants, Badami
the decline of the Vakataka rule, the
Chalukyas established their power in the
Deccan. The Chalukya king, Mangalesha,
patronised the excavation of the Badami
caves. He was the younger son of the
Chalukya king, Pulakesi I, and the brother
of Kirtivarman I. The inscription in Cave No.4
mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the
beauty of the cave and includes the dedication
of the image of Vishnu. Thus it may be
presumed that the cave was excavated in the
same era and the patron records his
Vaishnava affiliation. Therefore, the cave is
popularly known as the Vishnu Cave. Only a
fragment of the painting has survived on the
vaulted roof of the front mandapa.
Paintings in this cave depict palace
scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of
Pulakesi I and the elder brother of
Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with
his wife and feudatories watching a dance
scene. Towards the corner of the panel are
figures of Indra and his retinue. Stylistically
speaking, the painting represents an
extension of the tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to

Badami in South India. The sinuously drawn lines, fluid
forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency
and maturity the artists had achieved in the sixth century
CE. The gracefully drawn faces of the king and the queen
remind us of the style of modelling in Ajanta. Their eye-
sockets are large, eyes are half-closed, and lips are
protruding. It is noteworthy to observe that the contours
of different parts of the face create protruding structures
of the face itself. Thus, with simple line treatment artists
could create volume.
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and
Chola Kings
The tradition of painting extended further down south in
Tamil Nadu in the preceding centuries with regional
variations during the regimes of Pallava, Pandya and Chola
dynasties. The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya
kings in parts of South India, were also patrons of arts.
Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was
responsible for building temples at Panamalai,
Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram. The inscription at
Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with
numerous titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded),
Sittanvasal — early Pandya period, ninth century CE

LATER MURAL TRADITIONS 63
Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), Chaityakari (temple

builder), which show his interest in art activities. The
paintings in these temples too were done at his initiative,
though only fragments remain. The Panamalai figure of a
female divinity is drawn gracefully. Paintings at the
Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the Pallava king,
Rajsimha. Only traces of paintings remain now which
depict Somaskanda. Faces are round and large. Lines are
rhythmic with increased ornamentation when compared
with the paintings of an earlier periods. Depiction of torso
still remains like the earlier sculptural tradition but is
elongated.
When the Pandyas rose to power, they too patronised
art. Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal
are some of the surviving examples. A few fragmented
layers of paintings can be seen in Tirumalaipuram. In
Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of
shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets.
On the pillars of the veranda are seen dancing figures
of celestial nymphs. The contours of figures are firmly
drawn and painted in vermilion red on a lighter
background. The body is rendered in yellow with subtle
modelling. Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers,
rhythm in their swaying movement, all speak of the artists’
skill in creative imagination in visualising the forms in
Devi — seventh century CE, Panamalai

the architectural context. Their eyes are slightly elongated

and at times protrude off the face. This feature is observed
in many subsequent paintings in the Deccan and South
India.
The tradition of building temples and embellishing them
with carvings and paintings continued during the reign of
the Chola kings who ruled over the region from the ninth
to the thirteenth century. But it was in the eleventh
century, when the Cholas reached their zenith of power,
that masterpieces of Chola art and architecture began to
appear. The temples of Brihadeswara at Thanjavur,
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram were built
during the reigns of Rajaraja Chola and his son, Rajendra
Chola.
Though Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai, the
most important are those in Brihadeswara temple. The
paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage
surrounding the shrine. Two layers of paint were found
when they were discovered. The upper layer was painted
during the Nayak period, in the sixteenth century. Thanks
to the cleaning of the surface painting, examples of the
great tradition of painting during the Chola Period were
unveiled. The paintings show narrations and aspects
related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as
Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron
Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc.
Vijayanagara Murals
The paintings of Brihadeswara temple exemplify the
stylistic maturity the artists evolved over the years. Sinuous
pre-determined flow of lines, supple modelling of figures,
Dakshinamurty, Vijayanagar, Lepakshi

elongation of the physiognomic features of human figures—

all these represent the perfection the Chola artist had
achieved during the period on the one hand and the phase
of transition on the other. With the decline of power of the
Chola dynasty in the thirteenth century, the Vijayanagara
Dynasty captured and brought under its control the region
from Hampi to Trichy with Hampi serving as its capital.
Many paintings survive in a number of temples. The
paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy, done in the
fourteenth century represent the early phase of the
Vijayanagara style. In Hampi, the Virupaksha temple has
paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa narrating events
from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata. Among the important panels are the
ones which show Vidyaranya, the spiritual teacher of
Bukkaraya Harsha, being carried in a palanquin in a
procession and the incarnations of Vishnu. The faces of
the figures are shown in profile, with large frontal eyes.
The figures have narrow waists.
In Lepakshi, near Hindupur, in present Andhra Pradesh,
there are glorious examples of Vijayanagara paintings on
the walls of the Shiva temple.
In keeping with the tradition, the Vijayanagara painters
evolved a pictorial language wherein the faces are shown
in profile and figures and objects two-dimensionally. Lines
become still but fluid, compositions appear in rectilinear
compartments. These stylistic conventions of the preceding
centuries were adopted by artists in various centres in
South India as can be seen in the paintings of the Nayaka
Period.
Nayaka paintings of the seventeenth and eigtheenth
centuries are seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and
Ladies attending Parvati, Virbhadra Temple, Lepakshi

Tiruvarur. In Thiruparakunram, paintings are found of two

different periods—of the fourteenth and the seventeenth
century. Early paintings depict scenes from the life of
Vardhaman Mahavira.
The Nayaka paintings depict episodes from the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana and also scenes from
Krishna-leela. In Tiruvarur, there is a panel narrating the
story of Muchukunda. In Chidambaram there are panels of
paintings narrating stories related to Shiva and Vishnu—
Shiva as bhikshatana murti, Vishnu as Mohini, etc.
In the Sri Krishna temple at Chengam in Arcot District
there are sixty panels narrating the story of the Ramayana
which represent the late phase of Nayaka paintings.
The examples cited above suggest that Nayaka paintings
were more or less an extension of the Vijayanagara style
with minor regional modifications and incorporations. The
figures, mostly in profile, are set against a flat background.
Male figures are shown slim-waisted but with less heavy
abdoman as compared to those in Vijayanagara. The artist,
as in the previous centuries and following traditions, has
tried to infuse movement and make the space dynamic.
The painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli is a good example.
Kerala Murals
Kerala painters (during the period from the sixteenth to
the eighteenth century) evolved a pictorial language and
technique of their own while discriminately adopting
certain stylistic elements from Nayaka and Vijayanagara
schools. The painters evolved a language taking cues from
contemporary traditions like Kathakali and kalam ezhuthu
using vibrant and luminous colours, representing human
Venugopal, Shri Rama Temple, Triprayar

figures in three-dimensionality. Most of the

paintings are seen on the walls of shrines
and cloister walls of temples and some inside
palaces. Thematically too, paintings from
Kerala stand apart. Most of the narrations
are based on those episodes from Hindu
mythology which were popular in Kerala. The
artist seems to have derived sources from
oral traditions and local versions of the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata for painted
narration.
More than sixty sites have been found
with mural paintings which include three
palaces—Dutch palace in Kochi,
Krishnapuram palace in Kayamkulam and
Padmanabhapuram palace. Among the sites
where one can see the mature phase of
Kerala’s mural painting tradition are
Pundareekapuram Krishna temple,
Panayanarkavu, Thirukodithanam, Triprayar
Sri Rama temple and T rissur
Vadakkunathan temple.
Even today we observe that mural
painting on interior and exterior walls of
houses in villages or havelis is prevalent in
different parts of the country. These paintings are usually Krishna playing flute,
made by women either at the time of ceremonies or festivals accompanied by Gopikas,
Krishna temple,
or as a routine to clean and decorate the walls. Some of
Pundareekapuram
the traditional forms of murals are pithoro in parts of
Rajasthan and Gujarat, Mithila painting in northern
Bihar’s Mithila region, warli paintings in Maharashtra, or
simply paintings on the walls, be it in a village of Odisha
or Bengal, Madhya Pradesh or Chhattisgarh.
EXERCISE
1. What are the main features of Badami cave paintings?
2. Write an essay on Vijayanagara paintings.
3. Describe the mural traditions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Temple architecture in India
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
6
AND SCULPTURE
M OST of the art and architectural remains that survive

from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in
nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in
Today when we say 'temple'
in English we generally
mean a devalaya, devkula
their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and mandir, kovil, deol,
the things in them were mostly made from materials like devasthanam or prasada
wood and clay which have perished, or were made of metal depending on which part of
India we are in.
(like iron, bronze, silver and even gold) which was melted
down and reused from time to time. This chapter introduces
us to many types of temples from India. Although we have
focussed mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter
you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain
temples too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind
that religious shrines were also made for many local cults
in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone
the ancient or medieval shrines in those areas have also
Kandariya Mahadeo temple,
vanished.
Khajuraho
THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:
(i) a cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’),
which, in the early temples, was a small cubicle with a
single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time.
The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is
itself the focus of much ritual attention; (ii) the entrance
to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall
that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers
and is known as a mandapa; (iii) from the fifth century CE
onwards, freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-
like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar
in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in
South India; (iv) the vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of
the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or
dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum. Two broad orders
of temples in the country are known— Nagara in the north
and Dravida in the south. At times, the Vesar style of
temples as an independent style created through the selective
mixing of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by

some scholars. Elaborate studies are available on the
various sub-styles within these orders. We will look into
the differences in the forms further on in this chapter. As
temples grew more complex, more surfaces were created
for sculpture through additive geometry, i.e., by adding
more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls
and niches, without breaking away from the fundamental
plan of the shrine.
SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND ORNAMENTATION

The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art
history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification
of images based on certain symbols and mythologies
associated with them. And very often, while the
fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain
the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be
a response to its local or immediate social, political or
geographical context.
Every region and period produced its own distinct style
of images with its regional variations in iconography. The
temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament
that form a fundamental part of its conception. The
placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned:
for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are
usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara
Kalasha
temple, dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the
Amalaka gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly,
mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious
planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard
them. Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to
be found on the outer walls of the sanctum. The deities of
Shikhara
directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key
directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on
the outer walls of a temple. Subsidiary shrines around the
main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of
the main deity. Finally, various elements of ornamentation
such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha,
etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.
Garbhagriha
THE NAGARA OR NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE
The style of temple architecture that became popular in
northern India is known as nagara. In North India it is
common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform
Pitha
with steps leading up to it. Further, unlike in South India
it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or
gateways. While the earliest temples had just one tower, or
Nagara temple
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE 71
shikhara, later temples had several. The garbhagriha is

always located directly under the tallest tower.
There are many subdivisions of nagara temples
depending on the shape of the shikhara. There are different
names for the various parts of the temple in different parts
of India; however, the most common name for the simple
shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls
curve or slope inward to a point on top is called the 'latina'
or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
The second major type of architectural form in the nagara
order is the phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be
broader and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are
composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point
over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which
look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not
curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight
incline. In many North Indian temples you will notice that
the phamsana design is used for the mandapas while the
main garbhagriha is housed in a latina building. Later on,
the latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing
like a single tall tower, the temple began to support many
smaller towers, which were clustered together like rising
mountain-peaks with the tallest one being in the centre,
and this was the one which was always above the
garbhagriha.
The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what
is generally called the valabhi type. These are rectangular
buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
Sun temple, Konark

The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the

bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by
bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called ‘wagon-
vaulted buildings’. As mentioned above, the form of the
temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were
already in existence before the fifth century CE. The valabhi
type of building was one of them. For instance, if you study
the ground-plan of many of the Buddhist rock-cut chaitya
caves, you will notice that they are shaped as long halls
which end in a curved back. From the inside, the roof of
this portion also looks like a wagon-vaulted roof.
Central India
Ancient temples of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan share many traits. The most visible is that they
are made of sandstone. Some of the oldest surviving
structural temples from the Gupta Period are in Madhya
Pradesh. These are relatively modest-looking shrines each
having four pillars that support a small mandapa which
looks like a simple square porch-like extension before an
equally small room that served as the garbhagriha.
Importantly, of the two such temples that survive, one is
at Udaigiri, which is on the outskirts of Vidisha and is
part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines, while the
other one is at Sanchi, which was a Buddhist site. This
means that similar developments were being incorporated
in the architecture of temples of both the religions.
The patrons and donors of the temple at Deogarh (in
Dashavtara Vishnu Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh) are unknown; however
temple, Deogarh, on the basis of both architecture and imagery, it is
fifth century CE
Sheshashayana Vishnu, Dashavatara temple, Deogarh

established that this temple was built in the early sixth

century CE. That is, about a hundred years or so after the
small temples we just learnt about in Sanchi and Udaigiri.
This makes it a classic example of a late Gupta Period
type of temple. This temple is in the panchayatana style of
architecture where the main shrine is built on a rectangular
plinth with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four
corners (making it a total number of five shrines, hence
the name, panchayatana). The tall and curvilinear shikhara
also corroborates this date. The presence of this curving latina
or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it clear that
this is an early example of a classic nagara style of temple.
Sheshashayana is the form of Vishnu where he is
shown reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta.
Nara-Narayan shows the discussion between the
human soul and the eternal divine. Gajendramoksha
is the story of achieving moksha, symbolically
communicated by Vishnu’s suppression of an asura
who had taken the form of an elephant.
This west-facing temple has a grand doorway with

standing sculptures of female figures representing the
Ganga on the left side and the Yamuna on the right side.
The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms, due to which
it was assumed that the four subsidiary shrines must also
Vishwanatha temple,
have housed Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken Khajuraho
for a dasavatara temple. In fact, it is
not actually known to whom the four
subsidiary shrines were originally
dedicated. There are three main
reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls:
Sheshashayana on the south, Nara-
Narayan on the east and
Gajendramoksha on the west. The
temple is west-facing, which is less
common, as most temples are east- or
north-facing.
Numerous temples of smaller
dimensions have been constructed
over a period of time. By contrast, if
we study the temples of Khajuraho
made in the tenth century, i.e., about
four hundred years after the temple
at Deogarh, we can see how
dramatically the shape and style of
the nagara temple architecture had
developed.
The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu is the

grandest temple of Khajuraho, built in 954 by the Chandela
king, Dhanga. A nagara temple, it is placed on a high
platform accessed by stairs. There are four smaller temples
in the corners, and all the towers or shikharas rise high,
upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, emphasising the
temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc
called an amalak topped with a kalash or vase. The crowning
elements: amalak and kalash, are to be found on all nagara
temples of this period. The temple also has projecting
balconies and verandahs, thus very different from
Deogarh.
Khajuraho’s temples are also known for their extensive
erotic sculptures; the erotic expression is given equal
importance in human experience as spiritual pursuit, and
it is seen as part of a larger cosmic whole. Many Hindu
temples therefore feature mithun (embracing couple)
sculptures, considered auspicious. Usually, they are placed
at the entrance of the temple or on an exterior wall or
they may also be placed on the walls between the mandapa
and the main shrine. Khajuraho’s sculptures are highly
stylised with typical features: they are in almost full relief,
cut away from the surrounding stone, with sharp noses,
prominent chins, long slanting eyes and eyebrows. The
other notable example at Khajuraho is Kandariya Mahadeo
temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them
devoted to Hindu gods. There are some Jain temples as
well as a Chausanth Yogini temple, which is of interest.
Predating the tenth century, this is a temple of small,
square shrines of roughly-hewn granite blocks, each
dedicated to esoteric devis or goddesses associated with
the rise of Tantric worship after the seventh century. Several
such temples were dedicated to the cult of the yoginis across
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and even as far south as Tamil
Nadu. They were built between the seventh and tenth
centuries, but few have survived.
Dance class, Laxman Temple,

Khajuraho
Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat
West India
The temples in the north-western parts of India including
Gujarat and Rajasthan, and stylistically extendable, at
times, to western Madhya Pradesh are too numerous to
include here in any comprehensive way. The stone used to
build the temples ranges in colour and type. While
sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be
seen in some of the tenth to twelveth century temple
sculptures. The most exuberant and famed is the
manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen in some
of the tenth to twelveth century Jain temples in Mount
Abu and the fifteenth century temple at Ranakpur. Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat
Among the most important art-historical sites
in the region is Samlaji in Gujarat which shows
how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed
with a post-Gupta style and gave rise to a distinct
style of sculpture. A large number of sculptures
made of grey schist have been found in this region
which can be dated between the sixth and eighth
centuries CE. While the patronage of these is
debated, the date is established on the basis of
the style.
The Sun temple at Modhera dates back to early
eleventh century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I
of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026. The Solankis were
a branch of the later Chalukyas. There is a
massive rectangular stepped tank called the surya
kund in front of it. Proximity of sacred architecture
to a water body such as a tank, a river or a pond
has been noticed right from the earliest times.
By the early eleventh century they had become a
part of many temples. This hundred-square-metre

rectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank in
India. A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved
in between the steps inside the tank. A huge ornamental
arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly
hall) which is open on all sides, as was the fashion of the
times in western and central Indian temples.
The influence of the woodcarving tradition of Gujarat is
evident in the lavish carving and sculpture work. However,
the walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carving
and are left plain as the temple faces the east and, every
year, at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly
into this central shrine.
East India
Eastern Indian temples include those found in the North-
East, Bengal and Odisha. Each of these three areas
produced distinct types of temples. The history of
architecture in the North-East and Bengal is hard to study
because a number of ancient buildings in those regions
were renovated, and what survives now are later brick or
concrete temples at those sites. It appears that terracotta
was the main medium of construction, and also for
moulding plaques which depicted Buddhist and Hindu
deities in Bengal until the seventh century. A large number
of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal which
shows the development of important regional schools in
those regions.
Assam: An old sixth-century sculpted door frame from
DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few stray sculptures
Temple, Sibsagar, Assam

from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear

witness to the import of the Gupta idiom in that region.
This post-Gupta style continued in the region well into
the tenth century. However, by the twelfth to fourteenth
centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam.
The style that came with the migration of the Tais from
Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal
and led to the creation of what was later known as the
Ahom style in and around Guwahati. Kamakhya temple, a
Shakti Peeth, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and was
built in the seventeenth century.
Bengal: The style of the sculptures during the period
between the ninth and eleventh centuries in Bengal
(including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala
style, named after the ruling dynasty at the time, while
the style of those of the mid-eleventh to mid-thirteenth
centuries is named after the Sena kings. While the Palas
are celebrated as patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites,
the temples from that region are known to express the
local Vanga style. The ninth century Siddheshvara
Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District, for
example, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a large
amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. It is
similar to contemporaneous temples of Odisha. This basic
form grows loftier with the passing of centuries. Many of
the temples from the ninth to the twelfth century were
located at Telkupi in Purulia District. They were submerged
when dams were built in the region. These were amongst
the important examples of architectural styles prevalent
in the region which showed an awareness of all the known
Terracotta temple, Vishnupur

nagara sub-types that were prevalent in the rest of North

India. However, several temples still survive in Purulia
District which can be dated to this period. The black to
grey basalt and chlorite stone pillars and arched niches
of these temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal
sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua. Many local
vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced
the style of temples in that region. Most prominent of these
was the shape of the curving or sloping side of the bamboo
roof of a Bengali hut. This feature was eventually even
adopted in Mughal buildings, and is known across North
India as the Bangla roof. In the Mughal period and later,
scores of terracotta brick temples were built across Bengal
and Bangladesh in a unique style that had elements of
local building techniques seen in bamboo huts which were
combined with older forms reminiscent of the Pala period
and with the forms of arches and domes that were taken
from Islamic architecture. These can be widely found in and
around Vishnupur, Bankura, Burdwan and Birbhum and
are dated mostly to the seventeenth century.
Odisha: The main architectural features of Odisha temples
are classified in three orders, i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul
and khakra. Most of the main temple sites are located in
ancient Kalinga—modern Puri District, including
Bhubaneswar or ancient T ribhuvanesvara, Puri and
Konark. The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-
style within the nagara order. In general, here the shikhara,
called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when
it suddenly curves sharply inwards. Deuls are preceded,
as usual, by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha. The
Sun temple, Konark

Jagannath temple, Puri
ground plan of the main temple is almost always square,

which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure becomes
circular in the crowning mastaka. This makes the spire
nearly cylindrical in appearance in its length.
Compartments and niches are generally square, the
exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors
generally quite bare. Odisha temples usually have
boundary walls.
At Konark, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal, lie the
majestic ruins of the Surya or Sun temple built in stone
around 1240. Its shikhara was a colossal creation said to
have reached 70m, which, proving too heavy for its site,
fell in the nineteenth century. The vast complex is within
a quadrilateral precinct of which the jagamohana or the
dance-pavillion (mandapa) has survived, which though no
longer accessible is said to be the largest enclosed space
in Hindu architecture.
The Sun temple is set on a high base, its walls covered
in extensive, detailed ornamental carving. These include
twelve pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and
hubs, representing the chariot wheels of the Sun god who,
in mythology, rides a chariot driven by eight horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase. The whole temple
thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.
On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of surya carved

out of green stone. It is said that there were three such
images, each carved out of a different stone placed on the
three temple walls, each facing different directions. The
fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where
the actual rays of the sun would enter the garbhagriha.
The Hills
A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of
Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir. Kashmir’s
proximity to prominent Gandhara sites (such as Taxila,
Peshawar and the northwest frontier) lent the region a
strong Gandhara influence by the fifth century CE. This
began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions
that were brought to it from Sarnath, Mathura and even
centres in Gujarat and Bengal. Brahmin pundits and
Buddhist monks frequently travelled between Kashmir,
Garhwal, Kumaon and religious centres in the plains like
Banaras, Nalanda and even as far south as Kanchipuram.
As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to
intermingle and spread in the hills. The hills also had
their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
At several places in the hills, therefore, you will find that
while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a
rekha-prasada or latina style, the mandapa is of an older
form of wooden architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself
takes on a pagoda shape.
The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant
in terms of architecture. One of the most important temples
is Pandrethan, built during the eighth and ninth centuries.
In keeping with the tradition of a water tank attached to
Temple complexes in Hills
the shrine, this temple is built on a plinth built in the
Temple, Himachal Pradesh

middle of a tank. Although there are evidences of both

Hindu and Buddhist followings in Kashmir, this temple is
a Hindu one, possibly dedicated to Shiva. The architecture
of this temple is in keeping with the age-old Kashmiri
tradition of wooden buildings. Due to the snowy conditions
in Kashmir, the roof is peaked and slants slowly outward.
The temple is moderately ornamented, moving away from
the post-Gupta aesthetics of heavy carving. A row of
elephants at the base and a decorated doorway are the
only embellishments on the shrine.
Like the findings at Samlaji, the sculptures at Chamba
also show an amalgamation of local traditions with a post-
Gupta style. The images of Mahishasuramardini and
Narasimha at the Laksna-Devi Mandir are evidences of the
influence of the post-Gupta tradition. Both the images show
the influence of the metal sculpture tradition of Kashmir.
The yellow colour of the images is possibly due to an alloy
of zinc and copper which were popularly used to make
images in Kashmir. This temple bears an inscription that
states that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman
who lived in the seventh century.
Of the temples in Kumaon, the ones at Jageshwar near
Almora, and Champavat near Pithoragarh, are classic
examples of nagara architecture in the region.
THE DRAVIDA OR SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed
within a compound wall. The front wall has an entrance
gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram. The
shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil
Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically
rather than the curving shikhara of North India. In the
South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for
the crowning element at the top of the temple which is
usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— Dravida temple
this is equivalent to the amlak and kalasha of North Indian
temples. Whereas at the entrance to the North Indian
temple’s garbhagriha, it would be usual to find images such Shikhara
as mithunas and the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna,
in the south you will generally find sculptures of fierce
dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple. It is
common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank,
Mandapa Vimana
Gopuram
Garbhagriha
enclosed within the complex. Subsidiary shrines are either

incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as
distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.
The North Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together
as a cluster was not popular in South India. At some of
the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple
in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of
the smallest towers. This is because it is usually the oldest
part of the temple. With the passage of time, the population
and size of the town associated with that temple would
have increased, and it would have become necessary to
make a new boundary wall around the temple. This would
have been taller that the last one, and its gopurams would
have been even loftier. So, for instance, the Srirangam
temple in Tiruchirapally has as many as seven ‘concentric’
rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams. The
outermost is the newest, while the tower right in the centre
housing the garbhagriha is the oldest.
Temples thus started becoming the focus of urban
Meenakshi temple, architecture. Kanchipuram, Thanjavur or Tanjore, Madurai
Madurai
and Kumbakonam are the most famous temple towns of
Tamil Nadu, where, during the eighth to twelfth centuries,
the role of the temple was not limited to religious matters
alone. Temples became rich administrative centres,
controlling vast areas of land.
Just as there are many subdivisions of the main types
of nagara temples, there are subdivisions also of dravida
temples. These are basically of five different shapes: square,
usually called kuta, and also caturasra; rectangular or shala
or ayatasra; elliptical, called gaja-prishta or elephant-
backed, or also called vrittayata, deriving from wagon-
Gangaikondacholapuram temple
vaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas with a horse-shoe shaped

entrance facade usually called a nasi; circular or vritta;
and octagonal or ashtasra. Generally speaking, the plan of
the temple and the shape of the vimana were conditioned
by the iconographic nature of the consecrated deity, so it
was appropriate to build specific types of temples for specific
types of icons. It must, however, be remembered that this
is a simplistic differentiation of the subdivisions. Several
different shapes may be combined in specific periods and
places to create their own unique style.
The Pallavas were one of the ancient South Indian
dynasties that were active in the Andhra region from the
second century CE onwards and moved south to settle in
Tamil Nadu. Their history is better documented from the
sixth to the eighth century, when they left many
inscriptions in stone and several monuments. Their
powerful kings spread their empire to various parts of the
subcontinent, at times reaching the borders of Odisha,
and their links with South–East Asia were also strong.
Although they were mostly Shaivite, several Vaishnava
shrines also survived from their reign, and there is no
doubt that they were influenced by the long Buddhist
history of the Deccan.
Their early buildings, it is generally assumed, were rock-
cut, while the later ones were structural. However, there
is reason to believe that structural buildings were well
known even when rock-cut ones were being excavated. The
early buildings are generally attributed to the reign of
Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of the Chalukyan king,
Shore temple, Mahabalipuram

Pulakesin II of Karnataka. Narasimhavarman I, also known

as Mamalla, who acceded the Pallava throne around 640
CE, is celebrated for the expansion of the empire, avenging
the defeat his father had suffered at the hands of Pulakesin
II, and inaugurating most of the building works at
Mahabalipuram which is known after him as
Mamallapuram.
The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was built later,
Nandi, Brihadiswara probably in the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also known
as Rajasimha who reigned from 700 to 728 CE. Now it is
oriented to the east facing the ocean, but if you study it
closely, you will find that it actually houses three shrines,
two to Shiva, one facing east and the other west, and a
middle one to Vishnu who is shown as Anantashayana.
This is unusual, because temples generally have a single
main shrine and not three areas of worship. This shows
that it was probably not originally conceived like this and
different shrines may have been added at different times,
modified perhaps with the change of patrons. In the
compound there is evidence of a water tank, an early
example of a gopuram, and several other images.
Sculptures of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, line the
temple walls, and these, along with the carvings on the
temple’s lower walls have suffered severe disfiguration due
to erosion by salt-water laden air over the centuries.
The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, called the
Rajarajeswara or Brihadiswara temple, was completed
around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola, and is the largest and
tallest of all Indian temples. Temple building was prolific
at this time, and over a hundred important temples of the
Brihadiswara temple, Thanjavur

Five Rathas, Mahabalipuram
Chola period are in a good state of preservation, and many

more are still active shrines. Bigger in scale than anything
built by their predecessors, the Pallavas, Chalukyas or
Pandyas, this Chola temple’s pyramidal multi-storeyed
vimana rises a massive seventy metres (approximately two
hundred feet), topped by a monolithic shikhara which is
an octagonal dome-shaped stupika. It is in this temple that
one notices for the first time two large gopuras (gateway
towers) with an elaborate sculptural programme which
was conceived along with the temple. Huge Nandi-figures
dot the corners of the shikhara, and the kalasha on top by
itself is about three metres and eight centimetres in height.
Hundreds of stucco figures decorate the vimana, although
it is possible that some of these may have been added on
during the Maratha Period and did not always belong to
the Chola Period. The main deity of the temple is Shiva,
who is shown as a huge lingam set in a two storeyed
sanctum. The walls surrounding the sanctum have extended
mythological narratives which are depicted through painted
murals and sculptures.
Architecture in the Deccan

Many different styles of temple architecture influenced by
both North and South Indian temples were used in regions
like Karnataka. While some scholars consider the buildings
in this region as being distinctly either nagara or dravida,
a hybridised style that seems to have become popular after
the mid-seventh century, is known in some ancient texts
as vesara.
By the late seventh or the early eighth century, the
ambitious projects at Ellora became even grander. By about
750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of the Deccan
was taken by the Rashtrakutas. Their greatest achievement
in architecture is the Kailashnath temple at Ellora,
Kailashnath temple, Ellora
a culmination of at least a millennium-long tradition in

rock-cut architecture in India. It is a complete dravida
building with a Nandi shrine—since the temple is dedicated
to Shiva—a gopuram-like gateway, surrounding cloisters,
subsidiary shrines, staircases and an imposing tower or
vimana rising to thirty metres. Importantly, all of this is
carved out of living rock. One portion of the monolithic
hill was carved patiently to build the Kailashnath temple.
The sculpture of the Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora is
dynamic, the figures often larger than life-size, infused
with unparalleled grandeur and the most overwhelming energy.
In the southern part of the Deccan, i.e., in the region
of Karnataka is where some of the most experimental
hybrid styles of vesara architecture are to be found.
Temple, Badami
Pulakesin I established the early western Chalukya

kingdom when he secured the land around Badami in 543.
The early western Chalukyas ruled most of the Deccan till
the mid-eighth century when they were superseded by the
Rashtrakutas. Early Chalukyan activity also takes the
form of rock-cut caves while later activity is of structural
temples. The earliest is probably the Ravana Phadi cave
at Aihole which is known for its distinctive sculptural style.
One of the most important sculptures at the site is of
Nataraja, surrounded by larger-than-life-size depictions
of the saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his
right. The figures are characterised by graceful, slim bodies,
long, oval faces topped with extremely tall cylindrical
crowns and shown to wear short dhotis marked by fine
incised striations indicating pleating. They are distinctly
different from contemporary western Deccan or Vakataka
styles seen at places such as Paunar and Ramtek.
The hybridisation and incorporation of several styles
was the hallmark of Chalukyan buildings. The most
elaborate of all Chalukyan temples at Pattadakal made in
the reign of Vikramaditya II (733-44) by his chief queen
Loka Mahadevi, for instance, shows complete knowledge
of Pallava buildings at Kanchipuram and as a corollary,
Mahabalipuram. The temple is one of the best early
examples of the dravida tradition. By contrast other eastern
Chalukyan temples, like the Mahakuta, five kilometres
from Badami, and the Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur
show a greater assimilation of northern styles from Odisha
and Rajasthan. At the same time the Durga temple at
Aihole is unique having an even earlier style of an apsidal
shrine which is reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya halls and
Durga temple, Aihole

Virupaksh temple,
Pattadkal
is surrounded by a veranda of a later kind, with a shikhara

that is stylistically like a nagara one. Finally, mention
must be made of the Lad Khan temple at Aihole. This seems
to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills,
except that it is constructed out of stone.
How then shall we understand these different styles at
one place? As curiosities or as innovations? Undoubtedly,
they are dynamic expressions of a creative set of architects
who were competing with their peers in the rest of India.
Whatever one’s explanation is, these buildings remain of
great art-historical interest.
With the waning of Chola and Pandya power, the
Hoysalas of Karnataka grew to prominence in South India
and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
The remains of around hundred temples have been found
in southern Deccan, though it is only three of them that
Somnathpuram temple are most frequently discussed: the temples at Belur,
Halebid and Somnathpuram. Perhaps the
most characteristic feature of these temples
is that they grow extremely complex with so
many projecting angles emerging from the
previously straightforward square temple,
that the plan of these temples starts looking
like a star, and is thus known as a stellate-
plan. Since they are made out of soapstone
which is a relatively soft stone, the artists
were able to carve their sculptures
intricately. This can be seen particularly in
the jewellery of the gods that adorn their
temple walls.
The Hoysaleshvara temple (Lord of the Hoysalas) at

Halebid in Karnataka was built in dark schist stone by
the Hoysala king in 1150. Hoysala temples are sometimes
called hybrid or vesara as their unique style seems neither
completely dravida nor nagara, but somewhere in between.
They are easily distinguishable from other medieval temples
by their highly original star -like ground-plans and a
profusion of decorative carvings.
Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja, the Halebid temple is
a double building with a large hall for the mandapa to
facilitate music and dance. A Nandi pavilion precedes each
building. The tower of the temple here and at nearby Belur
fell long ago, and an idea of the temples' appearance can
now only be gleaned from their detailed miniature versions
flanking the entrances. From the central square plan cut-
out angular projections create the star effect decorated
with the most profuse carvings of animals and deities. So
intricate is the carving that it is said, for instance, in the
bottom-most frieze featuring a continuous procession of
hundreds of elephants with their mahouts, no two
elephants are in the same pose.
Nataraja, Halebid
Founded in 1336, Vijayanagara, literally ‘city of victory’,

attracted a number of international travellers such as the
Italian, Niccolo di Conti, the Portuguese Domingo Paes,
Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa and the Afghan Abd, al-
Razzaq, who have left vivid accounts of the city. In addition,
various Sanskrit and Telugu works document the vibrant
literary tradition of this kingdom. Architecturally,
Vijayanagara synthesises the centuries-old dravida temple
architecture with Islamic styles demonstrated by the
neighbouring sultanates. Their sculpture too, although
fundamentally derived from, and consciously seeking to
recreate Chola ideals, occasionally shows the presence of
foreigners. Their eclectic ruins from the late fifteenth and
early sixteenth centuries preserve a fascinating time in
history, an age of wealth, exploration and cultural fusion.
BUDDHIST AND JAIN ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

So far, although we have focused on the nature of
developments in Hindu architecture from the fifth to
fourteenth centuries, it must constantly be kept in mind
that this was also the very period when Buddhist and Jain
developments were equally vibrant, and often went hand-
in-glove with Hindu ones. Sites such as Ellora have
Nalanda University
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments; however,

Badami, Khajuraho and Kannauj have the remains
of any two of the religions right next to each other.
When the Gupta empire crumbled in the sixth
century CE, this eastern region of Bihar and
Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears
to have remained unified whilst numerous small
Rajput principalities sprang up to the west. In the
eighth century, the Palas came to power in the
region. The second Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became
immensely powerful and established an empire by
defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas.
Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth
lay in a combination of agriculture along the fertile
Ganges plain and international trade.
The pre-eminent Buddhist site is, of course,
Bodhgaya. Bodhgaya is a pilgrimage site since
Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and
became Gautama Buddha. While the bodhi tree is
of immense importance, the Mahabodhi Temple at Mahabodhi temple,
Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of Bodhgaya
that time. The first shrine here, located at the base of the
Bodhi tree, is said to have been constructed by King
Ashoka; the vedika around it is said to be post-Mauryan,
of about 100 BCE; many of the sculptures in the niches in
the temple are dated to the eighth century Pala Period,
while the actual Mahabodhi temple itself as it stands now
is largely a Colonial Period reconstruction of the old seventh
century design. The design of the temple is unusual. It is,
strictly speaking, neither dravida or nagara. It is narrow
like a nagara temple, but it rises without curving, like a
dravida one.
The monastic university of Nalanda is a mahavihara as
it is a complex of several monastries of various sizes. Till
date, only a small portion of this ancient learning centre
has been excavated as most of it lies buried under
contemporary civilisation, making further excavations
almost impossible.
Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the
records of Xuan Zang—previously spelt as ‘Hsuan-tsang’—
which states that the foundation of a monastery was laid
by Kumargupta I in the fifth century CE; and this was
carried forward by the later monarchs who built up a
fantastic university here. There is evidence that all three
Buddhist doctrines— Theravada, Mahayana and
Vajrayana—were taught here and monks made their way
to Nalanda and its neighbouring sites of Bodh Gaya and
Kurkihar from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north,
and Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma and various other

countries from the south-eastern parts of Asia. Monks and
pilgrims would take back small sculptures and illustrated
manuscripts from here to their own countries. Buddhist
monasteries like Nalanda, thus, were prolific centres of
art production that had a decisive impact on the arts of
all Buddhist countries in Asia.
The sculptural art of Nalanda, in stucco, stone and
bronze, developed out of a heavy dependence on the
Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath. By the ninth century a
synthesis occurred between the Sarnath Gupta idiom, the
local Bihar tradition, and that of central India, leading to
the formation of the Nalanda school of sculpture
characterised by distinctive facial features, body forms and
treatment of clothing and jewellery. The characteristic
features of Nalanda art, distinguished by its consistently
high quality of workmanship, are that the precisely
Sculptural details, executed sculptures have an ordered appearance with little
Nalanda effect of crowding. Sculptures are also usually not flat in
relief but are depicted in three-dimensional forms. The
back slabs of the sculptures are detailed and the
ornamentations delicate. The Nalanda bronzes, dating
between the seventh and eighth centuries to approximately
the twelfth century outnumber the discovery of metal
images from all other sites of eastern India and constitute
a large body of Pala Period metal sculptures. Like their
stone counterparts, the bronzes initially relied heavily on
Sarnath and Mathura Gupta traditions. The Nalanda
sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana
Excavated site,
Nalanda
pantheon such as standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas such

as Manjusri Kumara, Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus
and Naga-Nagarjuna. During the late eleventh and twelveth
centuries, when Nalanda emerged as an important tantric
centre, the repertoire came to be dominated by Vajrayana
deities such as Vajrasharada (a for m of Saraswati)
Khasarpana, Avalokiteshvara, etc. Depictions of crowned
Buddhas occur commonly only after the tenth century.
Interestingly, various brahmanical images not conforming
to the Sarnath style have also been found at Nalanda,
many of which are still worshipped in small temples in
villages around the site.
Sirpur in Chhattisgarh is an early-Odisha-style site
belonging to the period between of 550–800, with both
Hindu and Buddhist shrines. In many ways the
iconographic and stylistic elements of the Buddhist
sculptures here are similar to that of Nalanda. Later other
major Buddhist monasteries developed in Odisha.
Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri are the most famous of
them.
The port-town of Nagapattinam was also a major
Buddhist centre right until the Chola Period. One of the
reasons for this must have been its importance in trade
with Sri Lanka where large numbers of Buddhists still
live. Bronze and stone sculptures in Chola style have come
to light at Nagapattinam and generally date back to the
tenth century.
Jains were prolific temple builders like the Hindus,
and their sacred shrines and pilgrimage spots are to be
found across the length and breadth of India except in the
hills. The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in
Lakshman temple, Sirpur

Lord Bahubali, Gomateshwara,

Karnataka
Bihar. Many of these sites are famous for early Buddhist

shrines. In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally
important Jain sites can be found in Ellora and Aihole. In
central India, Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi and Gwalior
have some excellent examples of Jain temples. Karnataka
has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and at Sravana Belagola
the famous statue of Gomateshwara, the granite statue of
Lord Bahubali which stands eighteen metres or fifty-seven
feet high, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing
structure. It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the
General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the Ganga Kings
of Mysore.
Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of
Jainism since early times. A famous hoard of Jain bronzes
was found at Akota, on the outskirts of Baroda, dated
between the end of the fifth and the end of the seventh
century CE. Finely cast through the lost-wax process, these
bronzes were often subsequently inlaid with silver and

copper to bring out the eyes, crowns and details of the
textiles on which the figures were seated. Many famous
Jain bronzes from Chausa in Bihar are now kept in the
Patna Museum. Many Jain bronzes from Hansi in Haryana
and from various sites in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are
kept in various museums in India.
The Jain temples at Mount Abu were constructed by
Vimal Shah. Notable for a simplistic exterior in contrast
with the exuberant marble interiors, their rich sculptural
decoration with deep undercutting creates a lace-like
appearance. The temple is famous for its unique patterns
on every ceiling, and the graceful bracket figures along
the domed ceilings. The great Jain pilgrimage site in the
Shatrunjay hills near Palitana in Kathiawar, Gujarat, is
imposing with scores of temples clustered together. Jain sculpture, Mount Abu
In this chapter we have read about the prolific sculptural
and architectural remains in different types of stone,
terracotta and bronze from the fifth to the fourteenth
centuries. Undoubtedly there would have been sculptures
made of other media like silver and gold, but these would
have been melted down and reused. Many sculptures would
also have been made of wood and ivory, but these have
perished because of their fragility. Often sculptures would
have been painted, but again, pigments cannot always
survive hundreds of years, especially if the sculptures were
exposed to the elements. There was also a rich tradition of
painting at this time, but the only examples that survive
from this period are murals in a few religious buildings. A
Dilwara temple, Mount Abu

96
MAHABALIPURAM AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART
Mahabalipuram is an important coastal town from the period of the
Pallavas. It is dotted with several important rock-cut and free-standing
structural temples mostly made in the seventh and eighth centuries.
This large sculptural panel, one of the largest and oldest known in the
world, is nearly thirty metres long and fifteen metres high. There is a
natural cleft in the rock which has been cleverly used by its sculptors as
a channel for water to flow down. This water collects in a massive tank in
front of the sculpted wall.
Scholars have interpreted the story depicted on the panel differently.
While some believe that it is the story of the descent of the Ganga from
heaven to earth, others believe that the main story is of Kiratarjuniya or
Arjuna’s penance, a poetic work by Bharvi which is known to have been
popular in the Pallava court. Other scholars have interpreted the
symbolism behind the sculptures to show that the whole tableau was
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE
created to be a prashasti, or something to praise the Pallava king, who,

they say, would have sat enthroned in the tank in front of this
extraordinary backdrop.
A temple has been given prominence in the relief. Ascetics and
worshippers sit before it. Above it is an emaciated bearded figure standing
in penance on one leg, his arms raised above his head. He has been
identified by some as Bhagirath and by others as Arjuna. Arjuna’s penance
was to obtain the pashupata weapon from Shiva, whereas Bhagirath
prayed to have Ganga brought to earth. Next to this figure stands Shiva
who has one hand in the boon bestowing gesture or varada mudra. The
small gana or dwarf who stands below this hand may be a personification
of the powerful pashupata weapon.
All the figures are shown with a slender and linear quality in an
animated state of movement. Apart from humans and flying celestials
there are several naturalistically carved birds and animals as well.
Particularly noteworthy are the extraordinarily well-modelled, and life-
like elephants, and the pair of deer who are under the shrine. The most
humorous, however, is a cat who has been shown standing on his hind
legs, with his hands raised, imitating Bhagirath or Arjuna. Close
examination, however, reveals that this cat is, in fact, a symbolic device.
He is surrounded by rats, which are unable to disturb him from his
penance. Perhaps this is a metaphor used by the artist to show how
strong Arjuna's or Bhagirath’s penance was, who is also standing still,
undisturbed by his surroundings.
97
RAVANA SHAKING MOUNT KAILASHA

The theme of Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha

has been depicted several times in the caves of
Ellora. But the most noteworthy of all is the one
depicted on the left wall of Kailashnath temple
(Cave No.16) at Ellora. The image is dated to the
eighth century CE. It is a colossal sculpture and
is considered as one of the masterpieces of Indian
sculpture. It depicts the episode of Ravana
shaking Mount Kailasha when Lord Shiva along
with Parvati and others were on the mountain.
The composition is divided into several tiers. The
lower tier depicts Ravana, multi-faced and multi-
armed shaking the mount with ease. The depth
of carvings of the multiple hands brings out the
effect of three-dimensional space. Ravana’s body
is angular pushing one leg inside. The hands are
expanded on the sides of the inside chamber
created by the image of Ravana. The upper half
is divided into three frames. The centre occupied
by the image of Shiva and Parvati. Parvati is
shown moving close to Shiva scared by the
commotion on the hill. Her stretched legs and
slightly twisted body in the recessed space create
a very dramatic effect of light and shade. The
volume of sculpture is very pronounced; the
attendant fiures are equally voluminous. The
gana (dwarf) figures are shown in action, involved
in their activities. The celestial beings above
Shiva and Parvati witnessing the event are
Carvings on outer wall,
shown in frozen movement. Protrusion of volume
Kailashnath temple, Ellora
and recession in the space are important
landmarks in the images of the Ellora caves.
Light and darkness has been exploited by
creating the images in full round. Their torsos
are slender with heaviness in its surface
treatment, arms are slim in full round. Attendant
figures on the two sides have angular frontality.
Every image in the composition is beautifully
interwoven structurally with each other.
LAKSHAMANA TEMPLE IN KHAJURAHO
The temples at Khajuraho are all made of sandstone. They were patronised
by the Chandella dynasty. The Lakshamana temple represents the full-
fledged, developed style of temple architecture during the time of the
Chandellas. Its construction was completed by 954, the year as per the
inscription found at the base of the temple, by Yashovarman, the seventh
ruler of the Chandella dynasty. The temple plan is of a panchayana type.
The temple is constructed on a heavy plinth. It consists of an
ardhamandapa (porch), mandapa (porch), the maha mandapa (greater hall)
and the garbhagriha with vimana. Each part has a separate roof rising
backward. All the halls have projected porches on their walls but are not
accessible to visitors. Their use is functional, mainly for light and
ventilation. The outer walls of the garbhagriha and the outer and inner
walls around the circumambulatory path are decorated with sculptures.
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE
The shikhara on the garbhagriha is tall. The Khajuraho temples are also
known for their erotic sculptures. Many erotic sculptures are carved on
the plinth wall. Some erotic sculptures are carved on the actual wall of
the temple. Tier arrangements on the walls provide a very specific space
for the placement of the images. The interior halls are also decorated
profusely. The entrance to the garbhagriha is sculpted with heavy
voluminous pillars and lintels carved with small images as part of the
door decoration. An image of Chaturmukha Vishnu is in the garbhagriha.
There are four shrines in each corner of the temple. There are images of
Vishnu in three shrines and Surya in one, which can be identified by the
central image on the lintel of the shrine-doors. Drapery and ornaments
are given a lot of attention.
101
large number of bronze scupltures have been found in the

country which shall be discussed in the next chapter.
We have focussed on the dominant art styles and some
of the most famous monuments from different parts of India
in the medieval period. It is important to realise that the
enormous artistic achievements that we have studied here
would never have been possible if artists worked alone.
These large projects would have brought architects,
builders, sculptors and painters together.
Above all, by studying these artworks, we are able to
learn much about the kind of society that made these
objects. Through them we can surmise what their buildings
were like, what types of clothes they wore and above all
we can use the art material to reconstruct the history of
their religions. These religions, as we have seen were many
and diverse and constantly changing. Hinduism, Buddhism
and Jainism each have a plethora of gods and goddesses,
and this was the period when bhakti and tantra — two
major developments, affected them. Temples also became
a space for many other art forms: such as music and dance
and, from the tenth century onward, temples became large
landowners and performed an administrative role as well.
Project Work
Find any temple or monastery in or around your town and
note down its important features such as different
artchitectural features, sculptural style, identification of
images, dynastic affiliation and patronage.
EXERCISE
1. Mark out all the places discussed in this chapter on a map
of India.
2. What are the commonalities and differences between North
Indian and South Indian temples? Make a diagram to
supplement your answer.
3. Bring out the stylistic differences of any two sculptural
traditions (such as Pala, Chola, Pallava, Chandella, etc.)
using either drawing, painting or clay-modelling.
Supplement your project with a written assignment that
explains the salient features of the two styles you have
chosen.
4. Compare any two temple styles in India; supplement with
a line drawing.
5. Trace the development in Buddhist art.
INDIAN BRONZE
7
SCULPTURE
I NDIAN sculptors had mastered the bronze medium and
the casting process as much as they had mastered
terracotta sculpture and carving in stone. The cire-perdu
or ‘lost-wax’ process for casting was learnt as long ago as
the Indus Valley Culture. Along with it was discovered the
process of making alloy of metals by mixing copper, zinc
and tin which is called bronze.
Bronze sculptures and statuettes of Buddhist, Hindu
and Jain icons have been discovered from many regions of
India dating from the second century until the sixteenth
century. Most of these were required for ritual worship
and are characterised by exquisite beauty and aesthetic
appeal. At the same time the metal-casting process
continued to be utilised for making articles for various
purposes of daily use, such as utensils for cooking, eating,
drinking, etc. Present-day tribal communities also utilise
the ‘lost-wax’ process for their art expressions.
Perhaps the ‘Dancing Girl’ in tribhanga posture from
Mohenjodaro is the earliest bronze sculpture datable to
2500 BCE. The limbs and torso of this female figurine are
simplified in tubular form. A similar group of bronze
statuettes have been discovered on archaeological
excavation at Daimabad (Maharashtra) datable to 1500
BCE. Significant is the ‘Chariot’, the wheels of which are
represented in simple circular shapes while the driver or
human rider has been elongated, and the bulls in the
forefront are modelled in sturdy forms.
Interesting images of Jain Tirthankaras have been
discovered from Chausa, Bihar, belonging to the Kushana
Period during second century CE. These bronzes show how
the Indian sculptors had mastered the modelling of
masculine human physique and simplified muscles.
Remarkable is the depiction of Adinath or Vrishabhnath,
who is identified with long hairlocks dropping to his
shoulders. Otherwise the tirthankaras are noted by their
short curly hair.
Kaliyadaman, Chola bronze,
Many standing Buddha images with right hand in
Tamil Nadu
abhaya mudra were cast in North India, particularly Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, during the Gupta and Post-Gupta

periods, i.e., between the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries.
The sanghati or the monk’s robe is wrapped to cover the
shoulders which turns over the right arm, while the other
end of the drapery is wrapped over the left arm. Eventually
the pleats are held by the extended hand of the same arm.
The drapery falls and spreads into a wide curve at the
level of the ankles. The Buddha’s figure is modelled in a
subtle manner suggesting, at the same time, the thin
quality of the cloth. The whole figure is treated with
refinement; there is a certain delicacy in the treatment of
the torso. The figure appears youthful and proportionate
in comparison with the Kushana style. In the typical bronze
from Dhanesar Khera, Uttar Pradesh, the folds of the
drapery are treated as in the Mathura style, i.e., in a series
of drooping down curves. Sarnath-style bronzes have
foldless drapery. The outstanding example is that of the
Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar, which is quite a
monumental bronze figure. The typical refined style of
these bronzes is the hallmark of the classical quality.
Vakataka bronze images of the Buddha from Phophnar,
Maharashtra, are contemporary with the Gupta period
bronzes. They show the influence of the Amaravati style of
Andhra Pradesh in the third century CE and at the same
time there is a significant change in the draping style of
the monk’s robe. Buddha’s right hand in abhaya mudra is
free so that the drapery clings to the right side of the body
Shiva Family, tenth century CE, Ganesh, seventh century CE,

Bihar Kashmir
INDIAN BRONZE SCULPTURE 105
contour. The result is a continuous flowing line on this

side of the figure. At the level of the ankles of the Buddha
figure the drapery makes a conspicuous curvilinear turn,
as it is held by the left hand.
The additional importance of the Gupta and Vakataka
bronzes is that they were portable and monks carried them
from place to place for the purpose of individual worship
or to be installed in Buddhist viharas. In this manner the
refined classical style spread to different parts of India
and to Asian countries overseas. The hoard of bronzes
discovered in Akota near Vadodara established that bronze
casting was practised in Gujarat or western India between
the sixth and ninth centuries. Most of the images represent
the Jaina tirthankaras like Mahavira, Parshvanath or
Adinath. A new format was invented in which tirthankaras
are seated on a throne; they can be single or combined in
a group of three or in a group of twenty-four tirthankaras.
Female images were also cast representing yakshinis or
The Lost-wax Process

The lost-wax process is a technique used for making objects of
metal, especially in Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh and West Bengal. In each region, a slightly different Devi, Chola bronze,
technique is used. Tamil Nadu
The lost-wax process involves several different steps. First a
wax model of the image is made by hand of pure beeswax that
has first been melted over an open fire, and then strained through
a fine cloth into a basin of cold water. Here it resolidifies
immediately. It is then pressed through a pichki or pharni —
which squeezes the wax into noodle-like shape. These wax wires
are then wound around to the shape of the entire image.
The image is now covered with a thick coating of paste, made
of equal parts of clay, sand and cow-dung. Into an opening on
one side, a clay pot is fixed. In this molten metal is poured. The
weight of the metal to be used is ten times that of wax. (The wax
is weighed before starting the entire process.) This metal is
largely scrap metal from broken pots and pans. While the
molten metal is poured in the clay pot, the clay-plastered
model is exposed to firing. As the wax inside melts, the metal
flows down the channel and takes on the shape of the wax
image. The firing process is carried out almost like a religious
ritual and all the steps take place in dead silence. The image
is later chiselled with files to smoothen it and give it a finish.
Casting a bronze image is a painstaking task and demands
a high degree of skill. Sometimes an alloy of five metals —
gold, silver, copper, brass and lead — is used to cast bronze
images.
Shasanadevis of some prominent tirthankaras.

Stylistically they were influenced by the features
of both the Gupta and the Vakataka period
bronzes. Chakreshvari is the Shasanadevi of
Adinath and Ambika is of Neminath.
Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir regions also
produced bronze images of Buddhist deities as well
as Hindu gods and goddesses. Most of these were
created during the eighth, ninth and tenth
centuries and have a very distinct style in
comparison with bronzes from other parts of India.
A noteworthy development is the growth of different
types of iconography of Vishnu images. Four-headed
Vishnu, also known as Chaturanana or Vaikuntha
Vishnu, was worshipped in these regions. While
the central face represents Vasudeva, the other two
faces are that of Narasimha and Varaha. The
Narasimha avatar and Mahishasuramardini Durga
images of Himachal Pradesh are among the very
dynamic bronzes from that region.
In Buddhist centres like Nalanda, a school of
bronze-casting emerged around the ninth century
during the rule of the Pala Dynasty in Bihar and
Ganesh, Kashmir, Bengal regions. In the gap of a few centuries the sculptors
seventh century CE at Kurkihar near Nalanda were able to revive the classical
style of the Gupta period. A remarkable bronze is of a four-
Bronze sculpture,
Himachal Pradesh
INDIAN BRONZE SCULPTURE 107
armed Avalokitesvara, which is a good example of a male

figure in graceful tribhanga posture. Worship of female
goddesses was adopted which is part of the growth of the
Vajrayana phase in Buddhism. Images of Tara became very
popular. Seated on a throne, she is accompanied by a growing
curvilinear lotus stalk and her right hand is in the abhaya
mudra.
The bronze casting technique and making of bronze
images of traditional icons reached a high stage of
development in South India during the medieval period.
Although bronze images were modelled and cast during
the Pallava Period in the eighth and ninth centuries, some
of the most beautiful and exquisite statues were produced
during the Chola Period in Tamil Nadu from the tenth to
the twelfth century. The technique and art of fashioning
Nataraja, Chola period, twelfth
bronze images is still skillfully practised in South India, century CE
particularly in Kumbakonam. The distinguished patron
during the tenth century was the widowed Chola queen,
Sembiyan Maha Devi. Chola bronzes are the most sought-
after collectors’ items by art lovers all over the world.
Among the Pallava Period bronzes of the eighth century
is the icon of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka asana (one
leg kept dangling). The right hand is in the achamana
mudra gesture, suggesting that he is about to drink poison.
Nataraja
Shiva is associated with the end of the cosmic
world with which this dancing position is
associated.
In this Chola period bronze sculpture he
has been shown balancing himself on his right
leg and suppressing the apasmara, the demon
of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of
the same leg. At the same time he raises his
left leg in bhujangatrasita stance, which
represents tirobhava, that is kicking away the
veil of maya or illusion from the devotee’s mind.
His four arms are outstretched and the main
right hand is posed in abhaya hasta or the
gesture suggesting. The upper right holds the
damaru his favourite musical instrument to
keep on the beat tala. The upper left hand
carries a flame while the main left hand is held
in dola hasta and connects with the abhaya
hasta of the right hand. His hair locks fly on
both the sides touching the circular jvala mala
or the garland of flames which surrounds the
entire dancing figuration.
The well-known dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja

was evolved and fully developed during the Chola Period
and since then many variations of this complex bronze
image have been modelled.
A wide range of Shiva iconography was evolved in the
Thanjavur (Tanjore) region of Tamil Nadu. The ninth century
kalyanasundara murti is highly remarkable for the manner
in which Panigrahana (ceremony of marriage) is represented
by two separate statuettes. Shiva with his extended right
hand accepts Parvati’s (the bride’s) right hand, who is
depicted with a bashful expression and taking a step
forward. The union of Shiva and Parvati is very ingeniously
represented in the ardhanarisvara murti in a single image.
Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati have also been
modelled, standing in graceful tribhanga posture.
During the sixteenth century, known as the Vijayanagar
Period in Andhra Pradesh, the sculptors experimented with
portrait sculpture in order to preserve knowledge of the
royal patron for posterity. At Tirupati, life-size standing
portrait statues were cast in bronze, depicting
Krishnadevaraya with his two queens, Tirumalamba and
Chinnadevi. The sculptor has combined the likeness of
the facial features with certain elements of idealisation.
The idealisation is further observed in the manner the
physical body is modelled to appear imposing as well as
graceful. The standing king and queens are depicted in
praying posture, that is, both hands held in the namaskara
mudra.
EXERCISE
1. Do you think that the technique of bronze casting has
been a continuous process? How did it evolve over a period
of time?
2. In India sculpturing in stone and metal happened
simultaneously. In your opinion what were the similarities
and differences between both technically, stylistically and
functionally?
3. Why are Chola bronze sculptures considered as the most
refined?
4. Search for visuals of bronze sculptures of the Buddha
belonging to periods other than the Chola Period from
Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, etc.
8
SOME ASPECTS OF
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
I N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards
Spain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim
merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of
six hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslims
had begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the
early thirteenth century that large-scale building activity was
begun by the Turkish State, established after the Turkish
conquest of northern India.
By the twelfth century India was already familiar with
monumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certain
techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, such
as trabeation, brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat
roof or a small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood
and stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top
structure. Now, however, the archuate form of construction was
introduced gradually in which arches could support the weight
of the domes. Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs Qutub Minar, Delhi
(series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes,
resting on pendentives and squinches enabled spanning of large
spaces leaving the interiors free of pillars.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was
that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and
traditions and combined them with their own architectural
practices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many
structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations
came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural elements. These
architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
According to E. B. Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations of
god everywhere in multiple forms as part of their religious faith
whereas a Muslim thought of only one with Muhammad as His
Prophet. Hence, Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures and
paintings. Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on any
surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting
of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy on
plaster and stone.
TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural
building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,
dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,
sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over
a period of time. These were thus additions in the existing types
of buildings in the sub-continent.
Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewhere
in the world, were constructed by wealthy people. They were, in
descending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,
merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of the
obvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic
structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of
Indian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on the
availability of materials, limitations of resources and skills and
the sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion and
religiosity were very important to people of medieval India, as
elsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.
CATEGORIES OF STYLES
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally
categorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial
Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style
(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,
Golconda). These categories help in understanding better the
specificities of architectural styles rather than putting them in
immutable slots.
Intricate jali work,

Amer Fort, Jaipur
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 111
ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES
Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur
is regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedly
regional character for patrons borrowed elements from regional
temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of
bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs,
mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth century white marble dargah
of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincial
style and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughal
tombs.
DECORATIVE FORMS
These forms included designing on plaster through incision or
stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.
Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs
included varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent and
places outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was used
to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. Walls were
also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with
flower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating
the ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In the
fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also used
to surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue,
turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques of
tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use of
Dodo panel on the wall,
for surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.
Agra
At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.
Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and
low relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carving
has a three- dimensional look. The arches were plain and squat
and sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth century
onwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.
Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.
The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes,
chatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with an
inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.
Pietra dura work, Agra

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely
constructed of rubble masonary, which was easily available. These
walls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or
dressed stone. An amazing range of stones were utilised for
construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.
Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.
From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were also
used for construction and these imparted greater flexibility to
the structures. In this phase there was more reliance on local
materials.
FORTS
Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular
feature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power of
a king. When such a fort was captured by an attacking army the
vanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty.
This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victorious
king. Some examples of strong, complex edifices which still
exercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor,
Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda.
Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage to
construct forts. These heights gave a good perspective of the
region, strategic advantage for security, unfettered and
unhindered space to make residential and official complexes while
simultaneously creating a sense of awe in the people. Other
Aerial view, complexities woven into such topography were concentric circles
Daulatabad Fort
Gwalior Fort
of outer walls as in Golconda, so that the enemy had to breach

these at all stages before getting in.
Daulatabad had several strategic devices to confound the
enemy, such as staggered entrances so that gates could not be
opened even with the help of elephants. It also had twin forts,
one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by a
complex defence design arrangement. One wrong turn in the
labyrinth or complex pathway could lead to the enemy soldier
going in circles or falling to his death several hundred feet below.
The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height made
it impossible to scale. It had had many habitations and usages.
Babur, who did not find much merit in many things he saw in
Hindustan, was said to have been overawed at the sight of the
Gwalior Fort. Chittorgarh bears the distinction of being the largest
fort in Asia and was occupied for the longest length of time as
the seat of power. It has many types of buildings including
stambhas or towers to signify victory and bravery. It was replete
with numerous water bodies. Innumerable acts of heroism have
been associated with the principal people in the fort, forming the
substance of many a legend. An interesting aspect associated
with forts is that within the palace complexes stylistic and
decorative influences were absorbed most liberally.
MINARS
Another form of stambha or tower was the minar, a common feature
in the sub-continent. Two most striking minars of medieval times
are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad
Fort. The everyday use of the minar was for the

azaan or call to prayer. Its phenomenal height,
however, symbolised the might and power of the
ruler. The Qutub Minar also came to be associated
with the much revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
The Qutub Minar, built in the thirteenth
century, is a 234-feet-high tapering tower divided
into five storeys. The minar is a mix of polygonal
and circular shapes. It is largely built of red and
buff sandstone with some use of marble in the
upper storeys. It is characterised by highly
decorated balconies and bands of inscriptions
intertwined with foliated designs.
Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century,
is a 210- feet-high tapering tower divided into
four storeys. Painted peach now, its façade once
boasted of chevron patterning on the encaustic
tile work and bold bands of Quranic verses.
Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it
Chand Minar, was the combined handiwork of local architects with those from
Daulatabad Delhi and Iran.
TOMBS
Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was a
popular feature of medieval India. Some well known examples of
such tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur
Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar and Itmaduddaula. According to
Anthony Welch, the idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise
as a reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgement. This
led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction. Beginning
Tomb of Itmaduddaula,
Agra
with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tomb

was subsequently placed within paradisiacal elements such as a
garden or near a body of water or both, as is in the case of the Taj
Mahal. Surely though, such vast expanses of structured and
stylised spaces could not have been intended only to signify peace
and happiness in the next world but to also showcase the majesty,
grandeur and might of the person buried there.
SARAIS
A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which
ringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian sub-
continent. Sarais were largely built on a simple square or
rectangular plan and were meant to provide temporary
accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims,
merchants, traders, etc. In effect, sarais were public domains
which thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. This
led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic
tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level of
the people.
STRUCTURES FOR COMMON PEOPLE

One of the architectural features of medieval India was also a
coming together of styles, techniques and decorations in public
and private spaces of non-royal sections of the society. These
included buildings for domestic usage, temples, mosques,
khanqahs and dargahs, commemorative gateways, pavilions in
buildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.
MANDU
The city of Mandu is located sixty miles from Indore, at an elevation of over 2000
feet and overlooks the Malwa Plateau to the north and the Narmada valley to the
south. Mandu’s natural defence encouraged consistent habitations by Parmara
Rajputs, Afghans and Mughals. As the capital city of Ghauri Dynasty (1401–1561)
founded by Hoshang Shah it acquired a lot of fame. Subsequently, Mandu was
associated with the romance of Sultan Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati. The
Mughals resorted to it for pleasure during the monsoon season.
Mandu is a typical respresentation of the medieval provincial style of art and
architecture. It was a complex mix of official and residential-cum-pleasure palace,
pavilions, mosques, artificial reservoirs, baolis, embattlements, etc. In spite of the
size or monumentality, the structures were very close to nature, designed in the
style of arched pavilions, light and airy, so that these buildings did not retain
heat. Local stone and marble were used to great advantage. Mandu is a fine example
of architectural adaptation to the environment.
The Royal Enclave located in the city comprised the most complete and romantic
set of buildings, a cluster of palaces and attendant
structures, official and residential, built around two Hoshang Shah’s tomb
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
artificial lakes. The Hindola Mahal looks like a

railway viaduct bridge with its disproportionately
large buttresses supporting the walls. This was the
audience hall of the Sultan and also the place where
he showed himself to his subjects. Batter was used
very effectively to give an impression of swinging
(Hindola) walls.
Jahaaz Mahal is an elegant two-storey ‘ship-
palace’ between two reservoirs, with open pavilions,
balconies overhanging the water and a terrace.
Built by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji it was possibly
used as his harem and as the ultimate pleasure
and recreational resort. It had a complex
Hindola Mahal
117
arrangement of watercourses and a terrace

swimming pool.
Rani Rupmati’s double pavilion
perched on the southern embattlements
afforded a beautiful view of the Narmada
valley. Baz Bahadur’s palace had a wide
courtyard ringed with halls and terraces.
A madrasa called Asharfi Mahal now
lies in ruins. Hoshang Shah’s tomb is a
majestic structure with a beautiful dome,
marble jali work, porticos, courts and
towers. It is regarded as an example of
the robustness of Afghan structures, but
its lattice work, carved brackets and
toranas lend it a softer hue.
Jahaaz Mahal , Mandu
The Jama Masjid of Mandu was built on a large scale to accommodate
many worshippers for Friday prayers. It is entered through a monumental
gateway, topped with a squat dome, beyond which lies an open courtyard
flanked with columned cloisters on three sides, also topped with smaller
domes. The building is faced with red sandstone. The mimbar in the Qibla
Liwan is supported on carved brackets and the mihrab has a lotus bud
fringe.
Pathan architecture of Mandu is regarded as too close to the structures
of Imperial Delhi to make a bold statement of local traditions. Nevertheless,
the so-called robust, austere Pathan architecture of Mandu with its surface
embellishments of jalis, carved brackets, etc., and the lightness of the
structures was an important intervention in the narrative of the Indo-Islamic
architectural experience.
Jama Masjid, Mandu
TAJ MAHAL
From 1632 onwards it took nearly twenty years

and 20,000 specialised workers to complete this monument.
Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as

a mausoleum for his deceased wife Mumtaz
Mahal. Taj Mahal was the apogee of the
evolutionary architectural process in medieval
India.
The sublimity of the building comes from
its orderly, simple plan and elevation,
amazingly perfect proportions or symmetry, the
ethereal quality marble has lent to it, the
perfect setting of bagh and river and the pure
outline of the tomb silhouetted against the sky.
The patina the Taj has lends it a different hue
at various times of day and night.
The Taj complex is entered through a
monumental red sandstone gateway the
opening arch of which beautifully frames the
mausoleum. The tomb is laid out in a Chahar
Bagh, criss-crossed with paths and water
courses, interspersed with pools and fountains.
The structure is placed on the northern
extremity of the bagh instead of the middle to
take advantage of the river bank.
A straight path through the bagh

reaches the plinth of the tomb from where
is accessed the floor terrace of the edifice.
At the corners of the terrace stand four tall,
tapering minarets, one hundred and thirty-
two feet high. The main body of the building
is topped with a drum and dome and four
cupolas forming a beautiful skyline. The
plinth, the walls of the structure and the
drum-dome are in perfect proportion to one
another. Towards the west of the white
marble-faced tomb lies a red sandstone
mosque and a similar construction in the
east to maintain balance. Marble for the
building was quarried from the Makrana
mines in Rajasthan and this white edifice
is contrasted with the red sandstone of the
surrounding structures.
The tomb structure is a square with
chamfers forming eight sides, recessed with
deep arches. This structural stylisation
produces in the elevation of the building a
variety of contrasting planes and shade and
solids and voids effects. All sides of the
building, the twin elevations of floor to roof
and roof to pinnacle, atop the foliated crest
of the dome, measure 186 feet each.
The interior arrangements of the
mausoleum consist of a crypt below and a
vaulted, octagonal tomb chamber above, with
a room at each angle, all connected with
corridors. Light to every part of the building
is obtained by means of carved and
perforated jalis, set in the arched recesses
of the interior. The ceiling is as high as the
façade creating a void with the help of a
double dome.
Four types of embellishments have been
used with great effect for the interior and
exterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal. These
are stone carvings in high and low relief
on the walls, the delicate carving of marble
into jalis and graceful volutes (spiral
ornament on the pillar), and the creation
of arabesques with pietra dura (yellow
marble, jade and jasper) on walls and
tombstones and geometric designs with
tessellation. Lastly, the art of calligraphy
is used with the inlay of jasper in white
marble to write Quranic verses. Calligraphy
provided a decorative element on the walls
and a continuous connection with
the Almighty.
122
GOL GUMBAD AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART
Gumbad is situated in Bijapur in the Bijapur District of Karnataka. It is the
mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1626–1656) the seventh Sultan of the Adil
Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur (1489–1686). Built by the ruler himself it is a striking
edifice in spite of being unfinished. The tomb is a complex of buildings such as a
gateway, a Naqqar Khana, a mosque and a sarai located within a large-walled
garden.
The Gumbad is a monumental square building topped with a circular drum
over which rests a majestic dome, giving the building its nomenclature. It is built
of dark gray basalt and decorated plasterwork. Each wall of the tomb is one hundred
and thirty-five feet long and one hundred and ten feet high and ten feet thick.
With the drum and the dome the building rises to a height of over two hundred
feet. The tomb has onl,y one square chamber and the dome, with a diameter of
one hundred and twenty-five feet, covers an uninterrupted floor space of 18,337
square feet, the largest in the world.
The tomb chamber contains the burial place of the Sultan, his wives and Drum of the Dome
other relatives, while their real graves lie perpendicularly below in a vault, accessed
by stairs. The hemispherical masonry dome over a square base was constructed with the help of pendentives. These pendentives
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
not only lent shape to the dome but also transferred its weight to the walls below. New vaulting systems consisting of arch-nets or
stellate forms in squinches were created to cover angles formed by intersecting arches.
The building has an amazing acoustical system. Along the drum of the
dome there is a whispering gallery where sounds get magnified and echoed
many times over.
At the four corners of the building are seven-storeyed octagonal spires
or minaret-like towers. These towers house staircases leading to the top
dome. The drum of the dome is decorated with foliation. A heavily bracketed
cornice resting on corbels is a distinctive feature of the facade.
Gol Gumbad is a fine convergence of many styles located in medieval
India. Monumentality, majesty and grandeur, integral aspects of the
architectural experience in India, are associated with buildings of Bijapur.
While its structural particularities of dome, arches, geometric proportions
and load bearing techniques suggest Timurid and Persian styles, it is made
of local material and is decorated with surface embellishments popular in
the Deccan. Four towers at the corners are reminiscent of turrets attached
to mosques such as Qila-i Kuhna Masjid and the Purana Qila in Delhi.
Whisper Gallery
123
JAMA MASJID
Large mosques spanning huge
spaces also dotted the landscape of
the Indian sub-continent in medieval
times. Congregational prayers were
held here every Friday afternoon
which required the presence of a
minimum of forty Muslim male
adults. At the time of prayers a
Khutba was read out in the name of
the ruler and his laws for the realm
were also read out. In medieval times
a city had one Jama Masjid which,
along with its immediate
surroundings became the focus of
Jama Masjid, Delhi
the lives of the people, both Muslim and non-Muslim. This
happened because a lot of commercial and cultural exchanges
were concentrated here besides religious and indirect political
activity. Generally such a mosque was large with an open
courtyard, surrounded on three sides by cloisters and the Qibla
Liwan in the west. It was here that the mihrab and the mimbar for
the Imam were located. People faced the mihrab while offering
prayers as it indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.
Minaret
Qibla
Maqsur
Mihrab Screen
Aisles Main
Tank
Entrance
Colisters
(Liwan)
Courtyard
(Sahn)
W E
Plan of Jama Masjid

ART OF THE INDUS VALLEY 125
EXERCISE
1. What do you understand by the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘Indo-
Saracenic’ architecture? Can you think of another nomenclature?
How did this architecture evolve in India?
2. What types of buildings were added in India in the thirteenth
century?
3. Name four styles of Indo-Islamic architecture.
4. What was the significance of a fort in medieval India? What were
the strategic devices adopted in the construction of forts to confuse
or defeat the enemy?
5. Which forms of secular architecture evolved during medieval
times? What significance did these buildings have in the socio-
cultural lives of contemporary people?
6. How does Mandu showcase the fact that humans adapt to their
environment?
7. In spite of being unfinished how does Gol Gumbad symbolise the
grandeur and majesty of Indo-Islamic architecture?
8. Which are the places where the dead are buried? How do these
differ from each other?
9. What according to Havell are the fundamental concepts of faith of
a Hindu and a Muslim?
10. Why is the word ‘perfection’ associated with the Taj Mahal?
PROJECT
A. Period-Region-
H. The present B. Typology of the
Political Association
location and structure–
status of the Secular/Religious
structure.
Have you
visited any
medieval structure
G. Is it conserved? in your locality/ C. Purpose of
Should it be region/country? the structure
conserved? Document the
following aspects
of the structure:
F. Materials used D. Architectural

for construction forms located
of the structure E. Decorative forms
in the structure
on the structure
GLOSSARY
Agate A fine-grained variegated chalcedony, its
colours arranged in stripes, blended in clouds,
or showing moss like forms
Amalaka Ribbed, lenticular or globoid part resembling the
amalaka (Indian gooseberry fruit) crowning the
top of the North Indian style shikhara
Anda Semi-circular dome
Arabesque An ornamental design consisting of intertwined
flowing lines, leaves and flowers
Ardhmandap Semi-hall in front of the temple
Ashtadikpalas Guardians of the eight directions
Ayudhas Weapons
Batter Slope in the wall
Bosses Circular embossed decorations, usually in stone
of contrasting colours located on either side of
an arch and within the spandrels
Burin A pointed tool of flint or stone with a transverse
edge made by the removal of one or more flakes.
Used for working bone, antler, and ivory, and,
perhaps, for engraving
CE Common Era, replacing AD or Anno Domini
(after the birth of Christ)
Calligraphy The art of producing decorative handwriting
Caturasra Square
Chhatra Umbrella like structure on top of the stupa
Chhatri Cupola resting on four pillars with a dome or
pyramid-shaped roof
Chahar Bagh A square, walled garden divided into four by
intersecting water channels
Chaitya Arch Semi-circular arch with pointed tip in the centre
towards the top
Chaitya Place of congregation and worship
Chakra Wheel
Chamfer To cut off the edge or corner, thereby increasing
the number of sides
Chert A flint like material, usually black or dark
brown in colour. Although it has a conchoidal
fracture like flint it is not so fine-textured
Chevron Patterning V- shaped patterns
Corbel The stone or wooden bracket laid horizontally
to support a cornice or an arch
GLOSSARY 127
Cornice A moulded roof-line

Crystal A high quality, clear, colourless glass or an
object, especially a vessel or ornament, made
of such glass
Dado panel Lower part of the interior wall when it is finished
differently from the rest of the wall. Some
excellent examples are Jamali Kamali tomb in
Mehrauli and Turkish Sultan’s palace in
Fatehpur Sikri, Agra
Dargah Shrine of a Sufi saint, where the saint’s grave
called mazar is located
Dhammachakrapravartan First sermon by Buddha at Sarnath near
Varanasi
Dravid People, culture, language and architectural
style of South India
Dressed stone Stone which is cut to size and polished
Encaustic tile work Inlay in ceramics
Faience Blue-coloured artificial glass-like material.
Faience was used in a variety of ornaments and
pieces of jewellery
Gahapati Big land-owner or big farmer involved in farming
and trade
Garbhgriha Sanctum sanctorum
Gopuram Main gateway; the storeyed structure over the
entrance or entrances through the enclosing
walls to the premises of a temple, palace, or city
Hamam Turkish public bath for massage and sauna
Harmika Small square fencing about the anda or semi-
circular dome of stupa
Imam The person who leads a Muslim congregation
in prayers. Over a passage of time this position
became hereditary
Intaglio The process of cutting a design into the surface
of a small hard stone or gem
Jagmohan Rectangular or square hall in front of sanctuary
or main temple
Jali Ornamental, perforated lattice screens with
arabesques, star motifs and other geometric
designs such as pentagons, hexagons, octagons
and circles
Jasper A variety of quartz that may be red, yellow or
brown; long used for jewellery and
ornamentation
Jataka Stories of the previous births of Buddha
Jati Caste
Kalash Wide-mouthed pot; ornamental pot-design

decorating the shikhara
Keystone A central stone at the summit of an arch
Kos minar Distance marker or milestone in the shape and
size of a tower
Kuta A shrine of square plan
Lapis lazuli A rich blue semi-precious stone sometimes
flecked with gold. The main source in the
ancient world was the mountains of
Badakshan, northern Afghanistan, from where
it was traded widely. Lapis lazuli was used as
inlay in ornaments, jewellery, seals, etc.
Linga Phallus, the form in which Lord Shiva is being
worshipped
Mahamandapa Big hall in front of the temple
Mahaparinibban Death of Lord Buddha
Mandap Hall
Maqbara Mausoleum or tomb
Mastak Head
Medallion Circular discs in the spandrels of arches
decorated with motifs or calligraphy
Medhi Cylindrical drum
Mihrab Prayer niche indicating the direction of Mecca
Mimbar Stepped pulpit in the Jama Masjid or Friday
mosque from where the Khutba was read
Mukhlinga Phallus with face
Multiple foliations Many curves in an arch
Nagara North Indian style temple architecture
Naqqar khana Drum house from where ceremonial music was
played which was usually situated over the gate.
It was a popular feature in Mughal palace-
complexes
Natyamandapa Dancing hall in front part of the temple
or Rangmandapa
Panchayatana Main temple surrounded by four sub-shrines
in each corner
Pathan architecture Austere style of architecture favoured by the
Khalji rulers in Delhi who were considered
Afghans
Pendentive A triangular bracket in the angle of two walls,
connecting the base of the dome to its
supporting arches
Pietra-dura Pictorial mosaic work using semi-precious
stones. Found on walls, cenotaphs and marble
jalis in the Taj Mahal
GLOSSARY 129
Polychrome An object or a work composed of or decorated in

many colours
Pradakshina Circumambulation
Qibla Liwan The wall of the mosque in the direction of Mecca
Qila-i Kuhna Masjid Built by Humayun or Sher Shah between 1530
and 1545, it is located inside Purana Qila in
Delhi
Quartz A variety of stone found in many parts of the
world and variously used for toolmaking and in
ceremonial contexts. Varieties of quartz include
agate, chalcedony, chert, flint, opal and rock
crystal
Rekhaprasad or This type of temple has square shikhar at the
Latina base and its walls curve slowly inward towards
the top
Rupkar Artisan
Sabha Mandapa Assembly hall
Saracenic A style of architecture popular with Muslims in
West Asia particularly from the eleventh to the
fourteenth century
Sarai Dharamshala or a traveller’s lodge
Shala ayatasara Elliptical
Shikhar Superstructure above the garbhagriha in the
north Indian style of temple
Shilpa texts Ancient Indian texts/manuals describing the
elements and principles of art and architecture
to be practised by artists
Shilpi Artisan
Shraman A Buddhist sect, followers of which use to
wander from place to place
Sovereignty The authority of a ruler/state to govern himself/
itself absolutely independently
Spandrels The almost triangular space between two sides
of the outer curves of an arch and a rectangular
enclosure
Squinch An arch spanning the corners of a square
chamber and acting as support for a dome
Steatite A greyish or greenish stone which is generally
soft and can easily be worked to make figurines,
vessels, seals and other objects
Stellate Arch nets arranged in a radiating pattern like
that of a star
Sthapati Architect
Stupa A mound like structure containing relics of a
monk worshipped by the Buddhists
Sutradhara Chief artisan
Suzerainty A sovereign/state having some control over
another ruler/state who/that is internally
autonomous
Tablet A regularly shaped, separate panel, or a
representation thereof, often bearing an
inscription or image
Terracotta Literally, ‘baked earth’ mainly used to refer to
fairly coarse, porous clay that, when fired,
assumes a colour ranging from dull ochre to
red
Tessellation Decoration on walls and floors with mosaic
Torans Carved, serpentine-shaped ceremonial
gateways
Trefoil Three curves in an arch
Turquoise A semi-precious stone, sky blue to pale green
in colour, highly prized for its use in jewellery
by many ancient cultures
Valabhi Sub-type of nagara temple
Vang Ancient name of the Bengal region
Varna Four -fold division of the society based on
profession i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya,
Shudra during ancient India
Vesara Term used for the independent style of the
temple during the time of the Chalukyas of
Karnataka. It consists of a combination of the
northern and southern styles
Vihara Place of residence of Buddhist monk
Vijanain Temples having a rectangular building with a
roof that rises into a vaulted chamber
Viman Superstructure over the shrine in the south
Indian temples
Volute A scroll or spiral ornament on a pillar
Voussoir A wedge-shaped or tapered stone used to
construct an arch
Vritta Circular
Yakshas/Yakshanis Demi-gods and demi-goddesses

The Manuscript Painting Tradition 1
T he third Khanda of the Vishnudharmottara Purana,
a fifth century text has a chapter Chitrasutra, which
should be considered as a source book of Indian art in
general and painting specifically. It talks about the art of
image making called pratima lakshana, which are canons
of painting. The Khanda also deals with the techniques,
tools, material(s), surface (wall), perception, perspective
and three-dimentionality of human figures. Different limbs
of painting, such as roopbheda or looks and appearance;
pramana or measurments, proportion and structure; bhava
or expressions; lavanya yojana or aesthetic composition;
sadrishya or resemblance; and varnikabhanga or use of
brush and colours have been explained at length with
examples. Each of these have many sub-sections. These
canons were read and understood by artists and followed
through centuries, thus, becoming the basis of all styles and
schools of painting in India.
Paintings from the medieval period have earned a
generic name, for example miniature paintings, owing to
their relatively smaller size. These miniature paintings
were hand-held and observed from a closer distance due to
their minutiae. The walls of a patron’s mansions were often
decorated with mural paintings. Hence, these miniatures
were never intended to be put up on the walls.
A large section of paintings are appropriately referred to
as manuscript illustrations as they are pictorial translations
of poetic verses from epics and various canonical, literary,
bardic or music texts (manuscripts), with verses handwritten
on the topmost portion of the painting in clearly demarcated
box–like space. Sometimes, one finds the text not in the front
but behind the work of art.
Manuscript illustrations were methodically conceived in
thematic sets (each set comprising several loose paintings
or folios). Each folio of painting has its corresponding text
Rationalised 2023-24
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2 An Introduction to Indian Art —Part II
inscribed either in the demarcated space on the upper portion

of the painting or on its reverse. Accordingly, one would have
sets of the Ramayana paintings, or Bhagavata Purana, or
Mahabharata, or Gita Govinda, Ragamala, etc. Each set was
wrapped up in a piece of cloth and stored as a bundle in the
library of the king or patron.
Sravakapratikramasutra-curni
of Vijayasimha
Mewar, written by
Kamalchandra,1260
Collection: Boston
The most important folio-page of the set would be the

colophon page, which would furnish information regarding
the names of the patron, artist or scribe, date and place
of commission or completion of the work, and other such
important details.
However, due to ravages of time, the colophon pages
have often gone missing, compelling scholars to attribute
missing particulars on the basis of their expertise. Being
fragile pieces of artworks, paintings are susceptible to
mishandling, fire, humidity, and other such calamities and
disasters. Considered as precious and valuable artifacts and
also being portable, paintings were often gifted to princesses
as part of their dowries when they got married. They were
also exchanged as gifts between kings and courtiers as acts
of gratitude and traded to distant places. Paintings also
travelled to remote regions with moving pilgrims, monks,
adventurers, traders and professional narrators. Thus, for
instance, one would find a Mewar painting with the Bundi
king and vice versa.
Reconstructing the history of paintings is a phenomenal
task. There are fewer dated sets compared to undated ones.
When arranged chronologically, there are vacuous spells in
between, where one can only speculate the kind of painting
activity that could have thrived. To make matters worse, the
loose folios are no longer part of their original sets and are
dispersed in various museums and private collections, which

keep surfacing time and again, challenging the constituted

timeline and compelling scholars to modify and redefine the
chronology in history. In this light, undated sets of paintings
are ascribed a hypothetical timeframe on the basis of style
and other circumstantial evidence.
Western Indian School of Painting

Painting activity that thrived largely in western parts of
India constitutes the Western Indian School of Painting with
Gujarat as its most prominent centre, and southern parts
of Rajasthan and western parts of Central India as other
centres. With the presence of some significant ports in
Gujarat, there was a network of trade routes passing
through these areas, especially, making merchants, traders
and local chieftains powerful patrons of art due to the wealth
and prosperity that trading brought in. The merchant class,
largely represented by the Jain community, led to become
significant patrons of themes related to Jainism. Hence, part
of the Western Indian School that depicts Jain themes and
manuscripts is known as the Jain School of Painting.
Jain painting also received impetus because the concept
of shaastradaan (donation of books) gained favour amidst the
community, where the act of donating illustrated paintings to
the monastery’s libraries called bhandars (repositories) was
glorified as a gesture of charity, righteousness and gratitude.
Birth of Mahavir, Kalpasutra,

fifteenth century,
Jain Bhandar, Rajasthan
Among the most widely illustrated canonical text in

the Jain tradition is Kalpasutra. It has a section, reciting
events from the lives of the 24 Tirthankaras — from their
births to salvation — that provides a biographical narrative
for artists to paint. The five key incidents roughly elaborated
as — conception, birth, renunciation, enlightenment and first
sermon, and salvation from the lives of Tirthankaras and

events leading to and around these — comprise most part of

Mahavir’s mother
Trishala dreams
the Kalpasutra.
about 14 objects
when she conceives
Mahavir. They are —
an elephant, a bull, a
tiger, goddess Shri, a
kalash, a palanquin,
a pond, a rivulet, fire,
banners, garlands,
heap of jewels, the Sun
and the moon.
She consults an
astrologer to interpret
her dream and was
told that she will give
birth to a son, who
will either become
a sovereign king or
a great saint and
teacher.
Trishala’s fourteen dreams,

Kalpasutra, Western India
Other popularly painted texts are Kalakacharyakatha

and Sangrahini Sutra, among others. Kalakacharyakatha
narrates the story of Acharya Kalaka, who is on a mission
to rescue his abducted sister (a Jain nun) from an evil king.
It recounts various thrilling episodes and adventures of
Kalaka, such as him scouring the land to locate his missing
sister, demonstrating his magical powers, forging alliances
with other kings, and lastly, battling the evil king.
Uttaradhyana Sutra contains the teachings of Mahavir
that prescribe the code of conduct that monks should follow
and Sangrahini Sutra is a cosmological text composed in the
twelfth century that comprises concepts about the structure
of the universe and mapping of space.
Jains got these texts written in numerous copies. They
were either sparsely or profusely illustrated with paintings.
Hence, one typical folio or painting would be divided into
sections with allocated spaces for writing the text and painting

Kalaka is seen on
the lower right and
his captive sister is
depicted towards the
top left. The donkey
with magical powers
is spewing arrows at
Kalaka’s army of kings.
The evil king presides
from the inside the
circular fort.
Kalakacharyakatha
1497, N. C. Mehta Collection,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
what is written. A small hole in the centre was created for a

string to pass through to fasten the pages together that were
in turn protected with wooden covers called patlis, placed on
top and bottom of the manuscript.
Early Jain paintings were traditionally done on palm leaves
before paper was introduced in the fourteenth century and
the earliest surviving palm leaf manuscript from the western
part of India dates back to the eleventh century. The palm
leaves were adequately treated before painting and the writing
was etched upon the leaves with a sharp calligraphic device.
Planetary bodies and

the distance between
them, Sangrahini Sutra,
seventeenth centrury,
N. C. Mehta Collection,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Owing to the narrow and small space on palm leaves,
painting, initially, was largely confined to patlis that were
liberally painted in bright colours with images of gods and
goddesses, and incidents from the lives of Jain acharyas.

Jain paintings developed a schematic and simplified

language for painting, often dividing the space into sections
to accommodate different incidents. One observes a penchant
for bright colours and deep interest in depiction of textile
patterns. Thin, wiry lines predominate the composition
and three-dimensionality of the face is attempted with an
addition of a further eye. Architectural elements, revealing
the Sultanate domes and pointed arches, indicate the
political presence of Sultans in the regions of Gujarat, Mandu,
Jaunpur and Patan, among others, where these paintings
were done. Several indigenous features and local cultural
lifestyle is visible through textile canopies and wall hangings,
furniture, costumes, utilitarian things, etc. Features of the
landscape are only suggestive, and usually, not detailed.
A period of roughly hundred years from about 1350–1450
appears to be the most creative phase for Jain paintings.
One observes a shift from severely iconic representations to
inclusion of attractively depicted aspects of landscape, figures
in dance poses, musicians playing instruments, which are
painted in the margins of the folio around the main episode.
Indra praising
Devasano Pado, Kalpasutra,
Gujarat, about 1475.
Collection: Boston
These paintings were lavishly painted with profuse use of

gold and lapis lazuli, indicating the wealth and social status
of their patrons.
Over and above these canonical texts, Tirthipatas,
Mandalas and secular, non-canonical stories were also
painted for the Jain community.
Besides Jain paintings that were patronised by rich
merchants and dedicated devotees, a parallel tradition of
painting existed amongst feudal lords, wealthy citizens and
other such people during the late fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries that encompassed illustrations of secular, religious
and literary themes. This style represents the indigenous

tradition of painting before the formulation of court styles of

Rajasthan and intermingling of Mughal influences.
A large group of works of the same period, portraying
Hindu and Jain subjects, such as the Mahapurana,
Chaurpanchashika, Aranyaka Parvan of the Mahabharata,
Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, and few others are
representative of this indigenous style of painting. This phase
and style is also casually referred to as pre-Mughal or
pre-Rajasthani, which is largely synonymous with the term
‘indigenous style’.
Chaurpanchasika,
Gujarat,
fifteenth century,
N. C. Mehta Collection,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Distinctive stylistic features evolved during this phase and

with this group of paintings. A particular figure type evolved
with an interest in depicting transparency of fabrics — odhnis
Mitharam,
‘ballooned’ over the head of heroines and draped with stiff and Bhagvata Purana, 1550
standing edges. Architecture was contextual but
suggestive. Different kind of hatchings evolved
for depiction of water bodies and particular
ways of representing the horizon, flora, fauna,
etc., got formalised. All these formal elements
make their way in the seventeenth century early
Rajasthani paintings.
With several regions in the north, east and
west coming under the rule of the Sultanate
dynasties from Central Asia after the late
twelfth century, another strain of influence —

Persian, Turkic and Afghan — percolated into

the mainland and appeared in the paintings
patronised by the Sultans of Malwa, Gujarat,
Jaunpur and such other centres. With few
Central Asian artists in these courts working
with local artists, an intermingling of Persian
features and indigenous styles led to the
emergence of another style that is referred to
as the Sultanate School of Painting.
This represents more of a ‘style’ than a
‘school’ that has a hybrid Persian influence —
indigenous pictorial style, which is an interesting
coming together of indigenous features as
described earlier and Persian elements, such
as colour palette, physiognomy, simplified
landscape with decorative details, etc.
Nimatnama (Book of Delicacies) the most
representative example of this school was
painted at Mandu during the reign of Nasir
Shah Khalji (1500–1510 CE). It is a book of
recipes with a section on hunting, and also has
Nimatnama, Mandu,1550,
British Library, London methods for preparation of medicines, cosmetics, perfumes
and directions on their use.
Stories with undertones of Sufi ideas were also gaining
favour and Laurchanda paintings are example of this genre.
Pala School of Painting

Like the Jain texts and paintings, the illustrated manuscripts
of the Palas of eastern India also form the earliest examples
of paintings from the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Pala
period (750 CE to the mid–twelfth century) saw the last great
phase of Buddhist art in India. Monasteries, such as Nalanda
and Vikramsila were great centres of Buddhist learning, and
art and numerous manuscripts were illustrated here with
Buddhist themes and images of Vajrayana Buddhist deities
on palm leaves.
These centres also had workshops for casting of bronze
images. Students and pilgrims from all over South East
Asia came to these monasteries for education and religious
instruction, and took back specimens of Pala Buddhist
art in the form of bronze and illustrated manuscripts.

Lokeshvar, Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita,

Pala, 1050, National Museum, New Delhi
This practice enabled the dispersal of Pala art to places, such

as Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java.
Unlike the terse lines of Jain painting, a flowing and
sinuous line in subdued colour tones characterises Pala
paintings. Like at Ajanta, the sculptural styles of Pala at
monasteries and the painterly images have a similar language.
A fine example of a Pala Buddhist palm leaf manuscript is
Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Bodleian Library, Oxford) or
the ‘Perfection of Wisdom’ written in eight thousand lines.
Painted at the monastery of Nalanda in the fifteenth year
of the reign of the Pala King, Ramapala, in the last quarter
of the eleventh century, it has six pages of illustrations and
wooden covers painted on both sides.
Pala dynasty weakened with the coming of Muslim
invaders. Pala art came to an end in the first half of the
thirteenth century when the Muslim invaders attacked and
caused destruction to the monasteries.
Exercise
1. What are manuscript paintings? Name two places, where
the tradition of manuscript painting was prevalent?
2. Take a chapter from any one of our language textbooks and
make an illustrated folio with selected text (in minimum
five pages).

The Rajasthani Schools of Painting 2
T he term ‘Rajasthani Schools of Painting’ pertains to
the schools of painting that prevailed in the princely
kingdoms and thikanas of what roughly constitutes Rajasthan
and parts of Madhya Pradesh in the present time, such as
Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur
(Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi and other such principalities largely
between the sixteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Scholar Anand Coomaraswamy in 1916 coined the term
‘Rajput Paintings’ to refer to these as most rulers and patrons
of these kingdoms were Rajputs. He, specifically, coined it to
categorise and differentiate this group from the much known
Mughal School of Painting. Therefore, Malwa, comprising
princedoms of Central India, and the Pahari Schools that
comprises the pahari or mountainous Himalayan region of
north-western India was also in the ambit of Rajput Schools.
For Coomaraswamy, the nomenclature represented the
indigenous tradition of painting prevalent in the mainland
before the conquest by the Mughals. Studies in Indian
paintings have come a long way since then and the term
‘Rajput Schools’ is obsolete. Instead, specific categories,
such as Rajasthani and Pahari are employed.
Though separated by short distances, the pictorial
styles that emerged and evolved in these kingdoms were
significantly diverse in terms of either execution — fine or
bold; preference of colours (brilliant or gentle); compositional
elements (depiction of architecture, figures and nature);
modes of narration; affinity for naturalism — or had emphasis
on extreme mannerism.
Paintings were painted on waslis — layered, thin sheets of
handmade papers glued together to get the desired thickness.
The outline was sketched on waslis in black or brown
followed by colours fixed therein by brief notations or sample
patches. Colour pigments were predominantly obtained from
minerals and precious metals like gold and silver that were
mixed with glue as the binding medium. Camel and squirrel
1_2.Rajashtani Painting.indd 10 01 Sep 2020 02:13:31 PM

hair were used in brushes. On completion, the painting was

burnished with an agate to lend it a uniform sheen and an
appealing resplendence.
The painting activity was a kind of teamwork, with the
master artist composing and doing preliminary drawings,
followed by pupils or experts of colouring, portraiture,
architecture, landscape, animals, etc., taking over and doing
their bit, and finally, the master artist putting the finishing
touches. The scribe would write the verse in the space left
for the one.
Themes of Paintings – An Overview

By the sixteenth century, Vaishvanism in the cults of Rama
and Krishna had become popular in many parts of western,
northern and central India as part of the Bhakti movement
that had swept the entire Indian subcontinent. Krishna had
a special appeal. He was not only worshipped as God but
also as an ideal lover. The notion of ‘love’ was cherished as a Krishna and gopis in the forest,
Gita Govinda, Mewar, 1550,
religious theme, where a delightful synthesis of sensuousness Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
and mysticism was perceived. Krishna was perceived as the Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai

creator from whom all creation was a sportive emanation,

and Radha, the human soul who led to offer herself to
God. The soul’s devotion to the deity is pictured by Radha’s
self-abandonment to her beloved Krishna epitomised in
Gita Govinda paintings.
Composed in the twelfth century by Jayadeva, who is
believed to have been the court poet of Lakshmana Sen of
Bengal, Gita Govinda, the ‘Song of the Cowherd’, is a lyrical
poem in Sanskrit, evoking shringara rasa, portraying the
mystical love between Radha and Krishna through worldly
imageries. Bhanu Datta, a Maithil Brahmin who lived in
Bihar in the fourteenth century, composed another favourite
text of artists, Rasamanjari, interpreted as the ‘Bouquet of
Delight’. Written in Sanskrit, the text is a treatise on rasa
and deals with the classification of heroes (nayakas) and
heroines (nayikas) in accordance with their age — baal, taruna
and praudha; physiognomic traits of appearance, such as
padmini, chitrini, shankhini, hastini, etc., and emotional
states, such as khandita, vasaksajja, abhisarika, utka, etc.
Though Krishna is not mentioned in the text, painters have
introduced him as the archetypal lover.
Rasikapriya, translated as ‘The Connoisseur’s Delight’,
is replete with complex poetic interpretations and was
composed to incite aesthetic pleasure to elite courtiers.
Composed in Brajbhasha by Keshav Das, the court poet
of Raja Madhukar Shah of Orchha in 1591, Rasikapriya
explores various emotive states, such as love, togetherness,
jilt, jealousy, quarrel and its aftermath, separation, anger,
etc., that are common between lovers represented through
the characters of Radha and Krishna.
Kavipriya, another poetic work by Keshav Das, was
written in the honour of Rai Parbin, a celebrated courtesan
of Orchha. It is a tale of love and its tenth chapter evocatively
titled Baramasa engages with the most enduring climactic
description of the 12 months of the year. While illustrating
the daily life of people in different seasons and alluding to
festivals falling therein, Keshav Das describes how the nayika
prevails upon the nayaka not to leave her and proceed on
a journey.
Bihari Satsai, authored by Bihari Lal, constituting 700
verses (satsai), is composed in the form of aphorisms and
moralising witticism. It is largely held that he composed
the Satsai around 1662 while he was at the court of Jaipur

working for Mirza Raja Jai singh as the patron’s name appears
in several verses of the Satsai. The Satsai has been largely
painted at Mewar and less frequently in the Pahari School.
Ragamala paintings are pictorial interpretations of ragas
and raginis.
Ragas are traditionally envisioned in divine or human form in

romantic or devotional contexts by musicians and poets. Each
raga is associated with a specific mood, time of the day and
season. Ragamala paintings are arranged in albums invariably
containing 36 or 42 folios, organised in the format of families.
Each family is headed by a male raga, having six female
consorts called raginis. The six main ragas are Bhairava,
Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha and Shri.
Bardic legends and other romantic tales, such as

Dhola-Maru, Sohni-Mahiwal, Mrigavat, Chaurpanchashika
and Laurchanda just to mention a few were other favourite
themes. Texts, such as the Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana,
Mahabharata, Devi Mahatmya and the like were favourites
with all schools of painting.
Moreover, a large number of paintings record darbar
scenes and historic moments; depict hunting expeditions,
wars and victories; picnics, garden parties, dance and music
performances; rituals, festivals and wedding processions;
portraits of kings, courtiers and their families; city views;
birds and animals.
Chaurpanchasika,
Mewar, 1500, N. C. Mehta
Collection, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Malwa School of Painting

The Malwa School flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE
and is most representative of the Hindu Rajput courts.
Its two-dimensional simplistic language appears as a
consummation of stylistic progression from the Jain
manuscripts to the Chaurpanchashika manuscript paintings.
Unlike the specificity of Rajasthani schools
that emerged and flourished in precise territorial
kingdoms and courts of their respective kings,
Malwa School defies a precise centre for its origin
and instead suggests a vast territory of Central
India, where it got articulated with a sporadic
mention of few places, such as Mandu, Nusratgarh
and Narsyang Sahar. Among the few early dated
sets are an illustrated poetic text of Amaru Shataka
dated 1652 CE and a Ragamala painting by
Madho Das in 1680 CE. A large number of Malwa
paintings discovered from the Datia Palace
collection supports a claim for Bundelkhand as
the region of painting. But the mural paintings
in the Datia Palace of Bundelkhand defy an
obvious Mughal influence, which is contrary to
the works on paper that are stylistically inclined
towards indigenous two-dimensional austerity. A
complete absence of the mention of patron kings
Raga Megha, and also portraits in this school supports a view
Madho Das, Malwa, 1680, that these paintings were bought by the Datia rulers from
National Museum, New Delhi travelling artists, who carried paintings on popular themes,
such as the Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Amaru Shataka,
Rasikapriya, Ragamala and Baramasa, among others.
The Mughal School dominates the scene from the sixteenth

century through the courts of Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and
Lahore. Provincial Mughal Schools prospered in many parts
of the country, which were under the Mughals but headed by
powerful and wealthy governors appointed by Mughal emperors,
where pictorial language evolved through an amalgamation
of Mughal and eccentric local elements. The Deccani School
flourished in centres, such as Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda
and Hyderabad from the sixteenth century. The Rajasthani
Schools came into prominence in the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth century, with the Pahari School following in the
late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

Mewar School of Painting

Mewar is conjectured to be a significant early centre of
painting in Rajasthan, from where, hypothetically, one would
have been able to formalise a continuous stylistic tradition
of painting — from pre-seventeenth century bold, indigenous
styles to the subsequent refined and finer style post Karan
Singh’s contact with the Mughals. However, long wars with
the Mughals have wiped out most early examples.
Therefore, the emergence of the Mewar School is widely
associated with an early dated set of Ragamala paintings
painted at Chawand in 1605 by an artist named Nisardin.
The set has a colophon page that reveals the above vital
information. This set shares its visual aesthetics and has
close affinity with the pre-seventeenth century painting
style in its direct approach, simpler compositions, sporadic
decorative details and vibrant colours.
The reign of Jagat Singh I (1628–1652) is recognised as
the period when pictorial aesthetics got reformulated under
virtuoso artists Sahibdin and Manohar, who added new vitality
to the style and vocabulary of Mewar paintings. Sahibdin
Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana,
painted the Ragamala (1628), Rasikapriya, Bhagvata Purana Sahibdin, Mewar, 1652, India
(1648) and the Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana (1652), a folio of Office Library, London

Maharana Jagat Singh II

of Mewar hawking, 1744,
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York
which is discussed here. Manohar’s most significant work is

that of Bal Kanda of Ramayana (1649). Another exceptionally
gifted artist, Jagannath, painted the Bihari Satsai in 1719,
which remains a unique contribution of the Mewar School.
Other texts like Harivamsha and Sursagar were also
illustrated in the last quarter of the seventeenth century.
Attributed to ingenious artist Sahibdin, Yuddha Kanda,
the Book of Battles, is a chapter in the Ramayana set of
paintings, popularly referred to as the Jagat Singh Ramayana.
Dated 1652, Sahibdin, herein, has crafted a novel pictorial
device that of oblique aerial perspective to impart credibility to
the ambitious scale that war pictures encompass. Deploying
various narrative techniques, he either layers several episodes
into a single painting as this one, or spreads a single episode
over more than one folio. This painting portrays Indrajit’s
devious tactics and use of magic weapons in war.
Painting in the eighteenth century increasingly slithered
away from textual representations to courtly activities and
pastime of the royals. Mewar artists, generally, prefer a bright
colour palette with prominent reds and yellows.

Nathdwara, a town close to Udaipur and

a prominent Vaishnava centre, also emerged
as a school of painting in the late seventeenth
century. Large backdrops called pichhwais
were painted on cloth for the deity, Shrinathji,
for several festive occasions.
Mewar painting in the eighteenth century
increasingly became secular and courtly in
ambience. Not only an increasing fascination
for portraiture emerged but outsized and
flamboyant court scenes, hunting expeditions,
festivals, zenana activities, sports, etc., were
largely favoured as subjects.
A folio depics Maharana Jagat Singh II
(1734–1752) touring the countryside while on
his way hawking. The country scape perceived
in an oblique view, with the horizon raised at
a tangent in comparison to the foreground
enables the artist to visualise a panoramic
view of limitless vision. The relevance of the
scene lies in its complexity of narration that
also aims at reportage.
Krishna as Shrinathji
celebrating the festival of
Bundi School of Painting Sarad Purnima,
Nathdwara, 1800,
A prolific and distinct school of painting flourished in Bundi National Museum, New Delhi
in the seventeenth century, which is remarkable for its
unblemished colour sense and excellent formal design.
Bundi Ragamala dated 1591, assigned to the earliest
and formative phase of Bundi painting, has been painted at
Chunar in the reign of Bhoj Singh (1585–1607), the Hada
Rajput ruler.
The Bundi school blossomed under the patronage of two
rulers — Rao Chattar Sal (1631–1659), who was made the
governor of Delhi by Shahjahan and played a conspicuous
role in the subjugation of the Deccan; and his son Rao Bhao
Singh (1659–1682), who was an enthusiastic, self-indulging
patron as revealed from numerous portraits that he
commissioned of himself and other dated works. Innovative
developments have been observed under the reigns of his
successors Aniruddha Singh (1682–1702) and Budh Singh,
whose whiskered face is visible in many portraits. Despite
numerous political disputes and having lost his kingdom four
times, he is known to have encouraged the art of painting.

Painting activity entered its most accomplished phase

albeit for a short time during the long reign of Budh
Singh’s son, Umed Singh (1749–1771), where it acquired
refinement in minuteness of details. Bundi paintings during
the eighteenth century appear to have imbibed Deccani
aesthetics, such as love for bright and vivid colours.
Umed Singh’s successor Bishen Singh (1771–1821) ruled
Bundi for 48 years and was a connoisseur of art. He had
a keen interest in hunting, and him hunting wild animals
frequently figures in the paintings of his period. Under his
successor Ram Singh (1821–1889), the chitrashalain of the
Bundi palace was decorated with mural paintings of royal
Raga Dipak, Chunar
Ragamala, Bundi, processions, hunting scenes and episodes of Krishna’s story.
1519, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Last stages of painting at Bundi are best exemplified by
Varanasi several wall paintings in the palace.
A distinct feature of Bundi and
Kota School is a keen interest in the
depiction of lush vegetation; picturesque
landscape with varied flora, wildlife
and birds; hills and thick jungles; and
water bodies. It also has a series of fine
equestrian portraits. The drawing of
elephants is, particularly, unsurpassed
in both Bundi and Kota. Bundi artists
had their own standards of feminine
beauty — women are petite with round
faces, receding foreheads, sharp noses,
full cheeks, sharply penciled eyebrows
and a ‘pinched’ waist.
Bundi’s earliest phase of painting,
Bundi Ragamala bears an inscription
in Persian that dates back to 1591,
mentions names of its artists — Shaykh
Hasan, Shaykh Ali and Shaykh Hatim,
who introduce themselves as pupils of
master artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Khwaja
Abddus Samad of the Mughal court.
They mention Chunar (near Benaras)
as the place of origin of the painting,
where Rao Bhoj Singh and his father
Rao Surjan Singh maintained a palace.
Amongst the surviving few folios of
the Chunar set are Raginis Khambavati,

Bilaval, Malashri, Bhairavi, Patmanjari

and few others.
Raga Dipak is portrayed in a night
setting, seated with his beloved in a
chamber that is warmly illuminated
by flames from the four lamps; two
lamp holders are innovatively shaped
like ornate human figures. The sky is
glittering with innumerable stars and
the moon is turning yellow, indicating
that it is not newly risen but that the
night has progressed and many hours
have passed by for the couple in each
other’s company.
One may observe in this painting
that the finial on the domical structure
of the palace protrudes into the yellow
patch reserved for writing and except
for the label of Dipak Raga nothing else
is written. This gives an insight into the
process of painting and one discerns
that the painting was, usually, finished
before it was passed on to scribe for the
verse to be written. In this case, the
verse was never written and the label
was more of an indication to the artist
as to what he should be painting.
Baramasa is a popular theme of
Bundi paintings. As mentioned earlier,
it is an atmospheric description of the Ashwin, Baramasa, Bundi,
12 months by Keshav Das that is part of the tenth chapter seventeenth century,
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
of Kavipriya written for Rai Parbin, a celebrated courtesan Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai
of Orchha.
Kota School of Painting

The accomplished tradition of painting at Bundi gave rise
to one of the most outstanding Rajasthani Schools, Kota,
which excels in the depiction of hunting scenes and reflects
an exceptional excitement and obsession for animal chase.
Bundi and Kota were parts of the same kingdom till 1625
when Jahangir divided the Bundi empire and awarded one
part to Madhu Singh, the younger son of Rao Ratan Singh
(son of Bhoj Singh of Bundi), for his bravery in defending him

against his son Prince Khurram’s (Shah

Jahan) rebellion in Deccan.
After its separation from Bundi,
Kota had its own school, commencing
around 1660s in the reign of Jagat
Singh (1658–1683). In the early period,
the paintings of Bundi and Kota cannot
be distinguished for several decades
as Kota painters borrowed from the
Bundi repertoire. Some compositions
were taken verbatim from Bundi
pictures. However, there is an attitude
of non–conformity apparent in figural
and architectural exaggerations. With
Kota flair for drawing superseding in the
following decades, Kota style of painting
becomes strikingly individual.
By the reign of Ram Singh I
(1686–1708), artists had passionately
enlarged their inventory to a large
variety of subjects. Kota artists seem to
Maharaja Ram Singh I of Kota have been the first to render landscape
hunting lions at Mukundgarh, as the real subject of compositions. Umed Singh (1770–1819)
1695, Colnaghi Gallery, acceded to the throne at the age of 10 years. But his
London
powerful regent Zalim Singh arranged for the young king
to be amused with hunting while he governed the affairs of
the state. Umed Singh, thus, occupied himself with wildlife
and gaming from an early age and spent most of his time in
hunting expeditions. Paintings served as flattering records of
his exploits. Kota painting of this period reflects obsession
with the chase, which became a social ritual, in which even
women of the court participated.
Kota paintings are characteristically spontaneous,
calligraphic in execution and emphasise on marked shading,
especially, the double–lid eye. Artists of the Kota School
excelled in rendering animals and combat.
Bikaner School of Painting

Rao Bika Rathore established one of the most prominent
kingdoms of Rajasthan, Bikaner, in 1488. During his regime,
Anup Singh (1669–1698) instituted a library in Bikaner that
became a repository of manuscripts and paintings. As a result
of long association with the Mughals, Bikaner developed a

distinctive language of painting that was influenced by the

Mughal elegance and subdued colour palette.
According to inscriptional evidence, several master
artists of the Mughal atelier visited and worked in Bikaner
in the seventeenth century. Karan Singh had employed
Ustad Ali Raza, who was a master painter from Delhi. His
earliest work represents the beginnings of Bikaner School,
which can be dated back to around 1650.
In the reign of Anup Singh, Ruknuddin (whose ancestors
came from the Mughal court) was the master artist, whose style
was an amalgamation of the indigenous idiom with Deccani
and Mughal conventions. He painted significant texts, such
as the Ramayana, Rasikapriya and Durga Satpsati. Ibrahim,
Nathu, Sahibdin and Isa were other well-known painters in
his atelier.
A prevailing practice in Bikaner was to set up studios
called Mandi, where a group of artists worked under the
supervision of a master artist. From inscriptions, it can be Krishna supporting Mount
Govardhan by
gathered that Ruknuddin, Ibrahim and Nathu managed Shahadin, Bikaner,
some of these professional studios. Several Mandis existed 1690, British Museum, London

in Anup Singh’s reign. On the completion of a

painting, the court archivist entered the name
of the master artist and the date behind the
painting. This practice resulted in the name
of the master artist being inscribed on works
of his pupils, who may not be painting in the
same style as the master. However, it becomes
evident from these entries that the master
artist would occasionally put finishing touches
to the paintings. The term used for this was
gudarayi, literally meaning to ‘lift’. Apart
from its activities of making new miniatures,
the studio was entrusted with the task of
marammat or repairing and making nakals
(copies) of older works.
The custom of having portraits of artists
is unique to the Bikaner School and most of
them are inscribed with information regarding
their ancestry. They are referred to as Ustas or
Ustad. Ruknuddin painted exquisite works in
soft colour tones. Ibrahim’s works have a misty
dreamlike quality. His figures are dainty with
heavily modeled faces. His studio appears to be
most prolific as his name occurs on different
sets of Baramasa, Ragamala and Rasikapriya.
Accounts from the Bahis, royal archival
Krishna playing Flute day-to-day diaries, and numerous inscriptions
surrounded by Cows, on Bikaner paintings make it one of the best documented
Bikaner, 1777,
schools of painting. Inscriptions in Marwari, and occasionally,
National Museum, New Delhi
Persian reveal the names of artists and dates, and in some
cases, even the place of production and occasions for which
the works were commissioned.
Kishangarh School of Painting

Widely held among the most stylised of all Rajasthani
miniatures, Kishangarh paintings are distinguished by their
exquisite sophistication and distinct facial type exemplified
by arched eyebrows, lotus petal shaped eyes slightly tinged
with pink, having drooping eyelids, a sharp slender nose and
thin lips.
Kishan Singh, one of the sons of the king of Jodhpur,
founded the state of Kishangarh in 1609. By the
mid–seventeenth century under the patronage of Man Singh

Krishna and Radha in a

pavilion, Nihal Chand,
Kishangarh, 1750,
Allahabad Museum
(1658–1706), artists were already working in the Kishangarh

court. A distinctive style of the state with a general tendency
to elongate the human form, making lavish use of green and
penchant for depicting panoramic landscapes had evolved
by the early eighteenth century during the reign of Raj Singh
(1706–1748). With Raj Singh getting initiated into the
Pushtimargiya cult of Vallabhacharya, Krishna Lila themes
became personal favourites for the rulers of Kishangarh and
represented a major portion of their court art.
Sawant Singh’s most celebrated and outstanding artist was
Nihal Chand. Nihal Chand worked for Sawant Singh between
1735 and 1757, and composed paintings on Sawant Singh’s
poetry that portrayed the theme of divine lovers — Radha
and Krishna, in courtly surroundings, often appearing tiny
in the vastness and minutiae of their panoramic landscape
settings. Kishangarh artists reveled in the depiction of vistas
in accentuated colours.
Jodhpur School of Painting

With the political presence of Mughals since the sixteenth
century, influence of their visual aesthetics made its way in
the style of portraiture and depiction of court scenes, etc.
However, the formidable indigenous folkish style was so
widespread and deeply embedded in culture that it resisted
getting overpowered and prevailed in most illustrated sets
of paintings. One of the earliest sets painted in Pali is a
Ragamala set by artist Virji in 1623.

A productive period of painting was

ushered in by Maharaja Jaswant Singh
(1638–1678) in the mid–seventeenth century.
A trend for documentary painting through
portraiture and depiction of court life started
under his patronage around 1640 and enjoyed
prominence till the advent of photography in
the nineteenth century when it substituted
painting for recording events. Numerous
portraits of Jaswant Singh survive. Due to
his inclination towards the Vallabha cult
of Shrinathji, he patronised many Krishna
related themes with Bhagvata Purana as the
most prominent one.
His successor Ajit Singh (1679–1724)
became the king after 25 years of war with
Aurangzeb, which was fought by legendary
warrior Veer Durgadas Rathore, who
successfully recaptured Marwar. Durgadas
and his heroism got popularly celebrated in
Dhola and Maru,
Jodhpur, 1810, poems and court paintings of Ajit Singh’s period. Durgadas’s
National Museum, equestrian (horse riding) portraits became popular.
New Delhi
The last phase innovative of Jodhpur painting coincided
with the reign of Man Singh (1803–1843). Significant sets
painted during his time are the Ramayana (1804), Dhola-Maru,
Panchatantra (1804) and Shiva Purana. Ramayana paintings
are interesting as the artist has employed his understanding
of Jodhpur to depict Rama’s Ayodhya. Hence, one gets an
inkling into the bazaars, lanes, gateways, etc., of Jodhpur
during that period. This is true for all schools, wherein, local
architecture, costumes and cultural aspects get interwoven
with the stories of Krishna, Rama and others, and get
depicted in paintings.
Man Singh was the follower of the Nath Sampradaya and
paintings of him in the company of the Nath gurus survive.
Also, a set of Nath Charita (1824) was painted.
Inscriptions behind Marwar paintings do not reveal much
information regarding the painting until the nineteenth
century. Seldom, dates are inscribed, and even more rarely,
the names of artists and place of painting find a mention.

Jaipur School of Painting

The Jaipur School of painting originated in its former
capital Amer, which was nearest of all large Rajput states to
Mughal capitals — Agra and Delhi. Rulers of Jaipur from the
earliest times maintained cordial relations with the Mughal
emperors, who strongly influenced the aesthetics at Amer.
Raja Bharmal (1548–1575) married his daughter to Akbar.
His son Bhagwant Das (1575–1592) was a close friend of
Akbar and his son Man Singh, in turn, was Akbar’s most
trusted general.
Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743), an influential ruler,
established a new capital city Jaipur named after him in
1727 and shifted from Amer. Jaipur School of paintings
thrived under his reign and emerged as a well-defined
independent school. Court records reveal that some Mughal
painters were brought from Delhi to become a part of his
atelier. He also invited eminent craftsmen and other artists
to settle down in Jaipur and reorganised the Suratkhana,
The Hour of Godhuli, Jaipur,
the place where paintings were made and stored. He was 1780, National Museum,
drawn to the Vaishnavite sect and commissioned numerous New Delhi

paintings on the theme of Radha and Krishna. Artists during

his reign painted sets based on Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda,
Baramasa and Ragamala, where the hero’s figure is in
striking resemblance with the king. Portrait painting was
also popular during his time and an accomplished portrait
painter, Sahibram, was part of his atelier. Muhammad Shah
was another artist.
Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743–1750) extended the same
patronage to art. Apart from religious and literary texts, he
got scenes of his leisure pursuits painted, such as elephant
rides, boar and tiger hunts, elephant fights, and so on. Sawai
Madho Singh (1750–1767) was attracted towards getting
incidents of his court life recorded.
It was only in the eighteenth century, under the
aspiration of Sawai Pratap Singh (1779–1803) that the
predominant Mughal influence receded and a Jaipur
style with reformulated aesthetics, which was a blend of
Mughal and indigenous stylistic features emerged. This
was a second thriving period for Jaipur and Pratap Singh
employed around 50 artists. He was a scholar, poet, prolific
writer and an ardent follower of Krishna. During his time,
apart from royal portraits and representations of courtly
pomp and splendour, literary and religious themes, such
as Gita Govinda, Ragamala, Bhagvata Purana, etc., got
renewed stimulus.
As elsewhere, many copies were also produced by means
of tracing and pouncing. By the early nineteenth century,
there was a lavish use of gold. Jaipur preferred large size
formats and produced life-size portraits.
Exercise
1. In what ways do you think that the Western Indian
manuscript painting tradition guided the developments of
miniature painting traditions in Rajasthan?
2. Describe different schools of Rajasthani paintings and give
examples to support their characteristics.
3. What is Ragamala? Give examples of Ragamala paintings
from various schools of Rajasthan.
4. Draw a map and label all schools of Rajasthani
miniature paintings.
5. Which texts provided the content or theme for miniature
paintings? Describe them with examples.

Bhagvata Purana
Illustrating scenes from the Bhagvata Purana, depicting

different scenes from the life of Lord Krishna and his leela,
have been a popular theme throughout the medieval period
for artists. This painting from the collection of National
Museum, New Delhi, shows the killing of demon Shaktasura
by Krishna (1680–1690).
This folio from Bhagvata Purana is a typical example of
Malwa style, where the space is carefully compartmentalised
with each section narrating different scenes of an episode.
One observes scenes of celebration and festivities in the house
of Nanda and Yashoda after the birth of Krishna. Men and
women are singing and dancing (lower left and upper middle
section); overjoyed parents — Nanda and Yashoda — are
involved in charitable activities and are seen donating cows
and calves to Brahmins and well-wishers (middle left and
extreme right); lot of delicious food is being prepared (central
section); women are hovering over baby Krishna to safeguard
him form the evil eye (upper left section) and the narrative
concludes with Krishna toppling, and thus, liberating the
cart demon, Shakatasura, with a gentle kick.

Maru Ragini
A particular set of Ragamala paintings
from Mewar is, especially, important
as one of its paintings bears crucial
documentary evidence regarding
its artist, patron, place and date of
painting. Maru Ragini is from this set,
which is in the collection of National
Museum, New Delhi. The initial part of
the inscription found on the painting,
representing Maru Ragini, classifies
Maru as the ragini of Raga Shri and
describes her physical beauty and its
effect on her beloved. It is the latter
half that is engrossing as it reads, “…
samvat 1685 varshe aso vad 9 Rana
Shri Jagat Singh Rajen Udaipur
madhe likhitam chitara Sahivdin
bachan hara ne ram ram.”
Samvat 1685 is 1628 CE and
Sahibdin is referred to as chitara,
meaning ‘someone who paints’,
and the act of painting is termed as
likhitam, translated as ‘written’ since
the goal of the artist was to produce
a painterly equivalent to the written
verse inscribed on the painting.
Maru is accommodated as the consort of Raga Shri
because of the popular appeal of Dhola-Maru ballad that is
deeply entrenched in the folklore and oral tradition of the
region. It is the story of a prince named, Dhola, and princess
Maru, who had to undergo numerous struggles to finally
be together. The trials and tribulations, the evil relatives,
battles, tragic accidents, etc., form the plot of the narrative.
Here, they are depicted escaping together on a camel.

Raja Aniruddha Singh Hara

Aniruddha Singh (1682–1702) succeeded Bhao Singh.
Few remarkable paintings with interesting documentary
evidence have survived from his period. One of them being
the much talked of equestrian portrait of Aniruddha Singh
by artist Tulchi Ram painted in 1680. It epitomises an
artist’s perception of speed and a horse in motion that he
accomplished by completely negating the rendering of the
foreground. The horse is seen galloping so high in the air that
the ground is not visible. The value of such paintings is that
they turn still portraits into narratives. Names of Tulchi Ram
and prince (Kanwar) Aniruddha Singh are inscribed behind
the painting. But in the front, the name of Bharat Singh, the
youngest son of Rao Chattarsal, is inscribed. Some scholars
feel this painting represents Bharat Singh, while a majority
are of the opinion that it represents young Anirrudha Singh
before he ascended to the throne. This painting is in the
collection of National Museum, New Delhi.

Chaugan Players
This painting, depicting a princess playing Polo (Chaugan)

with companions, by artist Dana represents Jodhpur
painting of Man Singh’s reign. It may or may not be from the
main court as it betrays stylistic influence of many schools,
such as Mughal in the way women are depicted, Deccani in
the way horses are depicted, Bundi and Kishangarh in the
depiction of facial features, and the flat green background is
suggestive of the indigenous preference for flat surfaces. The
painting is inscribed with a line on the upper portion that is
translated as, “beautiful maidens on horsebacks, playing”.
The painting was made in 1810 and is in the collection of
National Museum, New Delhi.

Krishna Swinging and Radha in

Sad Mood
This painting, illustrating Rasikapriya, is notable as it is
inscribed with a date and name of the artist. Painted in 1683
by artist Nuruddin, who worked in the court of Bikaner from
1674 to 1698, it presents a stark and simple composition with
minimal and suggestive representation of architecture and
elements of landscape. Nuruddin has ingeniously employed
the device of soft undulating mound in the centre to divide the
painting into two sections. It operates as a pictorial prop that
transforms an urban setting into a tree-laden countryside
and vice versa. An architectural pavilion in the upper part
of the painting pictorially qualifies that space as the ‘palatial
interior’, while few trees on the green grassland suggest
‘outdoors and pastoral’ landscape. Hence, one understands
the movement of the narrative from
top to bottom as a progression of
activities from indoors to outdoors.
Appearing in the upper section
of the painting, Krishna seated on a
swing seems to be enjoying himself in
the company of a Gopi at her dwelling.
On learning about his rendezvous
a jilted Radha, stricken with grief,
disappears into the countryside and
finds herself alone under a tree.
Guilt-ridden Krishna, on learning of
Radha’s sorrow, follows her but there
is no truce happening. Meanwhile,
Radha’s sakhi (friend) gets to know of
the fall out and takes on the role of a
messenger and pacifier. She comes to
Krishna and tells him of the misery
and plight of Radha, and implores
him to appease her. This painting is
in the collection of National Museum,
New Delhi.

Bani Thani
Sawant Singh composed devotional poetry
on Krishna and Radha in Brajbhasha
under the pen name Nagari Das. He is
said to have been passionately in love
with a young singer, who was accorded
the title ‘Bani Thani’, the bewitching lady
of fashion, because of her unparalleled
beauty and elegance. She was an attendant
of Raj Singh’s wife and a gifted poetess,
singer and dancer. Bani Thani was Sawant
Singh’s muse for the poetry he wrote,
celebrating the love of Radha and Krishna.
He writes about her in a poem Bihari Jas
Chandrika, which became the basis for
Nihal chand’s painting of Bani Thani,
thus, representing a blending of poetry and
painting. Troubled by fratricidal conflict,
Sawant Singh, eventually, abdicated the
throne in 1757 and retired to Vrindavan
along with Bani Thani.
The exaggerated facial type of Kishangarh, which becomes
the distinctive and salient stylistic feature of the Kishangarh
School, is believed to have been derived from the attractively
sharp facial features of Bani Thani.
Artist Nihal Chand is attributed with the credit of
contriving this exquisite and characteristic Kishangarh
physiognomy that is perceived in figures of Sawant Singh
and Bani Thani is always represented as Krishna and Radha
in brilliantly coloured, panoramic landscapes.
Radha’s face in Bani Thani as Radha is unique in her
deeply curved eyes, exaggerated arch of the eyebrows, pointed
nose, serpentine curl of hair spiralling down the cheek, thin
lips and pronounced chin. This particular painting is in the

Rama meets Members of his Family at Chitrakut
This painting of Ramayana by Guman, made between 1740

and 1750, is a classic example of a continuous narrative.
Plain looking huts (parna kutir) raised with basic material,
such as mud, wood and green leaves set in the woods on
the foothills and surrounded by groves establish a typical
rural setting, where this episode of Ramayana unfolds. Artist
Guman begins the narrative from the left and ends it on
the right.
According to the Ramayana, Bharat was away when
Rama was sent to exile. After the passing away of Dashratha,
overcome with grief and filled with remorse, Bharat along
with the three mothers, sage Vasishtha and courtiers visits
Rama to persuade him to return to Ayodhya.
Set in Chitrakut, the story in the painting begins with the
three mothers along with the wives of the princes proceeding
towards the thatched dwellings. On seeing the mothers,
Rama, Lakshmana and Sita bow down in reverence. Bereaved

Kaushalya rushes to her son Rama and gathers him in her

arms. Rama is, then, seen respectfully greeting the other
two mothers —Sumitra and Kaikeyi. He, then, dutifully
acknowledges the two sages and sits down talking to them.
When the sage breaks the news of Dashratha’s death, Rama
is seen collapsing in anguish. Sumanta is seen devotedly
standing behind the sages. The three mothers and the wives
of Lakshmana, Bharat and Shatrughana are depicted talking
to Sita. The narrative ends with the group exiting the picture
frame on the right. Each character of the story in the painting
is labeled. A verse, describing the same, is also inscribed
on the upper portion of the painting. This painting is in the

The Mughal School of Miniature Painting 3
M ughal painting is the style of miniature painting that
developed in the northern Indian subcontinent in the
sixteenth century and continued till the mid–nineteenth
century. It is known for its sophisticated techniques and
diverse range of subjects and themes. The Mughal miniature
painting inspired and resonated in subsequent schools and
styles of Indian painting, thereby, confirming a definite
position for the Mughal style within the Indian school of
paintings.
The Mughals were patrons of various art forms. Every
Mughal successor, based on his taste and preferences,
contributed towards enhancing the status of art, viz.,
calligraphy, painting, architecture, bookmaking, book
illustration projects, etc. They took keen interest in artists’
ateliers and nurtured unprecedented new styles that
heightened and accelerated the existing art scenario of
India. Therefore, for understanding the Mughal Painting, the
political history and genealogy of the Mughal dynasty is often
taken into account.
Influences on Mughal Painting

The Mughal style of miniature painting was responsible for
the amalgamation of indigenous themes and styles along
with Persian and later European themes and styles. The arts
of this period reflect a synthesis of foreign influences and
indigenous flavour. The peak of Mughal painting presented a
highly sophisticated blend of the Islamic, Hindu and European
visual culture and aesthetics. Given this diverse yet inclusive
nature, the affluence of the artworks produced in India during
this period surpasses the conventional and indigenous
Indian and Iranian painting of that time. The significance of
this style lies in the purpose and efforts of its patrons and
the unmatched skill of its artists. Together, they envisaged
and expressed a congregation of tastes, philosophies and
faiths by their extraordinary visual language.
1_3.Mughal School Folder.indd 35 01 Sep 2020 02:15:59 PM

In the Mughal courts, arts became more formalised as

there were workshops and many artists were brought from
Iran, which resulted in a harmonious blend of Indo-Iranian
styles, especially during its early years. This celebrated
eminence in Mughal art was possible only due to its distinctive
character of assimilating and engaging artists of both Indian
and Iranian origins, who contributed towards making, and
further elevating the artistic paradigm of the Mughal style.
The Mughal atelier consisted of calligraphers, painters, gilders

and binders. Paintings recorded and documented significant
events, personalities and interests of the emperors. These were
meant to be seen by the royals only. The paintings were made
to suit the sensitivity of the royals or often made as intellectual
stimulation. The paintings were a part of manuscripts
and albums.
The tradition of art and painting had rich historical roots

in India about which we have already learned in the previous
chapters. The celebrated Mughal idiom that developed on
the Indian soil should be understood as a consequence of
interaction of various schools, including the pre–Mughal
and contemporaneous art schools of India and Persia. Thus,
the Mughal style did not grow in vacuum. It was nurtured
by direct interaction with other art forms and schools that
already existed. The indigenous Indian and Mughal painting
styles coexisted, assimilated the influences and various
native talents in different ways.
The pre–Mughal and parallel indigenous schools of paintings

in India had their strong distinct style, aesthetics and
purpose. The indigenous Indian style emphasised on flat
perspective, strong use of lines, vivid colour palette, and bold
modelling of figures and architecture. The Mughal style offered
subtlety and finesse, portrayed almost three-dimensional
figures and created optical reality. The royal court scenes,
portraits, depiction of accurate flora and fauna were some of
the favourite themes of the Mughal artists. Thus, the Mughal
painting ushered in a new style and sophistication to the
Indian arts of that time.
The Mughal patrons contributed to the proliferation

of the Mughal style of painting with their distinct artistic
preferences, choice of subjects, philosophies and aesthetic
sensibilities. In the following segment of this chapter, we shall
learn about the development of Mughal miniature painting in
chronological order.

Early Mughal Painting

In 1526, Babur, the first Mughal emperor, came from present
day Uzbekistan and was a descendent of Emperor Timur
and Chatghtai Turk. With this, he blended the cultural
background and aesthetic sensibilities of Persia and Central
Asia. Babur had a dynamic taste for a variety of arts. He
is reputed to be a man of letters and a keen patron of art,
manuscripts, architecture, gardening, etc. Babur’s detailed
accounts in Baburnama, his autobiography, are narratives
of the emperor’s political carrier and artistic passion.
Baburnama reflects the love and fondness that Babur had as
an outsider for the Indian land and ecology. With his fervour
for detailed writing, Babur established a tradition of keeping
memoirs, a practice which was followed by his successors
in India. The books and albums that were produced in the
royal ateliers were not only calligraphed but also painted.
These books of value were preserved and passed on to
members of the royal family or gifted to those perceived as
deserving. Babur had a keen eye for portraiture and this is
also recorded in his memoirs. Among the artists, who find
mention in Babur’s memoirs is Bihzad. Bihzad’s work was
Princes of the House of Timur,

Abd us Samad,
1545–50, British Museum,
London

dainty but he did not draw the faces well; he used to greatly
lengthen the double chin (ghab-ghab); and drew bearded
faces admirably. Bihzad was a master artist from the Persian
school of painting, Herat (now in present day Afghanistan),
and was known for his sophisticated compositions and
colour tints. Also, Shah Muzaffar finds a mention as a
painter, who Babur thought excelled in the representation
of hairstyle. Although Babur spent little time on the Indian
soil and passed away soon after his arrival, his successors
made the country their own and became a part of the
Indian lineage.
Babur was succeeded by his son Humayun in 1530, who
unfortunately fell prey to political unrest, and his life took
many unexpected turns. Dethroned by an Afghan, Sher Khan
(Sher Shah), Humayun took refuge in the court of the Safavid
Persian ruler, Shah Tahmasp. Although inglorious for his
political career, this was fortunate for the startling turn
that the art of manuscript and painting under him took as a
result of his stay in Safavid. It was during his exile in Shah
Tahmasp’s court that Humanyun witnessed the magnificent
Tutinama: The Girl and
artistic tradition of miniature paintings and manuscripts. He
the Parrot, was thrilled to see the skillful artists in practice, creating
1580–1585, Chester splendid works of art for Shah Tahmasp. With the assistance
Beatty Library, Dublin
of Shah Tahmasp, Humayun established his
court in Kabul in 1545. Humayun increasingly
identified himself with a political and cultural
agenda for his dynastic empire that was
eclectic and assimilative. Impressed by the
artists and with an ambition to recreate such
art workshops in India, Humayun brought
back with him the master artists when he
regained power in India. He invited two Persian
artists — Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad
to establish a studio in his court and carry
out royal paintings. It is important to note
here that both the artists were famous and
respected particularly for their skills in the art
of portraiture.
A bibliophile of discerning sensitivity,
Humayun’s rule began a period of intense
patronage for the art of painting and
calligraphy. From his period, we get clear visual
and textual documents that testify an active

interest in building an artistic repertoire and an imperial

atelier. This is an indication of Humayun’s artistic taste and
helps us form a picture of Humayun as a connoisseur and an
aesthete. He founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop),
which was also a part of his library. Not much is known
about the size and composition of Humayun’s workshop in
India. However, it is known that he started the project of
illustration of Hamza Nama that was continued by his son
and successor Akbar.
When we look at an extraordinary Mughal painting from
the early period, Princes of the House of Timur (1545–50),
probably by Safavid artist, Abd us Samad, in opaque
watercolour on cotton, we are surprised by its size and
complex structure and display of historical portraits. A
prized possession of the imperial family, it has portraits
that were painted over the original to register the portraits
of successive members of the Mughal dynasty. So, visible in
Babur inspecting the fort of
their physical likeness are portraits of Akbar, Jahangir and Gwalior, Bhure, Baburnama,
Shah Jahan painted subsequently over those painted during 1598, National Museum,
New Delhi
the reign of Humayun.
Open air painting with trees and blossoms,
and royal merrymaking, which depicts the
ancestral members of the Mughal dynasty were
followed after Humayun, who was the patron of
this kind of artwork. The format, theme, figures
and colour palette are remarkably Persian. There
is indeed at this point we may state that there
is no particular dominant element having Indian
inspiration. But soon, this vocabulary changes to
accommodate the growing and peculiar Mughal
sensibility and distinct imperial taste.
The tradition and fascination for painting
started by Humayun was carried forward by
his illustrious son Akbar (1556–1605). Abul
Fazal, the court historian of Akbar, writes about
Akbar’s passion for arts. He records that more
than a hundred artists were employed in the
royal atelier. This included the most skilled
Persian and indigenous Indian artists of that
time. This integrated composition of Indo-Persian
artists led to the development of a unique style
in this period. These artists together undertook
ambitious projects that established new artistic

standards with regard to visual language, as well as,

subject matter. Akbar, believed to be suffering from dyslexia
(a condition where a person finds difficulty in reading), laid
great emphasis on illustration of manuscripts. It was under
his patronage that several seminal projects of translation
and illustration of manuscripts were carried out.
The earliest of his projects is the continuation of his father’s
artistic legacy of Hamza Nama, an illustrated account of the
heroic deeds of Hamza, the uncle of Prophet Muhammad.
Akbar took delight in hearing the stories of Hamza, a character
much loved in the Middle East popular and intellectual
circles, which were read out aloud by a professional narrator.
Simultaneously, the corresponding folios and painted Hamza
Nama narrative was held for a clear view. The emperor took
great interest in both pictorial narrative, as well as, recitation
of Hamza Nama. Because of the peculiar function of these
paintings, their format is large. The base surface is cloth
with paper at the back, on which the narrative text is written
to help the narrator and the technique applied is gouache,
which is water-based and in opaque colours.
Spies of Hamza attack the One realises that Mughal paintings were a teamwork
City of Kaymar, 1567–1582, by a group of artists, who could be inspired by a number
Museum of Applied Arts,
Vienna of artistic traditions. The immediate natural surroundings
became the resource from which the images of
flora and fauna were derived and painted. The
painted folios of Hamza Nama are scattered
all over the world and housed in various
collections. It is recorded to have consisted
of 14 volumes with 1400 illustrations and
took nearly 15 years to be completed. The
suggested date of this magnificent project
is 1567–1582 and was completed under the
supervision of two Persian masters — Mir
Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad.
In Hamza Nama painting, Spies Attack the
City of Kaymar (1567–82), the space is sharply
cut and divided so as to facilitate visual
reading of the narrative. Too much of action
is happening and the vibrant colours are of
great use here to energise the unfolding of this
story, wherein, the spies of Hamza attack the
city of Kaymar. A strong outer line defines the
foliage and other forms. The faces are largely

seen in profile. However, three–fourth faces are also shown.

The rich intricate patterns on the floor, columns and canopy
are from Persian sources as also the four-limbed animals
and rocks. Trees and creepers indicate Indian source as also
the rich palette of pure yellows, reds and browns.
Akbar envisioned cultural integration and commissioned
translation of several revered Hindu texts. He commissioned
translation and illustration of revered Sanskrit texts into
Persian. The Persian translation and illustrated version of
the Hindu epic Mahabharata done this period came to be
known as Razm Nama. This was completed in 1589 under the
supervision of master artist Daswant. This manuscript was
scribed in ornate calligraphy and contained 169 paintings.
The translation and illustration of the Ramayana were also
carried out around this time. Artists like Govardhan and
Miskin were celebrated for their visuals of court scenes.
Akbar Nama, an extraordinary manuscript, containing a
detailed account of Akbar’s political and personal life, was
one of the most expensive projects undertaken by Akbar.
Akbar personally engaged with the artists, and supervised and
evaluated the artworks. The Mughal painting under Akbar’s
patronage depicted a variety of subjects, including, detailed
political conquests, seminal court scenes, secular texts,
portraits of important men along with Hindu mythologies,
and Persian and Islamic themes. Akbar’s fascination for
Indian scriptures and regard for India made him one of the
most popular emperors of the country.
In most of the paintings, produced from the time that
the Europeans were in contact with the court of Akbar, we
can see an increasing preference for a category of naturalism
adapted to compliment the growing diversity in medieval India.
Madonna and Child (1580) done in opaque watercolour on
paper is an important early work of the Mughal School of
Painting in this context. Madonna, here, is an extraordinary
theme, which brings the Byzantine art, the European
classical and its Renaissance to the Mughal atelier, where it
is translated and transformed into an entirely different visual
experience. Virgin Mary is draped in a classical manner. The
attachment displayed between the mother and the child was
inspired by the humanist interpretation in the European
Renaissance art. The physiology of the child, certain details
like the fan and jewellery completely integrated the work to
an Indian milieu.

Inspired by Akbar’s interest in arts,

many sub-imperial courts absorbed this
passion and several great works of art
were produced for aristocratic families,
who tried to copy the Mughal court atelier
taste and produced works that present
distinctive subjects and visual preferences
in regional flavour.
Akbar had formalised the Mughal
miniature style and set standards, which
were further taken to new heights by his
son Jahangir (1605–1627). Prince Salim,
(Jahangir) showed interest in art from an
early age. Unlike his father Akbar, who
commissioned paintings and manuscripts
of politically and religiously significant
aspects, Prince Salim had a curious taste
and encouraged delicate observations and
fine details.
Jahangir employed Aqa Riza, a
well-known Iranian painter and his
son Abul Hasan to achieve unparalleled
sophistication in painting. Despite the
formalised and established imperial atelier
of Akbar, the keen patron in Jahangir
rebelled to set his own atelier alongside his
father’s. Prince Salim came to be known
as Jahangir — the World Seizer once he
acquired the Mughal throne after his return
from Allahabad. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the
memoirs of Jahangir, tells about his great
interest in arts and his efforts of achieving
Madonna and Child, scientific correctness in the rendering flora and fauna that
Basawan,1590, San Diego
Museum of Art, California interested the Emperor the most. Under his patronage, the
Mughal painting achieved naturalism and scientific accuracy
of the highest degree. The curiosity and wonderment that the
Emperor had for nature and people around him is reflected
in the works that he commissioned.
In contrast to the Akbar’s atelier, where the works were
mass produced, Jahangir’s atelier gave preference to a lesser
number and better quality of artworks produced by a single
master artist. The Muraqqas individual paintings to be mounted

in albums became popular under

Jahangir’s patronage. The margins of
the paintings were highly illuminated
in gold and embellished with flora,
fauna, and often poised human
figures. The war scenes, portraits,
narrative and storytelling prevalent
in Akbar’s style were overtaken by
minute details and refined rendering
of lavish court scenes, aristocracy,
royal personalities, as well as,
character traits, and distinctiveness
of flora and fauna.
Jahangir was presented with
paintings and decorative objects,
depicting high arts from Europe,
as gifts from the Europeans, who
visited his court. With such a
contact with the English Crown,
Jahangir’s fascination for European
art and theme prompted him to have
more such works in his collection.
Many celebrated religious Christian
themes were also produced in the
royal atelier of Jahangir. Given
this cultural and artistic exposure,
European art sensibilities started
making their way into the prevalent
Indo-Iranian style, thereby, making the Jahangir school of A Prince and a Hermit,
folio from Diwan of Amir Shahi,
art more impressive and vibrant. The spatial depth of the 1595, Aga Khan Museum,
composition and naturalistic representation of life reflect Canada
the high benchmarks that the sensitive patron created for
art during his lifetime. The artists of the Mughal atelier
creatively assimilated the three styles — indigenous, Persian
and European, making the Mughal Art School a melting pot
of vibrant styles of its time yet very distinct in its own way.
Jahangir in Darbar from Jahangirnama (now, dispersed),
attributed to Abul Hasan and Manohar (1620) is an excellent
painting. Jahangir is at the highest level in the centre,
where the eyes move immediately from his figured frame to
stunning white pillars surrounded by sparkling clear colours
and brilliantly framed overhead canopy. On the right side,

Khurram stands in attendance

with his hands folded, flanked
by his son Shuja, son of Mumtaz
Mahal, who was raised in the court
by Nur Jahan. The courtiers,
who are placed according to
their ranks, are easily identifiable
as their portraiture is perfect and
realistic. Father Corsi, a Jesuit
priest, has his name inscribed
to aid easy identification as he
stands with other known nobles
in the audience. Elephant and
horse add to the ceremonious
importance to this event as
hands are raised and heads bow
to salute Jahangir.
Jahangir’s Dream (1618–22)
by Abul Hasan, given the title
Nadir al Zaman, meaning the
‘Wonder of the Age’, refers to the
Emperor’s dream, in which he
was visited by Persian Safavid
emperor Shah Abbas, his
rival, who possessed the much
desired province of Qandahar.
Interpreting it as good omen, he
had the court artist Abul Hasan
paint the dream. In this painting,
political fantasy takes over
and the presence of Jahangir
dominates the composition. The
Persian Shah appears frail and
vulnerable as he is embraced by
Jahangir in Darbar,
Jahangir. The kings stand on a globe, and between them,
Jahangirnama,
Abul Hasan and Manohar, they hover over much of India and Middle East. Two animals
1620, sleep quietly. However, the symbolism of their depiction does
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
not escape the viewer. The powerful lion, on which Jahangir
towers, and the docile sheep, on which the Persian Shah
stands, sharing a magnificent resplendent golden halo of the
Sun and Moon held by two winged angels indicate of being
inspired by the incoming European art motifs and imageries
in the Mughal court.

In the painting, Jahangir enthroned on an

Hourglass (1625), symbolism is creatively applied
by the court painter, Bichitra, who can be seen on
the emperor’s right hand corner holding a painting
in his hand, which would be his offering to the
mighty emperor.
Persian calligraphy adorns the top and bottom,
which in verse says that the Shahs of this world may
stand before him as Jahangir prefers to have the
dervishes. Portrait that resemble the Ottoman Sultan,
King James I of England also stands on the right hand
with gifts for the mighty emperor. Jahangir offers a
book to Shaikh Husain of the Chisti Shrine, descendent
of Shaikh Salim, in whose honour Akbar had named
his son Salim.
The son of Jahangir, Prince Khurram, succeeded the
throne of Delhi by the name Shah Jahan (1628–1658).
With this, he not only acquired a politically stable
empire but also the finest of artist and atelier. Shah Jahangir’s Dream, Abul Hasan,
1618–1622, Smithsonian Institution,
Jahan encouraged the artists in the atelier to create Washington D. C.
magnificent works that were a blend of imagination
and documentation. Idealisation and great stylisation
were preferred over naturalistic rendering and
accurate depiction. The artworks produced under his
supervision concentrated on subliminal qualities and
exalted beautification, which was created by the use
of jewel-like colours, perfect rendering and intricate
fine lines. The higher concepts in the painting were
given much prominence and the visuals were created
meticulously to cull out multitude of interpretations
that a single painting could offer. His love for
sparkling jewels and gems, passion for monumental
architecture and subject choice of paintings inform us
of the majestic image that he wanted to leave behind.
Imperial portraits with glorious titles were painted to
present the personality of the emperor himself.
Padshahnama (The Chronicles of the King) is one
of the most exuberant painting projects undertaken
by his court atelier and reflects the extraordinary
manuscript that presents the height that Indian
miniature painting achieved. The Mughal painting
during this time depicted the impressive play of Jahangir enthroned on an Hourglass,
Bichitra, 1625, Smithsonian Institution,
multiple perspectives, enchanting palate of colours
Washington D. C.

and sophisticated compositions to portray royal, historical

and mystic subjects.
The Mughal School of Painting, which had embraced and
presented the exuberating blend of the leading art traditions
of its contemporary world, began to inspire the European
artists of that time. Rembrandt, a celebrated European
painter, was deeply inspired by the Mughal court painting
and made studies of several Indian drawings to master
the delicate lines. His studies show the celebrated position
that the Mughal miniature painting occupied in the world
art scene.
The legitimate successor of Shah Jahan, his son Dara
Shikoh, was denied his empire and life. As a liberal unorthodox
Mughal, Dara’s commitment to Sufi mysticism and deep
Dara Shikoh with Sages in interest in Vedantic school of thought was outstanding. His
a Garden, Bichitra, early
persona has been immortalised in this exceptional painting,
seventeenth century. Chester
Beatty Library, Dublin Dara Shikoh with Sages in a Garden (1635). Loved by his people,
Dara, the scholar, who knew many
languages, including Sanskrit, is
the central theme here. A poet and
connoisseur, he commissioned a
special album of painting to gift
his wife. Unfortunately, Dara, due
to his passion for literature and
philosophy, was misinterpreted
as submissive and that his
personality lacked dexterity for
political administration. Dara,
in apparent contrast to his
brother Aurangzeb, was eclectic,
philosophical and inclusive in his
approach to ideological issues
and conflicts.
In the war of succession
that occurred in the lifetime of
Shah Jahan, he was defeated by
his brother Aurangzeb. Alamgir
Aurangzeb came to power to
stimulate the political scenario
and give it the verve of Akbar’s
period. This succession and series
of battles and conquest in Deccan
India got the Mughal empire back

on track. His focus was on the expansion of the Mughal empire

and its unification under his leadership. Aurangzeb did not
put as much effort to elevate the production of the Mughal
atelier. However, unlike the popular belief the royal atelier
was not shut down immediately and continued producing
beautiful pointings.
Later Mughal Painting

Due to gradual decline of ardent patronage, highly skilled
artists left the Mughal atelier and were welcomed by provincial
Mughal rulers. These rulers imitated the Mughal royalties
and wanted to recreate in paintings the glory of their dynasty Bahadur Shah Zafar,
1838, Fogg Museum of Art,
and events of their court. Cambridge, UK

Although some masterworks were produced during the

periods of Muhammad Shah Rangila, Shah Alam II and
Bhadur Shah Zafar, these were mere last flickers in the candle
that was the Mughal miniature style. Bahadur Shah Zafar,
painting, dated 1838, was made about two decades before
he was exiled to Burma by the British, who were quick to
see that no claimant to Mughal authority remains anywhere
near Delhi to claim their imperial authority, after the failure
of the Indian Revolt of 1857. He was the last Mughal ruler,
who was also a poet, scholar and connoisseur.
The new political environment, unsettled regional
kingdoms and threat of English ascendancy changed the
art scenario of India yet again. The painters thrived to suit
the changing patrons, their aesthetic concerns, choice of
subject matters and visual language. Eventually, the Mughal
miniature style converged into other styles of the Provincial
and Company School.
Process of Mughal Painting

Most of the paintings that we see as Mughal miniatures
were parts of manuscripts and royal albums, i.e., the visual
and text shared space in a given format. For making book
painting, the following process was adopted. Sheets of
handmade paper were prepared and cut to suit the size of
the manuscript. Designated space was left for the artist to
fill it with a suitable visual composition. Then, the pages
were ruled and filled with text. Once the text was written, it
was given to the artist, who would compose a synoptic visual
representation of the text. The artist would begin from the
stage of making the composition, i.e., tarh, to portraits, i.e.,
chiharanama to the final stage of colouring, i.e., rangamizi.
Colours and Technique of Mughal Painting

The painters in the atelier were also masters of art making
colours. Mughal paintings were made on handmade paper,
which was prepared especially for this purpose. The colours
were opaque and were obtained from natural sources by
grinding and mixing pigments to obtain perfect shades of
colours. The paint was applied using a variety of brushes
made with the hair of squirrels or kittens. In workshops,
painting was a combined effort of a group of artists, among
whom basic draft drawing, grinding and filling in of colours,

and adding details were, usually, distributed. However, they

may also have been produced single handedly.
Thus, the artworks produced during the early Mughal
phase were collaborative efforts of the team of artists. And
based on one’s specialisation, each artist would undertake
an aspect of the painting that he was comfortable with
or delegated. Records tell us that the artists were given
incentives and increments in their salary according to the
work done. The recorded names of the master artists also
informs of the position that they enjoyed in the royal atelier.
Once the painting was complete, agate, a gemstone, was
used to burnish the work to set the colours and give desired
radiance to the painting.
Some of the pigments and colours achieved from those
were — vermilion from cinnabar, ultramarine from Lapiz Lazuli,
bright yellow from orpiment, shells grounded for making
white and lampblack from charcoal. Gold and silver powders
were mixed with colours or sprinkled to add extravagance
to a painting.
Project for Students

Select around five quotations from a writer, poet or
philosopher. Translate them into the language of your choice.
Create a manuscript with your translation in a calligraphic
style and ornate borders, drawing inspiration from the
Mughal manuscripts.
Exercise
1. Name two master artists, who were invited to India by
Humayun, and discuss their masterpieces in detail.
2. Out of the several art projects that Akbar undertook, discuss
your favourite work, explaining what you like about it.
3. Make a comprehensive list of artists in the Mughal court,
briefly explaining one painting of each in 100 words.
4. With examples of three paintings of your choice, discuss the
indigenous Indian, Persian and European visual elements
prevalent during the medieval period.

Noah’s Ark
Noah’s Ark, from a
dispersed Divan-i Hafiz
painted manuscript of
1590, is an excellent
painting in subdued
colour palette and
has been ascribed
to Miskin, one of the
masters at Akbar’s
imperial atelier.
Prophet Noah is in the
ark, which is carrying
animals in pairs so
that they may continue
to flourish after the
threatening flood sent
by God to punish
human beings for
their sins.
In the painting,
the sons of Noah are
in the act of throwing
Iblis, the devil, who
had come to destroy
the ark. The use of
pure white and subtle
shades of red, blue and
yellow is charming.
The rendering of water
is convincing and the
vertical perspective
infuses the painting
with an element of
heightened dramatic
energy. This painting
lies in the collection
of Freer Gallery of
Art, Smithsonian
Institution,
Washington D. C., USA

Krishna lifts Mount Govardhan

Krishna Lifts Mount Govardhan
from a dispersed Harivamsa
Purana is attributed to Miskin
(1585–90). It is in the collection
of the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York, USA. Harivamsa
Purana is one of the many
Sanskrit manuscripts, which
were translated into Persian
by the Mughals. This painting
is on a theme from Harivamsa.
Badauni, a scholar noble in the
court of Akbar, was assigned
the job of translating this
volume on Lord Krishna into
Persian. It is interesting to note
that Badauni was famous for
his orthodox religious views,
much unlike Abul Fazl, another
famous scholar chronicler in
Akbar’s court.
Hari or Lord Krishna lifted
the mountain, Govardhan,
with all creatures dwelling
therein with the intention to
protect them — the villagers
and their livestock, who were
his followers, from torrential
rain sent by another powerful
God Indra. Hari uses the
mountain like a huge umbrella,
under which the entire village
takes refuge.

Falcon on a Bird Rest

This painting by Ustad Mansur, Nadir ul Asr, a title received
from Jahangir, is in the collection of Cleveland Museum of
Art, Ohio, USA. Jahangir had fine falcons brought to his
collection, and as a keen connoisseur, he had them painted.
These images were included in his official biography
Jahangirnama. There is an interesting episode described by
him of a falcon brought as a present from Persian emperor
Shah Abbas. This is to do with the falcon, which was mauled
by a cat, resulting in its death, and the Emperor desired
his painters to paint the dead falcon, preserving its memory
for posterity.
The painting shown here, Falcon Perched on a Bird Rest
(1615), is one of the many paintings that were painted by the
Mughal artist, Ustad Mansur.
1_3.Mughal School Folder.indd 52 14-12-2021 11:38:51

Zebra
The zebra in this painting was from Ethiopia, brought by
Turks, and presented to Mughal emperor Jahangir by his
nobleman Mir Ja’far, who had acquired it. Jahangir wrote
on the painting in Persian, the court language, that it was:
“A mule which the Turks (rumiyan) in the company of
Mir Ja’far had brought from Ethiopia [Habesha]”. Its likeness
was drawn by Nadir ul asr (Wonder of the Age) Ustad Mansur.
In Jahangirnama, it is clearly stated that the animal was
presented to him during Nowruz or New Year festivities in
March 1621. It is also mentioned that Jahangir had carefully
examined it as some thought that it was a horse on which
someone had painted stripes. Jahangir decided to send it to
Shah Abbas of Iran, with whom he often exchanged rare and
unique gifts, including animals and birds. And the Shah would
also send him rare gifts like the Falcon discussed earlier.
The painting later came in Emperor Shah Jahan’s
possession. It was added to the royal album of paintings
and calligraphies. The ornate borders of the painting are
additions made in Shah Jahan’s reign.

The Marriage Procession of

Dara Shikoh
This painting, a work by artist Haji Madni, belongs to the
period of Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal in Agra. It
is a portrayal of the marriage procession of Dara Shikoh,
the eldest son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. The Mughal
prince is shown mounted on a brown stallion with the
traditional sehra and is accompanied by his father, Shah
Jahan, who has a resplendent nimbus around hid head, riding
a white horse. The marriage procession is accompanied and
received by music, dance, gifts and fireworks. The artist
has created the glamour of the marriage procession with all
its pomp and show. This painting is in the collection of the
National Museum, New Delhi, India.

The Deccani Schools of Painting 4
T he history of Deccani Painting can largely be constructed
from the late sixteenth century until the 1680s — the time
when the Mughals conquered the Deccan. It is continued
to be seen in the art of the nineteenth century, as well as,
under the Asafiya dynasty, and finally, in paintings in the
provincial courts of Rajas and Nawabs, ruling various lands
in the State of Hyderabad under the Nizam.
Sultan Adil Shah II
The Deccani style of Painting was placed under playing Tambura, Farrukh
the Indo-Persian art for long. It was considered to be Beg, Bijapur, 1595–1600,
Middle Eastern, Safavid, Persian, Turkish and even Mughal National Museum,
Prague, Czech Republic
in origin. Art historians acknowledged its
uniqueness but failed to recognise it as a
full-fledged school, which was sustained
by a class of rulers, who had their peculiar
political and cultural vision. They hired and
nurtured artists and commissioned works
that enhanced their artistic sensibilities
and specific requirements of governance in
their kingdoms.
The art of portraiture and representation
of historical and religious figures are seen
elsewhere in other contemporary schools of
painting. Mughal portraiture, in this sense,
was not wholly unique. We see such artistic
inclinations in the Safavid and Ottoman
Schools of Painting. The highly documentary
nature of portraits is a singularly unique
development seen extensively in the Asian
Islamic art as also in the Mughal art in India.
In the plateau region of southern India,
beyond the Vindhya mountain range, an
endearing school of painting, which was
distinct and strong, was nurtured and
expanded under various Sultans of the Deccan
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
1_4.The Deccani School of Painting.indd 55 01 Sep 2020 02:21:44 PM

The kingdoms of Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar

developed highly sophisticated and distinct school of court
painting. Its unique sensuality and intense colours have
strong affinity to regional aesthetics. The school preferred
dense composition and attempted to create an aura of
romance, which invariably expressed itself in an idiom that
was eloquently natural and vivid.
Ahmadnagar School of Painting

The earliest examples of Deccani painting are in a volume
of poems, celebrating the reign of Hussain Nizam Shah I
of Ahmadnagar (1553–1565). Most of the 12 miniatures
that illustrate battle scenes are of no artistic interest, but
interestingly, those depicting the queen and her marriage
delight us with gorgeous colours and sensuous lines. The
woman represented in it belongs to the northern tradition
of pre-Mughal painting, which was flourishing especially
in Malwa and Ahmedabad during this period. The women
in the paintings of Ahmadnagar wear a modified northern
Tarif–i–Hussain Shahi: costume with choli (bodice) and long braided pigtails, ending
King sitting on the Throne, in a tassel. Only a long scarf, passing round the body below
Ahmadnagar, 1565–1569,
Bharata Itihasa Samshodaka the hips, is a southern fashion, which is seen in the Lepakshi
Mandala, Poona frescoes. The palette is different from paintings
of northern manuscripts, coming largely from
the Mughal atelier, as they are more rich and
brilliant. Paintings of the Deccan have similar
characteristics. The high circular horizon and
gold sky have Persian influence. We may see
the debt of all Deccani kingdoms, which they
owe to Persia for their landscape idiom.
These feminine dress, present in a series
of Ragamala paintings, are the most striking
and moving examples of the sixteenth century
Deccan Schools of Painting. The women’s hair
is rolled up in a bun on the nape of the neck,
similar to the Lepakshi murals. The horizon,
in the painting, disappears and is replaced
by a neutral coloured ground patterned all
over with small stylised plants, or occupied
by symmetrical architectural domes over
the archades. All these features, except the
hairstyle, have traces of north India or Persia.

Male costume is also decisively northern. The jama with

pointed tails is frequently seen in early Akbari miniatures
and probably originated in the area somewhere between
Delhi and Ahmedabad. The small pagri is close to the
form found in the earliest Akbari miniatures. The original
paintings in the Gulistan of 1567 have been attributed by art
historians to the Bukhara artists. Another interesting fact
is that such painters may also have worked in the Deccan.
This supported by a manuscript is now in the collection of
Bankipore Library, Patna. It is signed by a scribe, Yusuf,
and is dedicated to Ibrahim Adil (1569), presumably Ibrahim
Qutb Shah of Golconda, who ruled from 1550–1580. This
manuscript contains seven miniatures that are completely
in the Bukhara idiom of that date.
Bijapur School of Painting

Paintings from Bijapur in the sixteenth century have a
richly illustrated encyclopaedia known as the Nujum al-Ulum Nujum al-Ulum: The Throne
of Prosperity, Bijapur, 1570,
dated 1570. Among the 876 miniatures, which adorn this The Chester Beatty Library,
remarkable little volume, many illustrate weapons and Dublin, Ireland
utensils, while others the constellations. The
women are shown in south Indian dress, tall
and slender as those in the Ragamala paintings.
The school of Bijapur was patronised by Ali
Adil Shah I (1558–1580) and his successor
Ibrahim II (1580–1627), both patrons of art
and literature. The latter was also an expert
in Indian music and author of a book on this
subject, Nauras-nama. He was the owner of
Nujum al-Ulum manuscript and might have
commissioned the Ragamala series in the
1590s. Bijapur had a close connection with
Turkey and astronomical illustrations in Nujum
al-Ulum may have been derived from Ottoman
Turkish manuscripts. The Ragamala are, as
we have seen, Indian in their connections,
with definite echoes of the Lepakshi style. They
exemplify the luxuriant aestheticism of the
Adil Shah court in their daring and brilliantly
successful colouring and vigour of simplified
compositions. The Throne of Prosperity is a
symbolic diagram of an auspicious throne of

seven stages, each supported by different inhabitants — from

elephants and tigers to palm trees, through storeys of
peacocks and primitive tribes. The basic structures recall
the wood carved doorways and facades of Gujarati homes
or perhaps remind us of the temples of the Deccan. The
colouring of this page is in Islamic Persian tradition,
especially, the arabesques on the top of the throne. We see it
is surmounted by a Deccani foliage against amazingly deep
blue sky. The stylised plants on either side of the throne have
visual reference to margin decoration in Gujarati manuscript
of say early sixteenth century. There is, thus, a strong Indian
visual tradition that structure this miniature.
The theme of another Deccani painting is Yogini — one
who believes in yoga, leads a disciplined life of physical
Yogini, Bijapur, seventeenth and emotional training, pursues spiritual and intellectual
century, The Chester Beatty
Library, Dublin, Ireland
explorations, and is famous for renunciation of worldly
attachments. But such an attitude was
not usual, and therefore, extraordinary
in practice.
This work is attributed to an artist, about
whom we do not have any record. It is to
be noted that the artist prefers a vertical
composition, where the long standing figure
of the Yogini is complimented by a group of
white structures right at the top, as a tapering,
visual note. The Yogini is preoccupied with a
myna bird as if in conversation. The Yogini
is adorned with jewellery and her hair bun
elongates her visual presence. The long
scarves swirl in rhythmic circle around her
body, which has exquisite flora surrounding
it in exquisite landscape.
Golconda School of Painting

Golconda became an independent state in
1512. By the end of the sixteenth century, it
was the wealthiest of the Deccan kingdoms.
This was largely due to brisk trade from the
ports along the east coast, from where iron
and cotton goods were shipped to South East
Asia. Meanwhile expansive trade continued
with Persia, which became a rage in Europe

and was greatly valued among painted cottons. Early in the

seventeenth century, diamonds were discovered, expanding
the source of revenue. The visuals from Golconda draw
one’s attention to the gold jewellery worn by both women
and men. Besides, the themes of Golconda paintings gained
exceptional fame.
Golconda’s art became popular as Dutch merchants
carried the portraits of sultans in the late seventeenth
century to Europe. These were probably done for the bazaar
and had references to royal paintings. The earlier Golconda Dancing before Muhammad
Quli Qutb Shah, Golconda,
paintings, dated 1635–1650, at times as large as eight 1590. British Museum,
feet high, were made to be used as wall hangings. These London, UK
paintings are covered with pictorial designs,
generally, figures in architectural settings of
varied origin.
The earliest five miniatures, identified as
Golconda work, were bound up in Diwan of
Hafiz, dated 1463. These paintings represent
court scenes of a young ruler, who is depicted
seated enthroned, holding a typically long and
straight Deccani sword, in the centre of one of
the painting folios. The Prince is seen wearing
a white coat with embroidered vertical bands.
All five painted pages are lavishly enriched
with gold, touching deep azure sky. Dancing
girls are seen entertaining the royal gathering.
The symmetrical and apparently unfunctional
architecture has several registers of flat
screens one above the other. The ground
appears covered with elaborately patterned
carpets. It is important to note here that the
painting suggests no Mughal influence. Purple
hue is amply applied, and at times, animals
become blue, so you see blue foxes.
There is a portrait of Muhammad Qutb
Shah (1611–1626) as he sits on a diwan
early in his reign. He wears this typical
Golconda dress and an elegant tight-fitting
cap. The composition has gained increased
sophistication and skill, while the strict
symmetry of the 1590 pages is retained.
One may say there is adequate reference to

Mughal painting. We see a marked plastic

rendering, especially, in the drape of the
courteseans’ and the groom’s attire.
A manuscript of a Sufi poem with
paraphrased prose is richly illustrated with
more than 20 miniatures. Gold is again
freely used. A peculiar feature seen is the
colouring of the skies in gold and blue in
separate bands. The men’s and women’s
costumes indicate the fashion trend under
Ibrahim II of Bijapur. The trees in the
landscapes are of Deccani type, which are
richly coloured and have a tinted edge.
Moreover, plants are silhouetted against
a mass of dark foliage, which is another
prominent Deccani feature. This is seen in
the painting of a tall woman speaking to
a bird.
Poet in a Garden,
Muhammad Ali, Golconda,
1605–1615, Museum of Exercise
Fine Arts, Boston, USA
1. What are the unique features of Deccani painting of Yogini?
Find out about artists doing similar works nowadays.
2. What were the popular themes painted in the Deccani
School? Describe some of them.
3. Write a note in 100 words on two paintings you like from
the Deccani School.
4. How is the Deccani style of painting different from the
Mughal style of painting?
5. What are the imperial symbols in a Deccani royal painting?
6. Which were the centres of painting in Deccan? Show them
on a map.

Composite Horse
The painting is a curious mix of many artistic devices,

which culminate as Composite Horse. The painting includes
human figures intertwined in a manner that emerges as an
extraordinary form of a galloping horse superimposed on
a decorated background. Flying cranes and lions, Chinese
clouds and plants with large leaves enhance the surreal
element of this painting from Golconda, which is of early
seventeenth century. When everything appears to be airy
and flying, the eyes unexpectedly encounter two corners in
the bottom of the painting, which have rocky formulations
that anchor the painting on a solid ground. A certain
dislocation of sense of space happens, making this painting
a memorable visual experience. All actions happen within
limited colour schema, which remains largely in the shades
of brown and some blue.

Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II hawking

This is a painting of
extraordinary energy and
sensibility. The brilliant
red on the limbs and
tail of the horse, and
the flowing garment
of Sultan Ibrahim Adil
Shah II render a visual
experience, which
remains with one.
Besides, the dark dense
forest foliage, deep olive
green, emerald green and
cobalt blue with cranes
in the background and
sunlit golden blue sky
enhance the experience
of the painting and its
narrative, which brings
the white hawk to the
centrestage along with
the delicately portrayed
face of the sultan. Persian
influence is evident in the
treatment of the horse
and rocks. The plants
and dense landscape in
the foreground are of
native inspiration. The
galloping horse generates
energy, which visually
activates the entire
panoramic landscape.
This painting is in the
collection of the Institute
of the Peoples of Asia,
Academy of Sciences,
Leningrad, Russia.

Ragini Pathamsika of Raga Hindola

An intriguing work in the collection
of National Museum, New Delhi,
titled Ragini Pathamsika of Raga
Hindola, an important member of
the Ragamala family of the Indian
musical mode, dates back to
around 1590–95. Some scholars
believe it to be from Bijapur,
an important state of Deccan.
Painting was a highly developed
art form in the Deccani states,
almost simultaneous with the
development of the Mughal School
of Painting. Persian influence is
obvious in the painting. This is
seen in the arabesque decoration
on the surface of the two domes
that delineate the upper part of
the painting, where letters written
in Devanagari script cover the
space. Two beautifully dressed
and bejewelled women are seen
in the pavilion, while the third
is seen outside it. The centrally
placed female musician is playing
an Indian instrument, which appears to be veena, while
the other two on the sides appear to be accompanying with
rhythmic sway of their bodies. The colours are vibrant. Red
is dominant and is complimented by green. The figures may
be said to be stylised in the sense that the character of their
physiology, including the face has been almost constructed
on formulaic details. Nearly all forms are deeply emphasied
with dark line. This is interestingly observable in the mural
paintings of Ajanta, too, which were painted centuries ago.
What is also to be noted here is a dark elephant in the
left hand corner, with a raised trunk, a delightful sign of
welcome. Small in scale, the elephant creates visual interest
and breaks the architectonic structuring.

Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah

An important portrait of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah of
Bijapur is in the collection of National Museum, New Delhi,
India. There is an inscription on the top in Persian. Sultan
Abdullah Qutb Shah was an able ruler of the famous Deccani
state of Bijapur, which attracted scholars and artists from
various parts of the world. Here, he is enthroned and we
can see him holding the sword in one hand, symbolising his
political sovereignty. Besides, a halo is seen around his head,
which depicts his divinity.

Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and

Amir Khusrau
This provincial painting in the collection of National
Museum, New Delhi, is from Hyderabad, Deccan. It depicts
Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, the revered Sufi saint of the
thirteenth century, listening to music being played by his
disciple, Hazrat Amir Khusrau, a renowned Indian poet and
scholar. Even to this day, the dargah of Hazrat Nizamudin
Auliya in New Delhi has qawwali by Khusrau in praise of his
pir. Devotees from all over the world come here to witness
this regular cultural practice. The painting is naive and
basic without technical and artistic sophistication of a court
painting. However, it is charming and narrative of a popular
Indian theme.

Chand Bibi playing Polo

This painting shows Chand Bibi, the Queen of Bijapur, one
of the most prosperous and culturally refined Deccani state.
Chand Bibi resisted the Mughal political attempts to overtake
the state by Emperor Akbar. A revered and accomplished
ruler, Chand Bibi was a great sportsperson. Here, she is
showing playing chaugan, the other name for equestrian polo
game, a popular royal sport of the time. The painting appears
to be provincial of much later period, and is in the collection
of National Museum, New Delhi, India.

The Pahari Schools of Painting 5
P ahari denotes ‘hilly or mountainous’ in origin. Pahari
Schools of Painting includes towns, such as Basohli,
Guler, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mankot, Nurpur, Mandi,
Bilaspur, Jammu and others in the hills of western
Himalayas, which emerged as centres of painting from
seventeenth to nineteenth century. Beginning at Basohli
with a coarsely flamboyant style, it blossomed into the most
exquisite and sophisticated style of Indian painting known as
the Kangra School, through the Guler or pre-Kangra phase.
Unlike the distinguishing stylistic features of Mughal,
Deccani and Rajasthani Schools, Pahari paintings
demonstrate challenges in their territorial classification.
Though all the above centres crafted precisely
individualistic characteristics in painting (through the Krishna steals butter,
Bhagvata Purana, 1750,
depiction of nature, architecture, figural types, facial features, N. C. Mehta Collection,
costumes, preference for particular colours and such other Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
things), they do not develop as independent
schools with distinctive styles. Paucity of dated
material, colophons and inscriptions also
prevent informed categorisation.
The emergence of the Pahari School
remains unclear, though scholars have
cautiously proposed theories concerning its
beginning and influences. It is widely accepted
that Mughal and Rajasthani styles of paintings
were known in the hills probably through
examples of Provincial Mughal style and family
relationships of hill Rajas with the royal courts
of Rajasthan. However, the flamboyantly bold
Basohli-like style is, generally, understood to
be the earliest prevailing pictorial language.
B. N. Goswamy, one of the most significant
scholars of the Pahari Schools of Painting, has
attributed the shaping of Pahari style from
1_5.Pahari Painting.indd 67 01 Sep 2020 02:32:07 PM

the simplicity of Basohli to poetic lyricism and refinement

of Kangra to the ingenuity of a family of artists through his
scholarly approach of family as the basis of style. His central
argument is that the family of Pandit Seu (Shiv) was chiefly
responsible for the course of Pahari paintings. He argues that
identifying Pahari paintings on the basis of regions could be
misleading as political boundaries were always fluid. This
argument is also true for Rajasthani schools as attribution
merely by regions creates vagueness and several disparities
remain unexplained. Hence, if a family of artists is considered
as the style bearer, justification of multiple strands of a style
can be accommodated within the same region and school.
Scholars agree that in the early eighteenth century, the
style of the Seu family and others conformed to the Basohli
idiom. However, from middle of the eighteenth century, the
style transformed through a pre-Kangra phase, maturing
into the Kangra style. This abrupt transformation in style
and beginning of experimentation, which gave rise to
varied stylistic idioms related to different Pahari centres, is
Rama and Sita in the forest,
largely ascribed to responses by various artist families and
Kangra, 1780, Douglas Barrett
Collection, UK paintings (especially, the Mughal style) that were introduced
in the Pahari kingdoms. This sudden arrival of
paintings, which might have been introduced
through rulers, artists, traders or any such
agency or event, impacted local artists and
profoundly influenced their painting language.
Most scholars, now, dispute the earlier
hypothesis that the sudden change was caused
and initiated by the migration of artists from
the Mughal atelier.
For Goswamy, it was the naturalism in these
paintings that appealed to the sensibilities of
Pahari artists.
Compositions, worked out from a relative
point of view, show some paintings with
decorated margins. Themes that included
recording the daily routine or important
occasions from the lives of kings, creation of
new prototype for female form and an idealised
face, are all associated with this newly
emerging style that gradually matures to the
Kangra phase.
1_5.Pahari Painting.indd 68 14-12-2021 11:56:23

Basohli School
The first and most dramatic example of work from the
hill states is from Basohli. From 1678 to 1695, Kirpal
Pal, an enlightened prince, ruled the state. Under him,
Basohli developed a distinctive and magnificent style. It
is characterised by a strong use of primary colours and
warm yellows — filling the background and horizon, stylised
treatment of vegetation and raised white paint for imitating
the representation of pearls in ornaments. However, the
most significant characteristic of Basohli painting is the use
of small, shiny green particles of beetle wings to delineate
jewellery and simulate the effect of emeralds. In their
vibrant palette and elegance, they share the aesthetics of the
Chaurpanchashika group of paintings of Western India.
The most popular theme of Basohli painters was the
Rasamanjari of Bhanu Datta. In 1694–95, Devida, a tarkhan
(carpenter–painter), did a magnificent series for his patron
Kirpal Pal. Bhagvata Purana and Ragamala were other
popular themes. Artists also painted portraits of local kings
Rasamanjari, Basohli, 1720,
with their consorts, courtiers, astrologers, mendicants,
British Museum, London, UK

Rama gives away his

possessions, Ayodhya
Kanda, Shangri Ramayana,
1690–1700, Los Angeles
County Museum of Art, USA
courtesans and others. While artist ateliers from Basohli,

gradually, spread to other hill states, such as Chamba and
Kullu, giving rise to local variations of the Basohli kalam.
A new style of painting came in vogue during 1690s to
1730s, which was referred to as the Guler–Kangra phase.
Artists during this period indulged in experimentation and
improvisations that finally resulted and moulded into the
Kangra style.
Hence, originating in Basohli, the style gradually spread
to other hill states of Mankot, Nurpur, Kullu, Mandi,
Bilaspur, Chamba, Guler and Kangra.
The Sanskrit epic, Ramayana, was one of the favourite
texts of the hill artists at Basohli, as well as, Kullu. This
set derives its name from ‘Shangri’, the place of residence
of a branch of the Kullu royal family, patrons and formerly
possessors of this set. These works of Kullu artists were
influenced in varying degrees by the styles of Basohli
and Bilaspur.
Rama learns of his exile and prepares to leave Ayodhya
along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana. Maintaining
equanimity of mind, Rama indulges in his last acts of giving
away his possessions. At the request of Rama, his brother
piles up his belongings and the crowd begins to gather to
receive the largesse of their beloved Rama — jewellery,
sacrificial vessels, thousand cows and other treasures.

Rama and Lakshmana

following sage Vishvamitra
to the forest, Bala Kanda,
Shangri Ramayana
1680–1688, Raja Raghbir
Singh Collection, Shangri,
Kullu Valley, India
Set apart on the left are the two princes with Sita standing
on a carpet with a crowd of recipients moving towards them.
The painter carefully introduces different types — recluses,
Brahmins, courtiers, commoners and servants of the royal
household. The bounteous gifts represented are pile of gold
coins and garments on the carpet, and cows and calves
unaware of the momentous event, beseechingly looking at
Rama with necks stretched, gazes fixed and mouths wide
open. The gravity of the situation is sensitively portrayed
through varying expressions — the serene but gently smiling
Rama, curious Lakshmana, an apprehensive Sita, Brahmins
willing to receive but with no pleasure, and others with
expressions of disbelief and gratitude. Taking pleasure
in achieving fine effects, the artist delightfully depicts
transparency of the garment Rama is holding out, stippled
beard on the cheek and chin of the Brahmins, tilak marks,
jewellery and weapons.
Another painting from the same set depicts Rama and
Lakshmana accompanying sage Vishvamitra to the forest
to defeat the demons, who would distress the hermits by
disturbing their meditative practices and contaminating
their rituals. An interesting feature of this painting is the
representation of animals, stealthily prowling behind trees,
half hidden in the heavy outgrowth. A clever fragmentary
portrayal of a wolf on the left and a tiger on the right by

the artist not only lends character to the forest as a thick

impenetrable jungle, populated with ferocious animals
hiding everywhere, but also adds an emotive value to the
painting regarding the extraordinary courage of the two
young princes. The fractional representation of animals adds
mystery to the work as there is a possibility of them being
demons in disguise.
Guler School
The first quarter of the eighteenth century saw a complete
transformation in the Basohli style, initiating the
Guler–Kangra phase. This phase first appeared in Guler, a
high-ranking branch of the Kangra royal family, under the
patronage of Raja Govardhan Chand (1744–1773). Guler
artist Pandit Seu with his sons Manak and Nainsukh are
attributed with changing the course of painting around
1730–40 to a new style, usually, referred to as the pre–Kangra
or Guler–Kangra kalam. This style is more refined, subdued
and elegant compared to the bold vitality of the Basohli style.
Though initiated by Manak, also called Manaku, his brother
Nainsukh, who became the court painter of Raja Balwant
Singh of Jasrota, is responsible for shaping the Guler School
emphatically. The most matured version of this style entered
Kangra during the 1780s, thus, developing into the Kangra
School while the offshoots of Basohli continued in Chamba
and Kullu, India.
Balwant Singh in prayer,

Nainsukh, 1750,
Victoria and Albert Museum,
London, UK

Sons and grandsons of Manak and Nainsukh worked

at many other centres and are responsible for the finest
examples of Pahari paintings.
Guler appears to have a long tradition of paintings
amongst all Pahari schools. There is evidence that artists
were working in Haripur–Guler ever since the reign of Dalip
Singh (1695–1743) as many of his and his son Bishan Singh’s
portraits, dating back to earlier than 1730s, i.e., before the
beginning of the Guler–Kangra phase can be found. Bishan
Singh died during the lifetime of his father Dalip Singh.
So, his younger brother Govardhan Chand ascended to the
throne that witnessed a change in painting style.
Manak’s most outstanding work is a set of Gita Govinda
painted in 1730 at Guler, retaining some of the elements of
the Basohli style, most strikingly the lavish use of beetle’s
wing casings.
Nainsukh appears to have left his hometown in Guler and
moved to Jasrota. He is believed to have initially worked for
Mian Zoravar Singh, whose son and successor Balwant Singh
of Jasrota was to become his greatest patron. Nainsukh’s
celebrated pictures of Balwant Singh are unique in the kind
of visual record they offer of the patron’s life. Balwant Singh
is portrayed engaged in various activities — performing puja,
surveying a building site, sitting in a camp wrapped in a quilt
because of the cold weather, and so on. The artist gratified
his patron’s obsession by painting him on every possible
occasion. Nainsukh’s genius was for individual portraiture
that became a salient feature of the later Pahari style.
Krishna embracing gopis,

Gita Govinda, Guler,
1760–1765, N. C. Mehta
Collection, Ahmedabad,
Gujarat, India

His palette comprised delicate pastel shades with daring

expanses of white or grey.
Manaku, too, did numerous portraits of his enthusiastic
patron Raja Govardhan Chand and his family. Prakash
Chand, successor of Govardhan Chand, shared his father’s
passion for art and had sons of Manaku and Nainsukh,
Khushala, Fattu and Gaudhu as artists in his court.
Kangra School
Painting in the Kangra region blossomed under the patronage
of a remarkable ruler, Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823). It
is believed that when Prakash Chand of Guler came under
grave financial crisis and could no longer maintain his atelier,
his master artist, Manaku, and his sons took service under
Sansar Chand of Kangra.
Sansar Chand ascended to the throne at the tender age
of 10 years after the kingdom had been restored to its earlier
glory by his grandfather Ghamand Chand. They belonged to
the Katoch dynasty of rulers, who had been ruling the Kangra
region for a long time until Jahangir conquered their territory
in the seventeenth century and made them his vassals. After
the decline of the Mughal power, Raja Ghamand Chand
recovered most of the territory and founded his capital town
of Tira Sujanpur on the banks of river Beas and constructed
fine monuments. He also maintained an atelier of artists.
Kaliya Mardana, Bhagvata

Purana, Kangra, 1785,
National Museum,
New Delhi, India

Raja Sansar Chand established supremacy of Kangra

over all surrounding hill states. Tira Sujanpur emerged as
the most prolific centre of painting under his patronage.
An earlier phase of Kangra kalam paintings is witnessed in
Alampur and the most matured paintings were painted at
Nadaun, where Sansar Chand shifted later in his life. All
these centres were on the banks of river Beas. Alampur
along with river Beas can be recognised in some paintings.
Less number of paintings was done in Kangra as it remained
under the Mughals till 1786, and later, the Sikhs.
Sansar Chand’s son Aniruddha Chand (1823–1831),
too, was a generous patron and is often seen painted with
his courtiers.
The Kangra style is by far the most poetic and lyrical
of Indian styles marked with serene beauty and delicacy
of execution. Characteristic features of the Kangra style
are delicacy of line, brilliance of colour and minuteness of
decorative details. Distinctive is the delineation of the female
face, with straight nose in line with the forehead, which came
in vogue around the 1790s is the most distinctive feature of
this style.
Most popular themes that were painted were the Krishna playing Holi with
Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Nala Damayanti, Bihari gopis, Kangra, 1800, National
Museum, New Delhi, India
Satsai, Ragamala and Baramasa. Many other
paintings comprise a pictorial record of Sansar
Chand and his court. He is shown sitting by
the riverside, listening to music, watching
dancers, presiding over festivals, practising
tent pegging and archery, drilling troops, and
so on and forth. Fattu, Purkhu and Khushala
are important painters of the Kangra style.
During Sansar Chand’s reign, the
production of Kangra School was far greater
than any other hill state. He exercised wide
political power and was able to support a
large studio with artists from Guler and other
areas. The Kangra style soon spread from Tira
Sujanpur to Garhwal in the east and Kashmir in
the west. Painting activity was severely affected
around 1805 when the Gurkhas besieged the
Kangra fort and Sansar Chand had to flee to
his hill palace at Tira Sujanpur. In 1809, with

the help of Ranjit Singh, the Gurkhas were driven away.

Though Sansar Chand continued to maintain his atelier of
artists, the work no longer paralleled masterpieces of the
period 1785–1805.
This series of Bhagvata Purana paintings is one of the
greatest achievements of Kangra artists. It is remarkable for
its effortless naturalism, deft and vivid rendering of figures in
unusual poses that crisply portray dramatic scenes. The
principal master is believed to have been a descendent of
Nainsukh, commanding much of his skill.
Re-enacting Krishna’s
deeds, Bhagvata Purana,
Guler–Kangra, India, 1780–85,
Private Collection
This painting is a depiction from Rasa Panchdhyayi, a
group of five chapters from the Bhagvata Purana devoted to
the philosophical concept of Rasa. It has passages that speak
movingly of the love that gopis have for Krishna. Their pain
is real when Krishna suddenly disappears. In their forlorn
state of separation, they appear utterly devastated with the
fruitlessness of search when the deer, trees or creepers,
whom they address in their distracted state, do not have
answers to their piteous questions regarding the whereabouts
of Krishna.
With minds engrossed in thoughts of Krishna, the gopis
recall and enact his various lilas or feats. Some of them
being — the killing of Putana, liberation of Yamala–Arjun
after Krishna was tied to a mortar by Yashoda, lifting of
Mount Govardhan and rescuing the inhabitants of Braj from
the heavy downpour and wrath of Indra, subduing of serpent

Kaliya, and the intoxicating call and allure of Krishna’s

flute. The gopis take on different roles and emulate his
divine sports.
The artist captures and evokes these sensitive images
exquisitely in this folio. On the extreme left, a gopi enacts
Krishna’s part as she bends forward and appears to suck
the bosom of another gopi, who plays the role of Putana and
raises her hand to the head in response, as if dying while
her breath is being sucked away. Next to them, another
gopi enacts the character of Yashoda, who along with other
gopis, holds out her garment in a gesture of removing the
evil eye after the young Krishna performed the brave feat of
killing Putana.
In the group beside this towards the right, a gopi enacts
the mortar to which another gopi, who plays the role of
young Krishna, is tied with a cloth band, while his mother
admonishingly stands holding a stick in her hands. In the
adjoining group, a gopi, sporting a turban, lifts her piled up
odhni atop in the guise of lifting Mount Govardhan, while
others seek protection underneath. To the extreme left in Abhisarika Nayika, Kangra,
1810–20, Government
the bottom, a gopi enacts Krishna, who is playing flute, as Museum and Art Gallery,
some gopis dance and sing, and others crawl towards him, Chandigarh, India
disentangling themselves from their angry
mothers-in-law, who try to drag and hold them
back from going. In the most magnificent of
these cameos to the extreme bottom in the
right, a gopi hurls a blue garment edged with
gold over the ground, which takes the form
of the multiple hooded serpent Kaliya, upon
whom she dances like Krishna.
Depiction of Ashta Nayikas or eight
heroines is one of the most painted themes
in Pahari paintings, involving the depiction of
women in various dispositions and emotive
states. To mention a few — Utka is the one
who is anticipating the arrival of her beloved
and patiently waits for him, Svandhinpatika is
the one whose husband is subject to her will,
Vasaksajja awaits her beloved’s return from a
voyage and decorates the bed with flowers in
a welcoming gesture, and Kalahantarita is the
one who resists her beloved when he seeks to
soften her pride and repents when he comes late.

Even though describing Ashta Nayikas

remained a favourite among poets and
painters, none of them is treated with as much
flair as the Abhisarika, one who hastens to
meet her beloved braving all hazards. The
situation conceived is, generally, full of bizarre
and dramatic possibilities with the passion
and steadfastness of the nayika, triumphing
against the opposing elements of nature.
In this painting, the sakhi is recounting
how the nayika crossed the woods in the
night to meet her beloved. The yoga, the poet
speaks of, refers to the single-mindedness
of purpose with which the nayika moves
through the dark forest in the night.
The broad iconography of the Abhisarika
remains much the same. However, at times,
painters vary their renderings in some measure.
The ghouls that, usually, appear in many
versions are omitted here. But the darkness of
A couple in the month
of Jyestha, Kangra, the night, flashes of lighting, murky clouds, snakes hissing
1800, National Museum, about in the dark, emerging from hollows of the trees and
New Delhi, India
falling jewellery are all painted.
The Baramasa paintings, consisting of 12 folios,
illustrating the modes of love or courtship appropriate to
each month of the year had become a popular theme in the
hills during the nineteenth century.
An account of Baramasa is given by Keshav Das in the
tenth chapter of Kavipriya. He, thus, describes the hot month
of Jyeshtha, which falls in the months of May and June. The
painter takes utmost delight in depicting all analogues as
described by the poet.
The Kangra School came to fore in the 1780s while the
offshoots of the Basohli style emerged and continued in
centres such as Chamba, Kullu, Nurpur, Mankot, Jasrota,
Mandi, Bilaspur, Jammu and others with some of their
specific characteristics. In Kashmir (1846–1885), the Kangra
style initiated a local school of Hindu book illumination. The
Sikhs employed other Kangra painters eventually.
There is a broad classification of three styles — Basohli,
Guler and Kangra, and scholars may have variant terms for
the same. However, these are indicative centres from where
the style travels elsewhere. Hence, in Jasrota, as one observes
the Guler style, it becomes categorised under the Guler

School with Jasrota as one of its centres. Briefly mentioning

the aspects of the other centres, one finds portraits of the
rulers of Chamba in the seventeenth and early eighteenth
century in the Basohli style.
Kullu emerged with a distinctive style, where figures
had a prominent chin and wide open eyes, and lavish use
of grey and terracotta red colours in the background was
made. Shangri Ramayana is a well-known set painted in the
Kullu Valley in the last quarter of the seventeenth century.
Paintings of this set vary from each other in style, and, thus it
is believed that these were painted by different sets of artists.
It is believed that when the Basohli style had outgrown itself
and matured into the Kangra style, Nurpur artists retained
the vibrant colours of Basohli with the dainty figure types
of Kangra.
Due to marital relations between Basohli and Mankot, few
artists from Basohli seem to have shifted to Mankot, thereby,
developing a similar school of painting. While Jasrota had
an indulgent patron in Balwant Singh and the school is
well-known through his numerous portraits painted by his
court artist, Nainsukh, who led the earlier simple Basohli
style to new sophistication. This style of Nainsukh is also
referred to as the Guler–Kangra style.
Rulers of Mandi were ardent worshippers of Vishnu and
Shiva. Hence, apart from the Krishna Lila themes, Shaivite
subjects were also painted. An artist named Molaram is
associated with the Garhwal School. Several signed paintings
by him have been discovered. This school was influenced by
the Kangra style of Sansar Chand phase.
Exercise
1. Representation of nature in Pahari miniature paintings
is found everywhere. According to you, what could be the
reasons for this?
2. What are the major schools of Pahari miniature paintings
and list their places of expansion. How were they different
from each other? Mark all schools of Himalayan (Pahari)
paintings on a map.
3. Select a poem or a story and illustrate in it any style of
Pahari miniature painting.
4. Prepare small critiques on works of the following.
(a) Nainsukh (b) Basohali paintings
(c) Ashta Nayikas (d) Kangra kalam


Awaiting Krishna and the Hesitant Radha

Artist Pandit Seu had two talented sons, Manak or Manaku
and Nainsukh. Their contribution in maneuvering the style of
Pahari painting from the stage of Basohli to that of Kangra is
immense. Their sons, in turn, represent the glorious period of
Kangra. This painting is categorised in the Guler–Kangra phase,
wherein, experimentation for change had already been initiated.
Gita Govinda is Manaku’s most outstanding set of works. As
mentioned earlier, composed by Jayadeva, Gita Govinda begins
with the description of how Radha and Krishna fall in love on
the banks of river Yamuna. A delightful description of spring
follows and the poet describes the sports of Krishna with other
gopis. Ignored by Krishna, heartbroken Radha sulks in a bower
as her friend, sakhi, describes how Krishna continues to wander
with the pretty cowherd girls. After sometime, Krishna feels
remorseful and starts looking for Radha, and on not finding her,
laments for her. The messenger, now, goes to Radha and tells
her of the longing of Krishna for her. Ultimately, she persuades
her to meet him and what follows is the mystic union. Though
the characters are divine and enact the play at a philosophical
plane, where Radha is a devotee or soul, and Krishna, the
cosmic power, in whom she is to be drowned. The love sport
played here is rather human.
In this painting, Radha is shown feeling shy and hesitant as
she approaches the forested area, while Krishna is seen eagerly
waiting for her.
The source to the artist’s imagination is the inscription on
the reverse of the painting, which is translated as follows.
“Radha! Sakhis have come to know the secret that your soul
is intent on the warfare of love. Now, abandon your shyness, let
your girdle tinkle merrily and go ahead to meet your beloved.
Radha! Lead yourself with some favoured maid; grasp her hands
with your fingers that are soft and smooth as love’s arrows.
March and let the jingle of your bangles proclaim your approach
to your loved one.”
This beautiful song of Jayadeva may always rest upon the
lips of the devotees of Krishna.
Ultimately Radha accepts the advice of her companions and
Jayadeva, thus, describes the following.
“Then, she, no more delaying, entered straight; her step a
little faltered, but her face shone with unutterable love; the
music of her bangles passed the entrance; shame which had
lingered in her downcast eyes, departed shamed…”

Balwant Singh looking at a Painting

with Nainsukh
The painting depicts Prince Balwant Singh of Jasrota closely
observing a painting that he is holding in his hands. A
figure standing behind him politely bowing down probably
represents none other than the artist of the painting,
Nainsukh. This painting is probably a rare, where Nainsukh
paints himself with his patron.
Balwant Singh is seated in his palace, overlooking
the lush green landscape teeming with trees. The time
depicted appears to be that of early evening and Nainsukh’s
clutter-free composition is itself indicative of quietude,
peace and tranquillity that are suggestive of Balwant
Singh’s temperament in the painting. He is smoking hukka,
something that, he usually, indulged in during spells of
break between work. Musicians are deftly placed towards the
outer edge of the painting so as to indicate their presence.
Their positioning, in the painting, suggests that they are not
clamouring to be heard but ‘softly’ producing music, thus,
enhancing the calmness, while Balwant Singh remains
engrossed in the details of the painting that depicts Krishna.

Nanda, Yashoda and Krishna

This painting also illustrates a scene from the Bhagvata
Purana and depicts Nanda with his family and relatives,
travelling to Vrindavan. They found Gokul infested with
demons that bothered Krishna to no end, and hence,
decided to move to a safer place. In the painting, Nanda is
seen leading the group on his bullock cart and is followed by
another bullock cart, wherein, both brothers, Krishna and
Balaram and their respective mothers, Yashoda and Rohini,
are seated. Men and women carrying various household
items and children are seen accompanying them. Detailing
in their expressions, the activities they are indulging in
are intriguing. The tilt of their heads as they talk to each
other, an expression of fatigue expressed with downcast
eyes because of the heaviness of load on the head and the
taut stretching of arms as one firmly holds on to the vessel
on the head are all examples of amazing observation and
excellent skill.
Kangra painters, as discussed in the earlier part of
the chapter, acutely observe the landscape and represent
it naturalistically. The details are eloquently expressed.
One also observes a flush-cut composition, resembling a
photograph, which lends naturalism to the painting.


The Bengal School and Cultural
Nationalism 6
Company Painting
A rt in India had a different purpose prior to the coming of

the British. It could be seen as statues on temple walls,
miniature paintings that often illustrated manuscripts,
decoration on the walls of mud houses in villages, among
many other examples. With the colonial rule around the
eighteenth century, the English were charmed by different
manners and customs of people of all ranks, tropical flora
and fauna, and varying locales. Partly for documentation
and partly for artistic reasons, many English officers
commissioned local artists to paint scenes around them to
get a better idea of the natives. The paintings were largely Ghulam Ali Khan,
made on paper by local artists, some of whom had migrated Group of Courtesans,
Company Painting, 1800–1825.
from erstwhile courts of Murshidabad, Lucknow or Delhi. To San Diego Museum of Art,
please their new patrons, they had to adapt their traditional California, USA
way of painting to document
the world around them. This
meant that they had to rely
more on close observation,
a striking feature of the
European art, rather than
memory and rule books, as
seen in traditional art. It is
this mixture of traditional and
European style of painting
that came to be known as the
Company School of Painting.
This style was not only popular
among the British in India but
even in Britain, where albums,
consisting a set of paintings
were much in demand.
1_6.Bengali Painting.indd 85 01 Sep 2020 03:54:46 PM

Raja Ravi Varma

This style declined with the entry of photography
in India in the mid–nineteenth century as camera
offered a better way of documentation. What,
However, flourished in the art schools set up by
the British was the academic style of oil painting
that used a European medium to depict Indian
subject matter. The most successful examples
of this type of painting were found away from
these art schools. They are best seen in the
works produced by self-taught artist, Raja Ravi
Varma of the Travancore Court in Kerala. By
imitating copies of European paintings popular
in Indian palaces, he mastered the style of
academic realism and used it to depict scenes
from popular epics like the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. They became so popular that
many of his paintings were copied as oleographs
Raja Ravi Varma, and were sold in market. They even entered people’s homes as
Krishna as envoy,
1906. NGMA, New Delhi, India
calendar images. With the rise of nationalism in India by the
end of the nineteenth century, this academic style embraced
by Raja Ravi Varma came to be looked down upon as foreign
and too western to show Indian myths and history. It is
amidst such nationalist thinking that the Bengal School of Art
emerged in the first decade of the twentieth century.
The Bengal School

The term ‘Bengal School of Art’ is not fully accurate. It is true
that the first move to create a modern, nationalist school
happened in Bengal but it was not restricted to this region
alone. It was an art movement and a style of painting that
originated in Calcutta, the centre of British power, but later
influenced many artists in different parts of the country,
including Shantiniketan, where India’s first national art
school was founded. It was associated with the nationalist
movement (Swadeshi) and spearheaded by Abanindranath
Tagore (1871–1951). Abanindranath enjoyed the support of
British administrator and principal of the Calcutta School
of Art, E. B. Havell (1861–1934). Both Abanindranath and
Havell were critical of colonial Art Schools and the manner in
which European taste in art was being imposed on Indians.
They firmly believed in creating a new type of painting that
1_6.Bengali Painting.indd 86 14-12-2021 15:23:41

The Bengal School and Cultural Nationalism 87
was Indian not only in subject matter but also in style. For
them, Mughal and Pahari miniatures, for example, were
more important sources of inspiration, rather than either the
Company School of Painting or academic style taught in the
colonial Art Schools.
Abanindranath Tagore and E. B. Havell

The year 1896 was important in the Indian history of visual
arts. E. B. Havell and Abanindranath Tagore saw a need to
Indianise art education in the country. This began in the
Government Art School, Calcutta, now, Government College
of Art and Craft, Kolkata. Similar art schools were established
in Lahore, Bombay and Madras but their primary focus was
on crafts like metalwork, furniture and curios. However,
the one in Calcutta was more inclined towards fine arts.
Havell and Abanindranath Tagore designed a curriculum
to include and encourage technique and themes in Indian
art traditions. Abanindranath’s Journey’s End shows the
influence of Mughal and Pahari miniatures, and his desire to
create an Indian style in painting.
Art historian Partha Mitter writes, “The first generation of
the students of Abanindranath engaged in recovering the lost
language of Indian art.” To create awareness that modern
Indians could benefit from this rich past, Abanindranath
was the main artist and creator of an important journal,
Indian Society of Oriental Art. In this manner, he was also
the first major supporter of Swadeshi values in Indian art,
which best manifested in the creation of Bengal School of
Art. This school set the stage for the development of modern
Indian painting. The new direction opened by Abanindranath
was followed by many younger artists like Kshitindranath
Majumdar (Rasa-Lila) and M. R. Chughtai (Radhika).
Shantiniketan — Early modernism

Nandalal Bose, a student of Abanindranath Tagore, was
invited by poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore to
head the painting department in the newly established
Kala Bhavana. Kala Bhavana was India’s first national art
school. It was part of the Visva-Bharati University founded
by Rabindranath Tagore at Shantiniketan. At Kala Bhavana,
Nandalal founded the intellectual and artistic milieu to create
an Indian style in art. By paying attention to the folk art forms
that he saw around in Shantiniketan, he began to focus on

the language of art. He also illustrated primers

in Bengali with woodcuts and understood
the role of art in teaching new ideas. For this
reason, Mahatma Gandhi invited him to paint
panels that were put on display at the Congress
session at Haripura in 1937. Famously called
the ‘Haripura Posters’, they depicted ordinary
rural folks busy in various activities — a
musician drumming, a farmer tilling, a woman
churning milk, and so on. They were painted
as lively colourful sketchy figures and shown
as contributing their labour to nation building.
These posters echoed with Gandhi’s socialist
vision of including marginalised sections of
Indian society through art.
Kala Bhavana, the institution where Bose
taught art, inspired many young artists to
Nandalal Bose, Dhaki, Haripura Posters,
1937. NGMA, New Delhi, India carry forward this nationalist vision. It became
a training ground for many artists, who
taught art in different parts of the country.
K. Venkatappa in South India being a
prominent example. They wanted art to reach
out to a wider public rather than only the elite,
anglicised class of people.
Jamini Roy is a unique example of modern
Indian artist, who after undergoing academic
training in the colonial Art School rejected
it only to adopt the flat and colourful style of
folk painting seen in villages. He wanted his
paintings to be simple and easy to duplicate
to reach a wider public and based on themes
like women and children, specifically, and rural
life, generally.
However, the struggle between the Indian
and European taste in art continued as seen in
the art policy of the British Raj. For example,
the project for mural decorations for Lutyen’s
Delhi buildings went to the students of Bombay
School of Art, trained in realistic studies by its
Principal, Gladstone Solomon. On the other
hand, the Bengal School artists were allowed
K. Venkatappa, Rama’s marriage, to decorate the Indian House in London under
1914. Private Collection, India close British supervision.

Pan-Asianism and Modernism

The colonial art policy had created a divide between those
who liked the European academic style and those who favoured
Indian style. But following the Partition of Bengal in 1905, the
Swadeshi movement was at its peak and it reflected in ideas
about art. Ananda Coomaraswamy, an important art historian,
wrote about Swadeshi in art and joined hands with a Japanese
nationalist, Kakuzo Okakura, who was visiting Rabindranath
Tagore in Calcutta. He came to India with his ideas about
pan-Asianism, by which he wanted to unite India with other
eastern nations and fight against western imperialism. Two
Japanese artists accompanied him to Calcutta, who went to
Shantiniketan to teach wash technique of painting to Indian
students as an alternative to western oil painting.
If, on one hand, pan-Asianism was gaining popularity,
ideas about modern European art also travelled to India.
Hence, the year 1922 may be regarded as a remarkable
one, when an important exhibition of works by Paul Klee,
Kandinsky and other artists, who were part of the Bauhaus
School in Germany, travelled to Calcutta. These European
artists had rejected academic realism, which appealed to the
Swadeshi artists. They created a more abstract language of
art, consisting of squares, circles, lines and colour patches.
For the first time, Indian artists and the public had a direct
encounter with modern art of this kind. It is in the paintings
by Gaganendranath Tagore, brother of Abanindranath
Tagore, that the influence of modern western style of
paintings can be clearly seen. He made several paintings
using Cubist style, in which building interiors were created
out of geometric patterns. Besides, he was deeply interested
in making caricatures, in which he often made fun of rich
Bengalis blindly following the European style of living.
Different Concepts of Modernism: Western and Indian

The divide between anglicists and orientalists, as mentioned
earlier, was not based on race. Take the case of the Bengali
intellectual, Benoy Sarkar, who sided with the anglicists
and considered modernism that was growing in Europe as
authentic in an article, ‘The Futurism of Young Asia’. For
him, the Oriental Bengal School of Art was regressive and
anti-modern. On the other hand, it was E. B. Havell, an
Englishman, who was in favour of return to native art to

create a true modern Indian art. It is in this

context that we have to view his collaboration
with Abanindranath Tagore.
Amrita Sher-Gil, whom we will discuss in
the next chapter, is a perfect example of the
meeting of both these points of view. She used
the kind of style that the Bauhaus exhibition
showed to depict Indian scenes.
Modern art in India can be best understood
as a result of the conflict between colonialism
and nationalism. Colonialism introduced new
institutions of art like art schools, exhibition
galleries, art magazines and art societies.
Nationalist artists, while accepting these
changes, continued to assert more Indian taste
in art and even accepted a larger Asian identity
for a while. This legacy was going to leave a
deep impact on the later history of modern
Indian art. Therefore, it will keep moving from
internationalism, i.e., draw ideas from the West,
Amrita Sher-Gil, Camels, 1941.
NGMA, New Delhi, India and indigenous, i.e., to be true to one’s own
legacy and tradition.
Exercise
1. Collect a local newspaper of the past two weeks. Select
images and text from these that you consider important
in the life of modern democratic state of India. With the
help of these visuals and texts, compile an album that
narrates the story of an independent sovereign India in the
contemporary world.
2. Comment on the importance of the Bengal School artists in
the making of a national style of art?
3. Write your view on any one painting by Abanindranath
Tagore.
4. Which art traditions of India inspired the Bengal School
artists?
5. What were the themes that Jamini Roy painted after he
abandoned the academic style of painting?

Tiller of the Soil

This is one of the panels made by Nandalal Bose in 1938
for the Haripura Congress. In this panel, a farmer is shown
ploughing a field — the daily activity of a common man and in
a village. To capture the essence of village life in his Haripura
panels, Bose made pen-and-ink brush studies of local
villagers. He used thick tempera in a bold cursory style and
broad brushwork. This technique and style was reminiscent
of the folk art practice of patuas or scroll painters. Folk
style is purposely used to represent the rural life. It also
conveys political statement of Gandhi’s idea of village. The
background of the poster has an arch. The strong senses of
formal design, bold colour scheme, and their blend of nature
and convention in this panel reflect Bose’s inspiration from
Ajanta wall paintings and sculptures. More than 400 posters
were prepared at Kala Bhavana under the supervision of Bose,
who was influenced by the idea of Gandhi. These posters
place common people in the centre of nation building. Bose
utilised art to build the nation’s moral character.

Rasa-Lila
This is a watercolour painting in wash technique portraying
the divine life of Sri Krishna made by Kshitindranath
Majumdar (1891–1975). He was one of the early students
of Abanindranath Tagore, who carried forward the wash
tradition with some deviations. Rustic, thin, slender figures,
modest gestures, idyllic settings and delicate watercolours
express his stylistic features. He has painted mythological
and religious subjects. Man Bhanjan of Radha, Sakhi
and Radha, Lakshmi and Birth of Sri Chaitanya are few
examples of his extraordinary power of expression inspired
by his understanding of religious concepts as a follower of
the Bhakti Marga. In this painting, Krishna is dancing with
Radha and sakhis, and the background of trees creates a
simple village atmosphere as illustrated in the Bhagvata
Purana and Gita Govinda. Figures and their cloths are drawn
with simple, flowing, delicate lines. The sublime moods of
characters are captured well. Krishna and gopis are drawn
with same proportion. Thus, humans and God are brought
on the same level.

Radhika
This is a wash and tempera painting made on paper by
Abdul Rehman Chughtai (1899 –1975). He was a descendant
of Ustad Ahmed, the chief architect of Shahjahan. He was
also the designer of the Jama Masjid and Red Fort in Delhi
and Taj Mahal in Agra. He was influenced by Abanindranath
Tagore, Gaganendranath Tagore and Nandalal Bose.
Chughtai experimented with wash technique and infused
a distinct character of calligraphic line, typical in Mughal
manuscripts and old Persian paintings. It gives a deeper
sensuous quality to his paintings. In this painting, Radhika
is portrayed walking away from a lighted lamp in a gloomy
background as if in a state of trance or remorse. The subject
is based on Hindu mythology. He also painted characters
from legends, folklore and history of the Indo-Islamic, Rajput
and Mughal world. The light and shade of the background
represent the finest heights of simplification. Chughtai had
stylistic affinities with renowned Chinese and Japanese
masters. The character is drawn gracefully, with a lyrical
quality of calligraphy in every line. It is as if a poem finds
visual form. Other works, which carry these poetic qualities,
are Gloomy Radhika, Omar Khayyam, Dream, Hiraman Tota,
Lady under a Tree, Musician Lady, Man behind a Tomb, Lady
beside a Grave and Lady lighting a Lamp.

City in the Night

This is a watercolour painting made by
Gaganendranath Tagore (1869 –1938)
in 1922. He was one of the earlier Indian
painters, who made use of language and
syntax of Cubism to render his ideas.
The inner experiences of turbulence
are externalised through a blend of
allegorical and formal, transforming
the static geometry of Analytical
Cubism into an expressive apparatus.
He softened Cubism’s formal geometry
with a seductive profile, shadow or
outline of human form. He visualised
the mysterious world of his imaginary
cities like Dwarka (Lord Krishna’s
legendary abode) or Swarnapuri
(The Golden City) through multiple
viewpoints, multi-faceted shapes and
jagged edges of Cubism. He painted an
interplay of diamond-shaped planes
and prismatic colours, resulting in
fragmented luminosity to render the
mountain ranges of the city. Zigzag
planes together are able to create a tight
formal structure of the painting. The
painting is mysteriously illuminated by artificial light, one
of the features of theatre. It shows his involvement with his
uncle Rabindranath Tagore’s play staged in their house. The
painter has taken many references of stage props, partition
screens, overlapping planes and artificial stage lighting.
Endless corridors, pillars, halls, half-open doors, screens,
illuminated windows, staircases and vaults are painted on
the same plane to conjure a magic world.

Rama Vanquishing the Pride of

the Ocean
This is a Puranic (ancient mythological

stories) theme painted by Raja Ravi
Varma. He was one of the first Indian
painters to use oil paint and master
the art of lithographic reproduction for
mythological subject. These paintings
are, generally, large ones, depicting a
historic moment or scene from an epic
or a classical text, painted in the midst
of a dramatic action. It is intended to be
noble, momentous and emotional. This
scene is taken from Valmiki Ramayana,
where Rama needs to build a bridge in
southern India to the island of Lanka for
his army to cross the ocean. He prays
to the God of Ocean, Varuna, to permit
him to cross the ocean but Varuna does
not respond. Then, in anger, Rama
stands to shoot his fiery arrow into the
ocean. Immediately, Varuna appears
and appeases Rama. The event depicted
in this painting sequentially serves as a
springboard for the next one. The story
unfolds itself as each painting leaps
to the succeeding one, covering in the process not only the
major moments in the lives of Rama and Sita but the entire
epic. Varma also painted Release of Ahalya, Rama Breaking
the Sacred Bow of Siva before his Marriage to Sita, Rama, Sita
and Laksmana Crossing the Saryu, Ravana abducting Sita
and Opposed by Jatayu, Sita in Ashoka Grove, The Coronation
of Rama, etc.

Woman with Child

This is a gouache painting on paper made by
Jamini Roy (1887–1972) in 1940. He was called
the father of the folk renaissance in India, who
created an alternative vision of modern Indian
identity. In the mid –1920s, he travelled to the
countryside of Bengal to collect folk paintings
(pats) and learn from folk artisans. He wanted
to learn from the expressive power of their
lines. In this painting, a mother and her child
are rendered with bold simplifications and
thick outlines with sweeping brush strokes.
The painting exudes a crude vigour hitherto
unknown in Indian art. Figures are coloured
in dull yellow and brick-red background,
emulating the terracotta relief of his home
village in Bankura. The two-dimensional nature
of the painting is derived from pat paintings
and his search for simplicity and pure form
is visible. Roy borrowed volume, rhythm,
decorative clarity and instrumentality of the pat
in his artworks. To achieve and learn the purity
of the pat, he first made many monochrome
brush drawings, and then, gradually, moved to
basic seven colours applied with tempera. He
used Indian red, yellow ocher, cadmium green,
vermilion, charcoal gray, cobalt blue and white
made from organic material, such as rockdust,
tamarind seeds, mercury powder, alluvial mud,
indigo and common chalk. He used lamp black
to outline the drawings and started making his own canvas
with home-spun fabric (pats used paper or cloth or baked
paper). Roy used the notion of village community as a weapon
of resistance to colonial rule and a political act of making
local signify national.

Journey’s End
Made by Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951) in 1913, this
painting is in watercolour. Abanindranath Tagore was seen
as a father figure of nationalist and modernism of art in India.
He revived certain aspects of Indian and oriental traditions
of paintings in terms of themes, style and techniques, and
invented the wash painting technique. The wash technique
yields a soft, misty and impressionistic landscape. This
quality of hazy and atmospheric effects of the wash are
utilised to be suggestive or evocative of an end of a life.
In this painting, a collapsed camel is shown in red
background of dusk and in that sense it personifies the end
of a journey through the end of a day. Abanindranath tried to
capture the portrait and narration with the help of symbolic
aesthetics on one hand and literary allusions on the other.
The physical features of the camel rendered appropriately in
fine lines and delicate tones, and its sensory texture leads
us to the meaning of the painting. Abanindranath has also
painted The Forest, Coming of Night, Mountain Traveller,
Queen of the Forest and a series of 45 paintings based on
The Arabian Nights.


The Modern Indian Art 7
Introduction to Modernism in India
F ine arts was seen as European by the British. They felt

that Indians lacked training and sensibility to be able to
create and appreciate fine arts. By mid and late nineteenth
century, art schools were established in major cities like
Lahore, Calcutta (now, Kolkata), Bombay (now, Mumbai) and
Madras (now, Chennai). These art schools tended to promote
traditional Indian crafts, and academic and naturalist art
that reflected Victorian tastes. Even the Indian crafts, which
received support, were the ones based on European taste
Gaganendranath Tagore, A
and on the demands made by its market. Cubist City, 1925. Victoria
As mentioned in the previous chapter, it was against Memorial Hall, Kolkata, India
this colonial bias that nationalist art emerged,
and the Bengal School of Art, as nurtured by
Abanindranath Tagore and E. B. Havell, was
a prime example. India’s first nationalist art
school, Kala Bhavana, was set up in 1919 as
part of the newly established Visva-Bharati
University in Shantiniketan, conceptualised by
poet Rabindranath Tagore. It carried the vision
of the Bengal School but also followed its own
path in creating art meaningful for Indians.
This was the time when the whole world was
in a state of intense political turmoil in the
wake of World War–I. Apart from the famous
Bauhaus exhibition that travelled to Calcutta,
as discussed in the previous chapter, modern
European art influenced Indian artists through
art magazines that were in circulation. Artists
from the Tagore family — Gaganendranath
and poet–painter Rabindranath, thus, knew
about the international trends of Cubism and
Expressionism, which had rejected academic
1_7.Modern Art Painting.indd 99 01 Sep 2020 03:26:04 PM

realism and experimented with abstraction;

They thought that art need not copy the world
but create its own world out of forms, lines and
colour patches. A landscape, portrait or still life
may be called abstract if it draws our attention
to an abstract design created by forms, lines
and colour patches.
Gaganendranath Tagore used the language
of Cubism to create a unique style of his own.
His paintings of mysterious halls and rooms
were made with vertical, horizontal and
diagonal lines, which were quite different from
the Cubist style of famous artist Pablo Picasso,
who invented the style using geometrical facets.
Rabindranath Tagore turned to visual
art quite late in life. While writing poems, he
would often make patterns out of doodles and
developed a unique, calligraphic style out of
crossed out words. Some of these were turned
Rabindranath Tagore, into human faces and landscapes, which floated captivatingly
Doodle, 1920. Visva-Bharati
University, Shantiniketan, in his poems. His palette was limited with black, yellow
West Bengal, India ochre, reds and browns. However, Rabindranath created a
small visual world that was a complete departure from the
more elegant and delicate style of the Bengal School, which
often drew inspiration from Mughal and Pahari miniatures
along with Ajanta frescoes.
Nandalal Bose in 1921–1922 joined the Kala Bhavana.
His training under Abanindranath Tagore made him familiar
with nationalism in art but it did not hinder him from allowing
his students and other teachers to explore new avenues of
artistic expression.
Benode Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij, Bose’s
most creative students, gave a lot of thought as how to
understand the world. They developed their own unique style
of sketching and painting that could capture not only their
immediate environment like flora and fauna but also those
who lived there. Shantiniketan had a large population of
Santhal tribe at its outskirts, and these artists often painted
them and made sculptures based on them. Apart from this,
themes from literary sources also interested them.

Rather than making paintings around

well-known epics like Ramayana and
Mahabharata, Benode Behari Mukherjee was
drawn to the lives of medieval saints. On the
walls of Hindi Bhavana in Shantiniketan, he
made a mural called Medieval Saints, in which
he charts a history of medieval India through
the lives of Tulsi Das, Kabir and others, and
focuses on their humane teachings.
Ramkinkar Baij was an artist given to
the celebration of nature. His art reflects his
everyday experiences. Almost all his sculptures
and paintings are created as response to his
environment. For instance, his Santhal Family,
made as an outdoor sculpture within the Kala
Bhavana compound, turned the daily activity
of a Santhal family setting out for work into a
larger than a life size piece of art. Besides, it
was made out of modern material like cement
mixed with pebbles, held in shape with the
help of metal armature. His style was in sharp
contrast with works of earlier sculptor like D.
P. Roy Choudhury, who had used academic
realism to celebrate the labour of working classes, The Jamini Roy, Black Horse,
Triumph of Labour. 1940. NGMA, New Delhi, India
If rural community was important for Benode Behari

Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij, Jamini Roy, too, made
his art relevant to this context. We had briefly discussed
Roy in the last chapter as an artist, who rejected his own
training received at the Government School of Art, Calcutta.
Being a student of Abanindranath Tagore, he realised the
futility of pursuing academic art. He noticed that the rural,
folk art in Bengal had much in common with how modern
European masters like Picasso and Paul Klee painted. After
all, Picasso had arrived at Cubism by learning from the use
of bold forms found in African masks. Roy, too, used simple
and pure colours. Like village artists, he also made his own
colours from vegetables and minerals. His art lent itself to
easy reproduction by other members in his family, quite like
the artisanal practice followed in villages. However, what
differentiated his art from that of village artists was that

Roy signed on his paintings. His style is seen as uniquely

personal, distinct from both the academic naturalism of art
schools and from Raja Ravi Varma’s Indianised naturalism,
as well as, from the delicate style practised by some of the
Bengal School artists.
Amrita Sher-Gil (1913–1941), half Hungarian and half
Indian, emerges as a unique female artist, who contributed
immensely to modern Indian art through the 1930s. Unlike
others, she was trained in Paris and had a first-hand
experience in European modern art trends, such as
Impressionism and post–Impressionism. After deciding to
make India her base, she worked to develop art with Indian
themes and images. Amrita Sher-Gil assimilated miniature
and mural traditions of Indian art with European modernism.
She died young, leaving behind a remarkable body of work,
which is important for its experimental spirit and the impact
it left on the next generation of Indian modernists.
Modern Ideologies and Political Art in India

Soon after Sher-Gil’s death, India, still under British rule,
was deeply affected by global events like World War–II. One
Prodosh Das Gupta,
Twins Bronze, of the indirect outcomes was the outbreak of the Bengal
1973. NGMA, New Delhi, India famine, which ravaged the region forcing massive rural
migration to cities.
The humanitarian crisis compelled many
artists to reflect on their role in society. In 1943,
under the leadership of Prodosh Das Gupta, a
sculptor, few young artists formed the Calcutta
Group, which included Nirode Mazumdar,
Paritosh Sen, Gopal Ghose and Rathin Moitra.
The group believed in an art that was universal
in character and free from older values. They
did not like the Bengal School of Art as it
was too sentimental and deeply interested
in the past. They wanted their paintings and
sculptures to speak of their own times.
They started to simplify their visual
expression by excluding details. With such an
attempt, they could emphasise on elements,
material, surface, forms, colours, shades
and textures, etc. A comparison may be

drawn against a sculptor from South India,

P. V. Janakiram (Ganesh) who worked with
metal sheets in a creative way.
Seeing abject poverty around them and
the plight of people in villages and cities,
many young artists in Calcutta were drawn to
socialism, especially Marxism. This modern
philosophy, which was taught by Karl Marx in
the mid–nineteenth century in the West, asked
important questions about class difference
in society and appealed to these artists. They
wanted their art to talk about these social
problems. Chittoprasad and Somnath Hore,
the two political artists of India, found
Chittoprasad, Hungry Bengal,
printmaking to be a strong medium to express these social 1943. Delhi Art Gallery,
concerns. With printmaking, it is easier to produce multiple New Delhi, India
number of artworks and reach out to more number of people.
Chittoprasad’s etchings, linocuts and lithographs showed M. F. Husain,
the deplorable condition of the poor. It is not surprising that Farmer’s Family,
he was asked by the Communist Party of India to travel to 1940. NGMA, New Delhi, India
villages worst affected by the Bengal Famine

and make sketches. These were later published
as pamphlets under the name, Hungry Bengal,
much to the annoyance of the British.
The Progressive Artists’ Group of Bombay and

the Multifaceted Indian Art
The desire for freedom — political, as well as,
artistic — soon spread widely among young
artists, who witnessed Independence from the
British Raj. In Bombay, another set of artists
formed a group, called The Progressives in
1946. Francis Newton Souza was the outspoken
leader of the group, which included M. F.
Husain, K. H. Ara, S. A. Bakre, H. A. Gade and
S. H. Raza. Souza wanted to question the
conventions that had prevailed in art schools.
For him, modern art stood for a new freedom
that could challenge the traditional sense of
beauty and morality. However, his experimental
works were focused mainly on women, whom

he painted as nudes, exaggerating their proportions and

breaking the standard notions of beauty.
M. F. Husain, on the other hand, wanted to make the
modern style of painting understandable in Indian context.
For example, he would paint using the western expressionist
brush strokes with bright Indian colours. He not only drew
from Indian mythology and religious sources but also from the
style of miniature paintings, village crafts and even folk toys.
As a result of successfully combining a modern style of
painting with Indian themes, Husain’s art came to eventually
represent Indian modern art in the international art world.
Mother Teresa is an example to understand how he adapted
modern art to paint themes important to Indian, as well as,
international audience.
Abstraction – A New Trend

While Husain largely remained a figurative artist, S.H. Raza
moved in the direction of abstraction. It is not surprising
then that landscape was a favourite theme for this artist. His
colours ranged from bright to soft, modulated monochromes.
If Husain used the figurative language of modern art to show
Indian themes, Raza made a similar claim with abstraction.
Some of his paintings draw from old mandala and yantra
designs, and even use bindu as a symbol of oneness from
Indian philosophy. Later, Gaitonde, too, pursued abstraction,
while artists like K. K. Hebbar, S. Chavda, Akbar Padamsee,
Tyeb Mehta and Krishen Khanna would keep moving between
abstraction and figurative.
Abstraction was important for many sculptors like Piloo
S. H. Raza, Ma, Pochkhanawala and printmakers like Krishna Reddy. For
1972. Bombay, India them, the use of material was as important as the new
shapes they were creating. Whether in painting,
printmaking or sculpture, abstraction had a
wide appeal for many artists across the 1960s
and 1970s. In South India, K. C. S. Paniker,
who later went on to establish Cholamandalam,
an artist village near Madras, was a pioneer in
abstraction. In fact, he showed by imbibing
artistic motifs from Tamil and Sanskrit
scripts, floor decorations and rural crafts that
abstraction has a long history in India.

However, the tension between

internationalism (in which an artist could freely
use the style of western modern trends like Cubism,
Expressionism, Abstraction, etc.) and indigenous
(in which artists turned to native arts) grew
acute by the late 1970s. Sculptors like Amarnath
Sehgal struck a balance between abstraction and
figurative and created wiry sculptures as in Cries
Unheard. In case of Mrinalini Mukherjee, her
works tilted more towards abstraction when she
took up the innovative medium of hemp fibre, as
in Vanshri.
Many Indian artists and critics grew
worried about their imitation of modern art from
the West and felt the need to establish an Indian
identity in their art. In the 1960s, Biren De and
G. R. Santosh in Delhi and K. C. S. Paniker
in Madras moved in this direction when they
turned to the past and local artistic traditions to
create a unique Indian abstract art.
This style became successful in the West
and later in India and came to be known as G. R. Santosh,
Neo-Tantric art because of its use of geometrical designs Untitled,
1970. NGMA, New Delhi, India
seen in traditional diagrams for meditation or yantras. Such
works made during the height of the Hippie movement in
the West found a ready market, and were sought by galleries
and collectors alike. This style may also be seen as Indianised
abstraction. In Biren De’s works, this move led to captivating
K. C. S. Paniker,
experiments with colours and patterns. G. R. Santosh The Dog,
created a visual sense of cosmic union of male and female 1973. NGMA, New Delhi, India
energy, reminding us of purusha and prakriti
of the Tantric philosophy. K. C. S. Paniker, on
the other hand, made use of diagrams, scripts
and pictograms that he saw in his region and
evolved out of them a style, which was both
modern and uniquely Indian.
In that sense, eclecticism, in which an artist
borrowed ideas from many sources, became
an important feature of many Indian
modernists, of which Ram Kumar, Satish
Gujral, A. Ramachandran and Meera Mukherjee
are some examples.

Since the time of the Bombay Progressive Artist’s Group,

artists began to write their own manifestos or writings, in
which they declared the main aims of their art and how it
differed from others. In 1963, another group was formed
under the leadership of J. Swaminathan, named Group
1890. Swaminathan also wrote a manifesto for the group,
in which the artists claimed being free from any ideology.
Rather than a set programme, they adopted a fresh look at the
material used in painting, and wrote about the importance
of rough texture and surface in their works as a new artistic
language. It included artists, such as Gulam Mohammed
Sheikh, Jyoti Bhatt, Ambadas, Jeram Patel, and sculptors
like Raghav Kaneria and Himmat Shah. It was a short lived
movement but left an impact on the next generation of artists,
especially, those associated with the Cholamandalam School
near Madras.
Tracing the Modern Indian Art

Modern art in India may have drawn some ideas from
the West but it differed from it significantly. The fact that
modernism as an art movement came to India when it was
still a British colony is hard to deny. This is clear when we
turn to artists like Gaganendranath, Amrita Sher-Gil and
Jamini Roy, who began to be considered as modern during as
early as 1930s. In the West, particularly in Europe, modern
art came up when academic realism in art academies began
to be rejected. These modern artists saw themselves as avant
garde or at the frontier of change from tradition to modernity.
With the phenomenal development of technology after
the Industrial Revolution, the traditional art that decorated
churches and palaces lost its meaning. Early modern
French artists like Edouard Manet, Paul Cezanne, Claude
Monet and others saw themselves working outside the main
art institutions. Cafes and restaurants became important
places for artists, writers, film-makers and poets to meet
and discuss about the role of art in modern life. In India, artists
like F. N. Souza and J. Swaminathan, who rebelled against
art institutions, identified themselves with these western
artists. What made a big difference in the story of modern
Indian art is that modernity and colonialism were closely
connected. Nationalism was not only a political movement
that arose following the Indian Revolt of 1857 but it gave

rise to cultural nationalism. Ideas like swadeshi in art were

held by art historians like Ananda Coomaraswamy around
the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. It
meant that we cannot understand Indian modernism as a
blind imitation of the West but there was a careful process of
selection carried out by the modern artists in India.
We have already discussed how nationalism in art can
be traced to the rise of Bengal School under the leadership
of Abanindranath Tagore in the late nineteenth century
in Calcutta. Subsequently, it took a different form at Kala
Bhavana, Shantiniketan. Artists like Nandalal Bose and
Asit Kumar Haldar, students of Abanindranath Tagore,
were inclined to draw inspiration from past traditions like
the Ajanta frescoes, and Mughal, Rajasthani and Pahari
miniature paintings, among others.
However, it was with artists like Gagendranath Tagore,
Rabindranath Tagore, Jamini Roy, Amrita Sher-Gil,
Ramkinker Baij and Benode Behari Mukherjee that we can
say a distinct modern attitude finds its place in Indian art.
Let us take an overview of how modern art developed in India.
An interesting fact to note about modern Indian art is that

the subject matter in painting and sculpture was largely
drawn from rural India. This is the case even with the Bombay
Progressives and the Calcutta group during 1940s and 1950s.
City and urban life rarely appeared in works of Indian artists.
Perhaps, it was felt that real India lives in villages. The Indian
artists of the 1940s and 1950s rarely looked at their immediate
cultural milieu.
The New Figurative Art and Modern Art from 1980s

Since the 1970s, many artists began to move towards the
use of figures and stories that are easy to recognise. Perhaps,
this was a way to express their concern towards social
problems, following the Indo-Pakistan war in 1971 and the
birth of Bangladesh. While K. G. Subramanyan, Gulam
Mohammed Sheikh and Bhupen Khakar in Baroda started
using storytelling in their paintings, Jogen Chowdhury,
Bikash Bhattacharjee and Ganesh Pyne in West Bengal, too,
painted the social problems that disturbed them.
Like the earlier generations of Indian artists, they, too,
explored old miniature paintings and popular art forms like

calendar and folk art to be able to paint stories that could be

understood by the larger public.
Figures of people and animals could be seen in the work
of printmakers like Jyoti Bhatt (Devi), Laxma Goud (Man
Woman, Tree) and Anupam Sud (Of Walls) as a way to show
conflict between men and women in a world full of social
inequality. Arpita Singh, Nalini Malani, Sudhir Patwardhan
and others turned their attention to the plight of people
living in big cities. Many of these modern artists painted
such urban problems and tried to see the world from the
eyes of the oppressed.
In the 1980s, an important departure in this attitude can
be seen in the Baroda Art School, which came up in the
late 1950s. There was a change in the way artists began to
take interest in their immediate surroundings. Many artists
became aware of their role as citizens in a democracy and
social and political concerns found place in the artistic
production of this period.
They found a way to combine fact with fiction,
autobiography with fantasy and drew their style from other
art historical styles. Gulam Mohammed Sheikh would paint
the busy lanes of the old bazaar in Baroda while invoking a
medieval town in Sienna and the style of Italian painters like
the Lorenzetti brothers. Being a teacher of art history, he
knew how artists painted in earlier times in different parts
of the world.
K. G. Subramanyan, Sheikh’s teacher and a founding
member of the Baroda Art School, had studied in
G. M. Sheikh, Shantiniketan. He had learned about the public role of
City for Sale,
1984.
art from his teachers, Benode Behari Mukherjee and
Victoria and Albert Museum, Ramkinker Baij. He was interested in mural art or art on
London, UK large public buildings, which can be seen by everyone.
He was attracted to the technique of sand
casting, which was known to local Rajasthani
artists. From them, he learned how to create
large-scale relief sculptures by repeating the
basic unit of shape.
Among the many murals he made, there is a
famous one in Kala Bhavana on the outer wall
of a building. He did not want art to remain
confined to art galleries but be made a part of
public buildings for all to see. Such a public

view of art can also be seen in a popular exhibition called

‘Place for People’ in 1981. It was shown in Delhi and Bombay
and had six artists— Bhupen Khakhar, Gulam Mohammed
Sheikh, Vivan Sundaram, Nalini Malani, Sudhir Patwardan
and Jogen Chowdhury. The first two were from Baroda and
an eminent art critic, Geeta Kapur, wrote about it. So far, we
came across manifestos written by artists themselves, but in
this case, the role of the art critic to explain what the artists
wanted to express became important.
A painter like Bhupen Khakhar painted the local barber
or watch repairer with the same earnestness as he painted
the experiences of queer men and their struggle with the
middle class morality. An important contribution of the
Baroda narrative painters was their eclectic interest and
K. G. Subramanyan,
acceptance of popular art forms that are visible everywhere Three Mythological Goddesses,
from trucks on highways to autorickshaws, in the back alleys 1988. Kala Bhavana,
of small towns and in small shops. Santiniketan, West Bengal, India

Taking a clue from Khakhar’s bold move and the Baroda

artists’ celebration of popular art, younger painters in
Mumbai found inspiration in popular images on calendars,
in advertisements and film hoardings. These painters went
to the extent of using photographic images on canvas.
This style is different from what we have seen so far. It is
not modern in the same sense. It relies on double meanings
and experimental technique, in which watercolour is painted
in the style of a photograph.
New Media Art: from 1990s

With liberalisation of the Indian economy in the 1990s,
the impact of globalisation came to be felt first in big cities.
While on one hand, India made advancement in information
technology, it also saw many social and political issues. In such
extraordinary times of economic progress and social unrest,
artists began to look for ways of reacting to the changing times.
Medium like easel painting and sculpture that was created
by artists, who would earlier proudly sign on them as an
expression of their unique creativity, lost importance. Instead,
the newly available medium, i.e., video caught their attention.
Even photography seemed attractive as it allowed multiple
copies to reach numerous people simultaneously.
However, the art form that was increasingly seen as
contemporary was installation. It provided a way to combine
Bhupen Khakhar,
Janata Watch Repairing, painting, sculpture, photography, video and even television in
1972. Private Collection, India one space. This medium, which could spread out into a whole
hall could fully grab the attention from all sides.
On one wall, you could see a painting, while on
another, a video with sculptures hanging from
the wall with photographs displayed in glass
cases. It offered a new immersive experience,
which affected almost all our senses. However,
it was more dependent on technology and it is,
therefore, not surprising that most of the early
installation artists came from big cities — Nalini
Malani from Mumbai and Vivan Sundaram
from Delhi. However, their subject matter was
grim and thought provoking.
Photography, long regarded as the rival
of painting because of its easy copy of world,
gave new ideas to the artists. They developed

a new technique called ‘photorealism’, which was used by

Atul Dodiya in Bapu at Rene Block Gallery, New York. Many
younger artists used oil or acrylic to paint in the manner
of a photograph or television screen. T. V. Santosh and
Shibu Natesan used photorealism to comment on communal
violence on one hand and at the same time, gave us a
glimpse of the new look that cities had acquired with India’s
technological advancements.
Photography could also be used to document changes in
society as artists saw them. Sheba Chachi, Ravi Agarwal and
Atul Bhalla, among others, photographed those, who lived
on the margins of our society, whom we do not notice much
in our day-to-day life — women ascetics, queer people, and
so on. Often, they would express their concern about ecology
like pollution of rivers and urban congestion. Photography
and video have inspired many contemporary artists.
Contemporary art is constantly changing with artists and
curators experimenting with technology and redefining the
role of art to better understand the world we are a part of.
At the turn of the present century, we find that almost all
major cities of the country have art galleries — both private and
public, and artists’ community dedicated towards creating
art using a wide range of media, including digital paintings.
Their experimentations, influences and expressions have
been documented through catalogues. Even social media
has played a major role in evolving local art. As a student of
visual arts one must explore artists’ work in their own cities,
as well as, the cities they visit, collect information about their
works, visit art galleries and learn about their contribution
to our society.
Project
Visit the National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA) or any
other museum in your city or NGMA’s website and work on
a timeline to see different trends in modern Indian art after
1947 in terms of internationalism and indigenous. Students
should also make a note of where the timeline ends. Teachers
should discuss the role of curators and art critics in conveying
the meaning of artworks to the public. The type of material
used by each artist may also be noted.

Exercise
1. Pata Chitra is a form of audio-visual storytelling still
practised in some parts of India. Compare this traditional
form of storytelling with modern storytelling or narratives
adopted by some Baroda artists since 1980s.
2. How does new technology like video and digital media
inspire contemporary artists to experiment with new
themes? Comment on different genres of such art forms
like video, installation and digital art.
3. What do you understand by ‘public art’? Find out about
different communities that live around your residence
or school and their understanding of art. If you have to
prepare a public monument, how will you design it in a way
that people can relate with it?
4. How do you understand the ‘art world’? What are the
different components of the art world and how does it relate
with the art market?

The Lives of Medieval Saints

The Lives of Medieval Saints, a mural in Hindi Bhavana,
Shantiniketan, was created by Benode Behari Mukherjee
around the eve of India’s Independence from Colonial rule,
during 1946–1947. The mural employs the technique of
fresco buono and covers almost 23 metre of the entire upper
half of the three walls of the room.
Mukherjee skillfully reminds us of the syncretic and
tolerant tradition of Indian life as found in the teachings of
great Bhakti poets like Ramanuja, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas
and others.
Despite his poor eyesight, the artist sketched directly
on the walls without compositional sketches. The Lives of
Medieval Saints was painted in modern style, where each
figure is created with bare minimum lines. At the same time,
each figure relates with its neighbour by way of rhythmic
network of lines. In some ways, the mural reminds us of
a painted woven tapestry, a profession that many of these
saints belonged to. He was one of the earliest artists in
modern India to realise the potential of a mural to become
public art.

Mother Teresa
This painting by M. F. Husain of the saintly figure, Mother
Teresa, belongs to the 1980s. It is painted in a style typically
of this artist, who created a new language of modern Indian
art. The figure of the faceless Mother appears several times,
each time holding a baby with a lot of attention given to the
hand. The central figure of the seated Mother has a grown
up man lying on her lap horizontally. This speaks of the
artist’s familiarity with European art, especially, the famous
sculpture of Italian Renaissance master, Michelangelo’s
Pieta. On the other hand, the flat shapes used to depict
the scene are modern. They appear like a collage of paper
cutouts. The artist is not interested in showing us the life
of Mother Teresa realistically but uses bare suggestions. We,
as viewers, have to follow the clues left by the artist to make
sense of the story. It is the kneeling figure of the woman on
one side that gives us a hint that the story about healing and
nursing the helpless is unfolding in India.

Haldi Grinder
Amrita Sher-Gil painted Haldi Grinder in 1940. This was
the time when she was seeking inspiration from India’s
idyllic rural scene. Such a scene, depicting Indian women
busy in a traditional activity of grinding dry turmeric, had
to be painted in Indian style. It is not surprising that she
used bright, saturated pigments to paint this work. Given
her training in modern art in Europe, she was quick to see
parallels between miniature traditions of north India and
modern art of Paul Gaugin, an artist she admired. This is
evident in the way she has placed bright colour patches
close to each other and created shapes of figures by colour
contrast and not outline. Such a style of painting reminds us
of, as for instance, the Basohli paintings from north India.
The women and trees are painted as flat shapes. Sher-Gil is
not interested in creating any depth in the landscape and
prefers a semi-abstract pattern as a modern artist.

Fairy Tales from Purvapalli

This is a painting using water and oil colours on acrylic sheet
and was created by K. G. Subramanyan in 1986. This is the
work of the prolific writer, scholar, teacher and art historian,
who draws inspiration from his familiarity with different art
traditions from India and the world. The title refers to his
home in Purvapalli, a locality in Shantiniketan, from where
his imagination seems to be travelling all around the world.
His imaginary landscape consists of a strange world, in which
birds and animals rub shoulders with humans. There are
unusual trees that grow feathers in place of leaves. This style
of painting is sketchy and colours are applied as in quick
brush strokes. The palette remains earthy — ochres, greens
and browns. The male and female figures on top reminds us
of urban folk art like the Kalighat painting that was popular
in Colonial Calcutta in the late nineteenth century. Again, as
in traditional miniature paintings, figures are arranged on
the top of other rather than behind each other, creating a flat
space, a sign of modern art.

Whirlpool
This was a print made by India’s celebrated printmaker
Krishna Reddy in 1963. It is a captivating composition
created out of various shades of blues. Each colour blends
into the other to create a powerful web of design. It is the
result of a new technique in printmaking that he developed
along with a well-known printmaker, Stanley William Hayter,
in the famous studio called ‘Atelier 17’. This method came to
be known as ‘viscosity printing’, in which different colours
are applied on the same metal printing plate. Each colour
is mixed with linseed oil in varied concentration to ensure
that colours do not run into each other. The print’s subject
matter, dealing with water current, aptly captures the
technique based on understanding how water and oil behave
with each other. This celebrated print is in the collection of
the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, USA.

Children
This is a graphic print on paper done with monochromatic
etching with aquatint made by Somnath Hore (1921–2006)
in 1958. The experience of the Bengal Famine of 1943, left a
lasting impression on him. His early sketches and drawings
were spot and life drawings of hapless victims of the famine,
suffering and dying peasants, sick and infirm destitute,
and portraits of men, women, children and animals. These
line drawings, which followed representational contours
and tonal devices, were seldom adopted. In this etching,
images of children were taken from the experience of the
famine of 1943, which was etched in his memory. This is a
close knit composition with five standing figures, having no
background, perspective or surrounding situation as the
figures are talking to themselves. The figures are linear,
each with a skeletal torso of a huge malaria spleen and
ribcage for the thorax. Supporting a huge skull, with a small
face, the whole body is seen resting on two stick-like legs.
Strong definitional lines of straight linear gestures, which
etched each rib of the thorax and each cheekbone, appears
as deep gashing wounds. The bone structure just beneath
the skin renders the effect of malnutrition on the people.
It creates narrative quality in the picture without taking
recourse to placing the figures in a situation of supporting
visual data, following reductionist and simplification method.
These children represent the most vulnerable section of
the society. Somanth Hore’s some other artworks include
Peasants’ Meeting, Wounded Animal, The Child, Mother with
Child, Mourners and the Unclad
Beggar Family.

Devi
This is an etching on paper made by Jyoti Bhatt (1934) in
1970. He studied painting, printmaking and photography,
and was inspired by his mentor K. G. Subramanyan. He
carved out an art language based on folk traditions and
popular practices. He brings together many visual elements
into the a composite narrative. His works occupy tenuous
balance between space tradition and modernity, where
the past as a vibrant repository of forms is translated into
dynamics of the contemporary. In this print, pictorial image
of Devi is re-cast and re-contextualised with a linear drawing
of the frontal face of a woman, folk motifs and patterns.
The portrait of Devi is centrally placed as an iconic image.
The two-dimensionality of words and motifs around the
portrait expresses the Tantric philosophy, evoking the power
of self-evolution and self-involution, seeing reality as the
intertwining dynamic and static principle of Shakti. Bhatt
also made artworks like Kalpvruksha, Self-Portrait, Forgotten
Monuments, Sita’s Parrot, Still Life with Two Lamps, Scattered
Image under the Warm Sky, Tirthankara, etc.

Of Walls
This is an etching made from zinc plate and printed on paper
made by Anupam Sud in 1982. She had studied printmaking
at the Slade School of Fine Art, University College, London,
in the early 1970s. When she returned to India, she was
drawn to its everyday reality. Apart from her deep interest in
social problems faced by people, belonging to marginalised
communities of the society, she was keen to understand
them artistically. Notice how she creates an interesting form
of a woman by hollowing out the face. The absence of face
gives it a brooding and sad expression. The painting depicts
the figure of a lonely woman seated on the pavement before
a dilapidated wall. In the foreground, we only get a glimpse
of the lower part of a poor man sleeping on the ground,
contrasting with the clothed woman, and adds to the sadness
of the print.

Rural South Indian Man–Woman

This is an etching print on paper made by Laxma Goud
(1940...) in 2017. Laxma Goud, a fine draftsman and
printmaker, studied mural painting and printmaking at
M. S. University, Baroda, and was influenced by his teacher
K. G. Subramanyan’s experiments with the narrative mode
and figuration of visual traditions, classical, folk and
popular cultures. He tries to erase sharp demarcations
between major and minor arts, thus, giving it linguistic
breath. This has helped him straddle various mediums, such
as glass painting, terracotta and bronze. In this etching,
human figures are shown with trees in the background. It is
based on his childhood memories immersed in nature. The
work is a combination of highly ornate contours, realistic
depiction of the peasants and a gentle stylization that gives
a touch of puppets to the figures represented in the print.
This print is line-based and coloured. Some of his other
artworks are Woman, Man, Landscape of Turkey, Untitled,
Xiyan China, etc.
1_7.Modern Art Painting.indd 121 15-12-2021 11:45:21

Triumph of Labour
This is an open air large-scale sculpture in bronze made by
Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury (1899–1975). It was installed
at Marina Beach, Chennai, on the eve of the Republic Day
in 1959. It shows four men trying to move a rock, rendering
the importance and contribution of human labour in nation
building. Unconquerable men are wrestling with nature,
doggedly, indeterminately and powerfully. It is an image of
labour against the elements of nature, a well-known romantic
subject of the nineteenth century. Chowdhury loved to dwell
on the strong musculature of his workers, revealing their
bones, veins, flesh, etc. He portrayed the extreme physical
effort of loosening a massive, immovable rock. Human figures
are installed in a way that create a curiosity in us as viewers.
It attracts the viewers to see it from all sides. The image of
group labour is placed on a high pedestal, thereby, replacing
the notion of portraits of kings or British dignitaries.

Santhal Family
This is an open air large-scale sculpture created by
Ramkinker Baij in 1937. It is made out of metal armature
and cement mixed with pebbles, and placed in the compound
of Kala Bhavana, Shantiniketan, India’s first national art
school. It shows a scene of a Santhal man, carrying his
children in a double basket joined by a pole, and his wife
and dog walking alongside. Perhaps, it speaks of the family
migrating from one region to another, carrying all their frugal
possessions. This must be an everyday scene for the artist
living amidst the rural landscape. However, he gives it a
monumental status. The sculpture is made in the round,
which means that we can see it from all sides. It is placed on
a low pedestal, making us feel as if we are part of the same
space. The significance of this work is that it is regarded as the
first public modernist sculpture in India. We do not need to
go to a museum to see it as it is placed outside Kala Bhavana.
The material of which it is made of is important. The artist
has avoided traditional medium like marble, wood or stone,
and has preferred cement, the symbol of modernisation.
1_7.Modern Art Painting.indd 123 14-12-2021 12:37:16

Cries Un-heard
This is a sculpture in bronze made by Amarnath Sahgal in
1958. Although the artist only uses abstraction, in which
three figures are stick-like and shown in flat rhythmical
planes, yet it is easy to understand them as a family — husband,
wife and child. They are shown flinging their arms above and
crying out for help in vain. Through the medium of sculpture,
their helplessness expressed by the hand gesture is turned
into a permanent shape. It is possible for us to read this work
as socialist, whereby, the artist pays homage to millions of
destitute families in need of help, whose cries fall on deaf
ears. None other than socialist poet, Mulk Raj Anand, wrote
movingly about this work, which now is in the collection of
the National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi.

Ganesha
This is a sculpture in oxidised copper made by
P. V. Janakiram in 1970, and is in the collection of NGMA,
Delhi. He has used sheets of copper to create pictorial
sculpture as free-standing forms, and ornamented their
surface with linear elements. Metal sheets are beaten into
concave planes on which are welded linear details. These
linear elements work as facial features and decorative motifs
to suggest religious icons, inviting intimate contemplation.
Janakiram is influenced by the ancient temple sculpture
of South India. The image of Ganesha, crafted frontally,
lends an important indigenous character of cave and temple
sculpture. In this sculpture, Ganesha is palying vina, a
musical instrument. Details on the sculpture and technical
blending of material, nevertheless, reveal his meticulous
craftsmanship. He also experimented with the ‘open-
endedness’ quality of indigenous workmanship. Ganesha
reveals his understanding of traditional imagery. He has
elaborated linear details into overall form. The sculpture is
conceived in terms of linear silhouettes instead of emphasis
on three-dimensionality, despite its volume. Rhythm and
growth are incorporated through lyrical stylisation. It is also
an amalgamation of folk and traditional craftsmanship.

Vanshri
This artwork was created by Mrinalini Mukherjee in 1994.
She uses an unusual material to make this sculpture. She
uses hemp-fibre, a medium that she experimented with from
the early 1970s. Going by the intricate way, she has knotted
together and woven a complex shape out of jute fibre. It
seems to be the result of years of handling the new material.
For many years, her works of this kind were dismissed as
craft. Only recently her fibre works have attracted a lot of
attention for originality and boldness of imagination. In
this work, entitled Vanshri or ‘Goddess of the Woods’, she
turns this ordinary material into a monumental form. If you
carefully look at the figure’s body, you can notice that it has
a face with an inward expression and protruding lips, and
above all, a powerful presence of natural divinity.

The Living Art Traditions of India 8
T here has always been a timeless tradition of art forms,
which have been practised for different reasons among
people, living far from urban life in interior terrains of forests,
deserts, mountains and villages. So far, we have studied art
of a certain time, a period named after a place or dynasties,
who ruled different parts of the Indian subcontinent for few
hundred years or so. But what about common people? Were
they not creative? Was there no art that existed around them?
From where did the artists come to the courts or patrons?
What did they use to make before coming to cities? Or even
now, who are the unknown artists making handicrafts in
faraway deserts, mountains, villages and rural areas, who
have never been to an art school or design institute or even
attended formal schooling?
Our country has always been a repository of indigenous
knowledge, which has been transferred from one generation
to another. Artists in each generation have created the best
of works out of available material and technology. Many
scholars named these art forms as minor arts, utility art,
folk art, tribal art, people’s art, ritual art, crafts, and so
on. We know that these art forms have existed from time
immemorial. We have seen the examples in pre-historic
cave paintings or works of pottery, terracotta, bronze, ivory,
etc., of the Indus period as well. During the early history
and its subsequent times, we find references
of artists’ communities everywhere. They
made pots and dresses, jewellery and ritual
or votive sculptures. They decorated their
walls and floors and did many more artistic
things to fulfill their daily needs and supply
their works to local markets at the same time.
There is an instinctive aesthetic expression in
their creations. There is symbolism, specific
use of motifs, materials, colours and methods
of making. There is a thin line between art of
1_8.LivingArt Traditions of India.indd 127 01 Sep 2020 03:00:57 PM

the people and crafts as both involve creativity, instinct,

necessities and aesthetics.
Even now, in many pockets, we find such artifacts. In
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, a new perspective
emerged among modern artists when they looked at
traditional art forms around them as sources of inspiration
for their creative pursuits in India, as well as, the West. In
India, post-Independence a revival of handicraft industry
took place. The sector became organised for commercial
production. Apart from continued practice, it gained a
unique identity. With the forming of States and Union
Territories, each one of them showcased their unique art
forms and products in their respective State emporia.
The art and craft traditions of India showcase the tangible
heritage of the country with history of more than five
thousand years. Though we know many of these, let us talk
about few of them. By and large, there has been a religious
or ritualistic overtone with richer symbolism, utilitarian and
decorative aspects, associated with the day-to-day practices
at home to production on a large scale.
Painting Tradition
Among the many popular traditions of painting, Mithila or
Madhubani painting of Bihar, Warli painting of Maharshtra,
Pithoro Painting of North Gujarat and western Madhya
Pradesh, Pabuji ki Phad from Rajasthan, Pichhwai of
Nathdwara in Rajasthan, Gond and Sawara Paintings of
Madhya Pradesh, Pata Chitra of Odisha and Bengal, etc., are
few examples. Here, a few of them have been discussed.
Mithila painting
Among the most known contemporary painterly art forms is
Mithila art that derives its name from Mithila, the ancient
Videha and birthplace of Sita. Also called Madhubani painting
after the nearest district capital, it is a widely recognised folk
art tradition. It is presumed that for centuries, women living
in this region have painted figures and designs on the walls
of their mud houses for ceremonial occasions, particularly,
weddings. People of this area see the origin of this art form at
the time of Princess Sita getting married to Lord Rama.
These paintings, characterised by bright colours, are
largely painted in three areas of the house — central or outer


courtyards, eastern part of the house, which is the dwelling

place of Kuladevi, usually, Kali, and a room in the southern
part of the house, which houses the most significant images.
Various armed gods and animals or images of women at
work like carrying waterpots or winnowing grain, etc., are
vividly portrayed in the outer central courtyard. The inner
verandah, where the family shrine — devasthana or gosain
ghar is located, griha devatas and kula devatas are painted.
In the recent past, many paintings are done on fabric, paper,
pots, etc., for commercial purposes.
The most extraordinary and colourful painting, however,
is done in the part of the house known as the kohbar ghar
or inner room, where magnificent representations of kohbar,
a lotus with a stalk in full bloom having metaphoric and
tantric connotation along with images of gods and goddesses
are painted on freshly plastered walls of the room.
Among other themes that are painted are episodes from
the Bhagvata Purana, Ramayana, stories of Shiva-Parvati,
Durga, Kali and Rasa-Lila of Radha and Krishna. Mithila
artists do not like empty spaces. They fill in the entire space
decoratively with elements from nature like birds, flowers,
animals, fish, snakes, the Sun and the moon, which often
have symbolic intent, signifying love, passion, fertility,
eternity, well-being and prosperity. Women paint with
bamboo twigs to which some cotton swab, rice straw or fibre
is attached. In earlier days, they made colour from mineral
stones and organic things, such as phalsa and kusum
flowers, bilwa leaves, kajal, turmeric, etc.
Warli painting
The Warli community inhabit the west coast of Northern
Maharashtra around the north Sahyadri range with a large
concentration in the district of Thane. Married women play a
central role in creating their most important painting called
Chowk to mark special occasions. Closely associated with
the rituals of marriage, fertility, harvest and new season of
sowing, Chowk is dominated by the figure of mother goddess,
Palaghat, who is chiefly worshipped as the goddess of fertility
and represents the corn goddess, Kansari.


She is enclosed in a small square frame decorated with

‘pointed’ chevrons along the outer edges that symbolise
Hariyali Deva, i.e., the God of Plants. Her escort and guardian
is visualised as a headless warrior, riding a horse or standing
beside her with five shoots of corn springing from his neck,
and hence, called Panch Sirya Devata (five-headed god). He
also symbolises the guardian of the fields, Khetrapal.
The central motif of Palaghat is surrounded by scenes of
everyday life, portraying acts of hunting, fishing, farming,
dancing, mythological stories of animals, where the tiger is
conspicuously visible, scenes of buses plying and the busy
urban life of Mumbai as people of Warli see around them.
These paintings are traditionally painted with rice flour on
earth coloured walls of their homes. As mentioned earlier, are
painted to promote fertility, these paintings avert diseases,
propitiate the dead, and fulfill the demands of spirits. A
bamboo stick, chewed at the end, is used as the paintbrush.
Gond painting
Gonds of Madhya Pradesh have a rich tradition with their
chiefs ruling over Central India. They worshipped nature.
Paintings of Gonds of Mandla and its surrounding regions
have recently been transformed into a colourful depiction
of animals, humans and flora. The votive paintings are
geometric drawings done on the walls of huts, portraying
Krishna with his cows surrounded by gopis with pots on
their heads to which young girls and boys make offerings.


Pithoro painting
Painted by Rathva Bhils of the Panchmahal region in Gujarat
and Jhabua in the neighbouring State of Madhya Pradesh,
these paintings are done on the walls of houses to mark
special or thanksgiving occasions. These are large wall
paintings, representing rows of numerous and magnificently
coloured deities depicted as horse riders.
The rows of horse rider deities represent the cosmography
of the Rathvas. The uppermost section with riders represents
the world of gods, heavenly bodies and mythical creatures.
An ornate wavy line separates this section from the lower
region, where the wedding procession of Pithoro is depicted
with minor deities, kings, goddess of destiny, an archetypal
farmer, domestic animals, and so on, which represent
the earth.


Pata painting
Done on fabric, palm leaf or paper, scroll painting is another
example of art form practised in different parts of the country,
especially, Gujarat and Rajasthan in the West and Odisha
and West Bengal in East. It is also known as Pata, Pachedi,
Phad, etc.
Bengal patas comprise the practice of painting on cloth
(pata) and storytelling in regions of West Bengal. It is the
most receptive oral tradition, constantly seeking new themes
and formulating novel responses to major incidents in
the world.
The vertically painted pata becomes a prop used by
a patua (performer) for performance. Patuas, also called
chitrakars, belong to communities largely settled around
Midnapore, Birbhum and Bankura regions of West Bengal,
parts of Bihar and Jharkhand. Handling the pata is their
hereditary profession. They travel around villages, displaying
the paintings and singing the narratives that are painted.
Performances happen in common spaces of the village. The
patua narrates three to four stories each time. After the
performance, the patua is given alms or gift in cash or kind.
Puri patas or paintings evidently acquire their claim
to recognition from the temple city of Puri in Odisha. It
largely comprises the pata (initially, done on palm leaf
and cloth but now done on paper as well). A range of
themes are painted, such as the daily and festival veshas
(attires) of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra (e.g.,
Bada Shringar Vesha, Raghunath Vesha, Padma Vesha,
Krishna–Balaram Vesha, Hariharan Vesha, etc); Rasa
paintings, Ansara patti (this substitutes the icons in the
Garbhagriha, when they are removed for cleaning and fresh
colouring is done after Snanayatra); Jatri patti (for pilgrims to
take away as memorabilia and put them in personal temples
at home), episodes from the myths of Jagannath, such as
the Kanchi Kaveri Pata and Thia-badhia pata, a combination
of aerial and lateral view of the temple with the icons and
temples around or depiction of festivals around it.


Patachitras are done on small strips of cotton cloth, which

is prepared by coating the cloth with soft white stone powder
and glue made from tamarind seeds. There is a practice of
making the borders first. A sketch of the figures is, then, made
directly with a brush and flat colours are applied. Colours,
such as white, black, yellow and red are, usually, used. After
completion, the painting is held over charcoal fire and lacquer
is applied to the surface to make it water resistant and lend
sheen to it. The colours are organic and locally procured. For
example, black is obtained from lamp black, yellow and red
from haritali and hingal stone, respectively, and white from
powdered conch shells. Palm manuscripts are illustrated on
a palm variety called Khar-taad. Paintings on these are not
painted with brush but incised by a steel stylus, and then,
filled in with ink, and sometimes, tinted with paint. There
may also be some text accompanying these images. There
are questions on whether to consider the palm leaf tradition
a part of folk or sophisticated art as it has a lineage that
stylistically connects it to the mural and palm leaf traditions
of the eastern and other parts of the country.
Phads of Rajasthan
Phads are long, horizontal, cloth scrolls painted to honour
folk deities of pastoral communities inhabiting the region
around Bhilwara in Rajasthan. For such communities,
safeguarding their livestock is the foremost concern. Such
concerns purposely reflect in their myths, legends and
worship patterns. Among their gods are defied cattle heroes,
who are brave men who sacrificed their lives while protecting
the community’s cattle from robbers. Designated by the
broad term bhomia, these heroes are honoured, worshiped
and remembered for their acts of martyrdom. Bhomias, such
as Gogaji, Jejaji, Dev Narayan, Ramdevji and Pabhuji, have
inspired widespread cult following among the communities
of Rabaris, Gujjars, Meghwals, Regars and others.
Illustrating the valorous tales of these bhomias, the
phads, are carried by bhopas, the itinerant bards, who travel
the territory, displaying them while narrating tales and
singing devotional songs associated with these hero-deities in
night-long storytelling performances. A lamp is held against
the phad to illuminate images that are being spoken about.
The bhopa and his companion perform to the accompaniment


of musical instruments, such as ravanahattha and veena,

and employ the Khyal style of singing. Through the phads
and phad banchan, the community remembers the hero as a
martyr and keeps his story alive.
Phads, however, are not painted by the bhopas. They
have traditionally been painted by a caste called ‘Joshis’ who
have been painters in the courts of the kings of Rajasthan.
These painters specialised in court patronised miniature
paintings. Hence, the association of skilled practitioners,
bard musicians and court artists place phads higher than
other similar cultural traditions.
Sculptural Traditions
These refer to the popular traditions of making sculptures
in clay (terracotta), metal and stone. There are numerous
such traditions across the country. Some of them are
discussed here.
Dhokra casting
Among the popular sculptural traditions, Dhokra or metal
sculptures made from lost wax or cire perdue technique is one
of the most prominent metal crafts of Bastar, Chhattisgarh,
parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Midnapore in West
Bengal. It involves casting of bronze through the lost wax
method. The metal craftsmen of Bastar are called ghadwa.
In popular etymology, the term ‘ghadwa’ means the act of
shaping and creating. It is probably this that gives the casters
their name. Traditionally, the ghadwa craftsmen, besides
supplying the villagers with utensils of daily use also made
jewellery, icons of locally revered deities and votive offerings
in the form of snakes, elephants, horses, ritual pots, etc.
Subsequently, with a decrease in demand for utensils and
traditional ornaments in the community, these craftsmen
began creating new (non-traditional) forms and numerous
decorative objects.
Dhokra casting is an elaborate process. Black soil from
the riverbank is mixed with rice husk and kneaded with
water. The core figure or mould is made from this. On drying,
it is covered with a second layer of cow dung mixed with clay.
Resin collected from saal tree is, then, heated in a clay pot
till it becomes liquid to which some mustard oil is also added
and allowed to boil. The boiling liquid is, then, strained


through a cloth, collected and kept in a metal vessel over

water. As a result the resin solidifies but remains soft and
malleable. It is, then, taken apart in small pieces, heated
slightly over low burning coal and stretched into fine threads
or coils. Such threads are joined together to form strips. The
dried clay form is, then, overlaid with these resin strips or
coils and all decorative details and eyes, nose, etc., are added
to the figures. The clay form is, then, covered with layers —
first of fine clay, then, with a mixture of clay and cow dung,
and finally, with clay obtained from ant hills mixed with rice
husk. A receptacle is, then, made from the same clay and
fixed to the lower portion of the image. On the other side, a
cup filled with metal pieces is sealed with the clay-rice husk
mixture. For firing in the furnace, saal wood or its coal is
preferred as fuel. The cup, containing metal, is placed in the
bottom with clay moulds over it, and covered with firewood
and potshards. Air is blown continuously into the furnace for
about 2 to 3 hours till the metal turns into a molten state.
The moulds are, then, taken out with a pair of tongs, turned
upside down, given a brisk shake and the metal is poured
through the receptacle. The molten metal flows exactly into
the space once occupied by resin, which would by now have
evaporated. The moulds are allowed to cool and the clay layer
is hammered away to reveal the metal image.
Terracotta
The more ubiquitous sculptural medium prevalent across the
country is terracotta. Usually, made by potters, terracotta
pieces are votives or offered to local deities or used during
rituals and festivals. They are made from local clay found
on riverbanks or ponds. The terracotta pieces are baked for
durability. Whether it is Manipur or Assam in the North-East,
Kuchchha in Western India, Hills in the North, Tamil Nadu
in the South, Gangetic plains or Central India, there is a
variety of terracotta made by people of different regions. They
are moulded, modeled by hands or made on a potter’s wheel,
coloured or decorated. Their forms and purposes are often
similar. They are either the images of gods or goddesses. Like
Ganesh, Durga or the local deity, animals, birds, insects, etc.


Glossary
Academic realism A style of painting and sculpture produced under the

or academic art influence of European academies or universities. In
India, it arrived under the aegis of Colonialism, when
art academies were established in Calcutta (now,
Kolkata), Madras (now, Chennai) and Lahore by the
middle of the nineteenth century.
Abstraction and The process of taking away or removing characteristics
abstract art from something in order to reduce it to a set of
essential characteristics. Abstract artists exaggerate
or simplify forms suggested by the world around
them. This form of art is identified with modernism
but has existed before it.
Aesthete A person, who appreciates art and beauty and is
sensitive towards it.
Art critic A person, who specialises in evaluating and critiquing
art, art practice and production. The reviews are
usually, published in newspapers, magazines, books
on websites.
Avant garde Meaning ‘advance guard’ or ‘vanguard’, it refers to
people or works that are experimental or innovative,
particularly, with respect to art, culture, and politics.
It stands for art that does not necessarily accept
existing norms of aesthetic or political theories. In
India, it has been associated with cultural practices
of political radicals and liberal intellects.
Bibliophile A person who collects and has love for books.
Chiaroscuro The treatment of light and shade in a drawing
or painting.
Colophon page Consists of a brief statement about the publication of
a book — place of publication, name of the publication,
date of publication etc.
Community art Art organised around a community situation. It
is characterised by interaction or dialogue with
the community. The term came into use in the
late 1960s, when it grew as a movement in the United
States, Canada, UK, Ireland and Australia. In India,
artists like Navjot Altaf and K. P. Soman engaged
with it around 2000. They have worked with local
communities on social themes like exploitation, the
rural – urban divide and caste disparities.
Connoisseur A person who has immense knowledge in arts, food or
drinks and can appreciate the same.
1_9.Glossary.indd 144 01 Sep 2020 03:53:39 PM

Glossary 145
Cubism The Cubist movement was associated with the works

of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque done in the year
1907. They were greatly inspired by the traditional
African sculpture and the paintings of Paul Cézanne.
In cubist artworks, objects are segmented for
analysis, where instead of depicting objects from one
angle of view, the artist depicts the subject taking
a number of viewpoints.
Curators Traditionally meaning a keeper of a cultural heritage
institution (e.g., archive, gallery, library, museum, or
garden), in contemporary art, a curator is a person
who has to devise a strategy for display of artworks
thematically selected. A curator is expected to address
the viewing public, and hence, is responsible for
writing labels, catalogue, essays and other supporting
contents for the exhibition.
Digital artist Someone who uses digital technology like computer
graphics, digital photography and computer assisted
painting in the production of art, which has the
possibility of mass production of artwork.
Easel painting A painting executed on portable support, such
as a panel or canvas. Its technique dates back to
the Egyptian and Roman periods. But with the
introduction of oil painting, it became popular in
Europe from the thirteenth century.
Etching Opposite to woodcut, the raised portions of an etching
remain blank while the crevices hold the ink. In pure
etching, copper, zinc or steel plate is covered with wax
or acrylic ground. An artist, then, draws through the
ground with a pointed etching needle. The exposed
metal lines are, then, etched by dipping the plate in a
bath of etchant (e.g., nitric acid or ferric chloride). The
etchant ‘bites’ into the exposed metal, leaving behind
lines in the plate. The remaining ground is, then,
cleaned off the plate. To make a print, the plate is inked
all over, and then, the ink is wiped off the surface,
leaving only ink in the etched lines. The plate is, then,
put through a high-pressure printing press together
with a sheet of paper (often moistened to soften it). The
paper picks up the ink from the etched lines, making
a print. The process can be repeated many times and
several impressions (copies) can be printed.
Expressionism The term refers to an art that expresses intense
emotion. Expressionism is an artistic style, in which
an artist attempts to depict the emotional experience
rather than physical reality. Expressionists distorted
reality through exaggeration, vigorous and visible
brushwork and strong colour in order to express their
ideas or emotions.

Folio An individual leaf of paper or parchment, either loose

as one of the series or forming part of a volume, which
is numbered on the front side only.
Foreshortening Showing or portraying an object to be closer than
it actually is or having less depth or distance as an
effect of perspective or angle of vision.
Genre A style or category of art, music or literature.
Gouache Opaque watercolour is a type of water media, paint
consisting of natural pigment, water, a binding agent,
and sometimes, additional material. It is an opaque
method of painting.
Illusionism A style, in which artistic representations are made to
resemble real objects.
Indigenous art Arts and the ideas that draw inspiration from one’s
own past and culture, and traditional practices, which
have roots in one’s own past.
Installation art A contemporary art form that does not necessarily
break away from conventional media like painting
and sculpture but combines most heterogeneous
material to transform the perception of space
and plasticity. It may use everyday material as
also technology like video or internet to create
a multi-sensorial impact on viewers and not
just visual.
Internationalism A trend in art that openly embraced art movements
from Europe and the United States. Indian artists in
the 1950s after Independence aspired to modernism
in their practice and qualified as informed partners of
world modernists.
Kalam Style of painting.
Linocut A relief printing process that makes use of a thin
layer of linoleum (can also be mounted on a wooden
block) and is easy to cut as it is a soft medium.
Lithography A technique that emerged by the end of the
eighteenth century. A porous surface, normally
limestone, is used for making lithographs. The
image is drawn on the limestone with a greasy
medium. Acid is applied to transfer the grease to
the limestone. It leaves the image ‘burned’ into the
surface. Gum Arabic, a substance soluble in water,
is then applied, sealing the surface of the stone not
covered with the drawing medium.
Mandi Local market for wholesale trade.

Glossary 147
Modernism A phenomenon that modified and changed human

lives. It has a universal approach and tries to apply
that on all aspects of human life. Since its advent in
the last decade of the nineteenth century, modernism
would guide the manner in which human thought
could process. The concept of modernism, which
was largely developed as a philosophy and practice,
found its way in colonised non-European countries,
America, Africa and Australia.
Mural An artwork done directly on wall, ceiling or any other
large two-dimensional surface. It is one of the oldest
formats of art, dating back to the pre-historic caves.
Mysticism Religious practices with certain ideologue, ethics,
rites, myths, legends, magic, etc.
Naturalism A style and theory of representation based on accurate
depiction of detail.
Neem kalam Line drawing.
New media An art form that creates artworks with new media
technologies, such as digital art, computer graphics,
virtual art and interactive art technologies, among
others. It sees itself in sharp contrast to traditional
media arts like painting and sculpture.
Performance art A phenomenon that happened in the 1970s in the
West, when artists wanted to use bodies, often their
own to create an artwork. Either their performance
was live, enacted before an audience or recorded, and
thus, mediated by technology.
Physiognomy A person’s facial features or expressions or general
appearance. It refers to an object as well.
Pintadoes Painted in Spanish (may be on body).
Popular art An art form possible by technology of reproduction
so that multiple copies of art can be accessed by a
large number of people. Calendar art is an example.
Popular artists belong to high art and show their
works in art galleries but adopt themes that relate
with everyday life.
Printmaking The process of making works of art by printing
on paper. It is a process of creating prints with an
element of originality, rather than just making a
photographic reproduction. Prints are created from a
single original surface, known as ‘matrix’. Each piece
produced is not a copy but considered ‘an original’
since it is not a reproduction of another work of art.
Realism An artistic movement that emerged in France during
mid-nineteenth century.

Renaissance art The style in art (painting, sculpture, decorative arts

and architecture) and literature that emerged in Italy
(Europe) in about 1400, which revived the features
and character of classical antiquity. The revival of
European art and architecture under the influence
of classical models during the fourteenth and
sixteenth centuries.
Sfumato The technique of allowing tones and colour to shade
gradually in one another, producing softened outlines
or hazy forms.
Video art Art that uses kinetic images in video format with or
without audio data. It emerged during the 1960s
and 1970s in the West and became popular in India
around 2000.

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CONTENTS

1. Prehistoric Rock Paintings 1

2. Arts of the Indus Valley 9

3. Arts of the Mauryan Period 19

4. Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and 27

5. Later Mural Traditions 61

6. Temple Architecture and Sculpture 69

7. Indian Bronze Sculpture 103

8. Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic 109

Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of

It is interesting to know that the first discovery of rock

Hand-linked dancing figures, Lakhudiyar,

paintings belong to late historical, early

geometric patterns. The green paintings are of dancers

Pottery and metal tools are also shown. But

Hunting scenes predominate in Mesolithic paintings. This is one such scene

of paintings might have given man a sense of power over

The paintings of individual animals show the mastery

size; the mouth is of average size with close-cut moustache

Mother goddess, terracotta A terracotta figurine

sculptures. They mainly consist of human and animal

Beads and Ornaments

Perforated pot Pottery

sexes, women wore girdles, earrings and anklets. Hoards

Beadwork and jewellery items

Valley that spinning of cotton and wool was very common.

PAINTED EARTHEN JAR

Pillars, Sculptures and Rock-cut Architecture

and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses

Due to the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, stupas

Elephant, Dhauli Lomus Rishi cave-entrance detail

LION CAPITAL, SARNATH

The Lion Capital discovered more than a hundred years ago

The life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk)

was collective in nature and at times only a specific portion

understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing the

Jataka panel , Bharhut Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut

rescued by the deer is also shown along with the king

in the contours gets reduced and images are given

between the two legs as well as by using bents in the body

Meditating Buddha, Gandhar, Bodhisattva, Gandhar, fifth–sixth century CE

Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE

Buddhist Monuments of South India

Amaravati Site Museum, National Museum, New Delhi and

absolute attention has been paid to the clarity of form

Construction of a large number of stupas does not mean

Cave Tradition in Western India

Unfinished chaitya cave, Kanheri Chaitya hall, Karla

with a stone-screen wall as a facade.

has a hundred and eight excavated caves. The most

Sculptural panel in the veranda of Cave No. 2, Ajanta

Figures in these caves are painted

Painted ceiling, Cave No. 10, Ajanta

Paintings, Cave No. 9, Ajanta

painting were simultaneous processes and dating of the

paintings such as Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka

Courtyard, Kailash Temple, Seated Buddha, chaitya hall,

It is also unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e.,

Gajasur Shiva, Cave No.15, Ellora

forms according to Puranic narrative are depicted. Among

Elephanta Caves and Other Sites

Entrance to Elephanta Caves