PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

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 VESSEL
DESIGN

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 LLOYD E. BROWNELL

Professor of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering

University of Michigan

EDWIN H. YOUNG

Associate Professor
of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering

University of Michigan
 '

Copyright© 1959 by John WIiey & SoM, Inc.

All rig,hts re,e"'fd. ,Tbtt; bool; or any part
tMleof mvlill not he rqwduoed in d'J form
without the WJittiet'I ~ o a of tho publisher,

Ub,ory of Congr•o Catalog Co,d Numbe-r1 59-5882

Print•d in th• Unite-d Stot.s of Am•tko
 To our wives
Janet Brownell
and
Signe Young
(
 PREFACE

This book was prepared primarily for senior and graduate students in engineer-
ing. The needs of design engineers and consultants as well as those of students
were considered in selecting the topics and methods of presentation. The book
is based upon our experiences gained in industrial design offices and in 16 years of
teaching courses in equipment design at the University of Michigan. We both
have supervised research and development of process equipment, and have acted
as consultants in this field.
The book was originally prepared as class notes, which have been used for
about ten years in teaching courses in process equipment design at the senior and
graduate levels in the Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Department of
the University of Michigan. Typical problems have involved the design of
fractionating towers, trays, vacuum crystallizers, condensers, heat exchangers,
high-pressure reactors, and other types of process equipment.
The design of process equipment requires a thorough knowledge of the func-
tional process, the materials involved, and the methods of fabrication. The
design factors to be considered are many and varied and, in most cases, so inter-
wove11: that exact methods of attack are often impossible to formulate. Com-
promises are necessary and the design engineer often has only experience in
similar or related fields to guide him in his choice. Thus, the engineer must
realize that considerable engineering judgment is required in applying all recom-
mended specific methods of design.
One purpose of this book is to consolidate the basic concepts, industrial prac-
tices, and theoretical relationships useful in the design of processing equipment.
Many of these considerations and much of this vital information are widely
scattered throughout the technical literature, industrial bulletins, appropriate
codes, and handbooks. It is not intended that this book should cover all the
ramifications of design problems, but it will serve as a guide to the student and the
practicing engineer for efficient and economical design of equipment for the
processing industries.
vii
viii Preface
The organization is based on the premise that the vessel is the basic part of
most types of processing equipment.
For example, a heat exchanger or evaporator is a vessel with tube bundles and a
fractionating tower is a vessel with trays. The first 12 chapters are concerned in
part with the development of fundamental relationships on which many of the
code specifications are based. Chapter 13 is concerned entirely with code prac-
tice and covers selected code specifications not covered in the earlier chapters.
Chapters 14 and 15 are concerned with the design of vessels beyond the scope of
the ASME code.
The sequence of chapters was selected to permit the introduction of a brief
review of elementary theories of mechanics and strength of materials early in the
book. More advanced theory is developed as needed in subsequent chapters.
The integration of theory with practice in design eliminates the necessiiy of a
separate section on engineering mechanics. The sequence of presentation allows
for an orderly development of theoretical relationships when the book is being
used as a textbook in teaching design. The material presented covers the range
from simple vessels for low-pressure service to thick-walled vessels for high-
pressure applications. The experienced designer will find the book useful as a
reference in a design office.
In all but a few cases derivations of equations and the method of analysis have
been given so that the engineer will understand the assumptions and limitations
involved. Also, example calculations and designs have been included to illustrate
the use of the relationships and recommended procedures.
We wish to acknowledge the assistance given by a large number of individuals
and companies in providing subject material and illustrations on process equip-
ment design and in making reviews and suggestions. We are particularly
indebted to the following: C. E. Freese, Mechanical Consultant, and B. B. Kuist,
The Fluor Corporation; W.R. Burrows, Chief Engineer, Manufacturing Depart-
ment, Standard Oil Company of Indiana; A. E. Pickford, Department Head,
Apparatus Design, C. F. Braun and Company; H. B. Boardman, Director of
Research, L. P. Zick, Research Engineer, and E. N. Zimmerman, Chicago Bridge
and Iron Company; W. T. Gunn and Walter Samans, American Petroleum /

Institute; J. M. Evans, Chief Engineer, and F. L. Maker, Standard Oil Company

of California; R. S. Justice, Chief Engineer, Gulf Oil Corporation; F. L. Plummer,
Director of Engineering, Hammond Iron Works; W. D. Kinsell, Manager, Con-
struction Engineering Department, The Pure Oil Company; G. E. Fratcher,
Director of Engineering, A. 0. Smith Company; F. E. Wolosewick, Sargent and
Lundy Engineers; P. E. Franks, Chief Engineer, Sinclair Refining Company;
D. W. Carswell and H.B. Peters, Chief Engineer, The Texas Company; W. T.
Brown, Manager, Mechanical Division, and Harry Wearne, Construction Man-
ager, Shell Oil Company; F. J. Feeley, Jr., Assistant Director, Engineering Design
Division, Esso Research and Engineering Company; J. H. Faupel, E. I. du Pont
de Nemours and Company; W. H. Funk, Lukens Steel Company; and the follow-
ing additional companies and organizations: Horton Steel Works, Ltd.; Blaw- (
Knox Company; Graver Tank and Manufacturing Company; American Cyanamid
Company; Inland Steel Company; Ryerson Steel Company; Taylor Forge and
Pipe Works; Aluminum Company of America; M. W. Kellogg Company; Amer-
ican Standard Association, Inc.; The G;irdler Company, Inc.; Baldwin-Lima-
Hamilton Corporation; Bethlehem Steel Company, Inc.; United States Depart-
ment of Interior, Bureau of Mines; Great Lakes Steel Corporation; McGraw-Hill
 Preface ix
Book Company, Inc.; Universal-Cyclops Steel Corporation; and the United
States Steel Corporation.
We also wish to express our appreciation to the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers and the American Petroleum Institute for permission to use selected
material from the 1956 edition of the Unfired Pressure Vessel Code and the API
Specification for Welded Oil Storage Tanks and Production Tanks, respectively.
We are also indebted to Dr. J. McKetta, Mr. F.L. Standiford, Dr. H. H. Yang,
and Dr. M. D. S. Lay, who assisted in the preparation of the course notes while
enrolled in the Graduate School of the University of Michigan, and to Professor
Donald L. Katz, Chairman, Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engi-
neering, University of Michigan, for encouragement and advice in the preparation
of this book. Many individuals have given valuable suggestions, comments, and
assistance in the preparation of this book and any omissions in acknowledgment
are not intended.
LLOYD E. BROWNELL
EDWIN H. y OUNG
Ann Arbor, Michigan
April, 1959
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels 1

~ 2 Criteria in Vessel Design 19

3 Design of Shells for Flat-Bottomed Cylindrical Vessels 36
4 Design of Bottoms and Roofs for Flat-Bottomed Cylindrical
Vessels 58
J 5 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with
Formed Closures 76
6 Stress Considerations in the Selection of Flat-Plate and Conical
Closures for Cylindrical Vessels 98
;J 7 Stress Considerations in the Selection of Elliptical, Torispheri-
cal, and Hemispherical Dished Closures for Cylindrical Vessels 120
8 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures Operating
under External Pressure 141
9 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels 155

10 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels 183

0 11 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports 203
C) 12 Design of Flanges 219
::, 13 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Specifications 249
14 High-Pressure Monobloc Vessels 268
15 Multilayer Vessels 296
References 317
Appendix A. Design Conventions 323
B. Welding Conventions 327
xi
xii Contents
C. • Pricing of Steel Plate 330
0 D. Allowable Stresses 335
E. Typical Tank Sizes and Capacities 346
F. Shell Accessories 349
" G. Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members 353
H. Values of Constant C of Eq. 13.27 362
I. Charts for Determining Shell Thickness of Cylindrical and
Spherical Vessels under External Pressure 364
J. Properties of Various Sections and Beam Formulas 381
-s K. Properties of Pipe 386
c L. Strength of Materials 392
Author Index 395
Subject Index 399

(

FACTORS INFLUENCING
THE DESIGN 0-F VESSELS
rf::::::::» J 1.1 SELECTION OF THE TYPE OF VESSEL
~hemical engineering invo1if:/ ;he application of the ;;,
sciences to the process industries which are primarily con-
~,',,cerned with the conversion of one material into another by
i1 · chemical or physical means. These processes require the
, handling and storing of large quantities of materials in con-
:.1 tainers of varied construction, depending upon the existing
.:;,' state of the material, its physical and chemical properties,
and the required operations which are to be performed.
For handling such liquids and gases a container, or "y~§Sel/'
is used. The vessel is the basic part of most types of proc-
essing equipment. Most process equipment units may be
considered to be vessels with various modifications neces-
sary
. to enable the units to perform certain required
. func-
tions.
. For example, an autoclave
. . may be
. . considered • ~
~.,,_ -= 3 . e 1ca1 cy n r1ca an or1zon t a l vesse Is w1·th f,orme d
to be
a high-pressure vessel eqmpped with agitat1Qn ,and heatmg · d
. 'IIat1on
sources; a d1st1 . or a b sorpt10n . co1umfi.may,,,,.;,a,,;- b
e cons1·d-
· ·· • f • .d
ered to be a vesse l contammg a senes o vapor-11qu1 con-
tactors; a heat exchanger may be considered to be a vessel
containing a suitable provi~~n for the transfer of heat
through tube walls; and a~/faporator may be considered
to be a vessel containing a heat exchanger in combination
with a vii..e().r-disengagin~ SPJ:l_~ (.;j;,,,.. ~~/;,
Regardless of the nature of the awlication of the vessel, a
numl;;offactors usually must be considered in designing
the unit. The most important consideration often is the
,, selection of the type of vessel that performs the required
,/.:,,, -service in the most satisfactory manner. In developing the
·~ ~ cfesign a number of other criteria must be considered, such
as the pro:e.~rties o(t!_l~J:ll~~erial used, the ind~~p,stresses,
the elastic stability, and the aesthetic appearaii'& of the
unit. The i:;ost .Qi the t:abricat~g Ye~sel is also im.J>.Ql.'.!,an.t.i..u
~ation iQ its ~eJ:.Y.ic..e.JUJ..du.sefulJife.
CHAPTER
Usually the first step in the design of any vessel is the
selection of the type· best suited for the particular service
in question. The primary factors influencing this choice
are: the function and location of the vessel, the nature of the
fluid, the operating temperature and pressure, and the neces-
sary volume for storage or capacity for processing. Vessels
may be classified according to functional service, tempera-
ture and pressure service, materials of construction, or
geometry of the vessel.
The most common types of vessels may be classified
according to their geometry as:
t nk
1 0
2 . a - oattome
' Flpetnb s. d , vert'1ca1 cy Iin d nca
• Itank s.
V rt' Ii
d · l d h ·
en s. S h , I
4 . p enca1 or mod'fi d h • l
1 1e sp enca vesse s.
Vessels in each of these classifications are widely used as
storage vessels and as processing vessels for iluids. The
range of service for the various types of vessels overlaps,
and it is difficult to make distinct classifications for all
applications. /v'
It is possible to indicate some generalities in the existing ,,_;_,,,.
uses of the common types of vessels. Large volumes of
nonhazardous liquids, such as brint! af6d other aqueous solu-
tions, may he stored in ponds if o'f'v'try low value, or in open
steel, wooden, or concrete tanks if of greater value. If the
fluid is toxic, combustible, or gaseous in the storagr. condi-
tion, or if the pressure is greater than atmospheric, a closed
system is required. For storage of fluids at atmospheric
pressure, cylindrical tanks ·with fiat bottoms and coni-
cal roofs are commonly used. Spheres or spheroids are
 2 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels

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10'-0'
Inside diameter

Double fillet butt

weld eff. 95%

10'-0" Unfired Pressure Vessel ·

150 lb.sq In. at 850°F
Fig. 1.1. Example of a cylindrical vessel with formed ends designed to the original API-ASME code. (Courtesy of Amer. Pet. Inst.I

· employed for pressure storage where the volume required
is large. For smaller volumes under pressure, cylindrical
tanks with formed heads are more economical.
·~~" 1.la Open Vessels. Open vessels are commonly used
l as surge tanks between operations, as vats for batch opera-
,0 tions where materials may be mixed and blended, as settling
~ ? tanks, decanters, chemical reactors, reservoirs, and so on.
\fl' Obviously, this type of vessel is cheaper than covered or
:-W closed vessels of the same capacity and construction. The
, ,., decision as to whether or not open vessels may he used
I depends upon the fluid to he handled and the operation.
Very large 9uantities of aqueous liquids of low value may
he stored in ponds. It is doubtful if ponds may he correctly
referred to as vessels. ( They are, however, the simplest
\I
((;/
containers made from the cheapest of materials, rolled earth.
Not all types of earth can he used for storage ponds; a clay
which will form an almost watertight bottom is essential.
An example of the use of ponds of rolled earth is found in the
process wher~by salt is crystallized from sea water by solar
evaporation (1). ·When more valuable fluids are handled,
more reliable but more t\Xp(\nsive containers are required.
Large circular tanks of steel-(2) or reinforced (or prestressed)
· "concrete (3), (4) are often used for settling ponds in which·
a slowly rotating r~ removes sediment from a slightly
(J .inclined conical bott~m. · Vessels of this t~. as exemplified
jf!hy the Dorr classifier, may have diameters ranging from ;
100 to 200 ft and a depth of several feet.
Smaller open vessels are usually o,f a circular shape and
 Selection of the Type of Vessel 3
are constructed of mild carbon steel, concrete, and some- ardize design for purposes of safety and economy. Tanks
times of wood (5). Other materials find limited use where used for the storage of crude oils and petroleum products
serious corrosion or contamination problems are encount:U}(J are generally designed and constructed in accordance with
ered. However, in the process industries in general, the API Standard 12 C, API Specification for Welded Oil-
major portion of existing vessels are constructed of steel Storage Tanks. This is the standard reference used in
because of its low initial cost and ~ . of fabrication. In j
~ designing tanks for the petroleum industry, but it is also a
many cases such vessels are lined with leaa,ru]ilier,-glass; t.f> useful guide for other applications.
or plastic to improve resistance to corr~n. In the food CYLINDRICAL VESSELS WITH FLAT BOTTOMS AND CoNICAL
, industry fir is commonly used for pickle and kraut tanks, ,c OR DoMED RooFs. The most economical design for a
1
~J · ,'/whereas quarter-sawed white oak is employed for wine and , -! { closed vessel operating at atmospheric pressure is the verti-
" spirits. Redwood or cyprus tanks are often employed for cal cylindrical tank with a conical roof and a flat bottom
water storage reservoirs. Wood is also used in place of resting directly on the bearing soil of a foundation com-
, steel for handling dilute solutions of hydrochloric, lactic, and posed of sand, g,ravel, or crushed r9g. In cases where it is
/~aceti~ acTcrsand·s~lt solutions and is indispensable as a low- 1, desirable to ~se a gravity fued, the tank is raised above the
,J' cost tank in the tanning, brewing, and pickling indiistries (6t .f ground, and the flat bottom may be supported by columns
.J 1 1;; I n t ~ n d pharmaceutical industries it is often neces- and wooden joists or steel beams. Cylindrical, flat-bot-
i •1sary to add materials to open vessels in the preparation of tomed, cone-roofed tanks are provided with "breathers" or
mixtures. Small open tanks or kettles are usually employed vents which permit expansion and cWUAeiion of the fluids
for such purposes. Glass-lined steel, copper, Monel, and as a result of temperature and volume fluctvations. Tanks
stainless steel tanks are widely used in these applications to up to 24 ft in diameter may be covered with a self-supporting
resist corrosion and prevent contamination of the process ', roof; tanks with larger diameters, up to 48 ft, usually require
materials. · ~ l at least one central column for support. Tanks larger than
1.1 b Closed Vessels. Combustible fluids, fluids eJDi(- 48 ft _in diameter are frequently designed with multiple_.
ting toxic or obnoxious fumes, and gases must be stored in column supports or with a floating or pontoon roof which
closed vessels (7). Dangerous chemicals, such as acid or rises and falls with the level of liquid in the vessel. In
caustic, are less hazardous if stored in closed vessels. The general, tanks with conical roofs are limiied to essentially
combustible nature of petroleum and its products necessi- atmospheric pressure. If domed roofs are used, pressures
tates the use of closed vessels and tanks throughout the from 2½ to 15 lb per sq in. gage may be permitted. These
petroleum and petrochemical industries. The extensive vessels are normally smaller in diameter and of greater
use of tanks in this field has resulted in considerable effort height for a given capacity than tanks with conical roofs
on the part of the American Petroleum Institute to stand- (8, 9).

Fig. 1.2. Oil refinery installation. (Courtesy of C. F. Braun & Company.)

4 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels
CYLINDRICAL VESSELS WITH FORMED ENDS. Closed
cylindrical vessels with formed heads on both ends are used
where the vapor pressure of the stored liquid may dictate a
stronger design. Codes have been developed through the
efforts of the American Petroleum Institute (10) and the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (11) to govern
the design of such vessels. These vessels are usually less
than 12 ft in diameter if they are to be shipped by rail.
However, field-erected vessels may exceed 35 ft in diameter
and 200 ft in length. If a large quantity of liquid is to be
stored, a battery of vessels may be used.
A variety of formed heads are used for closing the ends of
cylindrical vessels. The formed heads include the hemi-
spherical, elliptical-dished, torispherical, standard:.dished,
Fig. 1.3. ' Crown Central Petroleum Plont near Hovstan, Tex.as.
Spherical and horizantol storoge tonics at
conical, and toriconical · shapes. For special purposes flat
:u!l8d to close a vessel opening. However, flat
plates are ,,_,,
heads are "flfuly used for large vessels. For pressures not
covered by the ASME code, the vessels are often equipped
with standard dished heads, whereas vessels that require
code construction are usually equipped with either the
ASME-dished or elliptical:.dished heads. The most common
shape for the closure of "pressure vessels" is the elliptical
dish. Figure 1.1 shows a drawing of a vertical cylindrical
vessel with formed ends designed to the original API-ASME
code.
Most chemical and petrochemical processing equipment
such as distilling columns, desorbers, absorbers, scrubbers,
heat exchangers, pressure-surge tanks, and separators are
essentially cylindrical closed vessels with formed. ends of
one type or another. Figure 1.2 shows a wide v.ariety of
such items in a petroleum refinery. Note that nearly all
of the processing equipment shown consists of cylindrical
vessels with formed ends.
SPHERICAL AND l\1on1FIED SPHERICAL VESSELS. Storage
containers for large volumes under moderate pressure are
usually fabricated in the shape of a sphere or spheroid.
Capacities and pressures used in this type of vessel vary
greatly. Capacity ranges from 1000 to 25,000 bbl, and
pressures range from 10 lb per sq in. gage for the larger
vessels to 200 lb per sq in. ga~ for the smaller ones. Figure
1.3 shows a battery of horizontal cylindrical vessels and
spherical vessels for storing petroleum products at pressures
up to 100 lb per sq in. gage.
(Covrtesy of Hommond Iron Works.)
~;., 1
1
·' Where a given mass of gas is to be stored under pressure,
it is obvious that the required storage volume will be
inversely proportional to the storage pressure. In general,
for a given mass the spherical type of tank is more economi-
cal for large-volume, low-pressure storage operation. At
higher storage pressures, the volume of gas is reduced, and
therefore the cylindrical type of storage vessel becomes·
more economical. If all~wance is made for the cost of
compression and cooling cif-the gas, some of this apparent
saving is lost. When handling small masses of gas, there
is an advantage in the use of cylindrical storage vessels
_,, because the cost of fabrication becomes the controlling
factor and small cylindrical vessels are more economical
than small spherical vessels.
Further economy can .sometimes .,be realized by using

Fig. 1.4. Two multispheres for storage of nitrogen under 400 lb per sq In.
gage. (Courtesy of Chicago Bridge & Iron Company.)
modified spherical vessels such as the two multispheres
shown in Fig. 1.4. These storage vessels were designed to
handle nitrogen at 400 lb per sq in. gage working pressure.
Modified spherical vessels are also used for storage of large
volumes under moderate pressures. Large ellipsoidal ves-
sels have been built to hold 55,000 bbl at a pressure of
75 lb per sq in. gage. The largest vessels for storage under
pressure are the semi-ellipsoidal tanks, which have been
made to hold as much as 120,000 bbl at a pressure of 2~'2 lb
per sq in. gage. As the capacity of an individual vessel is
increased, the pressure that the vessel can safely maintain
(without very heavy construction) decreases. A hemi-
spheroid with a capacity of 20,000 bbl of natural gasoline
at a working pressure of 2½ lb per sq in. gage is shown in
Fig. 1.5.
1.2 METHODS OF FABRICATION
Process equipment is fabricated by a number of well-
established methods such as fusion welding, casting, forging,
machining, brazing and soldering, and sheet-metal forming.
Each method has certain advantages for ·particular types of
equipment. However, fusion welding is the most important
method. The size, shape, service, and material properties
of the equipment all may influence the selection of the
fabrication method.
Gray-iron castings have been widely used for the mass
production of small pipe fittings and are used to a consider-
able extent for larger items such as cast-iron pipe, heat-
exchanger shells, and evaporator bodies because of the
superior corrosion resistance of cast iron as compared with
steel. Large-diameter vessels cannot be easily cast, and
the strength of gray iron is not reliable for pressure-vessel
service. Cast steel may be used for small-diameter thick-
walled vessels. Furthermore, because of its higher strength
Methods of Fabrication 5
and greater reliability as compared with cast iron, it is more
suitable for high-pressure service where metal porosity is
not a problem. The vessel diameter is still limiting because
of problems in casting. Alloy cast-steel vessels can be used
for high-temperature and high-pressure installations.
Forging is a method of shaping metal that is commonly
used for certain vessel parts such as closures, flanges, and
fittings. Vessels with wall thicknesses greater than 4 in.
are often forged. Other special methods of shaping metal,
such as pressing, spinning, and rolling of plates, are used for
forming closures for vessel shells and are discussed later in
the text. Sheet-metal forming is similar to pressing in that
metal is shaped by means of presses and dies, but this
method is limited to relatively thin stock. The process of
sheet-metal forming as a method of vessel fabrication finds
its greatest application in the field of nonferrous metals
such as copper, Monel, and stainless steel, where cost con-
siderations often preclude the use of heavier stock.
Riveting was widely used, prior to the improvement of
modern welding techniques, for many different kinds of
vessels, such as storage tanks, boilers, and a variety of pres-
sure vessels (12). It is still used for fabrication of nonfer-
rous vessels such as copper and aluminum. However,
welding techniques have become so advanced that even
these materials are often welded today. Because of the
trends away from riveted construction, the designs based
upon riveting as a method of fabrication will not be dis-
cussed in this text.
Machining is the only method other than cold forming
that can be used to secure exact tolerances. Close toler-
ances are required for the mating parts of equipment.
Flange faces, bushings, and bearing surfaces are usually
machined in order to provide satisfactory alignment. Lab-
oratory and pilot plant equipment for very-high-pressure
service is sometimes machined from solid stock, pierced
ingots, and forgings. Multilayer vessels for high-pressure
Fig. 1.5. A 20,000-bbl hemispheroid gasoline-storage tank 64 ft in
diameter by 35 ft high. Designed for 2½ lb per sq in. gage working
pressure. (Courtesy of Chicago Bridge & Iron Company.)
 6 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels
services may be fabricated by machining a series of con-
centric shells and shrink fitting for producing desirable pr~~"
stress conditions. This method of vessel fabrication i~ ,dis-
cussed in a later section of the text. In general, machining
is an expensive operation and is limited to small vessels
and parts in which the cost can be justified. · Gas welding is the preferred type of welding for light
1.2a Fusie>n Welding. Fusion welding is the most
widely used method of fabrication for the construction of
steel vessels (12). This method of construction is virtually
unlimited with regard to size and is extensively used for the
fabrication and erection of large-size process equipment in
the field. Often such equipment is fabricated by the method
of subassembly. In this process, sections of the unit are
shop welded and then assembled in the field. Equipment
having a size sufficiently small to permit transportation by
trucks, rail, or barge is usually completely shop welded
because of the lower cost and greater control of the welding
procedure in the shop.
+ There are two types of fusion welding that are extensively
used for the fabrication of vessels. These are: (1) the gas
welding process, in which a combustible mixture of acetylene
and oxygen supply the necessary heat for fusion, and (2)
the electric-arc welding process, in which the heat of fusion
is supplied by an electric current (13, 14, 15, 16). Arc
welding is the preferred process because of the reduction of
heat in the material being welded, the reduction of oxidation,
and better control of the deposited weld metal. A wide
range of arc-welding equipment is available, from the small
portable welding units to the large automatic welding
machines. Small arc-welding machines are widely used in
wel~ng. shops that fabricate small equipment whereas the
Fig. l.6. Welding external circum-
ferential seam of shell of large vessel
with automatic welder. (Co~rtesy of
C. F. Braun & Company.)
automatic machines are better suited for the welding of
heavy sections involving the deposition of a large quantity
of weld metal. Figure 1.6 illustrates the use of an auto-
matic welding machine in fabricating a large-diameter
vessel.
gages of metal (20 gage or less), which are difficult to weld
by the arc-welding process. Gas welding equipment is
extremely useful in flame cutting either in the field or in
, the shop!
One of the most recent and successful developments in 'the
field of arc welding of vessels is the submerged-arc welding
process (17). This process was virtually unknown at the
beginning of World War II. The necessity of expediting
production of· welded equipment .during the war years
resulted in the realization of the advantages of this tech-
nique. The process involves submerging of ihe arc beneath
a blanket of granulated mineral flux. The arc beneath the
blanket generates heat to ·melt the electrode and deposits
weld metal. A portion of the granuiated flux melts, forming
a protective layer on the weld metal, and solidifies with the
weld metal. In addition to completely protecting the weld
metal from the atmosphere, this process makes the weld
metal virtually free of 4ydrogen. As the arc is covered,
there is no arc flash, and lilso a lesser quantity of smoke and
obnoxious fumes is produced as compared with the· earlier
welding processes. As the weld can not be observed by the
operator, mechanical attachments are used to control the
dimensions of the weld. Several inches of weld metal can
be deposited in one pass, a fact which greatly decreases the
welding time involved. However, the greatest advantage

of the submerged-arc process is the elimination of the opera-
tor variable. .
1.2b Welding Standards. The success of fabrication
by welding is dependent upon the control of the welding
variables such as experience and training of the welder, the
use of proper materials, and welding procedures. An inex-
perienced welder or a welder using inferior materials or incor-
rect procedures can fabricate a vessel that has good appear-
ance hut has unsound joints which may fail in service.
Thus it is absolutely essential that the welding variables be
controlled in order to produce sound joints in the equip-
ment. A number of codes and standards have been estab-
lished for this purpose. Some of these standards are:
"ASME Code Welding Qualifications" (Section IX of the
ASME Boiler Code)
ASA Code for Pressure Piping (B 131.1, Section 6 and
Appendices I and II)
Standard Qualification Procedures of the American Weld-
ing Society
API Standard 12 C, AP/ Specification for Welded Oil
Storage Tanks (Sections 7 and 8)
The American Welding Society (A WS) established the
basic standards for qualifying operators and procedures.
These standards of qualification form the basis for most of
the standards in the various codes. For practical purposes,
therefore the rules for qualifying welders and welding
procedures are essentially the same in the various codes and
standards. Regardless of whether or not the welded vessel
is intended to meet one of the codes or standards, it is advis-
able that the welding conform to one of the minimum
standards.
Each fabrication shop should establish welding procedures
best suited to its need and its equipment. To meet the
welding standards previously mentioned, it is not necessary
that welding procedures be the same in all shops. But it
is necessary that, regardless of the procedures used, the
welded joints pass the qualification tests for welding proce-
dures and that the welding operators be qualified in using
these same procedures. To meet welding standards, welds
made by the shop procedures must be tested to determine
tensile strength, ductility, and soundness of the welded
joints. The required tests for the welding procedures speci-
fied by API Standard 12 C involve the following:
A. For groove welds:
1. Reduced-section-tension test (for tensile strength).
2. Free-bend test (for ductility).
3. Root-bend test (for soundness) ..
4. Face-bend test (for soundness).
5. Side-bend test (for soundness).
B. For fillet welds:
1. Transverse-shear test (for shear strength).
2. Free-bend test (for ductility).
3. Fillet-weld-soundness test.
The minimum results required by tests such as those
listed above are described in detail in the various codes. A
few representative requirements are:
1. The tem:ile strength in the reduced-section-tension test
Methods of Fabrication 7
Double-welded butt joint Double-welded butt joint
(V-type groove) (LI-type groove)
Single-welded butt joint
with backing strip
(may be V-or LI-type groove) (may be V-or LI-type groove)
___c ¼ in. or less
~1?2..,. .~~¼~¼--m~¼.....
~,;,;;:jil,J¼._¼~0-m=½-¼-m- WHHU~umD:M
Single-welded butt joint
with backing strip
T Single-welded butt joint
without backing strip
Double full-fillet lap joint Single full-fillet lap joint
with plug welds
,rfig, 1.7. Examples of welded joints. (Note: The two types of lap welds
,hown may be used only for circumferential joints and for shell plates not
over _;l,~ in. thick, and for attachment of nozzles and reinforcements without
thickness limitation.) (From the API-ASME code [10].)
shall not be less than 95% of the minimum tensile strength
of the material being welded.
2. The minimum permissible elongation in the free-bend
test is 20%.
3. The shearing strength of the welds in the transverse-
shear test shal1 not be less than 87 % of the minimum tensile
strength of the material being welded.
4. In the various soundness tests, the convex surface of
the specimen is examined for the appearance of cracks or
other defects. If any crack exceeds ;,~ in. in any direction,
the joint is considered to have failed.
The individual welders, as well as the shop procedures,
must meet certain standard qualifications. The individual
welders must qualify under the established procedure
according to the test previously described. This is impor-
tant because a welder may qualify when using one procedure
but may be unable to qualify when using another procedure.
For example, an operator of an automatic welding machine
may produce satisfactory welds with that machine but may
not qualify when using manual equipment.
1.2c Types of Welded Joints. A variety of types of
welded joints are used in the fabrication of vessels. The
selection of the type of joint depends upon the service, the
thickness of the metal, fabrication procedures, and code
requirements. Figure 1.7 is a diagram from the API-ASME
code for unfired pressure vessels which illustrates some of
the types of welded joints used in the welding of steel plates
for the fabrication of pressure vessels. Other types of weld
joints and details for the preparation of such joints a1·e given
in Appendix B. Instead of drawing weld details to specify
the type of weld desired, most engineering offices now use
standard symbols for welding conventions (16). Typical
welding symbols are shown in Fig. 1.8.
 8 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels

Type of weld
Weld
Plug field all Flush
Groove
Bead fillet and weld around·
Square V Bevel u J slo)
__ ,
0 ~ 11 V V l) ~ V • 0
Location of welds

Arrow ( or near) Other (or far) Both sides

side of joint side of joint of joint

. ~Included angle~
t•
~
ffield weld
Sile"\ 90• Sile 40• Si.et
tlncrement length

/.Sii.e --'-Flush
"'.
ls,ze
~ 11 < ~~~ ~~~ ~Root opening Se
e note 5
~\_Pilch of
Off~t if staggered increments Weld all around .·

I
1, The side of the joint to which the arrow points is the orrow side, and the
opposite side of the joint is the other side.
2. Arrow-side and other-side welds are same size unless otherwise shown.
3. Symbols apply between abrupt changes in the direction of welding, or
to the extent of hatching or dimension lines, except where the all-
around symbol is used.
4. All welds are continuous and of user's standard proportions unless
otherwise shown.
5. Tail of arrow used for specification process or other reference. (Toil
may be omitted when reference not used.)
a
6. When bevel• or J-groove weld symbol is used, the arrow shall point
with a definite break toward the member which is to be chamfered.
Un cases where the member to be chamfered is obvious, the break in the
arrow may be omitted.I
7. Dimensions of weld sizes, increment lengths, and spacing, in inches.
8. For more detailed instruction In the use of these symbols refer to Standard
Welding Symbols, published by American Welding Society.

~ Fig. 1.8. Welding symbols recommended by API Standard 12 C. (Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)

1.3 TYPES OF CRITERIA IN VESSEL DESIGN vessels from more expensive metals or alloys. As the size
The selection of the type of vessel is based primarily upon of the tank is increased to handle larger volumes, the rela-
the functional service required of the vessel. The func- tive costs of using alloys and nonferrous metals increases.
tional requirements impose certain operating· conditions in Prestressed or reinforced concrete may sometimes be used
respect to such thlngs as temperature, pressure, dimensional ·to advantage for the construction of large vessels.
1.4a Steel Pricing. The hulk of chemical and petro-
limitations, and various loads. If the vessel is not designed
properly, so as to accommodate these requirements, the chemical process equipment is fabricated from plain carbon
steel. A know ledge of the method of pricing steel is essen-
vessel may fail in service. ' .
Failure may occur in one or more manners, such as by
plastic deformation resulting from excessive stress, by rup- Table 1.1. Relative Costs of Materials of Construction
ture without plastic deformation, or by elastic instability. for Tanks
Failure may also result from corrosion, wear, or fatigue. Cost Relative to Steel
Design of the vessel to protect against such failures involves .10...,000 gal 100,000 gal
the consideration of these fa~tors and the physical proper- Wood , 0.4
ties of the materials. Various types of possible vessel .failure Concrete (reinforced) 0.6 0.5
and criteria in vessel design are discussed in the following Steel 1.0 1.0
chapter. Llthcote-lined steel 1.2 1.2
Rubber-lined steel 1.8 2.0
. 1..4 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS Lead-lined steel 1.8 2.0
Although the chemical-process requirements generally Copper 2.0 2.6
limit the choice of materials of fabrication, the final selection Aluminum 2.4 3.0
is frequently dictated by economic considerations. For Glass-lined steel 2.7 3.0
purposes of comparison the relative costs of 10,000-gal tanks Ni-clad steel 2.7 3.0
Stain-clad steel { 2.7 3:0
fabricated from various materials are tabulated in Table 1.1 3.4 3.5
. Stainless steel, type 30'\
(with steel as the unit reference) (18). An examination of Monel-clad steel 3.4 3.5
this table indicates that the cheapest construction materials, lnconel-clad steel 3.4 3.5
provided they can be used, are wood, concrete, and steel. ✓ Stainless steel, type 316 4.4 4.8
These materials can frequently be lined with a thin protec- Monel metal 4.4 4.8
tive layer; this eliminates the necessity of fabricating the Silver-lined steel 12.8
 Economic Considerations 9

Table 1.2. Grade Classiflcation by Size of Flat,
Cold-rolled Carbon Steel
(Courtesy of Great Lakes St:el Corpor~tion! °:ivision of
National Steel Corporation, Detroit, Michigan)
Thickness, inches
0.2&0 or 0.2499 to
Width, inches thicker 0.0142
Up to 12 Bar Strip (1)
Over 12 to 24 Strip (2) Strip (2)
Over 12 to 24 Sheet (3) Sheet (3)
Over 24 to 32 Sheet Sheet
Over 32 Sheet Sheet
Notes: (1) Up to ½ in. wide and less than 0.225 in. in
thickness, and not to exceed 0.05 sq in. in cross section,
having rolled or prepared edges is "flat-wire." (2) If
special edge, finish, or definite temper, as defined by ASTM
Specification A-109. (3) If no special edge, finish, or
temper is specified or required.
tial in order to arrive at econoinical designs for equipment
fabricated of steel.
Steel may be purchased from two sources-a steel Inill
or a steel warehouse. The prices paid for the steel from the
two sources are very different, the warehouse prices being
appreciably higher. The reason for these price differences
is found in the methods used by steel Inills to obtain maxi-
mum-volume production in order to Ininimize unit costs.
It is the present practice of the steel mills to accumulate
orders until they have sufficient tonnage to perinit economi-
cal rolling. Therefore, the steel mills usually serve cu~-
tomers who require material in reasonably large quantities
and who can anticipate their requirements well in advance.
It is apparent that this mode of operation is not conducive
to quick delivery; three or four months, or more, depending
upon the rolling schedule, may elapse before delivery.
This situation makes necessary another means of furnish-
ing steel to customers who require material quickly and in
quantities too small for Inill production schedules. The
steel warehouse fills this distribution need, supplying steel
immediately from large warehouse stocks. The steel ware-
house secures steels from many rolling mills, in a full range
of qualities, finishes, shapes, and sizes, and stores these
steels. Thus fabricators using steel may purchase any
particular product immediately from stock or combine .
orders for various products and buy all at one time from
one convenient source.
Obviously the warehouse must be paid an increase over
mill price to compensate for the handling, storage, and
delivery of the steel stock. Therefore, the difference
between warehouse prices and mill prices is essentially a
service charge.
The relative amount of "millproduction" that was shipped
to warehouses for warehouse distribution for the ten-year
period 1944-1954 is indicated in Fig. 1.9. This figure indi-
cates that for the seven-year period 1945--1952 about 18 %
of the total steel-mill production on the average was shipped
to the warehouses. For the year 1951 the ste~l mills
produced 78,928,950 tons of steel products and shipped
14,399,432 tons (18.50%) to the warehouses.
In the design of equipment for large process plants, it is
not unusual to place vessel orders with the vessel fabricator
from 6 to 12 months before the required shipping dates to
enable the vessel manufacturer to order the steel plate from
the Inill rather than from a warehouse.
MILL PRICING. In general, steel is purchased from the
mill or warehouse in the "hot-rolled" or "cold-rolled" condi-
tion. · The steel is further classified as sheet, strip, plates, or
bars. Alloy steels and structural steels are classified sepa-
rately. "Hot-rolled, plate steel," or "cold-rolled strip
steel," or "alloy steel bars," and so on are combined classi-
fications of types of available steel. Table 1.2 shows the
grade classification, by size, of flat, cold-rolled carbon steel
by a typical steel mill. Table 1.3 shows the corresponding
grade classification by size of flat, hot-rolled carbon steel.
The steel mills and the warehouses quote "base prices"
for each class of steel product. Table 1.4 shows a section
of a typical mill base-price list as of January, 1956. The
prices are all F.O.B. cars or trucks at the Inill works (Indiana
Harbor, Indiana.) The prices quoted in Tab)e 1.4 apply
to an order of 10,000 lb or more of the size ordered at one
time (one thickness and one width is considered one size),
of one grade or analysis, released for shipment to one destina-
tion at one time. For weights of less than 10,000 lb, "item-
quantity extras" apply. Item la, of Appendix C lists the
quantity extras charged by a typical steel mill (Inland
Steel Company, as of May 13, 1953) for carbon-steel plates.

Table 1.3. Grade Classiflcation of Flat, Hot-rolled

Carbon Steel
(Courtesy of Great Lakes Steel Corporation)
\Vidth, inches
16
Thickness, To3H Over Over Over Over <d' L(') IO ,..._ 00 a, 0 .... N (Y}
~
- -
'i!,
-- - --
<n
<d' <d' L(')

inches incl. 3H to 6 6 to 12 12 to 48 48 'i!, <d'

~
a, 'i!, ~ "·
2:) a,
L(')

~ °' °'
0.2300 and thicker Bar Bar Plate Plate Plate Year
0.2299 to 0.2031 Bar Bar Strip Sheet Plate
0.2030 to 0.1800 Strip Strip Strip Sheet Plate Fig. 1.9. Percentage of total millproduction of steel products shipped lo
0.1799 to 0.0568 Strip Strip Strip Sheet Sheet warehouses.
10 factors· Influencing the Design of Vessels
Table 1.4. Mill Price List ness, and width are calculated on a dollar-per-100-lb basis,
(Courtesy of Inland Steel Company, Chicago, Illinois, whereas the extras for circular and sketch plates" ~re calcu-
January, 1956) lated on ll percentage basis, as listed in item 3 of Appendix C.
Base Price The percentage is calculated on the net-per-100-lb price of
per 100 lb the smallest rectangular plates from which each circular or
sketch plate is obtained exclusive of freight and extras for
Hot-rolled sheets (18-gage and heavier) $4.325
4.325 gas cutting a quantity. The outside dimension of each
Hot-rolled strip
5.325 circular or sketch plate determines the size of the smallest
Cold-rolled sheets
Hot-rolled carbon-steel bars (merchant quality) 4.65 rectangular plate from which the circular or sketch plate is
Hot-rolled alloy-steel bars 5.575 obtained.
Reinforcing bars 4.65 A wide variety of other "mill extras" are quoted by the
Carbon-steel plates 4.50 various steel mills. The reader is referred to company
Carbon-steel structural shapes 4.60 price lists for complete quotations on these other extras,
among which are:
1. Heat-treatment extrns
Carbon-steel plates fall into three classifications: (1)
2. Surface-finish extras
those furnished to chemical requirements, (2) those fur-
3. Testing extras .
nished to physical requirements, and (3) those furnished to
4. Chemical-requirements extras
both chemical and physical requirements. Item lb of
5. Specification extras
Appendix C lists the "classification extras."
6.. Special-requirements extras
Other mill-price extras of primary interest are given in
7. Dimensional and workmanship extras
item 1, Appendix C and are classified as: quality extras,
8. Extras for special-shipment requirements
length extras, width-and-thickness extras and killed-steel
9. Special-marking-of-plates extras
extras. ·10. Loading extras
Circular- and sketch~plate extras are involved when items
11. Bundling-of-plates extras.
such as blanks for formed heads are purchased. As 1.hese
plates are usually flame cut, gas-cutting extras also apply. Each extra is usually separate and distinct. The indi-
Gas-cutting extras are also charged for rectangular plates vidual items are combined to form a "full extra" applicable
when the thickness limits for shearing are exceeded. Item 2 to the order.
of Appendix C lists the gas-cutting extras per linear foot of The steel-mill base prices given in Table 1.4 and the
cutting. steel-mill extras given in Appendix C are quoted as oi
The previously mentioned extras such as quality, thick- January 31, 1956. It must be emphasized that these prices
are representative of the prices quoted by steel mills at that
time. As economic conditions vary, prices charged for
5.0 manufactured products fluctuate, and the base and extra
prices are subject to change. Figure 1.10 iJlustrates. the
changes in the base price of steel plate in Pittsburgh from -i
July, 1938 to January, 1956 (19). The horizontal line to
4.5 April, 1945 is for the period during which government con-
trols were maintained on steel prices because of the national
emergency of World War II. The curve indicates that the
4.0 price of steel plate at the mill doubled between 1945 and
:9 1956. · Reference should always be made to the most-recent

-
8
-;;;-
:;; 3.5
available price lists for estimation purposes.
WAREHOUSE PRICING. Steel warehouses are strategically,
located' throughout the country to provide a convenient
8 source of supply for steel products. Whereas the steel mills
produce steel products of standard· length and width, the
3.0 warehouse will supply steel cut to the customer's require-
ments. Typical operations in the warehouse include shear-
ing, sawing, slitting, and flame cutting. Some warehouses
2.5 will supply steel plates rolled to cylindrical shapes and bar
shapes, bar stock rolled to rings or bent to other shapes, ancl
plates with drilled or punched holes. Figure 1.11 shows
typical stocks of steel i~ warehouse.
2.0
~ -
1./) \0
..,, i
,...v ij -a; g
0, N 1./) \0 Prices vary somewhat from warehouse to warehouse,
ffl....
- - - - - - - ... -'°
v 1./)
Q'I
....~
.... '°
....
O'I
~ O'I Q'I Q'I O'I
1./)
O'I O'I
1./)
O'I O'I
depending upon the location of the warehouse, the distance
Year, from the mill, and the service performed. Item 4 of Appen-
dix C gives typical warehouse prices from one warehouse
. Fig. 1.1 O. Base price of steel plates in Pittsburgh. (20).

Fig. 1.11. Interior view of warehouse showing typical stocks of steel.
I
~1\:)
\)
1.4b Fabrication Costs. The direct costs of producing
a piece of process equipment include the cost of materials
and the cost of labor. Materi~l costs consist of the shop
material used in the fabrication plus the parts purchased
from an outside source. The cost of steel plate, which has
been discussed in the previous section, usually comprises a
major portion of the material costs for vessels. The labor
costs involved in the actual fabrication of the equipment
are often difficult to estimate accurately in advance. How
has reported methods of short-cut estimations of welded
process vessels (21).
FABRICATION PROCEDURE. One of the first steps in the
fabrication of the vessel is usually the preparation of the
shell for rolling. The edges of the individual plates for the
shell require machining to true the edges and, in the case of
code welding, to prepare the edge for welding. Figure 1.12
shows a 40-ft planer machining a double "U" edge on a
l¾-in. plate 29 ft long for a vessel shell.· The next step is
usually crimping the edges of the plate which will be joined
by a longitudinal weld. The crimping step is required
because the rolls cannot be used to form the two ends to the
desired curvature. Figure 1.13 shows a 350-ton hydraulic
press in the foreground, crimping the edge of a plate before
rolling. In the background plates are shown being rolled
into a cylindrical shape on pyramid rolls.
MAN-HOURS AND MATERIALS. After the shell has been
given edge preparation and rolled into shape, the vessel
components must be fitted and assembled by welding.
Figure 1.14 gives curves according to How (21) for estimat-
ing the man-hours involved in the various stages through
assembly of the shell and closures. The upper curve of
Economic Considerations· 11
!Courtesy of Joseph T. Ryerson & Son, Inc,)
Fig. 1.14a gives the cutting time in hours per linear foot for
Oame cutting the shell plate as a function of plate thickness.
This curve may be used when the shell is cut from standard
plate kept in stock, such as mill plate. If the plate is pur-
chased from a warehouse, it may be obtained, cut to size,
and the cutting cost included in the purchase price. In
addition to the man-hours involved in flame cutting, a
machine rate burden which includes the cost of machine
time and gas consum~d is also involved in flame cutting.
The curve for cutting-machine rate burden is shown in the
lower part of Fig. 1.14a.
The number of man-hours involved in edge preparation
prior to crimping and rolling are given in Fig. 1.14d. The
combined number of man-hours involved in crimping the
longitudinal seam ends and rolling the plate into a cylindrical
form are given as parameters in Fig. 1.14b; the man-hours
are treated as a function of plate lengths and thicknesses.
• The parameters given in Fig. 1.14b are based upon the
rolling and crimping of a few plates; the figure therefore
gives a liberal allowance for these operations when more than
a few plates are rolled and crimped at one time.
The man-hours required for the fitting and assembling
of the shell and closures for the vessel are given by the solid
lines in Fig. 1.14c as a function of the plate thickness and
with three parameters for different degrees of complexity
of the vessel. Also included in this figure are three curves
having nearly the same shape as the parameters and indi-
cated by the dotted lines that may be used as a rough check
on the total man-hours involved in fabrication. These
latter three curves are intended to be used only as a rheck
to disclose any gross errors in the total estimation. In acldi-
12 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels

Fig. 1.12. Machining a double U edge on a plate 1¾ in. thick and 29 ft long for a vessel shell by means of a 40-ft planer. (Courtesy of C. F. Braun &
Company.)

~
fig. 1.13. A 350-ton hydraulic press crimping the end of a plate before rolling. (Courtesy of C. F. Braun & Company.)
 Economic Considerations 13

0.15
V
0.10 /'
.,v
/
~ 0.08
/
·=i 0.06 ,_,,,,
...,v
.. c\)\\i",!:.-
t,11'e 1..--'

-- .--....- -
.c ;;.;;.--

----
..; 0.04
E ~
; 0.03 . e ,ate~
'Oll1 oe"-
~
~ac.l\~?
~ ,.,-
,,,.. ......
<-> 0.02
v--
V
0.01
% ½ I¾I 1 I l½ I 2 I 3
% 1a l¼ l¾ 2½
Plate thickness, in.
(a) ½ % ¾ 1a
Plate thickness. in.
(b)

3.5 14

0 c~ 0.06
\ 12 I 0
1.6
I'¾" /
\ ::, re r\. / j
<.)
lil
.,
\ ., " I
' "<
-0 I . -,:,~/
C C. 1.4 .-Welding rod ,,.'I;
- Complicated and small
1015 s :E I ,.,q"''/ J J

'< '\ ;s. 1 <.)

,= 0.05
:f! 4:
-0
~ 1.2 '\ <,_,0~/ V /,
8 :§.,,._
..... ,._ '\. / / / /
' 8 ,._
.,
l!l.
,._ .,"'c /, / ; "/

"' '- u 1.0

C.
.c V
C. .Q
'\ Vf
Ji: :;;. 2 8 0.04 "O
.; ,/
.8
' " ~~ ...__," ... e ~ //
;i:
.Jl! 1.5 6
.8.Jl! ~ ~ 0.8
/
~ '-.. /Medium ......... l>O
C aI! / .,'f-~~1/ / 'x
.Q '6 :§ V '\
-.; ~1/
-- ---- --
E ~
C C. -§
3! 1.0 ~
0
3: g:, t 0.6 / G~
~ 4 ~ \
C.
1/) / ..~OJ
"' ~
3 ~ 0.03 .c //~
-0
C
<b
l>O
-,
~ -- ·- ~
/
/
V/
\..
'\.
C
B 0.5
i.i:
2 ) 0.2
I"
., ~ \
1:7'
4
0 0
½ % ¾ 1a 1 l¼ 1¼ ¼ ¾ ½ % ¾ Ya 1 I~ I¼ 1% l½
Average steel thickness, in. Plate thickness, in.
(c) (d)

fig. 1.14. Curves of How (21) for estimating shop lime for ves,el fabrication.(a) Cutting lime and machine rate burden for flame cutting with automatic
machines. (bl Time for rolling plates 60 to 72 in. in width and of various lengths and thicknesses. · (cl Fitting and assembly, and total fabrication time (for
rough check), for steel tanks and weldments. (d) Welding and edge-preparation time and welding-rod weight for 'code butt welds in carbon steel. (Cour•
tesy of McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.)

tion to giving the number of man-hours for edge preparation, Formed closures such as dished heads can be purchased
Fig. 1.14d also gives the welding time and quantity of weld- from fabricators with the edges beveled for welding. Costs
ing rod per linear foot involved in assembly of the vessel for this preparation are given in a later section describing
ends and shell. formed heads. However, if it is practical to machine the
l\Iost vessels contain two or more nozzles for charging heads in the shop that fabricates the vessel, the man-hours
and discharging operations. The man-hours and welding- required for this operation may be estimated from Fig.
rod requirements for attaching different types of nozzles 1.16a and b. Bolting flanges for nozzles may be shop fabri-
are given in Fig. 1.15. cated from flat plates. The machining time for this opera-
14 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels

1.6 1.6 0 5.0

1.4 1.4 0.5 4.5

1.2 1.2 1.0 4.0

-!l (I) 1.5 -a 3.5

N
0
1.0 lh.o
iii ~C: .!!
iii
C:
ti ti
~
Cl.
.E :»Cl. 2.0 .E
.,;
3.0
,e 0.8 10,8 :9 lj
-,:; -,:; 2.5 g 2.5
e C:
e
-0
j 0.6 8.0.6 :E! 8.
:i: "'
3'; 3.0 :i: 2.0
0.4 0.4

111
3.5

02 4.0

0 0 4.5 G.5
~ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½ 4 2 2½ 3 3½ 4 5 6 8
Nominal nozzle size, in. Nominal nozzle size, in.
(a) (b)

20

--ltf;~•~
15
I.
1---
Series-15 forged steel 'I
I
.!!
- ,_
15 I - - - -
_,_
I Schedule-40
steel pipe /
'I
I
25r----r-r---t---t--t--+"->-,-t---,f---!--f--,/f+-+--I

~ 10
--
" I
-
.8.
C: ]!
i /~ = /
'i 20
Series-30 forged Steel
slip-on flan89
I\'\
'\ 1
1

! ==
"'-
I

i =
:5! .!: w,; j ~hedule-80 ' \.I I

== ....- (I..-I __,

~
al'
~ 10
/ I .5 steel pipe 1--1-JA~-l-l,-.le-l
/ J

I 5 C:

!. Weld rod, lb- ,__ /

/ ,/
15
I
\.
\

:i: ,,,,, ~
~ II'

-- -
/ :i: l0t-----t-1-+-+---,1--+-,~✓:+--+-+-+\\-+-1--1
......
. .//
'
5

-
.,,,,,, /

Labor, hr t-----t-1-+-+_,,.l":,r,,,~i=-,-Labor, hr 1--+---1--+1,-+---1

V
_,,.,,.. -
5
-- ✓ \
,
\

0 - ~......-'-1-..1--.....1.--1-...1......i.-..L-..L-IJ\..I
2½33½4 5 6 8 10 12 14 1618 2 2½ 3 3½ 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Nominal nozzle size. in. N·ominal .nozzle size, in.
(c) (d)

Fig. 1.15. Curves of How (21) for estimating welding-time In hours and welding-rod requirements for nozzle attachments to vessels. (al Welding time and
welding rod for installing XH steel couplings In unfired pressure vessels. (bl Welding time and welding rod for installing long-welding-neck forged-steel
noules. (cl Welding lime and welding rod for fabricating 150-psi noz:zles in unfired pressure vessels. (di Welding time and welding rod for fabricating
300-psl nozzles In unfired pressure vessels. (Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Publishing CoJ
 Economic Considerations 15

8 4 ,,
7 I I I I I I I I I
I.I ,_______ ll'V
... /
3 ,_______
,;, I.I I.I

} "·'\
6 I/ I/

\"1
/
,_______ I / I/ I,
V 1/11
5 - T- T / ✓ ·.1 ,vii
/
------ .I .I ,; I/

------
a,
Cl)
C
/ / I/
C - %," %." , II
1:
~ 4 l!.-~4
~¼"R / I/,; i/ ,vl.1 v,,, ,, :cu
'° ------ __,~ ;r_,v, T ~. ~ . ,V ,I
v,; I/ V

E ~
l<,"
' ¼"R / /
, I/ ,, E 2
------
------ 3'" land ½," land ,; , ,; ,,; ,,
------
"O I/ "O
C , /1/ I/ ,/ ; 1.8 on steel ,;/ ,1'
, 1 ~
"'g. 3
I/, ,; I/ C. I I/ I/
I/ / / I/ I / ,;
7 1.6 I/ I/ /
ti t.Lv. , / ,,
I /
/
5i 5i r • 7f7 17 I.I
~~ ·~ ..,...;. I/
,; ,._'t/i-)' !/ , /
I/
"C
1.4
~4".... ;.t. •/ -;
"C / _'t/i, _.,,. I/
gJ
V ,, v,v,,..,.-l ~"" I/ .!... 1.2
.c
~ 1.8
2
-,,
,, ,, V
f
I / 't/i,-'
/
I

/ /
I

!. /
17, 17 i/ i, I/
V 17 ;,
.E 1.0
i: 1.6 /
,,
/ V
/ /
/
/ / V / /
i§ I/
/
/
... , /
iii 0.9
~ V/ / [7
~ 1.4 I " / / / 0.8
1.2 V
,, ,;I /
/ ,,,v
V 0.7
/
/
,, / V
1.0 ....
,;I /
V 0.6 ....
0.9
0.8 / 0.5
15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 100 120 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 90 110 130
Outside diameter of head, in. Outside diameter of head, in.
(a) (b)

6.5
6.0

--
1' .. '2.Yi---- - - - 5 1.4 r-----r-----r--~--.-----.---.----,

~
5.0
£Tflatface

r"'F"'7'
T raised fa:J ---1.,.i'IL-
.,,... --
_.,,,,,,.. ....
i-

1.-
-
~
4 1.2
This chart can also be used to
estimate fillet welds on other
structures such as bases and
supports
-
"O
4.0 -
- ,___ :E
"O
C - 1-1* rt -
"'
Cl)
u
-l2
ASA standard drilling 1----

/
, . ,, .,,... ....
.......
'l ..:
-,;:..-
i.--•
i--
L,,,-
- l3
:9
C
gi
u
l.0t-----t--+--+----t--+-----,,1£----,,£....1
3.0 "O

- .......-- :-,,'ii."~\"- - '--

12
~t"½" -- -
~ C
0
.s::,_ , , ,
~
, l>O
"' 0.81-----+---+---l--
~
,, ,
E 2.5
- ---
C
I
, ,, 'ii," 3:
,, ,, :§
E
~ 2.0 / I/
,,
,
I/
,
_,, ,
,,, ,,,
V ✓
~ =0.6 ,___...,___.,____,.._,.....___..._L..
~
C
C , LI',, ,
"' 1.8
;: ,,,,, I / ,;
a,

~ 1.6 , /
/ /

,,, I /
/ / ...
Cl.

.c
'/
l: , ni
1.4 , ,.,../ LI'
/ 0 0 0.4 t---+---:..r<--?"f---b-c.,_---l--+--~
~
I-
I-
V ·, ~j Add 0.1 hr for raised-face_
1.2
1.1 ~v
✓ v1,1 flanges up to 6 ips inclusive
fl ilj I/
1.0 r,, ,v
0.9
0.8 I/
1 2 34 5 5 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Nominal flange size, in. Size of weld, in.
(c) (d)

Fig. 1.16. Curves of How (21) for estimating man-hours of machining time and welding-rod requirements for miscellaneous operations in vessel fabrication,
(a) Machining time, flanged and dished heads, grooved face, carbon-and-nickel- or stainless-clad steel. (b) Machining time, flanged and dished heads.
beveled face, carbon-and-nickel- or stainless-clad steel. (c) Machining time for carbon-steel plate flanges, 1 to 26 ips, to 2H in. thick. (d) Welding ~i
time and weight of welding rod for fillet welds in carbon steel. (Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.)
16 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels
Table 1.5. Engineering News-Record Construction Table 1.7. Twenty-City Average of Hourly Rates for
Cost Index Skilled Labor
(Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.) (From Engineering News-Record) _
(Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.)
Year Index Year Index
Year Rate, dollars/hr Year Rate, dollars/hr
1913 100 1946 346
1915 94 1947 413 1926 1.27 1950 2.52
1920 235 1948 461 1932 1.03 1952 2.84
1925 206 1949 477 1939 1.44 1953 3.01
1926 208 1950 510 1945 1.66 1954 3.14
1930 202 1951 543 1946 1.80 1955 (July) 3. 25
1932 157 1952 569 1949 2.41
1935 195 1953 600
1940 242 1954 628
1945 308 1955 660 (July) Marshall and St.evens equipment-cost index (23), and the
Nelson refinery index (24). ..
The ENR construction-cost index (22) -reflects labor-wage-
rate and material-price trends. The inde·x -c.onsists of the
tion is given in Fig. 1.16c. Various attachments sueh as
cost of a hypothetical block of construction requiring 6 bbl
skirts, saddles, and lugs may be added to the vessel, usually
of cement, 1.088 M fbm of lumber, 2500 lb of steel, and
by fillet welding. The man-hours per foot and the welding
200 hours of common labor. This cost was $100 in the
required for fillet welding is given in Fig. 1.16d. Addi-
year 1913, which is taken as the reference year. Although
tional curves for some alloy and nonferrous metals are given
this index is intended to reflect average construction costs
by How (21).
and has no particular relation to the cost of equipment, it
1.5 ESTIMATING CURRENT COSTS has proved extremely useful in estimating changes in costs
for complete plants. Because of its wide use it has often
CosT INDICES. Because of the constant change of costs been the basis of estimating changes in equipment costs.
for material, labor, taxes, and plant overhead, available cost Table 1.5 lists some values of this index as a function of time.
data rapidly become obsolete. Thus some method of The Marshall and Stevens equipment-cost index reflects
bringing cost data up to date is required. The procedure the comparative costs of equipment (23). It is based upon
normally followed is the application of available "cost the costs of machinery and major equipment, installation
indices." The cost indices~ relative numbers giving the labor, plant furniture and fixtures, tools and minor equip-
variation in a group of costs with reference to a base year. ment, and office furniture. These costs are estimated
To use a cost index the estimator simply multiplies the quarterly for 47 different industries, with a separate formula
known cost at a given date by the ratio of the current index for each industry and with the year 1926 as a reference of
value to the index applicable at the date of the known cost. 100. · The petroleum-industry index contains the following
component percentages: process machinery, 25; installation
= Cost B Index
A
Cost A d B (I.I) labor, 19; power, 12; maintenance equipment, 2; and admin-
In ex
istration, 6. Other process industries for which indices are
A number of indices are in wide use; they differ somewhat prepared are: the cement industry, the-chemical industry,
because of the basis used in their preparation and the refer- the clay-products industry, the glass industry, the paint
ence year. Three widely used indices are the Engineering
News-Record (ENR) construction-cost index (22), the
Table 1.8. Average Boilermaker Wages in July,
1954, as a Function of Locale

Table 1.6. Marshall and Stevens Equipment-Cost Index (U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics)
(Average for All Industries) dollars/hr
(Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. [235]) U.S. Average 3 .11
New England (Me., Vt., Mass., Conn., R. I.,
Year Index Year Index N. H.) 3.00
1913 57.9 1947 150.6 Mid-Atlantic (N. Y., Pa., N. J.) 3.44
1915 55.9 1948 162.8 Border States (Del., Md., Ky., W. Va., Va.) 3.01
1920 153.3 1949 161.2 Southeast (Tenn., S. C., N. C., Ala., Ga., Miss.,
1925 105.3 1950 167.9 Fla.) 2.90
1926 100.0 1951 180.3 Great Lakes (Minn .• Wis., Mich., Ill., Ind., Ohio) _3.13
1930 87.0 1952 180.5 Midwest (N. Dak., S. Dak., Kans., Nebr., Mo.,
1932 66.1 1953 182.5 Iowa) 2.96
1935 78.0 1954 184.6 Southwest (Tex., Okla., La.) 2.90
1940 86.1 1955 190.6 Mountain (Mont., Idaho, Wyo., Utah, Ariz.,
1945 103.4 1956 208.8 N. Mex., Colo.) 3.01
1946 123.2 1957 (June) 224.1 Pacific (Wash., Oreg., Calif., Nev.) 3.05

industry, the paper industry, and the rubber industry.. A
weighted-average for the process industries is also reported,
which contains, in percentages: cement, 2; chemicals, 48;
clay products, 2; glass, 3; paint, 5; paper, 10; petroleum,
22; and rubber, 8. Also, an average for all 47 industries is
published, which has differed only by about 1 % to 2% from
the average for the process industries alone. As this index
is based primarily upon industrial-equipment costs, it is
considered more reliable for estimating changes in equipment
costs than the ENR index. Values of the Marshall and
Stevens index for the average of all industries are given in
Table 1.6.
The Nelson refinery index (24) is a construction-cost
index somewhat similar to the ENR construction-cost index
but based upon the cost of materials and labor for the con-
struction of petroleum refineries.
Although price indices are extremely valuable in estimat-
ing costs, it should be mentioned that they are based on
national averages and may be inconsistent with price
changes for a particular locale. Also, price indices are
based on wage rates and material costs but make no allow-
ance for such factors as: availability of materials, productiv-
ity of labor, competitive conditions, influence of new tech-
niques, business optimism, relation of demand to production
capacity, and other intangibles.
LABOR-COST VARIATIONS. The cost of labor varies from
year to year and from area to area. These costs have risen
rapidly since World War II, and at the end of 1955 the
hourly rates in dollars were at an all-time high. Table 1.7
gives the average hourly rate for skilled labor for 20 cities
since 1926 as reported by the Engineering News-Record (22).
Skilled laborers such as machinists, welders, and boiler-
makers are required in the fabrication of vessels. The
hourly rates, as a function of locale, that were paid boiler-
makers in July, 1953, as reported by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics (22), are given in Table 1.8.
SHOP OVERHEAD. In addition to the direct costs involved
for materials and labor, all fabricators must add an indirect
cost often termed the "shop overhead" or "burden." This
overhead includes a variety of items, such as the cost of
supervision, administration, engineering, sales, utilities,
maintenance, depreciation, taxes, and other fixed and indi-
rect costs. These costs vary from shop to shop, area to
area, and year to year, and are established by the conditions
for a particular shop and by the accounting practice fol-
lowed. This overhead usually ranges from 100 % to 200 %
of the total cost for labor and materials:
PROFIT. The profit of the fabricator is estimated on the
total cost to the fabricator, including materials, labor, and
overhead. The profit usually ranges from 5 % to 20 % of
this total cost but may be higher if the state of competition
permits.
SouRcEs OF PRICE INFORMATION. In recent years a con-
siderable attempt has been made to collect, group, and corre-
late price infmmation. A series of post World War II
articles was published in Chemical and Metallurgical Engi-
neering in 1946, and additions to them were made in Chemi-
cal Engineering from 1947 through 1955. These articles
haye been collected and reprinted in three booklets (25).
Furthermore, rather recently two texts on the subject of
Typical Procurement Procedure for Vessels 17
chemical-engineering costs have been published (26, 27).
In October, 1954, Weaver listed a bibliography of 351
articles dealing with equipment costs, operating costs, and
estimating methods (28).
SCALING EQUIPMENT CosT WITH SIZE. Frequently , (
piece of process equipment having a size dilierent from tfiat
for which the cost is known is desired. A comprehensive
study of the cost of a variety of process equipment as a func-
tion of size and capacity was made by Chilton (18). In a
subsequent article (229) Chilton analyzed these data and
similar data by Williams (230) and concluded that the
"six-tenths factor" rule is useful as a short-cut method for
approximating the cost of a similar piece of equipment of a
different size. This rule states that the cost of a second size
is equal to the cost of the first size times the ratio of the
sizes (or capacities) raised to the six-tenth power, or
Size-
Cost A = Cost B ( -
Size B
A) 0 6
•
(1.2)
The general validity of this rule has been well established,
but some discretion should be exercised by limiting it to less
than a tenfold range unless cost data are available for two
or more units over a range of sizes. ·
1.6 TYPICAL PROCUREMENT PROCEDURE FOR VESSELS
The typical procedure followed in the procurement of
vessels for a process application will be discussed briefly
to give a perspective of the sequence of steps involved.
Normally a process-design group develops flow sheets for
the process involved. The flow sheets include information
relative to the operating temperature and pressure, capaci-
ties, heat duties, and any particular information concerning
corrosion. The equipment-design group prepares detailed
sketches of the various items pf equipment, specifying the
materials of construction, shell and closure thickness, type
of closure, and code stamping. The nozzle and manhole
types and their ratings; corrosion allowances; stress reliev-
ing, radiographing, and hydrostatic or air-testing require-
ments are also specified by the design group. In addition,
shipping limitations; the weight of the vessel empty, with
internal attachments, and filled with water; and the operat-
ing weight are usually estimated by this group. From the
above information specification sheets for each item of
equipment are prepared.
The procurement group sends copies of the detailed
sketches and the specification sheets to various vessel fabri-
cators for quotations on prices and delivery dates. In the
meantime the .plant-design group are also sent copies of the
sketches and specifications. This group prepares a layout
of the plant design. This includes specifications for roads,
utilities, sewers, fire protection, structural foundations,
pumps, piping, and detail design of the various components
involved.
On the basis of the original estimates received from the
fabricators, one or more fabricators are selected and final
drawings are furnished for a rigid price quotatjon on the
various vessels and other items of equipment to._:9e P,ur-
chased. The fabricator is then granted permissio,,' to
purchase material and prepare shop d~a,TI;11gs. T ! ese
shop drawings are usually subn:i!tted le( We puichas. for
' ll
~,;ti'
_,,::.,-.
. ~ - - - ..~."!;"~-·~
,r -------

18 Factors Influencing the Design of Vessels

approval. On approval of these drawings the fabricator
proceeds with construction of the vessels and other items of
equipment being supplied. \Vhere major items of equip-
ment are involved, it is customary for the purchaser to set
up an inspecting-and-expediting group at the fabricator's
plant. The inspectors for the purchaser normally follow
every step in fabrication, from initial inspection of·plate and
heads through testing and shipping. · ·
This text covers the design problems of the engineering
offices of both the purchaser and the fabricator. No
attempt has been made to separate these problems, which
often overlap. ·

PROBLEMS

1. A vertical vessel designed as shown in Fig. 1.1 and 32 ft from head junction to head junc-
tion is in use. If an identical •vessel were to he fabricated of SA-285, Grade C steel today, what
would be the estimated cost of:
a. The two circular blanks for the two elliptical dished heads at the warehouse (no edge
preparation)? r
b. Four shell plates cut to length only at the warehouse?
(Note: see Chapter 5, section 5, Common Types of Formed Heads and Their Selection, for
diameters of head blanks.)
2. Estimate the cost of labor today for the fabrication of the vessel shown in Fig. 1.1. How
much weld metal will be required?

CRITERIA IN VESSEL DESIGN
f&..
failv
/R unit of process equipment may fail in service for a
variety of reasons. Consideration of the types of
which may occur is one of the criteria which should be used
in equipment design. Failure may result from excessive
elastic or plastic deformation or from creep. As a result
such deformation, the equipment may fail to perform ts
specified function without rupture or may fail catastroph-
ically with rupture. Failure can usually he classified in
one of the following catagories: excessive elastic deforma-
tion, elastic instability, plastic instability, brittle rupture,
creep, or corrosion.
2.1 EXCESSIVE ELASTIC DEFORMATION
2.1 a Induced Stresses. Elastic deformation is induced
by a load such that when the load is removed, the part
resumes its original shape. A typical example is the steel
spring in a watch. Under service conditions the various
parts of the equipment will be subjected to a variety of
induced stresses. A stress is defined as the force per unit
area in the member under consideration. Various types of
stresses are induced, depending upon the loading condition,
and are classified as: tensile, compressive, shear, bending,
and torsion. These stresses may be the result simply of
the weight of the-material of construction or may be caused
by loads resulting from fluid pressure, forces, wind moments,
and so on. Parts under axial-compressive or tensile forces
have induced stresses which may be computed by the simple
relations:
For axial tension:
p indirect proportion to the modulus of elasticity of the
f=-a (2.1)
19
CHAPTER
For axial compression: ( /1
-P
f =- (2 -2)
a
when J = induced axial stress, pounds per square inch
P = load, pounds
a cross-sectional area, square inches
Stresses resulting from bending and torsion are more
complex, and a large number of texts have been written on
the subject of the evaluation of such stresses (29, 30, 31, 32).
Induced stresses result in corresponding induced elastic
deformations. The deformations may interfere with the
functional operation of the equipment. A common exam-
ple of this is found in the use of excessively thin flanges for
a bolted closure with a gasket at the interface of the flanges.
Tightening of the flange bolts in an attempt to seat the
gasket in such a way that it will contain the internal pres-
sure may result in excessive elastic bending of the flange
between the bolts without transfer of the bolt load to the
gasket. Another example i11 the excessive deflection of a
tray in a distillation column under the tray load, a condition
which produces a nonuniform liquid seal on the bubble caps
and possible instability in tray operation.
2.1 b Modulus of Elasticity. In order to avoid such
situations as described in the previous examples, sufficient
rigidity must be incorporated into the design of the part to
restrict the amount of deformation to a permissible value.
The deformation which can be tolerated is determined by
the function of the part. Parts in simple tension or com-
pression, such as exist in axial loading, deform in the elastic
region in direct proportion to the induced stress and in
material of construction. Thus the proportionality con-
20 Criteria in Vessel Design
70,000 .----.----11----~----------- loaded beam having uniform cross section and freely sup-
Gray cast iron (ASTM-A-276-No. 60) ported at the ends as indicated in Fig. 2.2.
Cold- rolled mild steel Consider an element, ck, of a beam having a uniform cross
60,000 (ASTM-A-374) section, supporting a distributed load of w pounds per inch
ot-rolled mild steel
of length of the beam as indicated in Fig. 2.2. The total
(ASTM-A-283, load acting on the element is w (ck). If w is considered
50,000 Grade C) positive when the load acts downward and if ck is positive,
the differential shear force, dV, must be negative. By
+
summation of vertical forces: V2 - V1 w (dx) = 0, or
·.;; 40,000
C.
V2 Vi= -w (ck)
1
(/) 30,000
and
dV -w (ck)
or
dV
-w (2.4)
20,000 ck

Taking a summation of bending moments about point A

10,000 gives:

0 .___..._--i i----'----.,___ __.____ _..l.-_ ____,J

0 0.1 0.2 10 20 30 40 50 2
Percentage of elongation .
Smce -(ck)
w •
- - 1s negIigi'ble,
2
Fig. 2.1. Typical stress-drain curves for various metals. dM = M2 - M1 '.::'. Vi tk
or
(2.5)
stant between stress and strain (under axial loads) is the
modulus of elasticity.
Typical stress-strain curves for a few selected materials Any beam under a load deflects. A particular radius of
are shown in Fig. 2.1. (Note that two scales are used on curvature exists for the portion of the beam under considera-
the abscissa in order to enlarge the elastic region of the tion. Thus the loaded beam has a radius of curvature r at
curves.) a distance z from the perpendicular to the neutral axis.
The elastic portion of the total strain is represented by The bending 'of the beam will result in a deformation ~x of
the straight-line segments of the curves. The slope of these the fiber at any distance y from the neutral axis, as indicated
straight-line segments, when the strain is expressed in in Fig. 2.3. The corresponding strain or unit deformation
Ex is equal to l::.x/x, and by similar triangles
inches per inch, is the modulus of elasticity of the material,
E, or: ·
l::.x Y
E.,=- (2.6)
z r
(2.3)
As given by Eq. 2.3, the ratio of stress to strain for elastic
where J axial stress, pounds per square inch deformation is equal to the modulus of elasticity, E, or
E = unit strain, inches per inch
E = modulus of elasticity, pounds per squ~re inch J., = EE.,
2.1 c Elastic Bending. The deflection of a part subjected
to forces which produce bending is a more complex phenome-
non. In such cases the amount of deflection is inversely
proportional to the modulus of elasticity and the moment
of inertia of the member. The use of relationships devel-
oped in the field of theoretical mechanics. are required for
evaluation of the deflections. General procedures for such
calculations are presented in a number of texts on the sub-
ject of strength of materials (29, 30, 31, 32), and'on the
subject of the theory of elasticity (33, 34, 35, 36, 37).
Selected procedures for particular calculations involved in (b)
vessel design are presented in later chapters of this· text.
The basic relationships for such calculations may he devel- · Fig. ~.2. Forces on an element of a uniformly loaded beam. (o) Uni•
oped by considering the shear and bending in a uniformly formly loaded beam. (bl Detail of element dx.
 Excessive Elastic Deformation 21 ·

A .Z

y
..t.

Section Stress

A%
l:~ ·A-A diagram

Fig. 2.3. Stress and strain in an elemental strip of a curved plate or beam.

By substitution of Eq. 2.6 By definition the radius of curvature r is defined (38) as:

y
Ix= E-
r
(2.6a) (2.12)

By summation of forces For small deflections the quantity dy/dx is small compared

f
-c
+c
fxdA =
f +c Ey
-c
-dA = 0
,.
unity; therefore

(2.13)
By summation of moments

M =
f -c
+• Yfx dA = f
-a
+• - (Ey2) dA
r
E
,.
f
-c
+c ytdA
Substituting Eq. 2.13 into Eq. 2.9 gives:

M EI d2y (2.14)
(2.7) dx 2
Also, by definition (29) the moment of inertia is: By Eq. 2.5:
+c dM = Vdx

Therefore
I
f-c y2 dA (2.8)
therefore dM
dx
= Eld3y = V
dx 3
(shear force) (2.15)

(2.9) And by Eq. 2.4

By combination of Eq. 2.9 with Eq. 2.6a, dV -wdx

therefore
fxl
M (load) (2.16)
y

or for the outermost fiber where y = c, Another important relationship, the equation of the
Mc M deflection curve, is obtained from Eq. 2.14:
-= (2.10)
I z
(2.17)
where z = L section modulus, inches 3 (2.11)
C These relationships for beams may be applied to plates
I = moment of inertia of the cross section, inches 4 and shells under certain conditions, as described in subse-
c = distance from neutral fiber to outermost fiber quent chapters of the text.
22 Criteria in Vessel Design
2.2 ELASTIC INSTABILITY Table 2.1. Euler Column Formulas for Various End
Elastic instability is a phenomenon associated with struc- Conditions
tures having limited rigidity and subjected to compression, Condition Equation ;
bending, torsion, or a combination of such loading condi- 1r1.EI
1. Both ends pivoted P critical = ---yr (2.18)
tions. Elastic instability is a condition in which the shape
of the structure is altered as a result of insufficient stiffness. 1r2EI
It is often the controlling factor when compressive loads 2. One end fixed, other free Pcritical (2.21)
4[2
are involved. A typical example of elastic instability is 4rrr2EI
the buckling of a cy1indrical vessel under an external pres- 3. Both ends fixed Pcritical -[2- (2.22)
sure as a result of vacuum operation. Another example is
21r 2EI
th~ buckling of a horizontal vessal as a result of the bending 4. One end fixed, other pivoted P critical = -l- 2 - (2.23)
moment induced by the reaction between the vessel and
saddle supports. Elastic instability in vessels is usually
associated with the use of thin shells. When x = l,.Y also equals 0, or
2.2a Column Instability. The simplest type of elastic
instability occurs in the "column" action of an axial, end- y = B sin bl 0
loaded compression member. The mathematical relation-
ship for critical loading of long, slender columns was first But B can not be zero if y is to have values other than
developed by Euler (39) over 200 years ago. The rela- zero between x = 0 and x = l. Therefore sin bl must ·
tionship for such a column, pivoted at both ends and free equal zero. If sin bl is equal to zero, the least value of the
to rotate, may be derived as follows. term bl will be 'Ir, As the least value of b determines the
In reference to Fig; 2.4, the bending moment at distance least value of P, bl is taken as equal to 1r for the critical
xis equal to -,Py, and by Eq. 2.14 value of P, or
bl= -ir
d2y
M = EI-2 = -Py therefore
dx
Rewriting with b2 = PJEI, gives:
therefore
'Tf2EI
P critical = T (2.18)
The solution of this differential equation is (40):
But I may be expressed in terms of the radius of gyration,
y = A cos bx + B sin bx k, and the cross-sectional area, a, by (41):
where A and Bare arbitrary constants. (2.19)
For x = 10, y = 0, or
Substituting Eq. 2.19 into Eq. 2.18 gives:
y Acos0+BsinO=0
therefore fcritJ.cal (2.20)

A= 0
The stress, !critical, is the load per unit area at which
incipient buckling occurs. This is not the maximum stress
developed as a very slight increase in Peritic&l will result in a
p
considerable amount of deflection and a rapid increase in
stress until failure by buckling ensues. For design, an
allowable stress appreciably less than the value of !critical is
used to provide a margin of safety against buckling.
In addition to the condition of a long column pivoted at
both ends and free to rotate, column action for other types
of end loading may be developed (31). Table 2.1 lists
Euler coliunn formulas for various end conditions. For
Rankine column formulas, see Chapter 4, section 4.3b.
2.2b Vessel Shells under Axial Load. In the design of
vessels the relationship for the elastic stability of a curved
plate subjected to an axial compressive load is of interest
because this condition· commonly exists in the shell of ver-
-·fin,; tical cylindrical vessels. Timoshenko (42) has given the
fig. 2.4. Column pivoted or both ends ond free to rotote. derivation of the following relationship:
 Plastic Instability 23

!critical = V E 2
3(1 - µ.)
(I)
r
(for µ. = 0.3)
where t = shell thickness, inches
r = shell radius, inches
µ, = Poisson's ratio
Experimental tests (42) on the axial compression of thin
cylinders have resulted in buckling loads which are about
40% of that predicted by Eq. 2.24. The safe compressive
stress that can be carried without buckling was investigated
by Wilson and Newmark (43). AP, a result of these tests
and others (44), it was found that the safe compressive
stress that can be imposed on a steel cylindrical shell with-
out failure by wrinkling can be expressed as follows:
Ja11owable = 1.5 X 10 6 ( ; ) ;;ii ¼yield point
Various applications of the criterion of elastic instability
are discussed in subsequent chapters of this book.
2.3 PLASTIC INSTABILITY
2.3a Stress-Strain Relationships. The most widely
used criterion in the design of equipment is that of main-
taining the induced stresses within the elastic region of the
material of construction in order to avoid plastic deforma-
tion resulting from exceeding the yield point. These stresses
must be limited to a permissible value that is accepted as
being safe for the particular application. Usually the
results of tensile tests of standard specimens are taken as
the basis for establishing the all0wable or safe working
stress. Ductile materials such as hot-rolled mild steel have
two significant stress values, the yield point and the ulti-
mate tensile strength. The yield point is defined as the
tensile load at yield expressed in pounds divided by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen in square
inches. The tensile load at yield is the load condition where
(2.24) permanent strain begins to occur. The ultimate tensile
strength is defined as the maximum tensile load divided by
the original cross-sectional area of the test specimen. The
stresses measured by the standard tensile test are induced by
a uniaxial load whereas actual loads under operating condi-
tions may induce three-diipensional stresses. Various pro-
cedures are employed to handle the problem of combined
stresses when using an allowable stress based on uniaxial
tests. The procedures differ with the nature of the design
problem (see Chapters 6 through 15).
Some typical stress-strain curves for various materials
were presented in Fig. 2.1. Of the curves shown, only the
curve for a hot-rolled mild steel has a well-defined yield
point, which occurs at about 30,000 psi. The functional
service of a member may be lost if the induced stresses
exceed the yield point. For example, a machined flange
(2.25) used as a closure for a vessel may no longer produce a
pressure-tight seal if the machined face of the flange is
permanently deformed. Thus the allowable stress in such
an application should be kept below the yield point.
Figure 2.Sa shows a simple stress-strain curve for the case
of an induced stress within the elastic region. Under load,
the part may have an induced stress of A pounds per square ·
inch and a unit strain of A" inches per inch. On removal of
the load the stress and strain will both return to zero.
Such a stress condition is considered satisfactory for design
if the induced stress at point A is kept sufficiently below the
yield point to provide an adequate margin of safety.
Figure 2.Sc shows a similar curve for the case in which
plastic deformation has occurred. The loading condition
has produced a stress which has exceeded the yield point A
and has reached a stress of B pounds per square inch. If
plastic deformation had not occurred, the theoretical stress-
strain condition would have been located at B'. The
actual strain resulting from an induced stress B is indicated
by B". The permanent residual strain upon· remo~al of

t
"'
f"'
U)

Unloading
Unloading

0 A" Strain---... Strain- 0 A" C B" Strain-

-c
(a) (bJ (c)

Fig. 2.5. Stress-strain diagrams for elastic and plastic loadings. (According to Kerkhof [-45]. Courtesy of the American Welding Society.)
24 Criteria in Vessel Design
the load is indicated by point C. If the entire cross section
of the part undergoes plastic deformation, as shown in
Fig. 2.5c, there will be no residual stress upon removal of the
load. Such a design is usually considered unsatisfactory
because of the excessive permanent deformation and the
possibility of rupture.
If part of the cross section is subjected to elastic strain,
as indicated in Fig. 2.5a, and the remainder of the section
undergoes plastic deformation, as indicated in Fig. 2.5c,
residual stresses and strains will remain in the cross section
upon removal of the load condition. Figure 2.5b shows the
loading and unloading condition that results when only a
portion of the cross section undergoes plastic deformation.
It is important to note that the plastic strained condjtion·
resulting from stress B' is much more limited in this case
than in that shown in Fig. 2.5c because of the restraint
offered by the adjacent elastic portion of the cross section
which is undergoing elastic strain. Thus the total gtrain
in the portion undergoing plastic strain is limited to that
predicted by the modulus-of-elasticity line extended to
point B'. The ·actual induced stress in the plastic portion
corresponds to B pounds per square inch, and the actual
strain, to B" o( Fig. 2.5b. Upon unloading, the portion
having undergone plastic strain has a residual compressive
stress as indicated by point C. This residual compressive-
stress condition is in equilibrium with residual tensile
stresses in the adjacent region that has been subjected to
only elastic loading. If the portion undergoing plastic
deformation is small in comparison with the portion under-
going elastic deformation, the residual strain will be imper-
ceptible. Thus the prevention of significant plastic defor-
mation does not require all calculated elastic stresses to be
below the yield point since appreciable plastic deformation
can occur only if the material yields across the entire area.
Such a loading condition as ·shown in Fig. 2.5b often
exists where local stress concentrations (which are non-
uniform across the section) occur, as at the junction of
vessel shell and heads. Because the major part of the
cross section is in elastic strain, the small amount of plastic
strain relieves the high stress from B' to B without serious
deformation. Also the mean stress across the elastic-
plastic zone may be sufficiently below the yield point to
allow an adequate margin of safety. Thus such a condition
may have advantages in relieving high local stresses but
may become undesirable if excessive repeated loading and
unloading occur. Such a cyclic operation may result in
strain hardening with corresponding loss in ductility and
subsequent failure by rupture (45, 46).
-1' 2.3b Allowable Stress. On reference to Fig. 2.5a, the
percentage of the yield strength used as the allowable stress
is controlled by a number of factors, such as: the accuracy
with which the loads can be estimated; the reliability of
the stresses computed from these loads, the uniformity of
the material, the hazard if failure occurs, and other con-
siderations like local stress concenirations, impact shock,
fatigue, and corrosion.
For structural steels, one half to two thirds of the yield
strength is often used as the allowable stress for static loads
in structures. For example, the skirts used to support tall
vertical vessels may be considered structures and therefore
do not need to conform to pressure-vessel code- specifica-
tions but should conform to local building codes. A hot-
rolled mild steel with an allowable stress of 20,000 psi might
be used for such a structure. Inspection of Fig. 2.1 shows
that this value is about two thirds of the yield point of
SA-285, Grade C steel (which is a typical hot-rolled mild
steel). If the vessel supported by this skirt is fabricated
from a "code steel," such as SA-285, Grade C steel, having
the same physical properties as the skirt steel;the allowable
stress is based on one-fourth of the ultimate tensile strength
rather than two thirds of the yield point. Thus the allow-
able stress for the code vessel using this steel is 12,650 psi
rather than the 20,000 psi which might be used for the skirt
design. The hazard of an exploding pressure vessel is
great, a fact which justifies the use of a greaterJactor of
safety for pressure vessels than for structures. However,
the reason for the use of the ultimate strength to define
the allowable stress is not obvious and has been the subject
of considerable discussion (45, 47, 48, 49).
One reason for the use of the ultimate strength as a cri-
terion for allowable stress has been the lack of a plastic
zone for brittle materials, such as gray cast iron, and the
lack of a well-defined yield point, as in the case of most
nonferrous materials. If the yield point is not well defined,
the value of a yield point corresponding to some specified
permissible strain may be obtained. For example in the
0.2 % offset method a line is drawn parallel to the modulus
line from the 0.2 % elongation point, and the intercept of
the stress-strain curve with this line is taken as the yield
strength of the material.
The curve for gray cast iron shown in Fig. 2.1 indicates
no yield point, and fracture occurs at the ultimate strength;
therefore it is necessary to base the allowable stress for gray
cast iron and other brittle materials on the ultimate strength.
Because of the great use made of cast iron in design during
the period prior to World War I, the policy of basing the
allowable stress on the ultimate strength was widely used
even for materials which had well-defined yield points.
Many engineers still .use a "factor of safety" of three for
structural steel and a factor of safety of six for gray cast
iron, based upon the ultimate strength, when designing
structural parts. The pressure-vessel codes still use a
factor of safety of four based upon the ultimate strength
for specifying the allowable stresses for pressure vessels.
This prior convention of applying a factor of safety to the
ultimate strength does not justify the continued use of this
/ .
procedure. Where failure can be expected to occur as a
result of plastic deformation, the yield point should be used
as a basis for determining the allowable working stresses.
However, if the vessel is designed to meet code requirements,
the procedure specified in the codes must be used. It
should be pointed out that the maximum allowable working
stress specified by the codes is not always based on the
ultimate strength. The criteria used in establishing the
allowable stresses in the ASME code (11) follow.
I. At temperatures below the creep range, allowable
stress values were established at the lowest value of stress
obtained from: (a) 25% of the specified minimum tensile
strength at room temperature; or (b) 25% of the minimum
 Plastic Instability 25
66½% of yield 7
I
I Yield Percentage of ultimate strength
I
ASME code
Material 30 33.3 40 50 60 70 designation

tow-carbon nickel SB-162

2S aluminum

Copper

54S aluminum

18-8 stainless SA-240 and

SA-167

Carbon steel SA-201

Carbon steel SA-212

Low-alloy steel SA-302

Seamless quenched- Code case

_and-tempered steel *1134

Navy G steel None

T-1 steel None

30 40 50 60 70 80
I
¼ ultimate ¼ ultimate L62.5% of yield Yield
Percentage of ultimate strength

·\ Fig. 2.6. Comparison of allowable stress and yield stress as a percentage of the ultimate strength for materials within atmospheric temperature range.
(According ta Zick [48]. Courtesy of the American Welding Society.)

expected tensile strength at operating temperature; or (c)
62H % of the minimum expected yield strength for 0.2 %
offset at operating temperature.
2. For bolting material used at temperatures between
-20° F and 400° F the stress value were based on 20%
of the minimum tensile strength or 25 % of the minimum
yield strength, whichever was lower.
Criterion le introduces a further restriction for mate-
rials that have low yield-strength-tensile-strength ratios.
Appendix D lists allowable stresses for various materials
as specified by selected codes and standards.
The appendices of the ASME code for unfired pressure
vessels (11) describe the basis for establishing values of
allowable stresses for both ferrous and nonferrous materials.
Zick (48) has shown graphically (see Fig. 2.6) the allow-
able stresses and yield strengths for various materials as
functions of the percentage of the ultimate strength.
The percentages given in Fig. 2.6 are those specified by
the code (11) except for the cases of the two high-strength
steels shown at the bottom of the figure, which as yet have
no code designation. The nonfenous materials shown in
Fig. 2.6 have a_llowable stresses based on two-thirds of the
yield stress, which for these materials is an allowable stress
less than one-fourth of the ultimate. Ferrous materials
shown have an allowable stress based on one-fourth of the
ultimate strength, which for these materials is an allowable
stress less than 62H % of the yield stress except for 18-8
stainless. The allowable stress for 18-8 stainless satisfies
both criteria (25% of ultimate and 62H % of yield strength).
If the criterion is a factor of safety applied to the yield
strength, then the ratios between allowable stress and
yield strength are inconsistent for the higher-strength
materials.
An allowable stress based on the yield point assumes that
failure occurs by plastic deformation. If failure may be
expected to be caused by rupture rather than by excessive
plastic deformation, the use of the ultimate strength as a
criterion for the allowable stress may have justification on
the basis that the fatigue limit, which controls failure by
rupture, is usually proportional to the ultimate strength
(-18). It should be noted that failure by rupture has seldom
occurred in vessels fabricated of code-approved low-carbon
steels having high ductility.
26 . Criteria in Vessel Design
2.4 BRITTLE RUPTURE
The current trend toward the use of higher-strength
steels having lower ductility increases the possibility of
failure by rupture. This has resulted in a number of
investigations and technical papers dealing with this
problem (45, 46, 50, 51, 52, 106).
Stress concentrations are known to exist in a part under
load where there are changes in shape or cross-sectional area.
Very often these stress concentrations may he evaluated in
such parts as the junction of vessel closures and vessel
shells. The code for the design of pressure vessels states
that such "stress shall be considered" hut does not indicate
the procedure for this consideration. The customary prac-
tice has been the use of generous factors of safety and due:
tile materials. The use of high factors of safety results
in the overdimensioning of vessel sections. Such over-
dimensioning, when used in conjunction with highly ela~tic
materials, usually permits the dissipation of local stresses
Fig. 2:,. Ductile rupture in a multilayer vessel purposely tested to destruction.
by limited plastic deformation without failure by rupture.
Currently the Pressure Vessel Research Council is support-
ing research on materials having higher yield and tensile
strengths.
If no special corrosion problems are involved, failure; if
it does occur, is usually caused by either: (1) excessive
plastic strain (ductile rupture) or (2) brittle rupture (45). ·
Fignre 2. 7 shows failure by excessive plastic deformation in a
multilayer pressure vessel purposely tested to destruction.
Such failure, discussed in the previous section, can occur
only if a high stress is distributed over a large area. Local
stresses never produce great plastic deformation because
small plastic deformation serves to relieve these stresses.
This type of failure seldom occurs in a properly designed
vessel.
Figure 2.8 shows the fragments of a 5000 psi monobloc
vessel purposely tested to destruction. The fragmentation
is typical· of brittle rupture. Brittle rupture may result
from: the use of brittle materials, "notch brittleness,"
strain hardening of ductile materials in a test to rupture,
and strain hardening resulting from local·· overstressing
in repeated cyclic loading.
2.4a Notch Brittleness. Mild steels show high elonga-
tion in the simple tensile test and are normally considered
to he ductile materials. Such materials can fail with little
or no evidence of plastic strain if the· material contains a
crack or notch and if the material is at a service temperature
below the "transition temperature" of the material. This
type of failure is known as "notch brittleness" and has
resulted in the catastrophic failure of a number of welded
ships and a number of storage vessels (53, 64). Several
texts and articles discuss the phenomenon of notch brit-
tleness (52-66).
The transition temperature is defined as the temperature
above which the ductile type of failure occurs. Belo'\v the
transition temperature a transition range may exist in which
the material has semihrittle properties. At still lower:
temperature the material becomes completely brittle.
(Courtesy of A. 0. Smith Corp.)
Below this temperature of complete embrittlement, brittle
fracture may occur even though no notches or cracks exist
in the material. In the transition range a notch or crack
must exist for brittle fracture to occur. Above the transf:
tion temperature brittle fracture will not occur even if such .
a notch exists. Thus, failure below the transition tempera-
ture is referred to as "notch brittleness." Some materials
have a very narrow transition range; therefore ·a single
transition temperature is sufficient to define the transition
from the ductile to the brittl~ type of failure. Other mate-
rials, such as plain-carbon or low--alloy-ferritic steel, have
transition ranges of hundreds of degrees.
IMPACT TEsT.s. The transition-temperature range is
usually determined by making Charpy or lzod impact tests
at various temperatures. The procedure for the Charpy
impact test for plate steels for vessel construction is described
in ASTM designation A 370-54T (67), and the minimum
impact strength permitted is given in ASTM designation
A 300-54aT (67). The general procedure involved in such
 Brittle Rupture 27

STRAIN ENERGY. When a load is applied to an elastic

material, the material deforms in the direction of the force,
and work is done upon the material. This work is equal to
the product of the average force times the .distance through
which the force moves. If the initial force is zero, the
average force is equal to one half of the final force. When
the load is removed from an elastic body, it returns to its
original shape, and in so doing it has the capacity for doing
work. Thus an elastic material under load may be said to
have "strain energy."
Consider a cubic inch of elastic material initially under
no load and apply a force sufficient to produce stress, J.
The average force in terms of stress is equal to U/2), and
the unit deformation resulting is equal to:

E = -f (2.3)
fig. 2.8. Brittle fracture in a monoblac vessel designed for 5000 psi
E
and purposely tested to destruction. (Courtesy of A. 0. Smith Corp.) Therefore, the strain energy, U, is equal to:
2
U =f-f- =!- (2.26)
2E 2E
For a volume of elastic material larger than 1 cu in., the
tests is to prepare rectangular specimens with either a V,
total strain energy becomes equal.
U, or keyhole notch machined across one face of the speci-
men. The specimen is clamped in a vise with the notch Utotal vol. = (U)(volume) (2.27)
exposed and facing a heavy pendulum. The pendulum
is released in such a way that it strikes the specimen with an GRIFFITH THEORY. A crack extending through a unit
impact blow which causes the specimen to fracture at the thickness of a plate under stress deforms to produce an
notch. The maximum swing of the pendulum after inter- opening in the plate which may be considered to have the
action with the specimen is measured. From this measure- shape of an ellipse with a very large major-to-minor-axis
ment the foot-pounds of energy expended in causing the ratio. The volume of such an opening having a length
fracture may be determined. A brittle material fractures equal to 2c is a function of c 2• The strain energy released as
with little or no plastic deformation, and the amount of a result of formation of the new crack volume in the elliptical
energy required for fracture is small. A tough material opening can be determined by use of Eqs. 2.26 and 2.27.
undergoes considerable plastic deformation prior to plastic
fracture. This plastic deformation absorbs a good deal of U t.v. J2 (ac 2l ) ,,
= 2E (2.28)
energy. Thus the foot-pounds of energy absorbed in
causing fracture is a measure of the toughness of the mate- where the volume of the elliptical opening is ac 2l.
rial. Figure 2.9 shows curves for typical data from Charpy
U-notch tests for a variety of mild steels (53).
EFFECT OF COMPOSITION. All of the four steels shown in
Fig. 2.9 have carbon contents between 0.20 % and 0.25 % 40
and yield strengths between 33,000 and 40,000 psi. The 36
curves for the three steels shown to the right in Fig. 2.9 ABS class c-., V"

--
i_/"
32
exhibit complete brittleness at temperatures of Oto. -10° F,
v . . . ---
:!:! 28
1.....--- /
V ~ i--
whereas the ABS class C steel exhibits this phenomenon at I
~
a temperature about 30° Flower. The transition tempera- ,t:!
.£ 24
A ...... V
ture for all four steels covers a wide range. In general, ti'o /_ ~
'/
/
steels with lower carbon contents exhibit greater toughness ai 20 ASTM A-285:;
at lower temperatures. The presence of phosphorus has
ti
..., / Grade c- I ,I
u 16
I I'
been shown to decrease the transition temperature. A "'
Q.
.§ 12
I ASTM A-7--' '_,__J

_ ,I 77 ~
correlation has been developed (60) indicating that the
transition temperature is a function of the sum of the per- 8 BS-13
centage of carbon plus 20 times the percentage of phos- ..... / / V7 I I
phorus (C + 20P). The addition of nickel to steel can
0
4
-
greatly increase its toughness and lower the transition -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
tell)perature. Steel designated as AISI 2800 (SH% nickel) Temperature, degrees F
and 304 stainless steel will withstand impact loads at tem-
peratures as low as -320° F (liquid-nitrogen saturation + fig. 2.9. Charpy U-notch data for some mild steels (53). (Courtesy of the
temperature) (61). American Welding Society.}
 28 Criteria in Vessel Design
B' cm (70). The energy required to form surface' area of
metal at the crack interface is given by:
I~

.2
i
C
1'
ti
II
Ucrack 4cT
The rate at which energy is consumed as the crack propa-
(2.31)

/I gates is:
"'C
~ II dUcrack
4T (2.32)
II de
I I
I I The criterion for propagation of the crack is determined by
I I the ratio of the rate of strain energy released to surface
energy absorbed in creating the new surface at the interface,
or
dUt.v. _ 21rcf -...
------,,;:;. 1 (2.33)
dUerack 4TE - ,
or
f = V2ET/1rc (2.34)
It should be noted that when the ratio given by Eq. 2.33
exceeds unity, a case of instability exists. For this condi-
tion the crack will propagate at an increasing rate, approach-
0 B" ing one third the speed of sound in the material (several
C Strain--+- thousand feet per second for steel). Such failures occur so
0
"Bi rapidly and are so extensive as to be catastrophic in most
~ instances.
Q.
E Substituting the approximate value of 2 X 10 6 ergs per
8 sq cm (70), which is equal to 11.4 in-lb per sq in., for T in,
t Eq. 2.34 and rounding off the product (2 X 11.4)/ir to 10
C
as an approximation gives:
G
(2.35)
If the stress f reaches the yield point., plastic deformation
p ·will occur. Therefore the smallest crack that can initiate
brittle fracture is determined by setting f in Eq. 2.35 equal
{/t.. Fig. 2.10. Strain hardening due ta cyclic load. (According to Kerkhof to the yield point (y.p.) and solving for c.
[45]. Courtesy of the American Welding Society.)
lOE
Ccritical (2.36)
/y.p.2

Griffith (68, 69) in a rigorous derivation has shown that
for a plate oi unit thickness this expression becomes:
.1rc'l'f2 -
Ut.v.# = E (2.29)
The rate of release of strain energy with increase of crack
dimension c as the crack propagates is obtained by differ-
entiation oi Eq. 2.29.
dUt.v. = 21rcf
(2.30)
de E
The surface area of metal in the 'crack interface ·at the
time of formation of the crack is twice the product of the
crack length times the metal thickness, or 4c, for a plate of
unit thickness. The formation oi this surface consumes
energy which is normally equal to the product oi the area
times the surface tension, T, for brittle materials in which
fracture occurs with little plastic deformation. If some
plastic strain accompanies the fracture, T will be greater
than the surface tension and must be experimentally deter-
mined. The value of T for low-carbon steel at room tem-
perature is approximately equal to 2 X 10 6 ergs per sq
Thus a steel (S~-283, Grade C) having a yield point of '
30,000 psi would not propagate a crack shorter than % in.
However, a low-alloy steel (ASTM A-242) having a yield
strength of 50,000 psi would propagate a crack having a
length of about_¼ in. ,
~ 2.4b Repeated Cyclk Loading. Brittle rupture can
occur without appreciable plastic deformation as a result
of local high stresses and repeated cyclic loading. Such
failure may occur near limited areas of stress concentration,
near defects in the plate, or pear weld joints. This type
of iailure does not occur durin:g hydrostatic tests in spite of
the fact that the stresses are higher than those induced in
service because they are not repeated so that they produce
fatigue. Failure by rupture usually begins by the forma-
tion of a tiny crack alter the vessel has been in service for
a considerable period of time with cyclic loading operation.
These small cr~cks continue to propagate with time. The
· material surrounding the cracks becomes strain-hardened
and brittle. The extension of the cracks continues through
the strain-hardened area and stops when ductile material
is encountered. After continued stress cycles, the material
at the root of the cracks becomes strain-hardened and the

··L- ··L ·tc
(T (T
Stress-strain
diagram . '
I
' tion 2.37 does not take into account the phenomenon of
Eo E Eo
(a) (b)
Type Power Straight
of curve function line
Strain
hardening Yes Yes
considered
fig. 2.11. Stress-slrc:iin curves fitting mc:ithemc:iticc:il equc:itions. (According
to Burrows et ol. [77]. Courtesy of the Americc:in Society of mechc:inicc:il
Engineers.)
cracks progress further. The continued strain hardening
and progression of the crack result in eventual failure by
brittle fracture.
Failure by rupture as a result of strain hardening can be
explained with reference to the stress-strain diagram given
in Fig. 2.10-according to Kerkhof (45). During the
application of the hydrostatic test load or during the first
loading, local stress concentrations develop according to
the pattern given in Fig. 2.5b. If a small portion of the
cross-sectional area of the shell thickness is under a suffi-
ciently high stress intensification, removal of the load will
result in reverse yielding as shown by region CD in Fig.
2.10. Reverse yielding occurs as a result of an induced
compressive stress which exceeds the compressive yield
point C and produces plastic strain to point D. Such a
strain can occur where bending stresses exists such as near
the junction of vessel closures and attachments. Bending
stresses may he very high on the shell surface and zero at
the center of the shell thickness. Upon reloading, the
path DEF is followed, and upon unloading, the path FGH
is followed. After each successive cycle the yield point of
the material increases as a result of strain hardening. After
a sufficient number of cycles a stress of Q is reached in the '
loaded condition, and of P in the unloaded condition without
appreciable plastic deformation. If these stresses reach
the fatigue limit of the material, minute cracks will form
in the strain-hardened material. Continual cyclic opera-
tion will result in eventual brittle rupture It shouldbe
noted that if the parallelogram 0B'QP, the sides OB' and
PQ have equal length, and if Q is the tensile stress equal and
opposite to the compressive stress P, then Q = ½B' (45).
Thus if the maximum value of the theoretical stress B'
does not exceed twice the yield point A, the maximum
value of Q will not exceed the yield point A, and fracture by
strain hardening will not occur. The maximum stress
range QP must not exceed:
f max range ~ 2fy.p.
where f max ra.nge = maximum local stress range not produc-
ing fatigue failure, pounds per square
inch
]y.p. = initial yield point of the material at the
operating temperature, pounds per square
inch
Brittle Rupture 29
The above relationship indicates that in the consideration
(T
of failure by brittle rupture, discussed previously, the
allowable stress should be based upon the yield point rather
than upon the ultimate strength of the material. Equa-
E Eo E
(c)
stress relaxation at elevated temperatures and was devel-
oped for uniaxial stresses (45). Such considerations and the
Idealized application of Eq. 2.37 .are discussed in a later section of
(a= 0)
the text.
No A number _of articles have appeared reporting studies on
the problem of brittle rupture as a result of repeated cyclic
loading (50, 52, 71-76).
For purposes of analysis of stress-strain relationships, the
stress-strain curves can be approximated as indicated in
Fig. 2.11 (77). The stress-strain curves shown in Fig. 2.11
a, b, and c are termed: power-function, straight-line, and
idealized curves respectively. They can he represented by
the following equations:
f = a 1«: 0• 511 (power-funct.ion, Fig. 2.lla) \ (2.38)
f Jo+ (e - Eo) tan a (straight-line, Fig. 2.pb)
(2.39)
f =Jo (idealized, Fig. 2.llc) (2.40)
2.4c Other Factors Contributing to Brittle Rupture.
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT AND BLISTERING. Hydro-
gen will diffuse into steel under certain conditions. The
action of hydrogen at high temperatures and pressures
differs from that at low temperatures and pressures. When
steel is exposed to hydrogen at high temperatures and pres~
sures, the steel loses its tensile strength, becomes brittle,
and often cracks or blisters. The mechanism of diffusion
of hydrogen at high temperatures and pressures into steel
is believed to result from the dissociation of hydrogen
molecules to m<i>noatomic hydrogen. The partial pressure
of monoatomic bydrogen causes the hydrogen to diffuse into
the steel (78). : As the hydrogen diffuses into the steel
at high temperatures, it reacts with the carbon in the steel
to form methane. The methane does not diffuse out of the
steel and accumulates to form blisters and cracks. Figure
2.12 shows sections through hydrogen blisters in pressure-
vessel steels (78).
(2.37)
fig. 2.12. Section cut through hydrogen blisters in pressure-vessel steel (78).
(Courtesy of Shell Development Compc:iny c:ind the Americc:in Welding
Society.)
30 Criteria in Vessel Design
At low temperatures and pressures the mechanism of
hydrogen diffusion is believed to be associated with the
formation of hydrogen ions as a result of corrosive attack.
The hydrogen ions are converted to monoatomic hydrogen
by means of electron exchange. This conversion takes
place, for example, when a steel part is cathodic and deioni-
zation occurs with the flow of a small amount of current.
Energy is required to cause the hydrogen to penetrate the
steel. This energy is supplied by the current from the
galvanic action of corrosive attack. The driving energy of
a fraction of a volt in an electrolytic cell \S equivalent to
many thousand atmospheres of hydrogen pressure (78).
The embrittlement caused in a vessel by hydrogen dif-
fusion is temporary. If the equipment is shut down for a
period of time, the hydrogen will diffuse from the metal.
If the equipment is cooled slowly, the rate of hydrogen
diffusion from the metal will be greatly increased. Anneal-
ing for two hours at 1200° F or for one day at 225° F will
return the ductility to normal. The loss in ductility caused
by hydrogen diffusion is not excessive. For example, a
hydrogen content of 14 ppm in 1020 steel will reduce the
tensile-test elongation from 40 % to 22 %. Many process
plants operate normally without giving any particular con-
sideration to hydrogen embrittlement. However, blistering
and cracking is a serious problem with equipment handling
hydrogen at high temperature and pressure.
STRAIN AGING. When metal is permanently deformed
beyond the elastic limit by cold working, a precipitation
may occur because of local supersaturation along slip planes
in the microstructure of the metal. Thus cold working
has two effects. First, the hardness is increased at the time
of cold working; and this increase is followed, on the aging
of the metal, by an additional increase resulting from
precipitation. Second, the toughness decreases because of
Time-
.;.. Fig. 2.13. Schematic creep curve, extension plotted against elapsed time.
(A, elastic extension; ll, creep at decreasing rote;_ C, creep at approximately
constant rote, 0, creep at Increasing rote; E, elastic contration; F, perma-
nent change of shape.)
the precipitation and may be measured by impact tests as
a function of aging (79, 80). ·
TEMPER EMBRITTLEMENT. The phenomenon of temper
embrittlement occurs when hardened medium-carbon struc-
tural steel is cooled slowly or held within a critical range of
temperatures below the temperature at which austenite is
transformed to ferrite. This critical temperatuTe. r~ge
usually occurs in somewhere between· 850 and. U00°·F.
Welded joints and service at elevated temperatures are
subject to this phenomenon. The effect is accentuated by
high Mn, P, and Cr and is retaraed by Mo. The phenome-::
non is not completely understood but is believed to result
from a precipitation mechanism (80, 81, 82, 83).
2.5 CREEP
The criteria for design discussed previously have be~n
based upon the premise that strain under load does not vary
with time. This premise is essentially true for ferrous
materials under load at temperatures up to about 659° F.
However, beyond this temperature range the material
"creeps" under load, causing an increase of strain with time.
An increasing rate of creep is encountered as the service
temperature is increased. Some materials, such as lead,
creep readily at room temperature. The rate of creep
depends upon the prior history of the material and the
stress as well as upon the temperature.
2.5a Creep Test. In studying the creep characteristics
of a material, a small tensile-test specimen is placed under
constant axial load while held at constant temperature
in an electric furnace. The rate at which the sample
elongates is recorded as a function of time for each tempera-
tui:e and load. Depending upon the test conditions and the
material, the duration of the test may last from a•few hours
to several months .and on occasion has been continued for
several years. Figure 2.13 shows a typical creep-~te
curve obtained from such an investigation. The general
specifications for conducting a creep test are covered by
ASTM specification E-22--41 (67).
Upon application of the initial load an instantaneous
elastic strain occurs, resulting in an extension of the speci-
men as indicated by extension A of Fig. 2.1:3. The initial
creep begins and continues at a decreasing rate for the time
interval B; this region is known as the "first stage of creep."
This period is followed by a constant-rate period extending
over the time interval C; this region is known as the "second
stage of creep" and is the region which is used to limit the
service life of the equipment. The constant-rate zone is
followed by an increasing-rate period over the time interval
D. This is known as the "third stage of creep" and ends
in fracture of the specimen if the test is continued. Usually
the test is interrupted before fracture occurs, and the speci-
men undergoes an elastic contraction as indicated by exten-
sion E. The amount of permanent strain is indicated by
extension F.
Two typical creep curves for a high-alloy steel tested at
1200° F with stresses of 20,000 and 25,000 psi-are shown in
Fig. 2.14 (84). It should be noted that increasing the stress
from 20,000 to 25,000 psi greatly increases the creep rate
and shortens the service life of the material. If a number
of curves such as those shown in Fig. 2.14 are obtained, the
 Creep 31
0.080 I I I I

.,. Fractured after 3545 hours

0.070 I

0.060 I
.€_ 0.050 I
+- fig. 2.14. Time-elongation curves
at 1200°F, "16-15-6" alloy--
solution quenched from 2150" F
.E
~
c
0.040
/
/
{84). (Courtesy of Timken Roller ~ 25,~~ '

Bearing Co.)
~ 0.030
I/'"
/
0.020

0.010
I~ 20,000 psi In progress 6683 IJgurs

0
V
0
~

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000
Time, hours

slopes of the second stage (constant rate of creep) may be de-
termined and a cross-plot prepared such as the one as shown
in Fig. 2.15 (85). In Fig. 2.15 the creep rate is plotted
against stress with temperature as a parameter. Two
standards of creep strength are commonly used for design
purposes in this country. One is the stress that will pro-
duce a creep rate of 1 % per 10,000 hours (approximately
1 % per year), and the other is the stress that will produce
a creep rate of 1 % per 100,000 hours (approximately 1 %
in 11 years).
2.5b Creep-Rupture Test. Another consideration is the
rupture life of the part under the stress condition at the
service temperature. A test known as the stress-rupture or
creep-rupture test (67) is used to determine this rupture life.
It is similar to the creep test except that high loads are used
which produce greater creep rates so that rupture occurs
in a reasonable length of time. The total strain obtained
in a creep test is usually below ½ % whereas in the creep-
rupture test the total strain usually exceeds 50 %. Figure
2.15 shows cu,rves plotted from both creep-test data and
creep-rupture-test data. The time to rupture is plotted as
a function of stress with parameters, as indicated in Fig.
2.16 (85). The breaks in the three curves of Fig. 2.16 are
the result of a change from ductile to brittle fracture. It is
essential that the rupture tests be conducted for sufficient
time to insure that the slope of the curve beyond the break
is establish~d. It is customary practice to extrapolate' this
portion of the curve to 100,000 hours in order to obtain the
stress to produce rupture for longer periods of time. The
ASME code (11) specifies that the allowable stresses at high
temperatures are based-.Qn 100 % of the stress to produce a
creep rate of ½oo % per 1000 hours (0.00001 % per hour) or
on 60 % of the average stress or 80 % of th_e minimum stress
to produce rupture at the end of 100,000 hours, whichever
is the lower value.
The stress to produce rupture after a specified length of
time varies with the material. Figure 2.17 compares the
stress to produce rupture in 1000 hours as a function of
temperature for a variety of materials (86). The super-
alloys shown in Fig. 2.17 may be rather expensive for use in

---Creep test----l>-1-----+-----Creep-rupture test - - - - - 1 - - - - ' i M

'0 "'
~lOOr------;------t-----t------;------t-----t------1
l'- Fig. 2.15. Correlation of creep·
"':::,0
test and creep-rupture-test dota =
"f!
llOOOf •
for 18-8 molybdenum {type 316) 1300°F
steel (85). (Courtesy of Car- :If
negie-Illinois Steel Corp.) i 10
5

1.__.............................._ _ _ _...,__ _ _ _.,___ _ ___.__ _ _ __.__ _ _ _.,___ _ ___,

0.00001 0.0001 0.001 O.Ql 0.1 1 10.0 100
Minimum rate of extension, per cent per hour
32 Criteria in Vessel Design
100~----.....-----..------....-----'---r------r------,

"'C:
-0

~ ------- ------
-------- --
:::,
0 ?' Fig. 2.16. Stress vs. rupture time
£
·iii 101-------+-----+----~==i--...:::;;::::----t------+--=----=::;;::J for 18-8 molybdenum (type 316)
Q.
.,;
"'
~
------- ---..._ ..... ._
steel at 1100, 1300, and 1500°F
(85). (Courtesf of Carnegie-
Illinois Steel Cofp.)

1,...___.__,_~.1..U...U..-----.._______.______...______.______
0.1· 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Rupture time, hours

vessel construction; they find their principal use in such
items as turbine blades, parts for jet engines, and similar
applications, but may be used for vessels for extreme se;rvice.
It should be noted that creep- and stress-rupture-test data
are obtained under atmospheric exposure conditions in
laboratories and under uniaxial loading. The stress condi-
tion existing in a vessel part under field service conditions
usually comprises stresses in three directions, a fact which
complicates the application of the. experimental data. In
addition, the vessel material may be exposed to a corrosive
atmosphere and be subject to scaling, hydrogen embrittle-
ment, intergranular corrosion, and strain hardening.
2.6 CORROSION
The extent to which corrosion will occur in process equip-
ment depends upon the nature of the films that form on the
...-,
surface of the parts. The excellent corrosion resistance of
copper and its alloys, for example, is the result of their
ability to form thin, protective films on their surfaces.
These films may be the result of simple oxidation or .may be
composed of insoluble salts. To be protective the coating
should be thin, adherent, continuous, and relatively insolu-
ble. Equipment operating under conditions that allow the
formation of a uniform protective film generally corrodes
slowly and may last for a great many years.
Under severe corrosive conditions, however, rapid corro-
sion occurs, resulting in costly delays and replacements. By
judicious selection of material and by careful improving of
operating conditions, corrosion can be reduced or retarded,
and substantial savings in operating and maintenance costs
may be realized. Thus an appreciation of the factors which
contribute to corrosion is of value in the design of equip-

70..----,,---,--,----,---r-,----,,----,---,--...--,.--,--~--,---.---,.-,---,

601---+----l!---1

·a 40 1---1----J!---¾ -; Fig. 2.17. Stress to rupture in

§
- .,;
1000 houn vs.! temperature for
various materials (86). (Cour•

R 30
en
tesy of Universal-Cyclops Steel
Corp. and Battelle Memorial
Institute.)

Temperature, degrees F

ment. A thorough treatment of the theory of corrosion and
its control is presented in the Corrosion Handbook (87).
2.6a Uniform Corrosion. When corrosion occurs at the
surface of equipment by the formation of soluble salts, a
uniform thinning of the wall occurs. The rate of corrosion
depends upon the corroding medium, the velocity of fluid
flow, the temperature, and other factors. This type of
corrosion is encountered in acid solutions (particularly those
containing oxygen), in waters carrying a high oxygen or
carbon dioxide content (such as mine water), and in solu-
tions having a solvent action on the corrosion products
(such as those containing ammonium hydroxide, which dis-
solve the corrosion products from copper alloys). Attempts
have been made to reduce uniform corrosion by the applica-
tion of an external electric current to provide cathodic pro-
tection. The limited success attained by this method has
been attributed more _to the formation of protective films
than to cathodic protection.
2.6b Impingement Attack. Under normal operating
conditions certain localized areas of the parts may be exR_osed
to the destructive forces of a relatively high-velocity circu-
lating medium. Corrosion under such conditions is
described as "impingement attack." Turbulence of the
fluids causes a rapid and repeated destruction of the protec-
tive film with subsequent corrosion of the exposed/metal.
This condition is considerably aggravated when the circu-
lating medium carries in suspension an abrasive material.
2.6c Concentration-cell Attack. Corrosion inay be
caused by differential aeration with the formation of con-
centration cells at the metal surfaces under certain operating
conditions. Cracks, crevices, porous coatings, and breaks
in protective films are sources of trouble since they trap
liquid and set up differences in concentration of salts, ions,
or gases in the circulation medium. As a result of an elec-
trochemical type of concentration-cell action, severe pitting
of the metal surface and localized perforation of the material
occur. An example of this type of corrosion is the "rusting"
of plain carbon steel. This type of corrosion can be mate-
rially reduced by the observation of the following sugges-
tions (88):
1. Specify butt joints and emphasize the necessity for com-
plete penetration of the weld material to guard against minute
crevices.
::!. Avoid the use of lap joints, or completely seal them with
weld metals, solder, or a suitable caulking compound.
3. A void sharp corners and stagnant ar~as or other sites
favorable to the accumulation of precipitates and other solids.
4. Endeavor to provide uniform flow of liquid with a mini-
mum of turbulence and air entrainment.
5. Provide suitable strainers in lines to prevent local obstruc-
tion within the equipment which may start deposit attacks or
result in impingement attack.
2.6d Deposit Attack. When small particles settle out or
lodge on the wall of the equipment, part of the metal wall
becomes protected by the deposit, and a special type of con-
centration-cell action may take place. Usually the shielded
area becomes anodic and intense pitting results. Filtering
of the circulating medium and frequent cleaning will mini,
mize the occurrence of deposit attack.
Corrosion 33
-f'- Table 2.2. Galvanic Series in Sea Water (236)
(Courtesy of American Society of Testing Materials)
CORRODED END (ANODIC OR LEAST NOBLE)
Magnesium, magnesium alloys
Zinc, galvanized steel, or galvanized wrought iron
Aluminum (52 SH, 48, 38, 28, 538-T in this order)
Alclad, cadmium
Aluminum, (A 178-T, 178-T, 248-T in this order)
Mild steel, wrought iron, cast iron
Ni-resist '
13 %-chromium stainless steel, type 410 (active)
50-$0 lead-tin solder
18-8 stainless steel, type 304 (active), 18-8-3 stainless steel,
type 316 (active)
Lead, tin
Muntz metal, manganese bronze, naval brass
Nickel (active), lnconel (active)
Yellow brass, admiralty brass, aluminum bronze, 'red brass,
copper, silicon bronze, Ambrac, 70-30 copper-nickel.
comp. G-bronze, comp. M~bronze
Nickel (passive), Inconel (passive)
Mone]
18-8 stainless steel, type 304 (passive); 18-8-3 stainless steel,
type 316 (passive)
PROTECTED END (CATHODIC OR MOST NOBLE)
2.6e Galvanic-cell Attack. When dissimilar metals and
alloys are Tn contact. ~ith each 9i}ier in a conducting medium,
a galvanic action iUe~cllE, which results in the dissolution of
the less-noble or cat~c metal. From the electromotive
or galvanic series it is' possible to predict the tendencies of
metals and alloys to form galvanic cells and to predict the
probable direction of the galvanic action. Table 2.2 gives
the galvanic series as determined for sea water (89, 236).
When use is made of such a series determined for the fluid
under consideration, one may be relatively safe in choosing
metals from the same group; however, if the metals are
distant from each other in the list, the metal higher in the
list will corrode rapidly.
When one is using metals that produce a galvanic action,
the relative areas of the two materials have a very important
bearing on the extent of corrosion. Usually the extent of
galvanic action will be proportional to the ratio of the area
of the metal lower in the series to the area of the metal
higher in the list. Thus it is wise to avoid galvanic couples
where the exposed area of the cathodic metal is much
greater than that of the anodic metal. (For example, a
steel part in a copper vessel would rapidly corrode, but a
copper part in a steel vessel would be relatively safe).
2.6f Stress Corrosion. As a result of the simultaneous
action of stresses and certain corrosive conditions, parts may
fail by cracking. When the stress is applied externally, the
break often is called a "stress-corrosion crack." When
residual internal stresses are involved, the resulting break
often is called a "season crack." Annealing to relieve
residual stresses greatly reduces season cracking. When
the part is subjected to repeated cyclic stresses during
service, failure by "fatigue cracking'' may occur, as dis-
34 Criteria in Vessel Design
cussed previously. Such failures are characterized by their
suddenness and by the absence of plastic deformation in the
failing section.
Stress-corrosion data on systems free of corrosion in the
unstressed state indicate that there is little or no attack on
material that is either completely elastically deformed or
completely plasticly deformed. But such parts subjected
to both plastic and elastic deformation in the sa:ine section
may undergo severe stress corrosion. Thus stress corrosion
is caused by strain hardening in combination 11-jth high
elastic stresses rather than by plastic deformation (45).
Such strain hardening followed by corrosion has been
observed in boilers and pressure vessels where local stress
concentrations exist without severe plastic defon,nation.

PROBLEMS'

l. A full-floating-head horizontal condenser has 400 %-in.-diameter No. 16 BWG admiralty-

metal tubes. The floating tube sheet and head assembly weigh 1000 lb when the head is filled
with water. IC the tube-support plate is located 18 in. from the center of load of the floating
bead assembly and the overhanging tubes and head assembly are assumed to behave as a simple
cantilever beam,
a. What bending stress is developed in the tubes as a result of this load?
b. What is the floating-head deflection from the horizontal at the center of load?
c. Is the design satisfactory if the allowable stress is 6000 psi?

. l
F or a s1mp ·1 pzi
e cant1 ever, y = ?,El

r(do4 - di 4)
For a tube, I,..•tansular =
32

For a %-in. No. 16 BWG tube, OD .., 0.625 in.

ID = 0.495 in.

Modulus of elasticity of admirality metal = 15 X 10 6 psi

2. A horizontal stitrener supporting a bubble-cap tray in a fractionating column may be con-
sidered to act as a uniformly loaded, simply supported beam. The deflection equation for
such a beam is:

where y = deflection at point z, inches

x = distance from end of stiffener, inches
l = total length of stiffener, inches
E modulus of elasticity, pounds per square inch
I = moment of inertia, inches 4
w = uniform load, pounds per linear inch
The stiffener has a moment of inertia of l. 785 in. 4 and a section modulus of 1.02 in. 8 and is
of steel (E = 30 X 10 11 psi). The stiffener has a length, l, of 100 in. and catries a uniform
load, w, of 2.4 lb per linear in.
Determine:
a. The maximum deflection at the center of the span, z = 50 in.
b. The maximum stress at the center of the span.
c. The stress 20 in. in from the-support, x 20 in.
d. The shear load, pounds, at z = 20 in.
3. A copper fractionating column has vertical tray-support rods between trays. The trays
are .20 in. apart and the rods are spaced so as to support 100 lb each, under column action.
What is the diameter of the rods required to limit the column loading to one half of the critical
column load if (a) the rods are free to pivot at both ends or (b) the rods are fixed at both ends?

k = 4'
~- E = 15 X 10 6 psi
 Problems 35
4,. A vessel is to be fabricated of type 316 stainless steel (see Figs. 2.12 and 2.13). The
vessel is intended to be used at 1300° F for an expected service life of five years. The creep
deformation permitted during the service life of the unit is not to exceed 5 %- Determine the
allowable stress if the allowable stress is not to exceed either (a) two thirds of the stress to pro-
duce the creep rate or (b) 50% of the stress to produce rupture. Also estimate the total creep
and rupture life if the allowable design stress as determined in this manner is used in the design
of the vessel.

\

DESIGN OF SHELLS
FOR FLAT-BOTTOMED CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
Throughout the chemical and petrochemical industries,
gases, liquids, and solids are stored, accumulated, or proc-
essed in vessels of various shapes and sizes. Such a large
number of storage vessels or tanks are used by these indus-
tries that the design, fabrication, and erection of these ves-
sels have become a specialty of a number of companies. As
a result of economic considerations, only a few companies in
the process industries now design storage vessels having
large volumetric capacity, and the usual practice is to con-
tract for this equipment with companies specializing in this
field. However, the design of this equipment involves basic
principles which are fundamental to the design of other
types of more specialized equipment. This and the follow-
ing-chapter cover these fundamentals.
Before the extensive use of welding as a means of fabrica-
tion, vessels fabricated of metal were assembled either by
bolting or riveting (90). At the present time most fluids
held at atmospheric or low pressure are contained in cylindri-
cal tanks of welded construction. Because of the large
quantities of petroleum and its products stored in this
manner, the American Petroleum Institute has established
specifications governing the design of welded, vertical,
cylindrical tanks for oil storage above ground. This
specification code, API Standard 12 C (2), is intended to
provide the oil industry with design specifications for tanks
of adequate safety and reasonable economy in a wide variety
of capacities. It is recommended for use by the oil indus-
try in all sections of the United States except those areas
which are subject to local regulations that conflict with it.
Although these specifications were devised primarily for the
design of storage vessels for petroleum and its products,
they are useful guides ~in the design of a variety of vessels for
36
CHAPTER
storage of other fluids. Figure 3.1 shows a typical welded
oil-storage tank.
3.1 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
_The materials used in the construction of storage vessels
are usually metals, alloys, clad-metals, or materials with
linings which are suitable for containing the fluid. Whe~e
no appreciable corrosion problem exists, the cheapest and
most easily fabricated construction material is usually hot-
rolled mild (low-carbon) steel plate. The particular types
of steel plate specified by API Standard 12 C are SA-7
(open-hearth or electric-furnace processes only), SA-283,
Grade C for all thicknesses greater than l};i in., or SA-283,
Grade D for thicknesses less than 1}4'. in. Copper-bearing
steel, which is not specified by this code, has some advan-
tages in resisting atmospheric corrosion. SA-7 is specified
for structural steel shapes such as angles, channels, and
I-beams, and ASTM-A-27 grade 60-30 fully annealed is
specified for steel castings. _The physical properties and
chemical composition of these-·plain carbon steels are listed
in Table 3.1.
Low-carbon steels are rather soft and ductile and are
easily sheared, rolled, and formed into the various shapes
used in fabricating vessels. These steels are also easily
welded to give joints of uniform strength relatively free
from localized stresses. The ultimate tensile strength is
usually between 55,000 and 65,000 psi and the carbon
content between 0.15% and 0.25%. However, both the
ultimate strength and the carbQn content cannot be speci~
fled since one is a function of the other. In Table 3.1 the
ultimate strength is specified but not the carbon content.
~-Low-alloy, high-strength steels are a specific class of low-
carbon steels which are made stronger by the addition of a
 Material Specifications 37

-t. Fig. 3.1, Welded oil-storage tank, Humble Oil and Refining Company, Baytown, Texas. Diameter, 120 ft1 height, 40 ft; nominal cap_acity, 80,000 bbl,
(Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Company.)

small amount of alloying elements. Such steels have yield
points that are considerably higher than plain carbon steel
of the same carbon content and also have higher ultimate
tensile strengths. The chief disadvantage of some of the
high-strength alloy steels of moderate alloy content is that
they are more difficult to fabricate because they have low
ductility. Some have an increasing tendency to air-harden,
which may result in localized stresses in welded joints.
However, these disadvantages may be avoided if the alloy
content and the carbon content are both kept relatively low,
as they are in low-alloy, high-strength steels. Many steel
manufacturers do not produce these steels to standard
specifications as they do plain carbon steels but use a
variety of formulas marketed under various trade names.
~
Most manufactures claim their low-alloy, high-strength
steels to be readily "weldable." However, this is not a
precisely defined characteristic, and it should be understood
that such "weldability" refers to conventional metal-arc
welding processes usually employed for plain carbon steel.
Table 3.2 gives properties of low-alloy, high-strength steels
recommended by API Standard 12 C, 1955.
In selecting material for large-diameter vertical vessels,
consideration should be given to the types of failure th.a!,
have occurred in the past. In 1952 two unusual tank fail~'----.
ures occurred in England while the tanks were being hydro-
statically tested with water at 40° F (91). Figure 3.2 shows
the catastrophic nature of the failure. One tank was a
crude-oil storage tank 140 ft X 54 ft with a floating roof,

,...§' Table 3.1. Properties of Plain Carbon Steels, Recommended by API Standard 12 C
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Steel Phosphorus,* Sulfur,* Tensile Elongation,
Specifi- · max, max, Strength, Yield Point, -=---,--rm-·n_,~p~e...,,r,_c_e_n..,.t_ __
cations per cent per cent psi min, psi In 2 in. In 8 in.
Plates SA-7 and Acid O. Q6 0. 05 60,000-72,000 33,000 22 ( 1,500,000 )
SA-283, Basic 0.04 Tensile strengtht
Grade D
SA-283, Acid 0.06 0. 05 55,000-65,000 30,000 24 (
1,500,000 )
Grade C Basic O.04 Tensile strength t
Structural Shapes SA-7 Requfrements are same as given above for A.-7 plates.
Steel Castings ASTM-A-27, 0. 05 0. 06 60,000 min 30,000 24
Grade 60-30,
fully annealed
* From ladle analysis made by manufacturer; check analysis from finished material by purchaser may show 25 % more.
t See exceptions listed in particular specification. Copper, when copper-steel plates or structural shapes are specified,
minimum percentage. 0.20.
 38 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
and the other was a gas-oil storage tank 150 ft X 48 ft with
a cone roof. A fairly large number of similar tanks have
failed in this country. These failures and those encountered
in welded "Liberty" ships and T-2 tankers (92, 93) have
stimulated studies on the reason for such failures (53, 94,
95, 96).
The failures of the two British tanks were traced to flaws
in the welds in the shell. In the case of the crude-oil storage
tank, the flaw initiating failure was incomplete penetration
in a weld-probe replacement located across the first hori-
zontal welded joint. The crack progressed vertically in
both directions with brittle fracture up to the fifth course;
the fracture of the upper four courses was by shear. It is
significant that the rupture occurred entirely across the
plates and not along any of the vertical welded joints in the
nine courses. The gas-oil storage tank failed in a similar
manner. In this case the flaw was in a partially repaired
crack in the top 10 in. of a vertical joint in the top of the
first course. As in the case of the crude-oil tank, this crack
progressed vertically in both directions with brittle fracture
in the first four courses and with shear fracture in the remain-
ing upper courses. The fracture occurred chiefly across the
plates as in the other failure except for the fifth course,
where it traveled through a vertical welded joint.
These two ruptures appear to be examples of failure by
notch brittleness as a result of a crack existing in the plate
at a location of high stress and having a length greater than
the critical crack length for crack propagation. See Chapter
2 for discussion of notch brittleness and critical crack
lengths.
A complete investigation was made of samples of steel
from the two tanks which fa,iled. The samples were impact
tested at various temperatures and the results were com-
pared with corresponding data for other steels used for
vessel construction (53, 91, 94, 95). The steel used in the
construction of these tanks was identified as BS-13, a
British steel similar to SA-283, Grade C. Some of the
results of these tests are given in Fig. 2.9 (53), in the previous
chapter. The conclusion made was that the -British steel
had properties within the specification given anq was as
good as similar American steels of equivalent quality. The
steel at the time of hydrostatic test was at a temperature
(40° F) within the transition-temperature range (see Fig.
2.9). If the flaws had been smaller in size, or if a more
ductile steel had been used, or if the hydrostati~ test had
been carried out at a higher temperature, the vessel prob-
' ably would not have failed. These failures demonstrate
_the necessity of sound welding procedures and thorough
inspection of welded joints.
Even if cracks cannot be avoided, a high degree of protec-
tion against brittle fracture can be obtained with low-carbon
steels if the steel has a minimum specification of 15 ft-lb in
the Charpy V-notch test at the lowest service temperature
(47, 96). When specifying fine-grained steels or semikilled
steels of low carbon with manganese, a 30 ft-lb Charpy
V-notch value would give similar protection (96). The
majority of the steels presently used for storage-tank con-
struction do not meet this specification at temperatures
below 50° F. It is recommended that for service tempera-
tures below 50° F, steels meeting the above specification
be used, such as ABS, class C or SA-201, Grade B (67) and
that all weld joints in the shell be radiographed.
3.2 ESTIMATED COST OF TANKS
Storage tanks require considerable capital investment.
If a limited quantity of fluid is to be handled, a single tank
may suffice, in which case the magnitude of the proportions
is controlled by the volume of fluid to be stored. Where a
large number of tanks are required, it is generally true that
larger tanks give a lower cost per unit volume of storag~
than smaller tanks. This is indicated in Fig. 3.3, which
shows that the total installed cost of a 1,000,000-gal cone-
roofed tank is approximately $32,000 whereas the corre-
sponding cost of a 10,000-gal tank is about $3000, a hundred-

~ Table 3.2. Principal Provisions of Specifications on Low-alloy, High-strength Steels, Recommended by API Standard 12 C
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
Chemical Requirements, max, per cent Tensile Requirements, min
Tensile Yield
Manga- Phos- Strength, Point, Elongation, min, per cent
Carbon nese phorus Sulfur Silicon - psi psi In 2 in. In 8 in.
ASTM-A-242
Ladle Analysis 0.22 1.25 0.050
Check Analysis 0.26 1.30 0.063
Thicknesses:
H 6 to ¾ in., incl. 70,000 50,000 18
Over ¾ to lH in., /
incl. 67,000 46,000 19
Over lH to 4 in., incl. 63,000 . 42,000 24 19
SAE 950 0.20 1.25 0.150 0.050 0.90
Thicknesses:
0.0710 to 0.2299 in.,
incl. 70,000 50,000 22
0.2300 to H in., incl. 70,000 50,000 22
Over H to 1 in., incl. 67,000 47,000 { 1,500,000
22
Over 1 to 2 in., incl. 65,000 45,000 22 Tensile strength
 Optimum Tank Proportions 39

fig. 3.2. Failure of British storage tonk at Fowley, England (91). (Courtesy of Essa Research and Engineering Company and Petroleum Publishing Co.)

fold increase in volume for approximately 11 times the cost 106

of the smaller tank. However, the large tanks are not
always selected because of the greater flexibility permitted
in storing a variety of fluids in a battery of smaller tanks. ~

For such reasons no general rule can be made for the selec- k' ~:,._ '>'
l"I.'-' r>.\),)
tion of an optimum number of tanks.
The total cost of various types of large-sized storage tanks ~~ II'"'"

is given in Fig. 3.4 (97). The cost does not include the cost
-,
of the foundation. The cost of tanks fabricated from vari- .A;', ., '- "',....
ous materials (18), fielq-erected steel tanks (98), and small
tanks under 1000 gal (99) has been reported in the literature. ~\~ -
~\)>'

4 ~
(See also 26, 27, and 28.) Figure 3.5 shows the weight of ~y

steel and the cost in dollars per ton for large-diameter

tanks (97).

3.3 OPTIMUM TANK PROPORTIONS

Before a storage tank can be designed, the proportion of
height to diameter must be established. The diameters of
standard steel tanks for storage at atmospheric pressure 102
usually range from 10 to 220 ft, and the heights vary from 10 3 10 5 10 6
Volumetric capacity in gallons
6 to 64 ft. Typical tank dimensions are listed in Appendix
E. No general rule can be given for the selection of the
,i:.. Fig. 3.3.
Estimated cost of small and medium-sized Aat-bottomed cone-
height-to-diameter ratio because this ratio is often a function roofed storage tanks.
of the processing requirements, available land area, and Assumptions:
height limitations. Figure 3.6 shows a group of oil-storage Steel base cost + extras +
freight = 6c/lb
tanks of various height-to-diameter ratios. Total cost = total weight X (6c +
fabrication cost +
erection cost)
The volume of a single tank, which may be one of a Marshall and Stevens "Process Industries Average" cost index = 180
40 Design of Shells for flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
140
I /v

130
I _,,/ /
Double-deck r,,,/' V
120 floating-roof / ./ /
tanks, /
~ _,/
I,'
,/
V /
110
J',,,
/>' /.,,, .:;/
~ 100
"'
'6
90 Pontoon-roof tanks,
.,,..,, / . / V lA
V
+ ,,,,. _,,,...,..,
"O
,,.....
0
.{g 80 -✓
.,r.,;. V
y(
.,. _/-
/
/
> V
'Cone-roof tanks - ~g. 3.4. Estimc,ted lnstc,lled
I I I
C:
:JI
g 70
,;' A / costs of large-diameter 'tanks
,, I V ~'-- - (97). (Courtesy of Petroleum
:5
-=t; 60
/.,I'
'/ +/ / This curve is a straight line ~tween
starred points, and the formula - - Processing, McGrow-Hill Pub•

/.,,
/
V ,.,, ,/
•✓-4"_....,.,... V $ = 0.6175 x bbl + 10,000 lishing Co.)
8 50 (to determine total cost of
:is /~
1/ V /
/ cone-roof tanks) applies to
{:. 40 this portion of curve only.
.~,jV ./--::::::-V '-open-top tanks I
30

20
y~ V
/y? V + Denotes actual purchases. Remainder
of data from manufacturer's estimates.
-
y I I l I I I-
10
0
I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Capacity.in thousands of barrels . ~ b fllf( e/ r .,.. £l, / .,,. 0
• 6 , I) F f; .3

battery of tanks, may be determined by the process require- exists with tanks of small volume, in which elastic stability
ments and other considerations such as production flexibility and corrosion control the thicknesses. The upper limit for
and seasonal variations in storage requirements: The the optimum ratio of D/H occurs when the shell thicknesses
optimum proportion of the tank diameter, D, to height, H, is a function of both D and H, and the unit area costs of the
varies between two limits. The lower limit for the optimum bottom and roof are independent of D and H. This condi-
ratio of DI H occurs when the shell, bottom, and roof costs tion exists .with tanks of large volume.
per unit area are independent of D and H. This condition The optimum proportions of a tank are influenced by the

700

650
.,
V
600 ,,,9
;,~
550
. ~
Weight of tanks,-.....__
§ with pontoon roof /.
500
8. ,}, V
✓
~ 450
.!l!
J~ Weight of tanks
8 400 with cone roof
,,,,j ~
.5 3.6(bbls) ./._ Fig. 3.5. Weight ·c,nd con per
'lg
.., 350 W(tons) = 100} + 8
✓ cost of cone-roof • • / · ton of large-diometer tonks (97).
a \ tanks per ton ,,,,7 (Courtesy of Petroleum Process-
111 300

"
§ ing, McGrow-HIII Publishing Co.)
/.~
.5 250
.......... 1/
'-- .//
,~" -
-- ------ = ---
150 '
Weight, pontoon ...
J..; -7
-- - -- -
100 roof only \,
1/
//'
= ---
50 \.weight, cone
~ roof only
0 I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ll0 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Capacity in thousands of barrels
 Optimum Tank Proportions 41

fig. 3.6. Oil-storage tanks af various height-to-diameter ratios. Three 96,000-bbl tanks 120 ft .in diameter by 48 ft high with three fire walls 172 ft in
diameter by 24 ft high appear in the bockground. (Courtesy of Hammond Iron Works.)

cost of the foundations and the cost of the land in the tank C4 = annual cost of the installed foundation under
area that is chargeable to the tank as well as by the cost of the vessel, dollars per square foot of tank-
the bottom, shell, and roof, if required. The value of the bottom area
land chargeable to the tank may be expressed in terms of an er, = annual cost of the land in the tank area
annual cost per unit area. For purposes of tank proportion- chargeable to the tank, dollars per square
ing, it is also convenient to express the cost of the founda- foot of tank-bottom area
tion, bottom, shell, and roof, if used, in terms of cost per C = total annual cost of the vessel, dollars per
unit area as follows. year
then
Let D diameter of the vessel, feet C = (A 1c1) + A2(c2 + C3 + c4 + cs) (3.2)
H = height of the vessel, feet
2 Substituting for the areas A 1 and A 2 , we obtain:
.
V = volume of the vessel, cubic feet = 1rD
- -(H)
- , 1rD2
4
or
C = 1rDHc1 + -4 (c2 + ca + c4 + cs)
Simplifying the equation by substituting for Hin terms
(3.1)
of D, we obtain:
4 Vc1 1rD 2
When A 1 area of the shell, square feet 1rDH C D +4 (c2 + c3 + C4 + cs) (3.3)
A 2 = area of the vessel bottom or the projected
area of the roof, square feet To determine the optimum tank proportions by using
1rD2 Eq. 3.3, it is necessary to determine which of the cost terms
4 are variables prior to differentiation.
c1 annual cost of fabricated shell, dollars per 3.3a Tanks Having Shell Thickness Independent of D
square foot and H. The stress in the shell is a function of both the
c2 annual cost of fabricated bottom, dollars per diameter and the height of the tank, as indicated in Eqs.
square foot 3.18 and 3.19. For reasons of elastic stability, the minimum
c3 = annual cost of the fabricated roof, dollars per shell thickness is limited to Yi 6 in. for 45-ft tanks and smaller
square foot of projected area and to ~'4 in. for tanks of larger diameters. Therefore,
42 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
tanks having shell thicknesses of%; in. or less may be con- proportioning may he assumed to be directly pr!)portional
sidered to have a shell thickness independent of H and D. to the shell thickness as follows: ·
Substituting ~i-in. shell thickness into Eqs. 3.18 and 3.19,
results in the following: (3. 7)
or
0.25 = 0.0001456 (H - l)D C1
or C6 - ---- (3.8)
(H - l)D
D(H 1) = 1720 for butt-welded shells (3.4)
and Substituting Eq. 3.7 for c1 in Eq. 3.3 gives:
D(H - 1) 1515 for lap-welded shells (3.5)
C -_ 4 V[c6(HD- l)D] + 1rD4 2 ( C2 + C3 + C4' + C5)
Thus all tanks with butt-welded or lap-welded shells
having a value of D(H - 1) equal to or less than 1720 or
1515 respectively fall into this category. Expanding and substituting for H by Eq. 3.1 gives:
Tanks of small volume falling into the category of Eq. 3.4 2

or Eq. 3.5 have shell, bottom, and roof costs per unit area C = 4 Vc6 ( rD~
4V) .
4 Vc6 + 1rD
4 (c2
.
+ ca + C4,+ c5)
which may he considered independent of D and H. Using
Eq. 3.3 and differentiating the total cost, C, with respect to Differentiating and setting equal to zero gives:
the diameter of the vessel, D, and considering the volume, dC -32c& V 2 . 21rD . .
V, to be known and the cost factors, ci, c2 , c 3, c4, and cs, as dD = 1rD3 - 0 +4 (c2 + ca + c4 + cs) = 0
constant known factors for the volume considered, we
obtain: or
dC 1rD 32ceV2
dD
2 (c2 + Ca + C4 + C5) = 1rD3

Actually, the individual unit costs, c1, c2, c3, and c4, of the Substituting Eq. 3.1 for V and Eq. 3.8 for c6 gives:
various tank components will vary somewhat with tank
proportions and with tank volume and other factors such as
design considerations. Many correlations for estimating
7r: (c2 + C3 + C4 + c,) = CH ~~;D41r) (7r~ H)2
2 2

tank costs have been presented in the literature. These or

correlations indicate that for purposes of estimating installed 2
tank costs, the cost is primarily a function of the total
volume and that total installed costs do not vary appre-
_1r: (c2 +ca+ C4 + cs) = CH ~2~;D 1r) (1r ~;H2)
4
ciably with the unit costs of component parts. Therefore, Since H - l for large tanks is approximately equal to H,
the consideration of unit-cost factors as constants is a it will be assumed that (H 1) = H. Therefore
reasonable approximation.
For minimum cost the slope of the curve of cost versus D(c2 + ca + C4 + c.) = 4c1H
the diameter of the vessel to contain the fixed volume, V, or
must be equal to zero (dC/dD = 0). Therefore
4Vc1 1rD
4
D = H C2 + ca : C4 + c) 3
< -9 )
- + -2 (c2 + ca + C4 + cs) = 0 3.3c Estimation of Cost Factors. In most designs the
cost factors, c1, c2 , and so on, cannot be accurately evaluated
Solving for D, we obtain: until the design of the tank is known, a requirement which
necessitates successive approximations in determining the
D3 _ 8V ( C1 )
. optimum proportions. The costs of the tank components,
7r C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 shell, bottom, and roof, are a functit.n of the plate thick-
Substituting for the volume, V, we obtain: ness, grade of steel, cost of fomiing, &Ost of field welding,
and so forth, and include the cost of the accessories such as
nozzles, manholes, pumps, ladders, platforms, and so forth
which are attached to the various components.
or These factors are all interrelated, and in order to make
an estiI}Jate it is usually more convenient to express them
D = 2H Ci (3.6)
C2 + + C4 + C&
C3
in terms of the cost of the fabricated component parts of
the vessel pet pound_ of fabricated material because infor-
3.3b Tonks Hoving Shell Thicknesses Dependent upon mation concerning cost per pound is more readily available.
D and H. Tanks having heights and diameters such that 3.3d Simplifled Cases of Optimum Proportions. To
the quantity D(H - 1) exceeds 1720 for butt-welded shells demonstrate the use of Eq. 3.6, three simplified cases will
or 1515 for lap-welded shells have shell thicknesses which be presented.
are dependent upon D and H. The cost of the shell per . For the first case, consider a small open tank and disre-
unit area, Ci, is a function of D and H and for purposes of gard the costs for land and foundation. For small tanks
 ~hell ~eslgn ol Large ~torage Tanks 43
the shell thickness is often the same as the bottom thickness. economical designs result in tanks having low height-to-
If the cost per square foot of shell, c1, is taken as equal to diameter ratios.
the cost per square foot of bottom, c2, then c1 = c2; and
if c3 , c4 , Ca = 0, then, by Eq. 3.6, t- 3;4 SHELL DESIGN OF SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED
VESSELS (PRODUCTION TANKS)
D = 2H Ci = 2H (3.10) Small and medium-sized vertical vessels with flat bottoms,
C1 +0+0+0 called production vessels in contradistinction to storage
vessels) are usually fabricated from steel plate of a single
However, the shell is generally more expensive than the
thickness. Their optimum proportions are similar to those
bottom partly because of the additional cost of rolling the
discussed previously in case two (D = H). The design
shell plates.
of such vessels is simple and has been standardized for the
For the second case, consider a small closed vessel having
oil industry (100, 101) as described in Fig. 3.7 and Table
the same cost per unit area for shell, roof, and bottom and
3.3. The shells of such vessels are usually fabricated of
disregard the cost of foundations and land.
either 1/i s-in. or ¼-in. plate with plate widths preferably
not less than 60 in. A mild steel meeting SA-7, SA-283,
Grade C or D (open-hearth or electric steel only) is speci-
And if c4 and c0 = 0, by Eq. 3.6, fied. The shell plates are usually either double-welded
butt joints with complete penetration of weld metal or
D 2H - ci =H (3.11) single-welded butt joints with backing strips with complete
C1 + C1 + 0 penetration of weld metal. The design of the bottom and
roof (deck) is covered in Chapter 4.
For closed vessels also the cost of the shell per unit area
is generally greater than the cost of the bottoms per unit 3.5 SHELL DESIGN OF LARGE STORAGE TANKS
area for the reasons previously stated. Furthermore, the
The majority of tanks and vessels are cylindrical because
roof costs are generally greater than the bottom costs per
a cylinder has great structural strength and is easy to
unit area because of the structural steel required for the
fabricate. Several types of stresses may occur in a cylin-
roofs of all but small vessels.
drical shell. These may he recognized as:
For the third case, consider a large closed tank in which
the roof and shell costs are twice the cost of the bottom I. Longitudinal stress resulting from pressure within the
per unit area. vessel;
2. Circumferential stress resulting from pressure within
the vessel;
And if c4 and c0 = 0, 3. Residual weld stresses resulting from localized heating;
2 2 4. Stresses resulting from superimposed loads such as
D = 4H c = -iH (3.12)
C2 + 2c2 + 0 wind, snow, and ice, auxiliary equipment, and impact loads;
5. Stresses resulting from thermal differences;
Introducing the actual values of foundation and land 6. Others, such as may be encountered in practice.
costs, c4 and c5 , into the equations has the obvious effect
of increasing the height-to-diameter ratio. It is apparent 3.5a Stresses in Thin Shells Based on Membrane
that in areas where land is cheap and the tanks can be Theory. Simple equations may he derived to determine the
easily supported on the soil without expensive foundations, minimum wall thickness of a thin-walled cylindrical vessel

Table 3.3. Typical Dimensions for Production Tanks (100, 101)

(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
Approximate Height of Height of Location of Size of
Nominal Working Outside £ C: Overflow Walkway Fill-Line Connec-
Capacity, Capacity, 'Diameter, Height, Connection, Lugs, Connection, tions,
bbl bbl ft in. ft ft in. ft in. in. in.
90 72 7-11 10 9-6 7-7 14 3
200 166 12- 0 10 9-6 7-7 14 4
210 200 10- 0 15 14-6 12-7 14 4
300 266 12- 0 15 14-6 12-7 14 4
400 366 12- 0 20 19-6 17-7 14 4
H-500 479 15- 6 16 15-6 13-7 14 4
750 746 15- 6 24 23-6 21-7 14 4
L-500 407 21- 6 8 7-6 5-7 14 4
H-1000 923 21- 6 16 15-6 13-7 14 4
1500 1-138 21- 6 24 23-6 21-7 1-1 4
f_ll)l)I) 7R.1 ')Q_ Q R 7-6 ~-7 L1 ,I.
44 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels

Tank

10%' B.C.
t
16 ~N> holes

20"-diam
dome
Detail,
thief-hatch outlet

Overflow-line
connection
«:-:l~=::;;;z=!.:;::-- Fill-line
connection

Plan

Vent-line
connection

Detail of dome

I
I
I
I ---i=1 "1/l/> bolt holes
t"-1¼' min

I Walkway

laJ~
bracket
I lugs

B
I
I
C I D 40•
I l-,13 I 13'"'1 Shell
plate
A

D
24• X 36• Lug
cleanout

7711
•
Name plate

Pipe-line
connection
t
1 Detail,
walkway bracket lugs
Ii 14'
Elevation
l
Fig. 3.7. Standard design for small ani:I medium-sized vessels (production tanks) as tecommended by API Standard 12 D. (See Table 3,3 for dimensions.)
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)
 Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 45
P+- -+P A comparison of Eq. 3.13 with Eq. 3.14 indicates that for
a specific allowable stress, fixed diameter, and given pres-
-~--r-
- \
sure, the thickness required to contain the pressure for the
condition of Eq. 3.14 is twice that required for the condition
I
+--+-!--·---t-·--- 1
d of Eq. 3.13. Therefore, the thickness as determined by
I Eq. 3.14 is "controlling" and is the commonly used "thin-
~~----.. walled equation" referred to in the various codes for vessels.
This equation makes no allowance for corrosion and does
not recognize the fact that welded seams or joints may cause
weakness.
fig. 3.8. Longitudinal forces acting on thin cylinder under internal JoINT EFFICIENCIES AND CORROSION ALLOWANCE. In
pre$$Ure,
vessels for atmospheric storage the welded joints are·seldom
stress relieved or radiographed. The welded seam may
not be as strong as the adjoining rolled-steel plate of the
with an internal pressure. Figure 3.8 shows a diagram shell. It has been found from experience that an allowance
representing a thin-walled cylindrical vessel in which a uni- may be made for such weakness by introducing a "joint
form stress,/, may be assumed to occur in the wall as a result efficiency factor," E into Eqs: 3.13 and 3.14. This factor
of internal pressure, The nomenclature used in Figs. 3.8 is always less than unity and is specified for a given type of
and 3.9 is: welded construction in the various codes.
l = length, inches The thickness of metal, c,. allowed for any anticipated
corrosion is then added to the calculated required thickness,
d = inside diameter, inches and the final thickness value rounded off to the nearest
t = thickness of shell, inches nominal plate size of equal or greater thickness.
Equation 3.13 becomes:
p = internal pressure, pounds per square inch gage
pd
Longitudinal Stress.If one limits the analysis to pressure 4/E+c (3.15)
stresses only, the longitudinal force, P, resulting from an
and Eq. 3.14 becomes:
internal pressure, p, acting on a thin cylinder of thickness l,
length l, and diameter d is: pd
t = -+c (3.16)
2/E
P force tending to rupture vessel longitudinally
where t = thickness of shell, inches
= JJ7rd2 p internal pressure, pounds per square inch
4 d = inside diameter, inches
and J = allowable working stress, pounds per square inch
a = area of metal resisting longitudinal rupture E = joint efficiency, dimensionless (see Table 13.2)
c = corrosion allowance, inches

Therefore MODIFICATION OF EQUATIONS. For storage vessels the

p d2/4 d maximum allowable working stress is considered approxi-
J = stress = !!!:__ = !!_ = induced stress, pounds mately one third of the ultimate tensile strength of the
a l1rd 4l · per square inch steel; that is, a safety factor of 3 is employed, which is
or common for static structural loads on steel. The stresses
pd
(3.13)
4J
CrncuMFERENTIAL STRESS. If one refers to Fig. 3.9 and
considers the circumferential stresses caused by internal
pressure only, the following analysis may be developed:
P force tending to rupture vessel circumfe~entially
= pdl
a = area of metal resisting force
= 2tl
P pdl pd
f stress= -
a 2tl 2t
or
l = pd (3.U) fig. 3.9. Circumferential forces acting on thin cylinder vnder internal
2f pressure.
46 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
are computed on the assumption that the tank is filled
level with water at 60° F (density 62.37 lb per cubic ft)
and that the tension in each ring is calculated at a point
12 in. above the center line of the lower horizontal joint of
the horizontal row of welded plates being considered.
The hydrostatic pressure in cylindrical storage tanks
varies from a minimum at the top of the upper most course
to a maximum at the bottom of the lowest course. In
determining the plate thickness for a particular course, a
design based upon the pressure at the bottom of the course
results in overdesign for the rest of the plate and therefore
does not represent maximum economy. A design based
upon the pressure at the top of the course would result in
underdesign, which would not be good engineering practice.
However, some consideration should be given to the addi-
tional restraint offered by the plates adjoining a particular
course. In the lowest course, the plates of the vessel bot-
tom offer considerable restraint to the bottom shell c6urse.
This additional restraint of the bottom edge is effective for
an appreciable distance or height from the bottom of the
lowest course. In an intermediate course with a course of
heavier plates below, the top of the heavier plates will be
understressed; this will tend to cancel any overstressing of
the bottom of the course in question. Therefore, a design
based upon the pressure at a height of 1 ft from the bottom
of the course may be considered conservative. The fol-
lowing equations may be derived if one assumes that the
density of the fluid will not exceed that of water, which is
used for the hydrostatic test of the tank.
(H - 1)
p = P 144 (3.17)
where p density of water at 60° F = 62.37 lb per cubic ft
H = height, in feet, from the bottom of the course
under consideration to the top of the top angle
or to the bottom of any overflow which limits
the tank's filling height
p = internal pressure, pounds per/t;quare inch
I minima are derived from practical considerations of stiffness,
For double-welded butt-joint construction, the above
definition of p may be substituted into Eq. 3.16. When
one uses an allowable design stress of 21,000 psi for SA-7
plate and a joint efficiency of 0.85 for doubled-welded butt-
joint construction, the following substitution results:
t 62.37(H - 1)(12D)
= 2(21,000)(0.85)(144) + C
therefore
t = 0.0001456(H - l)D + c (3.18)
where t = shell thickness, inches
H = height as defined in Eq. 3.17, feet
D = inside diameter, feet
c = corrosion allowance, inches
If double-full-fillet lap-joint construction is assumed, the
corresponding joint efficiency, E, is 0.75. Then Eq. 3.18
becomes:
t = 0.0001650(H - l)D c + (3.19)
If low-alloy high-strength steel is used, the D1aximum
allowable stress is taken as 60 % of the minimum yield
point. When one uses double-welded butt-joint, and low-
alloy high-strength steel construction Eq. 3.18 becomes:'
t = 5.096(D)(H - 1) +c (3.20)
fy.p.
For lap-welded construction,
t = 5.775(D)(H - 1) (3.21)
fy.p.
where f y.p. = minimum specified yield point of steel plate,
pounds per square inch
Steels of different composition should not be mixed in
any course of a vessel, with the exception that it is permissi-,,,.
hie to use a different steel for providing reinforcing-area for
shell openings. In case two different steels are used in''any
part of an area of reinforcement the stress corresponding
to the weaker steel should be used to determine the thick-
ness of shell metal to be reinforced.
Equations 3.18 and 3.19 are given in API Standard 12C
and apply only to the steel materials approved by the code.
When other materials of construction. are used, the con-
stants of these equations must be recalculated through the
use of the proper value for the allowable stress.
3.5b Practical ~onsiderations in Selecting Shell-plate
Dimensions. It should be emphasized that Eqs. 3.15, 3.16,
3.18, 3.19 are useful only for predicting the thickness of
metal required to withstand the internal pressure. Other
factors such as structural stability, live loads, wind, -ice
and snow loads, and fabrication procedures must be con-
sidered. Minimum-thickness specifications for tanks by
~I Standard 12 C include some of these other considera-
tions; they are listed in the tables of Appendix E. To
summarize the important points of these tables, consider
first the thickness of the tank shell. It should not be less
than ¼ in. for tanks 50 to 120 ft in diameter, ~ 6 in. for
tanks 120 to 200 ft, and ¾ in. for tanks over 200 ft; or less
than ¾ 6 in. for tanks smaller than 50 ft in diameter. These
corrosion allowance, Jrind loads, and so on. Tanks having
shell thickn~sses greater than these minima may use decreas-
ing thicknesses for the upper courses. The thickness for
the upper courses necessary to contain the hydrostatic
pressure may be determined by substituting the appropriate
depth of liquid into Eq. 3.18or 3.19. However, the thick-
ness should not be less than the minimum.
It should be noted that these minima are expressed in
fractions which correspond io mill plates of standard thick-
ness. In general it is more economical to fabricate the
smaller vessels from mill plate of standard thickness than to
order plate rolled to a specified thickness. However, for
the large vessels the shell must be thicker to withstand the
hydrostatic pressure. With this greater shell thickness,
rigidity and corrosion are no longer the controlling factors.
Some reduction in cost may result from ordering these plates
rolled to thickness, especially if the required plate thickness
lies about midway between standard plate sizes.
In specifyin'g shell-plate widths a compromise must be
made between the costs of the material and the costs of
field welding including plate preparation such as edge
 Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 47

(a) (b) (e) {_ _ _ _

ill'-_.....;
m
Single-V
double-welded Single-U
butt joint double-welded
butt joint
Single-bevel
Square-groove double-welded
double-welded butt joint
butt joint
(partial penetration) (g) (h)

Double-V
double-welded Double-U
butt joint double-welded
butt joint

(c)

Double-bevel
(d) (i)
Square-groove
double-welded
U) I~
~~- ___,..~____,,
Double-wQlded
double-welded Double-welded butt joint full-fillet
butt joint lap joint lap joint
(partial penetration)

Horizontal Joints Vertical Joints

f" fig. 3.10. Typical shell joints recommended by API Standard 12 C. (Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)

working for butt welding. Plates 80 ·to 90 in. wide may
be purchased at base cost without the inclusion of a price
extra for width. Plate widths over 90 in. carry "width
extra" charge which increases appreciably with increase
in width. Therefore, it is advantageous to use the widest
plate possible that does not involve an excessive extra cost.
As a result, plates having a width of 96 in. are most exien-
sively used.
In specifying plate lengths, there are no price extras for
lengths between 8 and 50 ft when mill plates are purchased.
Therefore, the longest plates which can be readily handled
and shipped are specified. Thus plate lengths of approxi-
mately 20 to 30 ft, are selected since longer plates are diffi-
cult to handle. The exact length of the plates is determined
by dividing the circumference by the number of shell plates,
with proper allowance made for the vertical weld joints.
3.5c Butt-welding versus Lap-welding·. The plates of
the shell may be butt- or lap-welded depending upon the
design and economic considerations. However, % in. is
the maximum plate thickness for lap-welded horizontal
joints and % in. is the ;maximum plate thickness for lap-
welded vertical joints. Butt-welded joints may be used
for shell plates for pll thicknesses up to and including lH"
in. for plain carbon-steel-plates and up to and including 1¾ 6
in. for low-alloy high-strength steel plates. The plates for
butt welded joints must be squared. Squaring of the plates
for lap-welded joints is not necessary. For this reason,
plates for lap-welded joints are less expensive; however,
erection by butt ·welding is somewhat faster. Because of
the present high labor costs most tanks are now fabricated
by butt welding. Each course of the tank must be inside
the course beneath it when the horizontal joints are lap
welded. Vertical seams should not be in alignment for
any of three consecutive courses. This is a precaution
against localized conditions of stress at welds and aids in
assuring the distribution of the stresses uniformly through-
out the vessel. The requirement of a minimum distance
of 2 ft between vertical joints in adjacent courses is an
additional safety measure.
In the butt welding of the shell, the joints should prefer-
ably be doubled welded with complete penetration and
fusion. A single-welded butt joint with backing may be
used instead, with the same joint efficiency. It is particu-
larly important that the vertical butt joints have complete
penetration and fusion because these joints are under the
full tensile stress in the shell. The horizontal joints are
not under this tensile stress. However, for structural
strength against wind loads, and so on, and for prevention
of failure by notch brittleness, all horizontal single-beveled
joints should have complete penetration, as shown in Fig.
3.lOb. With squared plates (square-groove) and double-
beveled butt plates for horizontal joints, as shown in Fig.
3.lOa and c respectively, incomplete penetration may be
used for the sake of economy. However, with partial pene-
tration the thickness of the unwelded portion should not
exceed one-third the thickness of the thinner plate, and
the unwelded portion should be located at approximately
the center of the thinner plate. If a horizontal butt joint
is offset because of different plate thicknesses, the inside
surfaces should be flush.
 48 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
size is not over 3 in. nominal pipe size. For small pipe
sizes, screwed fittings are usually preferred because they
are cheaper than flange fittings. However, . pipe with
screwed fittings having a nominal size greater than 2 in.
is rather difficult to fit because such heavy pipe is so rigid
that it cannot be deflected easily to aid in aligning the
threads during fitting. Therefore, for practical reasons,
it is recommended that any nozzle having a nominal size
greater than 2 in. have flange fittings. It is tisually desira-
ble to locate nozzles for filling and discharging ,near the
bottom of the tank to obtain the benefit of gravity in dis-
charging and to avoid pulling a partial vacuum on fluids
which are volatile. However, water and sludge may sepa-
rate and collect on the bottom. To avoid pumping this
sludge out of the discharge line, the discharge no2!zles are
usually placed on the shell a short distance a.hove the bot-
tom. Another nozzle with a sump is placed at the bottom
(a) (bJ to remove material accumulating below the discharge
nozzle and to completely drain the vessel. Typical nozzles
i Fig. 3.11. Circumferential joints for tonk shells. (Courtesy of Hammond of both the screwed-fitting and flange-fitting type are shown
Iron Works.) in Fig. 3.14, and standard dimensions for these nozzles are
given in Items 1 and 2 of Appendix F. ·
SHELL MANHOLES. Manholes are necessary in closed
Lap joints should have an overlap of at least 5 X t vessels to permit inspection, cleaning, repairs, and so on.
inches, and in no case should the overlap be less than 1 in. These manholes may be located on the shell or on the roof
Vertical lap joints should have continuous full-fillet welds or at both locations. Manholes located on the shell have
both inside and out. On horizontal lap joints, as shown in the advantage that it is somewhat easier to use a shell
Fig. 3.11, the fillet should have a size not less than one third opening to clean or repair a vessel. Shell manholes have
the thickness of the thinner plate, and in no case should it the disadvantage that they usually cannot be opened unless
be less than ¾ 6 in. the vessel is empty and therefore are not used as often for
Figure 3.11 also shows a horizontal butt-welded shell of a inspection as roof manholes. Items 3, 4, and 5 of Appendix
storage vessel. Note that the heavier courses at the base
are V butt-welded, whereas the upper courses are plain
butt-welded. ·
3.5d Cold Forming of Shell Plates. Plain carbon-steel
shell plates having a thickness of ¾ 6 to ¾ in. for tanks
having a diameter of 40 ft or more or low-alloy high-strength
steel plates for tanks having a diameter of 50 ft or more can
be deflected on erection and therefore need not be cold
formed by rolling to the radius of curvature of the shell.
If the diameter is 60 ft or more for plain carbon steel or
100 ft or more for low-alloy high-strength steel, shell plates
having a thickness of% to½ in. may be deflected on erec-
tion without cold forming. Plain carbon-steel plates of
thicknesses from H to % in. and diameters over 120 ,ft
need not be cold formed. However, all plain carbon~s1;eel
plates having a thickness of % in. and over and all low-
,. alloy high-strength steel plates having a thickness of½ in.
or over must be cold formed to the'"shell radius regardless
of the shell diameter. Figure 3.12 shows the field welding
of horizontal butt-welded seams of the shell of a large tank.
3.5e Shell Parts. In addition to the shell plates a
variety of other shell parts and accessories must be consid-
ered in the shell design. Figure 3.13 shows typical tank
accessories including shell nozzles, manholes, ladders, and
so on.
SHELL NOZZLES. Pipe lines which bring the fluid to and
from the tank are attached to short pipe connections welded
into the tank shell. These connections are called "nozzles" Fig. 3.12. Field welding of shell circumferential butt joint. (Courtesy of
and may be fabricated of screwed pipe fittings if the pipe Hammond Iron Works.)

F gives typical dimensions for shell manholes and manhole-
cover plates designed as shown in Fig. 3.15.
REINFORCEMENT OF SHELL OPENINGS. All openings such
as nozzles and manholes, made in the shell in which the
opening is over 2 in. in diameter should be reinforced. The
reinforcement prevents local overstressing of the shell
around the opening. The minimum cross-sectional area
of the reinforcemerit .should not be less than the product
of the vertical diameter of the hole cut in the tank shell
times the shell plat~ thickness. The cross-sectional area
of the reinforcement is measured parallel to the axis of the
shell across the center of the opening.
Shell Design of Lorge Storage Tonks 49
sidered as available for reinforcement out to a distance of
four times the neck-wall thickness, measured from the out-
side of the shell. The metal in the neck lying within the
shell-plate thickness may also be included. If the neck
of the fitting extends both. inward and outward as shown
in the center and right of Fig. 3.15, credit may be taken for
the metal of the neck over a distance of eight neck-wall
thicknesses plus the shell thickness.
In the case where two or more openings are located close
together and the toes of the fillet welds fixing the reinforcing
plates for these openings come within twice the shell thick-

@ Conservation vent

@ Spiral
stairway
Indicator
@) Winch Tank gage

(D Shell
manhole

11' Fig. 3.13. Usual accessories and fittings on standard cone-roof tanks. (Courtesy of Hammond Iron Works.)
Included as standard Included as extra
1. One 20" shell manhole 9. Sump 15. Connection far foam chamber
2. One 20" roof manhole 10. Swing line unit complete 16. Drain
3. One 611 gauge hatch 11. Water draw-off 17. Rome arrester
4. Roof nozzle for vent (12 or 13) 12. Conservation vent (volatile products) 18. Antifreeze valve
5. Ladder (small tanks only) 13. Free vent (nonvolatile products) 1-8 Extra units
6. Spiral stairway 14. (a) Target-type float gauge 5. (a) Inside ladder
7. Two shell nozzles 14. (b) Ground-reading-type float gouge
8. flange for water draw-off

Reinforcement metal may include any one of the four
metal parts listed below or any combination of them:
1. The metal in the attachment flange of an attached
fitting,
2. The metal of a reinforcing plate,
3. The metal of any excess shell-plate thickness beyond
that required from a calculation of the minimum plate
thickness,
4. The metal in the neck of a fitting. This can be con-
sidered as part of the reinforcement area. If the fitting
extends only ouhrnrd, 1he metal in the neck may be con-
ness of each other, a single reinforcing plate should be used.
This plate should be proportioned for the largest opening
in the group. If the reinforcing plates for one oi· more small
openings are of such a size that they lie entiret ,,vithin the
area of the reinforcement plate for the largest opening, the
small openings can be included in the normally designed
reinforcement plate for the largest opening without increas-
ing the size of this reinforcing plate. If, however, any
opening intersects the vertical center line of another open-
ing, the width of the reinforcement (along the vertical center
line of either opening) should not be less than the sum oft he
widths of the t.Yo plates that would normally be used.
 50 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels

A circular reinforcing plate may

be substituted for the plate
shown, for the 3- to 10-in. size
nozzles inclusive, provided the
Permissible { diameter of the circular plate
alternative is made equal to li: .
square cut

f Bend reinforcing plate

\to radius of tank shell
Bolt holes shall
straddle the flange Reinforcing plate
center lines

Detail B

Victaulic~
groove
or threads
Wefd Weld
B Tank bottom B

Single flange Double flange Special flange

(a) (a) (a)

Coupling

Weld
A

(b) (c)

Detail A Detail B

(c)

~ fig. 3.14. Shell noules recommended by API Standard 12 C (see items 1 and 2 of Appendl,c; F for typical dimensions.) (Courtesy of Amerlc:an Pet.rolM!m
lnstiMe.)

Finally, if the normal reinforcing plates for the smaller
openings do not faJl within the area limits o( the reinforce-
ment for the largest opening, the group relll;forcing plate
should include within its outer limits the normal reinforcing
plates for all openings in the group.
3.5f Reinforcement of Top Course of Shell for Large
Open tanks. Open vessels of large diameter may not have
the necessary inherent rigidity to withstand wind loads
without deforming and excessively straining the structure.
Two methods of stiffening are available: shell plates may
be made thicker, or suitable stiffening girders may be added
to~ the structure. The use of thicker shell plates usually
is more costly than the use of stiffening girders. Wind
girders or stiffening rings for open tanks are located at or
 Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 51

Gasket: Shape manhole flange to

20" manhole-25\" 00 x 20" ID x "" thick suit curvature of tank
24• manhole-29\" OD x 24" 10 X "" thiek
Long-fiber asbestos sheet
unless otherwise specified

Increase if
necessary
for clearance

Gasketed face shall be machine

finished to provide a minimum
gasket-bearing width of % in.
for minimum thickness at bolt
circle, see Appendix f.

Alternative designs of manholes

fig. 3.15. Shell manholes recommended by API Standard 12 C (see items 3, 4, and 5 of Appendix F for typical dimensions). (Courtesy of American Petroleum
Institute.)

near the top of the vessel on the top course of shell plate. H = height of shell including any "freeboard" pro-
The stiffening ring is placed preferably on the outside of the vided above the maximum filling height, feet
shell rather than the inside.
The calculation of the available section modulus of the
The required section modulus. as specified by API Stand-
stiffening ring may include a portion of the tank shell
ard 12 C for the stiffening ring may be computed by Eq.
which is considered to be effective for a distance of 16 plate
3.22:
thicknesses from the ring, as indicated in Fig. 3.16. When
z (3.22)
curb angles are attached to the top edge of the shell ring
where z = section modulus,inches 3 by butt \Yelding, this reinforcing distance should be reduced
D nominal diameter of the tank, feet by the width of the vertical leg of the angle. Table 3.4
 52 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
appropriate dimension for the minimum width of the girder

lJ
Deta J
61

Detail D
t
web, b, is 12 in., which corresponds to a section modulus of
28.1 in. 3 The rest of the sectional dimensions, including
wind-girder plate thickness of % in., are fixed by detail
E of Fig. 3.16. A stiffening ring such as this is fabricated
by bending plate steel into the appropriate shape. Such
a wide-webbed ring cannot be easily rolled to the required

DetailB

r1 t
=t
l
61

t--2½''1
f Table 3.4. Section Moduli of Various Stiffening-ring
Sections on Tank Shells, Recommended by API
Standard 12 C
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)

Member Size,
Shell Thickness, in.
71'!! }i
Detail C
l16t
6'
Detail E

/
7"16t in. Section Moduli
_J !('
_J_ Top angle: detail A, Fig. 3.16
2}2 X 2½ X }i 0.41 0.42
t16t 1. b T16t 2H X 2% X ¾ 6 0.51 0.52
_j_ _J_ 3 X3 X% 0.89 0.91
Curb angle: detail B, Fig. 3.16
2}2 X 2}2 X }i 1.61 1. 72
6- fig. 3.16. Typical reinforcement for top course of shells for open vessels
2% X 2H X ¾ 6 1.89 2.04
recommended by API Standard 12 C. (Courtesy of American Petroleum
3 X 3 X H 2.32 2.48
Institute.}
3 X 3 X % 2.78 3.35
4 X4 X}i 3.64 4.41
4 X4 X % 4.17 5.82
One angle: detail C, Fig. 3.16
lists the section moduli for the rings shown in Fig. 3.16 ~H X 2H X H 1.68 1.78
2 H X 2}2 X ¾ 6 L 98 2.12
for two shell thicknesse~.
4 X3 X}:i 3.50 3.73
Stiffening rings may he made either of st~uctural sections 4 X 3 X ¾6 4.14 4.45
or formed-plate sections or combinations of the two. The 5 X 3 X ¾6 5. 53 5.95
minimum size of the angle specified by Standard 12 C 5 X3HXP 6 6.13 6.60
either alone or with a built-up section is 2½ X 2½ X ¾ 5 X 3H X % 7.02 7.61
and the minimum plate thickness is ¾ in. If the stiffening 6 X4 X % 9.02 10.56
rings are located more than 2 ft below the top of the shell, Two angles: detail D, Fig. 3.16
a minimum of a 2½ X 2½ X ¾ 6 top curb angle is required 4 X 3 X ¾6 11. 27 11. 78
for ¾ 6 -in. shells. A minimum of a 3 X 3 X ¾ angle is 4 X 3 X % 13.06 13.67
required for };i-in. shells. Other members of equivalent 5 ·X 3 X ¾6 . 15. 48 16.24
5 X3 X % 18.17 18.89
section modulus may be substituted. Drain holes should
5 X 3H X ¾ 6 16.95 17.70
be provided in rings that may trap liquid. Stiffening rings 5 X 3H X % 19.99 20.63
are sometimes used as walkways, in which case they should · 6 X4 X % 27.-74 28.92
provide at least 24-in. of clear walking space and should I

be located preferably 3 ft, 6 in. below the top curb angle. Formed plate: detail E, Fig. 3.16 ,
b, in.
Any such angle having a horizontal web exceeding 16 times
the web thickness requires suitable vertical support. 10 22.3
12 28.1
ExAMPLE DESIGN 3.1, WIND GIRDER FOR OPEN VESSEL.
14 34.3
A wind girder is required for an open vessel 80 ft, 0 in. 16 40.8
in inside diameter and 40 ft high, havipg a top-course plate 18 47.7
thickness of }( in. 20 54.9
When one uses Eq. 3.22, the minimum section modulus 22 62.4
of the wind girder is: 24 70.3
26 78.5
z = o.0001n 2H 28 87.0
0.0001 (80) 2 (40) 30 95.9
32 105.1
z = 25.6 in. 3 34 114. 7
36 124.5
When one uses the type of construction shown in detail 38 134.7
E of Fig. 3.16, referring toi Table 3.4, he finds that the 40 145.3
 Shell Design of Large Storage Tanks 53
diameter because of its stiffness. Therefore, it is more con- continuous double-welded butt joint or a continuous double-
venient to weld straight sections of formed plate, making a welded lap joint.
polygonal stiffening member. The inside edge will be flame SHELLS WITH SELF-SUPPORTING RooFs. A ~elf-support-
cut and made smooth to form an arc having a radius equal ing roof is one which is supported only on its periphery,
to that of the shell outside diameter. Usually two or more without added structural support. Such roofs cause a
sections are welded end-to-end in the shop to minimize the compressive stress in the roof plates, which is transferred
field welding required. to the shell as hoop tension. A stiffening angle should be
Figure 3.17 shows a preliminary sketch of.a win irder added to the top shell course at the junction of the roof and
subassembly, using 20 equal sections with every two sect shell to absorb the stress as a tensile load. The forces
welded end-to-end for subassembly in the shop. acting-on the ring are shown in Fig. 3.19.
For determination of web dimension, x, e following nomenclature will be used in the equations
explaining Fig. 3.19:
= 40 ft, ot in. + 12 in. _
. + X - 0.98769
0
cos 9 40 ft, 01;rm. a = cross-sectional area of stiffening ring, square inches
D = nominal tank diameter, feet
X
492.25
=- .
- - Ill. -
480 .25 Ill.
. (J = angle of the cone element with the horizontal, degrees
0.98769 P = roof load, pounds per square foot (live load of 25 lb
per sq ft plus dead lo~d)
= 18.135 in. = 1 ft, 6¼ in.
T 1 = compressive force per.linear inch along an element of
For determination of inside chord length of subassembly, the cone, pounds per linear inch
T 2 = tensile force per linear inch in a circumferential direc-
Chord
- - = 40 ft , 01,r Ill.
. (SID
. 180) tion, pounds per linear inch
2 Ta = horizontal component of Ti, pounds per linear inch
Chord = 2(480.25 in.)(0.30902) F = circumferential tensile force acting in stiffening ring,
pounds '
= 296.814 in. = 24 ft, st¾ in. 1rD2
W = total load on roof, pounds = P
For determination of outside chord length of subassembly 4
• f = tensile stress, pounds per square inch
rd
Cho = (40 ft, o¼ in.) + (1 ft, 6¼ in.) sin 18°
2
Chord = 2(41 ft, 6} in.)(0.30902)
= 2(498.375)(0.30902)
= 308.016 in.
= 25 ft, 8 in.
For determination of outside chord length of section,
Chord 2(41 ft, 6¾ in.) sin 9°
= 2(498.375)(0.15643)
= 155.9216 in.
= 12 ft, 11 H in.
Figure 3.18 shows typical detail designs for a wind girder
for an open tank 80 ft in diameter and 40 ft high as described
in example design 3.1.
:j.5g Reinforcement of Top Course of Shell for Large
Closed Tanks.
SHELLS W.ITH RooFs HAYING CoLuMN SUPPORT. lftanks
are closed with a roof, the roof provides additional structural
rigidity to the upper course of shell plates. As a result,
smaller stiffening rings are used for closed vessels. For
tankroofs with column supports having diameters of 35 ft
or less, 2H x 2h x 7:i, in. is the minimum-size stiffening
angle. For tanks having diameters of 35 to 60 ft; the size
of the angle should be increased to 211 x 2H x % 6 in.
For tanks over 60 ft in diameter the size of the angle should
be 3 x 3 x % in. The outside leg of the angle may be
extended either inside or outside of the vessel. The angle Fig. 3.17. Preliminary sketch of wind-girder subauembly for example
is attached to the upper edge of the shell plate by either a design 3.1.
54 Design of Shells for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels

Note: . '
Cut back both ends, as shown,
· shop after welding sections
ether. See section E-E '

-----B.;J~
...
Iii" I\ 2'-8" ,_w"'.:.:..;P·'-'l!'-====-~------------C~~~'-2-·--'oc.;....J.,.f-2,--o-·+k+2-·-_,,,_f-_+---+-~--==r:::i!r-=:::'-'-
8e true and
0-;;ed;i;;g:Oeniot'FP;rL,,2;;;:5,C-.1r..,;;;.---
shop welding--,A:;;rc:-;:0;;;-
gether-- "

r
Wind-girder assembly, 10 required

)iI'½•"
12'-ll'¾t .
tJ
12·
I•Y,J
Bend up/

;..l'~- L
- - ;t;'~l! I . rl'-l<J.
f--•~·• ,i,
jj
I
f
-+-· I . I
. I t
Orai!' holes
@approx. 2'-o• centers

12'-61("
Section A-A
Detail of wind-girder section, Section B-B
20 required

Fig. 3.18. Details for wind girder for example design 3. I.

In reference to Fig. 3.19a, the roof load, W, results in also

compressive force, T1, in the roof plates as follows: F = aJ
w PD T _ aJ _ PD cot 8
T1 = - - - - - 3
-6D- 48
sin 8(1rD)l2 48 sin 8
Compressive force, T1, has a horizontal component, Ts, or To solve for a,
PD 2 cot 8
T PD cot 8 a=----
Ta 1COS 8 = -
48
SJ
J= 18,000 psi, allowable
In reference to Fig. 3.19b, \
Therefore
2F = l2DTs PD 2
a=------
8(18,000) tan (J
or
F PD 2
Ts=- a=------
6D 144,000 tan 8
if:
live load = 25 lb per sq ft · (for ¼in. plates)
dead load = 11 lb per sq ft
-F
w P = 36 lb per sq ft

-
Ts-~
2Ll
t•I D-
By substituting,

a=------=
36D2
144,000 tan 8 4000 tan 8
D

-F For small angles, tan 8 is approximately equal to sin 8;

therefore
(a) (b) D2
a=----
Fig. 3.19. laads on conical roofs. 4000 sin 8
 Example Design 3.2, Complete Shell Design for a Closed Vessel 55
The API Standard 12 C recommends the use of Eq. 3.23 Since corrosion allowance = 0,
for determining the required reinforcing area.
l1 = 0.57 in.
n2 By the use of 10 plates and with an allowance of %2 in.
a=---- (3.23)
3000 sin 0 for vertical weld joint, the center length of each plate is
calculated from the circumference.
In applying Eq. 3.23 credit may be taken for the cross-
sectional area of the shell and roof plates within a distance L = 1rd - weld length = 3.1416(1200.57) - 10(,% 2 )
of 16 times their thickness from the stiffening angle. In 12n 12(10)
other words, the sum of these areas must be equal to or
greater than (D 2/3000 sin 0) for cone-roof construction. 3770 136
= · = 31.4178 ft (or 31 ft, 5 in.)
For dome or umbrella-roof construction a similar equa- 120
tion may be derived.
Standard mill plates of 96-in. width will be specified and
DR butt welding of the shell plates will be used for fabrication.
a = 1500 (3.24) Shearing of the shell plates is required to square the plates
for butt welding. Therefore, the final height of the shell
where D = diameter of tank, feet plates will he slightly less than 96 in.
R = radius of curvature of dome, feet The thickness of the shell course above the bottom course
a = reinforcing\uea, square inches can also he determined by Eq. 3.18. The proper height,
however, for this calculation will be. (40 ft - 8 ft) or 32 ft
3.6 EXAMPLE DESIGN 3.2, COMPLETE SHELL DESIGN
FOR A CLOSED VESSEL l2 = 0.0001456(32 - 1)100 +c
The design calculations and drawing for the steel shell = 0.452 in. + C
only for a 55,000-bbl oil-storage tank having a cone roof
are required. The cone roof is to be supported by internal Specify that t 2 = 0.46 in.
columns, girders, and rafters.
3.6a Proportioning. It is estimated that the ratio of L = 1r(l200.46) - 10(0.15625) = 31 ft, 4¾½ in.
annual cost of the shell per unit area, ci, is two times the 10 X 12
annual cost of the bottom per unit area, c2, and that the
Accordingly, the thickness of the third course (H =
annual cost of the roof, c 3, is 1.8 times the bottom annual
24 ft) will be:
cost per unit area. The annual cost of the land area, c4,
and preparation, c 5 , together is estimated at 0.40 of the t 3 = 0.0001456(24 - 1)100 +c
cost of the tank bottom, c2 • Corrosion allowance will be
negligible. = 0.335 in. +0
When we substitute the above information into Eq. 3.9,

When we substitute the same information into Eq. 3.1,

H = 4(55,000 X 42/7.48)
(2.5H) 21r
H 3 = 62,910 cu ft
or
H = 39.8 ft
Since D = 2.5H,

D = 2.5 X 39.8 = 99.5 ft

The tank dimensions will be 100 ft inside diameter by
40 ft high. Appendix E, item 3 indicates that such a tank Fig. 3.20. Elevation view of shell for example design 3.2.
will have a volume of 55,950 bbl. A. Cable sheave
3.6b Design of Shell Courses. The thickness of the 8. Winch
C. 4" steam nozzles
bottom shell course can be determined readily by Eq. 3.18
0. 10" shell nozzle
(for butt-welded assembly).
E. 1 ~-f' extra-heavy couplings

l1 = 0.0001-156(-10 - 1)(100) +c F. 411 waler-draw-off nozzle

G. Shell nozzle for double swing joint
= 0.568 in. + C H. 24" shell manhole
 56 Design of Shells for Flat-bQttomed Cylindrical Vessels

rso·-O¾·-
,t
7
ICJ
J
~
314' -3½" 50' -Ol;;' Top 3 x 3 x :Ii;'
Outside Radius to t PL
....'
!
circumference
--u--¾·
~,~
'

J '11' 5 shell PL ----.,..,

,.~ 314' -3½·
Outside
50' -0!-i,'
Radius to 1£ PL
1 circumference

PL # 3-0 .34•
t·
.
~ 314'-4'
'
50' -0 1 ¼.,'
;! Outside
circumference
Radius to t PL /
i ,~..
l PL. "2-0.46'
~____,11~
t 314' -s·
L31'-5¾.
I 3 shell PL
2
fig. 3.21. Shell details for example
50' -0½,'
~
-...._,._

,.
v
design 3.2.
Outside Radius to PL if.
.... circumference ' . 45•---;j
~I~
! PL ,f 1-0.57'
i 314' -5%' 50' -0'½2' * f 2 shell PL ---
~ if. PL.
'7
;:..
Outside
circumference
Radius lo
50'-0' ~rJ.-_!1.
~?~
1 Inside radius

Section through shell ~ 11 shell PL ............__

Section through vertical Joints

Bill of Materials
,,
,_,...,'
SJ,1{;1 Mark /)escripllon len!lfh
ft in. Order Lenqfh
ft m.
JO #j Pl.9.5¼".¥0.57" 3/ .5 JO Pl. 96"%0.57" 31 S¼'
JO 112 Pl. 95¾-'X0.46' 3/ -4% JO Pl. g&•xo.46· 31 SY,/..
/0 #3 Pl 9Jf1·xau· 31 4 3/,i /0 Pl 9,rxo34• 3/ 53/i
10 #4 Pl. 953/a·x 1/4 • 3/ 4 11/16 /0 Pl. gs• X ;4• 31 .51/4'
10 #.5 Pl. 953/s'X fr+• 31 -4'U, JO Pl. 94•x;4• 31 51/1"
10 TAS L 3•n·x¾· 31 4'¾i 10 L r..rrx·W 31 8

Specify that t 3 = 0.34 in. ness of less than ¼ in. This means simply that hydrostatic
pressure stress considerations are not controlling and the
L = ,r(l200.34) - 10(0.15625) = 31 ft Af in. structural stability of the thin shell is the prime consdera-
10 X 12 ' tion. Thus the minimum shell thickness of ¼ in. for shells
of this size as set l:iy API 12. C for tanks 50 ft in diameter
Likewise, the thickness of the fourth course (H = 15 ft)
and larger will he specified (see Appendix E, ite_m 4).
will he:
The required thicknesses for the various shell courses could
t4 = 0.0001456(}5 - 1)100 + C have been determined from Appendix E, item 4. It will be
seen that the calculated and tabulated shell-course thickness
= 0.204 in. agree.
L = ,r(l200.25) - 10(0.125) = 31 ft r 4H in. Only the shell plates of the bottolll course need to be cold
10 X 120 ' formed to the shell diameter. Frequently, however, thimner.
shell plates are rolled to facilitate erection. Accordingly,
Specify t4 and lr, = 0.25 in. since the thickness as deter- the shell ·specifications will call for rolling of the bottom
mined from the appropriate relationship results in a thick- three courses.
 Example Design 3.2, Complete Shell Design for a Closed Vessel 57
3.6c Design of Top Angle. The minimum-size top L = 1r(l200.375) - 10(0.15625)
angle for a tank larger than 60 ft, 0 in. in diameter with a 10 X 12
roof supported on columns is 3 in. X 3 in. X % in. and
will, therefore, be used. Specifications will call for butt L = 31 ft, 4H, in.
welding of thi& angle to the top course. By using 10 lengths
of top angle, the length of each angle section is calculated Figure 3.20 shows the elevation view of tank shell, and
as follows: Fig. 3.21 shows the shell details.

PROBLEMS
•

1. A cone-roof tank having a filled capacity of 100,000 bbl is to be designed. Determine the
optimum proportion of D/ H from the following cost considerations. The fabricated shell, roof
(including plates, rafters, girders and columns), and bottom are estimated to cost 18, 20, and
14 cents per lb respectively. Foundation costs are estimated to be $4000. Fixed annual
charges including amortization, interest, and so on are estimated to be 40 % per year based on
initial installed cost. The annual charge for the land allocated to the tank !:!!ea is $500.
2. A wind girder is required for an open vessel 120 ft inside diameter and 48 ft high. The
top course of the shell is fabricated from ¼-in. plate. If the wind girder consists of 30 identical
sections corresponding to detail E of Fig. 3.16, determine the minimum section modulus and
the girder dimensions.
3. Determine the required cross-sectional area of the stiffening ring for a self-supporting
conical roof 30 ft 0 in. in diameter having an angle fJ of 15° with the horizontal.
4. The required shell plate 't.picknesses for the vessel described in problem 2 may he deter-
mined from item 2 of Append~. Using these plate thicknesses and 18 courses, prepare a
plot of circumferential stress versus height for the conditions of the hydrostatic test in which
the vessel is filled with water.
 CHA·P'TER

DESIGN OF BOTTOMS AND ROOFS

FOR FLAT-BOTTOMED CYLINDRICAL VESSELS /

7r he bottoms and roofs of vertical cylindrical storage

vessels are usually fabricated of steel plates having thick-
nesses less than those used in the shell. This is possible
for the bottom because it is normally supported by a pre-
pared base of sand or gravel resting on the soil. The roof
load is usually limited to wind and snow load with a proper
allowance made for any anticipated additional loads.
4.1 BOTTOM DESIGN
The shape and design of the bottom for a storage vessel
will depend upon such considerations as: the foundation
used to support the vessel, the method for removal• of the
stored material, the degree of sedimentation of suspended
solids, corrosion of the bottom, and the size of the storage
vessel. If the considerations mentioned dictate the use of
a flat bottom and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is at
least 3000 lb per sq ft the bottom is usually placed on a
sand or gravel pad directly on the soil.
If the tank bottom is directly supported by the ground,
flexure of the bottom is prevented, and the bottom plates
are under a simple compression load. Theoretically a light-
gage sheet metal, 16-gage or less would be sufficient for
such a bottom. However, to provide greater ease in weld-
ing and to allow additional metal for corrosion, plates having
a thickness of at least ¼ in. should be used. For many
years ½5-in. plate was the most common plate thickness
used for tank bottoms. Bottom plates of 72 in. or more in
width are preferred and plates 96 in. wide are usually
specified. Plates of Ji-in, thickness are usually lap welded

n weld, fl-1~!de
~ lntermittent~ottom plate
with a lap margin of at least l¼ in. for all joints. The
bottom plates should extend beyond the shell-plate bottom
weld at least I in. No more than three plate laps should
be located within 12 in. of each other or of the shell. Typi-
Added plate cal welded joints for shell-to-bottom and bottom plates are
Shell-to-bottom joints · shown in Fig. 4.l. Figure 4.2, a and b, gives alternate
methods of shaping the sketch plat~s under the shell ring.
The sketch plates should be formed and welded in such a
('Groove ;ptlonal manner that a smooth bearing surface for the shell plates
is produced. .
'-=rack weld In regard to selecting the plates for the bottom, the
Single-welded
full-fillet Single-welded butt joint largest-sized plates available that can be conveniently
lap joint with backing strip handled and that have no cost extra for size are usually
Bottom-plate joints the most economical. Plates 96 in. wide :x 20 or 30 ft long
are often used. If the bottom plates are laid symmetrically
-i" Fig. 4.1. Typical bottom joints recommended by API Standard 12 C. in relation to the center lines of the bottom plan, the number
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.) of different shaped plates will be reduced to a minimum.
58
 Example Design 4.1, Bottom for a Tank 150 Ft, 0 In. in Diameter 59

(bJ
(a}

·I,. Fig. 4.2. Methods of shaping sketch plates under the shell ring recommended by API Standard 12 C. (Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)

This is an advantage because the plates can then be scribed plates can be readily calculated by use of Eq. 4.1 and by
and cut in groups of four, whereas if the bottom plates are reference to Fig. 4.3.
symmetrical in relation to only one center line, only two
plates can be scribed and cut at one time. A bottom A 2 = B(D - B) (4.1)
asymmetrical along both center lines makes a large number n2
of plates of different sizes necessary. The simplest sym- A2 = -
4
- c2 (4.la)
metrical layout is to arrange the corners of four plates to
intersect at the center of the tank bottom. However, this Means must be provided for the removal of liquid from
layout should not be used with lap-welded construction the bottom of the vessel. A sump, shown in Fig. 4.4, may
because four plates will lap at the joint. Also, this layout be used with a sump-pump discharge. Flat-bottomed
is sometimes wasteful in that with some groups of dimen- tanks using gravity or pump discharge may discharge by
sions considerable scrap may result from the plates at the means of a draw-off elbow, as illustrated in Fig. 4.5.
perimeter. In such a case the bottom plates may be rear- Dimensions for a draw-off elbow are given in Table 4.1.
ranged with one plate centered on the bottom. In this
4.2 EXAMPLE DESIGN 4.1, BOTTOM FOR A TANK
Jayout the center row is single, but all other rows have
150 FT, 0 IN. IN DIAMETER
mates. The center row will have two perimeter plates of
the same size, but there will be four identical perimeter A bottom is required for a tank 150 ft, 0 in. in inside
plates for each succeeding row from center. diameter. The minimum allowable (2) plate thickness is
The sizes of plates and the location of cuts on perimeter %: in.; however, because of the large tank size a plate thick-
ness of ¾ 6 in. will be specified to provide additional pro-
tection against Joss by corrosion. The bottom course of
shell plates for this vessel is Uis in. thick, and a ¾ 6 in. fillet
Table 4.1. Dimensions of Welded Draw-off Elbow, weld will be used between the sheU and the bottom plates.
Recommended by API Standard 12 C, All
Dimensions in Inches-See Fig. 4.5
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
Distance
Distance from
Distance from Diameter Diameter Center of
Nomi- from Center of of Hole of Rein- Elbow to
nal Center of Out)et to in Tank forcing Face of
Pipe Elbow to Bottom, Bottom, Plate, Outlet
,Size* Shell, B C Dp DR Flange, E
2 n~ 6 3% 6% 1~
3 8h i 47;;,: 7% 13
4 9H 7 1½ 6 57;;,: 9% 14
6 11 9% i% '12% 16
8 13 12% 9% 16H 18
* Extra-strong pipe, A.Pl Standard 5 L } Fig. 4.3. Relationship of bottom plate dimensions. ·
60 Design of Bottoms and Roofs for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels

28%"
25~• opening in bottom plate Tank shell

)I Fig. 4.4. Draw-off Sll!!!_P recommended

t· --.----r---
by API Standard 12 C. {Courtesy of
Butt weld American. Petroleum Institute.)

5/.

k=.t
/16

Alternative for
. 24•--·I bottom corner
24%·------..i/

The bottom plates must extend a minimum of 1 in. beyond By Eq. 4.la,
the shell weld, or in this case, the radius must be increased
a minimum of (1 + 1½ 6 + ;½: 6 in.) or 2% in. A radius
D2
A2 = - - c2
of 75 ft, 3 in. will be used for the bottom. The central 4
bottom plates will be 96 in. wide by 31 ft, 8:!,i in. in length.
The bottom plates will be lap welded, and the joints will (150 ft, 6 in.) 2 f 1 •
= - (15 t, 10~ m.) 2
be staggered so that no more than three plates are lapped 4
within 12 in. of each other or of the shell.
Figure 4.6 shows a layout for such a bottom. It should
= 5662.562 - 251.024
be noted that the layout is symmetrical with respect to one = 5411.538
axis, and thus only half of the bottom is shown. It is also
evident that, except for the necessary staggering of the therefore
plates, it is symmetrical with respect to the other axis. A 73 ft, 6¾ in.
To demonstrate the use of Eq. 4.1 in this design, dimen-
sions A and C will be calculated for points x and y on the To obtain the width of plate S-2 at point x, 8H-in. plate
layout. At point x dimension C is equal to one half the widths less (10 - 1) laps of Hi in. must be subtracted
plate length of 31 ft, 8H in., and Dis 150 ft, 6 in. from dimension A. The plate width is 96 in.
31 ft, 8¼ in. • 8-2 plate width at x = (73 ft, 6¾ in.) 8½(8 ft, 0 in:)
C = 2
= 15 ft, 10~1 m. - 9(1¼ in.) = (73 ft, 6¾ in.) - (67 ft, o¾ in.) = 6 ft, 6 in.

Tank shell

Tank bottom

r
J( Fig; 4.5. Welded draw-off elbow
Extra-strong recommended by API Standard 12 C.
pipe (See Tobie 4.1 for dimensions.)

l_¼__ __,,_-4,..,l--);¥---,............,.___,r-1---'~~--+~1----
(Courtesy of American Petroleum·
Institute.I

90°-long-radiu
extra-heavy ·
welding elbow ~ -l Q
Alternative _/1----- E ·
mitred pipe
 Example Design 4.1, Bottom for a Tank 150 Ft, 0 In. in Diameter 61

27'-8"'" 19'-9½" 11'-10%" 4'-0

SW32 SW32 SW32 5W32 SW32

f 5'- 11'1, •
ll't•• 8'-3'~t

15'-10""

'
7'-UJii•
8'-2!("
S-1

5W32 5W32 SW32 5W32 5W32 5W32 5W32 SW32 SW32 SW32 5W32 SW32 5W32 5W32 5W32 SW32 5W32

Half plan of bottom

All PLS.-12.75*-1""' laps
2940 lin ft of 'fl weld
~
Radius = 75'-0"
lo inside ol sheN

I"E
Radius = 75'-J• 1o
wlside edge ol bottom
Section through corner
Section through lap

Bill ol Molerial
.u;w:,7 Mark tJe.rcrlplion F).'""'/; Wt. No. Order Fl.l111gtli
In.
47 swn Pl.t. - 96"K 12.75"' 3/ a¼
Similarly, at point y dimension C is equal to lH plate
47 Pl1.-96"X/2.75• 31 8¼
/0 SW24 P/1.·96"Xl2.7S* 23 9½ /0 Pl1.·96"Xl2.75 11 23 9½
lengths plus 2 plate widths less 3 plate laps of 1%: in., or
4 SW/6 Pk. - 96"X 12.75* 15 10¾ 4 Pir.·96"X/2.75* 15 IO¼
4 S· I P/1. - SK X12.75* 2 Pls.·96~X/2.7S# /6 2½·
C = 1.5(31 ft, 8¼ in.) + 2(8 ft, 0 in.) - 3(1¼ in.)
4 S-2 Pls.·SK X/2.75* 2 Plt.·96"X/2.75* 14 6½
4 S·J P(s.·.SK X/2.75* 2 P1r.-91rx12.151r 19 o½
= (63 ft, 6¾ in.) - 3¾ in.
4 S·4 Pls.·SK X 1275" z Pl.r.·96'X/2.75" 13 9% 63 ft, 2¾ in.
4 S·5 Pls.-.SK X/2.75' z Pl.r.·96"XJ2.75 11 22 3¾
4. S-6 Pis.- SK X12.7511 2 Plr.-96"Xl2.75" 28 3¾ By Eq. 4.la,
2 S-7 Pl.r.· SK X/2.75* z Plr96"Xl2.75* 15 S¾
z S·7·A l'l.t.· SK X1275* n2
2 S-8 Pls.·SK X/2.75* z Pl.r.·9G'XIZ.75* ZI II¼
A2 = -
4
- c2
2 S·8·A Pl.r.- SK X/2.75*
4 .f·9 Pl!.· SK X12.75• z Pl.r.·96'Xl2.7S 11 13 5¾ = 5662.562 - (63 ft, 2% in.) 2
4- s-10 P/.f.·SK l/275• 2 P/s.·96"Xl2.75* /6 8
4 S·/1 Pis.- SK X12.75* 5662.562 - 3996.610
2 Pl.r.·96'XIZ.75* 20 II½
4 S·/2 Pls.-SK X /2.75" 2 Pl.r.·96"Xl2.75" 23 S¾
2 S·/3 P/.t.· .SK X12.75* 2 P/s.·96"X/2.75 11 /2 Ifs = 1665.952
A = 40 ft, 9H in.

fig. 4.6. Typical bottom layout far a 150-ft-dlometer tank.

 f,;

·,·r---
C I
.i
(D

cc·"'
~(
. -
:::I
0
\ ...,.
' ,. __ -
m
0
0
. l-\ • 3
"'

. C
a
'·--~ :::I
a.
.;;\\!' .
-..___ ./• II • 6'
-...
"
0
l ----..1___ -,. . Ill
.....
0
,,
I • •-•--,

I •20 • ,I ~t._-._,.. ___ _

'
/ ...-;ounds / 30
I
j -c
t0r
\
. ,· pounds
I·• -
0

\ i• I
3
QI
a.
. -----..!.... ___ _ .Q
:i.
.I ...a.;:;·
I 2.
//i//;~j/j.
/ / / / / / / /'?/
I
I
<
(D
// ///// ///
/////////// /
"'"'QI
.,..(/,j~~//~~j// ui
-......,<:;ijj;,r/////V

//////
' / / /. .

LEGEND
X/""""'/r-"'< /// //
{./, V/////
(/////
//////

-40pounds ~lOpounds
\ //////
//////
~~///
///
///
Less than
~ ti///
-30pounds ~ 10 pounds
V//
\(/
Zones excluded
-20pounds . , D
from study

fig. 4.7. Weight of snow loads equaled or exceeded one year In ten years-pounds per square foot (137). (This material is reproduced from the.American Standard Building Code Requirements for
Minimum Design loods in Buildings and Other Strvcfure,, A58.1-1955, copyrighted by the American Standard, A110elation.)
 Roof Design 63
Therefore, for the layout shown in Fig. 4.6, the dimen- d = diameter, inches
sion for S-8 at pointy is: t = cone shell· thickness, inches
() = angle between cone element and horizontal
(40 ft, 9H in.) - (34 ft, 7 in.) + l¼ in.
or The stress as calculated by Eq. 4.2 will be controlling
6 ft, 4-h, in. only in the case of thick cones used with pressure vessels
of limited diameter. In the case of large-diameter conical
.4.3 ROOF DESIGN roofs such as those used for storage tanks, the controlling
The most common shape for a tank roof is a cone although factor is elastic instability. The theoretical critical com-
dome or umbrella roofs are also used. In addition to these pressive stress that causes failure of a curved plate by
shape classifications, tank roofs may be classified into two wrinkling is given by Eq. 2.24.
types, self-supporting and nonself-supporting.
Regardless of shape or method of support, tank roofs are t
fcriticr.l = 0.6E -r (2.24)
designed to carry a minimum live load of 25 lb per sq ft
' in addition to the dead load. This live load is an average
figure which allows for combined wind and snow loads and where E = modulus of elasticity of material, pounds per
for the weight plant personnel who may travel across a roof square inch
to inspect the vessel or to reach a manhole and so on. t = thickness, inches
Figure 4. 7 shows the maximum snow loads to be antici- r = radius of curvature, inches (see Fig. 4.8)
pated in various parts of the United States (137). fcriticr.l theoretical critical stress at which failure by
.4.3a Self-supporting Conical Roofs. A self-supporting wrinkling occurs, pounds per square inch
roof is one which is supported only on its periphery without The safe compressive stress that can be carried without
the aid of additional support from columns. Tank diam- wrinkling was investigated by Wilson and Newmark (43)
eters for self-supporting roofs generally do not exceed 60 ft in a series of experimental tests. As a result of these tests
and usually are less than 40 ft. Any greater spans require and others (44), it was found that the safe compressive
such heavy rafters that it is simpler to use one or more sup- stress that can be imposed on a steel cylindrical shell with-
porting columns and thereby reduce the span. Such roofs out failure by wrinkling is one twelfth of the theoretical
usually consist of roof plates supported on rafters. critical stress and can be expressed for r as follows:
Small and medium-sized flat bottomed cylindrical tanks
having capacities of 400 and 3000 bbl or under respectively
are extensively used in the petroleum industry (100, 101). fanowr.ble = 1.5(10 6) ; ~ ~ yield point (2.25)
Figure 3.7 of the previous chapter shows proportions for
such tanks, and Table 3.3 gives typical dimensions. The Equation 2.25 can be modified for use with a conical roof
roofs of these tanks are known as "decks" and are fabricated
of mild steel having specifications meeting ASTM-A-7,
ASTM-A-283 grade C or D (open-hearth or electric-furnace
steel only). The deck plates have the same thickness as
the shell plates, and a slope of 1 in. in 12 in. is used for the
cone. If ½ 6 -in. plates are specified, the deck must be rein-
forced with structural support if it is 15~~ ft or larger in
diameter but does not require additional reinforcing if it is
smaller in diameter. If }a-in. plate is used, no support
is needed for 15H-ft diameter tanks, but support is required
for all larger-diameter tanks. The deck may be attached
to the shell by one of the foil owing methods. Tl\e deck D = diameter of tank, feet
may be flanged and welded by: a double-welded butt joint r = radius of curvature of cone
at periphery, inches
with complete penetration, a single-welded butt joint with _ 6D
backing strip, or a full-fillet double-welded lap joint. If - sin/J
the deck is not flanged, it should have full-fillet welded joints 8 = angle of cone element
both inside and outside. ' with horizontal
For larger tanks with cone roofs the equation for stress
in a cone under either an internal or external pressure can
be derived as shown in Chapter 6 (see Eq. 6.139). The
maximum stress will exist at the greatest diameter of the
cone and will be:
pd
f$ = 2t sin 8
(4.2)

w-here p internal or external pressure pounds per square

inch gage r,-. Fig. 4.8. Radius of curvature of conical roofs.

•
 I( Fig. 4.9. Field photograph showing
structural support for o tank roof.
(Courtesy of Aluminum Company of
America.)

by referring to Fig. 4.8 and substituting for r as follows: 2

sin 2 fJ = Dt 2 (~
6
X 10 6)
.
6 tsinfJ
/allow. = 1.5(10 ) ~ (4.3)
sin (J D VP/6 (4.5)
lOOOt
or
If live load = 25 lb per sq ft and dead load = 7.65 lb per
sin 8 = f allow.D (4.4) sq ft (for ¾ 6 -in. roof plates)
250,000l
P 32.65 lb per sq ft
It is very important to recognize that the allowable com-
pressive stress, /allow., is not the conventional allowable If one substitutes for Pin Eq. 4.5,
stress for the material but is the safe stress that can be
applied without danger of failure by wrinkling. The com- min sin (J D V32.65/6 = .!!_ (4.6)
1000[ , 430t
pressive stress induced by live and dead loads on the roof
must not exceed the allowable compressive stress, /a11ow.• Equation 4.6 is the equation specified by API Standard
Equation 4.2 ban he used to calculate the compressive stress 12 C for self-supporting conical roofs. It should he empha-
induced by the roof loads, or Eq. 4.2 can he substituted into sized that the derivation of the constant is based, upon
Eq. 4.4 as follows: selected roof loads and ;½'. 6 -in. roof-plate thicknesses and
should he modified for other conditions.
sin fJ = (P /144)(12D) D 4.3b Conical Roofs with Structural Support. When the
(2l sin 8) 250,000l design calls for a conical roof with structural support, a
 Roof Design 65
slope, or pitch, of the roof of a ¾-in. rise per 12 in. is recom- By substituting x l/2 into Eq. 4.7, we obtain:
mended. The roof plates may be ridged in order to decrease
the number of rafters required. Roof plates should not be wl 2
attached to the rafters. Roof plates of lap design should
Mmax = B (for a uniformly loaded beam freely

have a minimum lap of 1 in. when tack welded; moreover, supported) (4.8)
if a continuous full-fillet weld is used on all seams, it is
necessary to weld only the top side of the roof. For steel To determine the deflection of the beam Eq. 2.41 is sub-
construction a minimum thickness of ,,. s in. is recommended stituted into Eq. 4.7, and the equation: is integrated.
for the roof plates. Figure 4.9 is a photograph showing
= EI d y ~ wlx _ wx 2
2
assembly of structural support for a tank roof before instal- M
dx 2 2 2
lation of roof plates.
Storage tanks and other large vessels with conical roofs . therefore
usually are designed with no attempt made to prevent the
roof plates from flexing. In such a design the rafters are EI dy = wlx2 - wxa + Ci (4.9)
spaced sufficiently close to each other to prevent overstress- dx 4 6
ing of the outer fiber of the roof plates as a result of flexure.
The roof plates are assumed to act as flat continuous beams To evaluate the constant of integration C1 apply the
with a uniform roof load. The rafters and girders are boundary condition dy/dx = 0 where x = l/2. Therefore
assumed to act as uniformly loaded beams with free ends.
Roof design involves the consideration of bending and shear wl 3
in the roof plates, rafters, and girders. Column action in 24
the rafters of self-supporting roofs and in the columns of
roofs having supports must be also considered. A brief By substituting in Eq. 4.7 and integrating again, we
discussion of these relationships follows. obtain:
UNIFORMLY LOADED BEAMS WITH FREE ENDS. Referring _ wlx 3 wx 4
to Fig. 4.10, consider any point, x, between supports R1 EIy - - wl3x+c (4.10)
2
12 24 24
and R2 in the beam uniformly loaded with w pounds per
linear inch. The forces acting on the beam to the left of Since y = 0 where x = 0,
point x produce a bending moment, M, which can be evalu-
ated by a summation of the moments at x. For a uniformly
loaded beam freely supported at the ends, R1 = R2;
therefore By substituting and solving Eq. 4.10 for y, we obtain:
wl Y _ 1 (wlx wx wl x)
3
__
4
_
3

2 EI 12 24 24
The force R 1 produces a clockwise or positive moment The maximum deflection occurs at the center of the span
equal to R 1x, and the uniform load to the left of x results in where x l/2; therefore
a force, wx, which produces a counterclockwise or negative
moment equal to -wx(x/2), or 5wl4 . d fl •
y =- - = maximum e ect1on (4.11)
2 384EI
M = wlx _ wx (4.7)
2 2 UNIFORMLY LOADED CoNTINuous BEAM. A uniformly
loaded continuous beam having a large number of equally
To obtain the location of the maximum bending moment,
spaced supports reacts the same as a simple uniformly
let
loaded beam with fixed ends. Consider the uniformly
dM loaded beam shown in Fig. 4.11. The beam is assumed to
0
dx be a section of a continuous beam with a large number of
equally spaced supports l distances apart. A bending
therefore
moment Mo exists over the supports.
~(wlx wx2) 0
dx 2 2
or
\¥11111{~1-11113
wl _
- -wx 0
2 l-x--

therefore ,~,~--""'---
t-------
, . ,
'-~,:.;;.1~/
X """
2 ;';, Fig. 4.10. Uniformly loaded beam with free ends.
,. ___ ___
..,,..

,
66 Design of Bottoms and Roofs for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
maximum bending moment occurs over the supports,. as
defined by Eq. 4.14.
The maximum deflection of the beam by inspection is
observed to occur at x = l/2 and may be obtained by sub-
stituting Eq. 4.14 into Eq. 4.13, integrating, and evaluating
the new constant of integration, C2•
Fig. 4.11. Uniformly loaded continuous beam. wl 2x 2 wlx 3 wx 4
Ely = - 24 + 12 - 24 + ,fl2
'
but
Taking the summation of moments at a distance x from y = 0 at X 0
the support R 1, we obtain: therefore
C2 = O
M = Mo+ Rix ...;. wx (~) Substituting and solving for y where x = l/2, we obtain:
But . wl4
y = - -- = maximum deflection (4.17)
384E/
COLUMN ACTION. Slender· structural members under
for a beam with clamped ends, axial compression tend to deflect. This deflection. results
and in a bending stress superimposed on the comp~ssive stress.
2 Referring to Fig. 2.4 of Chapter 2, we find that the axial
Eld y = M (2.14) force, P, causes a deflection of yin the column of length, l,
dx2
and cross-sectional area, a.
Substituting for Mand R1, we obtain: The bending moment, M (equal to the force, P, times the
lever arm, y) induces a bending stress equal to Mc/I, which
M = EI d2y = Mo + wlx - wx2 (4.12) must be added to the compressive stress, P/a, or
dx 2 2 2
Integrating, we obtain:
2 3
dx
EI -
dy
= Mox + wlx
- 2 - wx
-6 + C1 By definition
I ar 2 (where r = radius of gyration)
Applying boundary conditions to evaluate the constant
Ci, we obtain: therefore

when x = 0
The column may be compared to a uniformly loaded
beam freely supported, in which by Eqs. 4.12, 4.8, and 4.11,
Therefore
Mc wl2 5wl 4
(4.13) f I ' M 8 ' y 384EI

Also, Solving for the product ye for the uniformly loaded beam,
we obtain:
dy = 0 when x =I
therefore
dx
ye 5wl
4

384E/ wl2
(8/f) Sl2f
48E
= C 1l2 (4.19).

wl2 where C1 constant. ,

Mo (maximum moment for uniformly
12 For a column the product ye is assumed to vary as l2, as
loaded beam with fixed ends) (4.14) in the case of a beam:
Substituting into Eq. 4.12, we obtain: ye= C2l2
2 2 2
M = EI d y wl wlx wx Substituting the quantity C2l2 for ye in Eq. 4.It and
. dx 2 -12+2-2 (4.IS) solving for PIa, we obtain:
Tire bending moment at the center of the span where p f
l/2 is: (4.20)
wl2
a I + C2(l 2/r 2)
(M)112 =- where C2 is a constant depending upon the material, the
24
method of loading, and the method of support. No
Comparison of Eq. 4.14 with Eq. 4.16 indicates that the method is known for calculating from theory the value of
 Roof Design 67
the constant C2 • The constant is usually determined by For a rectangular beam,
experiment. Rankine experimentally evaluated the con-
bt 2
stants for round- and square-ended columns and found G2 z=
to be 1/18,000 and 1/36,000, respectively (29). Since any 6
slight displacement of a fixed-end or square-end column where b = width of beam, inches
either laterally or axially will result in an unknown eccen- t = thickness of beam, inches
tric loading, columns are usually designed as round-ended
members. Thus, for the case where b 1.0 in.,
For values of l/r between 60 and 200, the American t2
Institute of Steel Construction (102) recommends the fol- z= (4.24)
6
lowing equation for steel columns:
Substituting Eq. 4.24 and Eq. 4.2f into Eq. 2.10, we
P 18,000
(4.21) obtain:
a 1 + (l 2/18,000r 2) pl2
For columns having values of l/r between O and 60, a J = 2,2
column formula is not used, but a maximum value of or
15,000 for compressive stress, P/a, for steel columns is (4.25)
specified. For values of l/r greater than 200, Euler's
column formula is used. (See Table 2.1, Chapter 2.) For an allowable stress, J, of 18,000 psi (the maximum speci-
Self-supporting roofs have rafters under combined com- fied by API Standard 12 C for steel roofs) a roof-plate
pressive load and bending load. Such rafters may be con- thickness of ¾ 6 in., and a roof load of 32.65 lb per sq ft,
sidered to act as beams under column loading. that is, p = 0.227 psi, a substitution into Eq. 4.25 gives:
The constants J and G2 of Eq. 4.20 have· been specified
3 (2)(18000) = 74.6 in.
as given in Eq. 4.22 by the American Institute of Steel l =-
Construction (102) for steel beams under column action. 16 0.227

P 20,000 It is apparent from the above calculations for a ¾ s-in.

=---
2 ---
(4.22)
a 1 + (l /2000b )
2
where l = unsupported length, inches
b width of-compression flange, inches
The application of Eq. 4.22 is limited to conditions in
which l exceeds 15b but is less than 40b. If the member
is shorter than 15b, the rafter may be designed as a beam.
Lateral stiffeners may be used to maintain l within the
upper limit of 40b. The value of 20,000 specified in the
numerator of Eq. 4.22 is permitted because the bending
stress is maximum only at the outer fiber, and therefore the
maximum combined compressive stress exists only at the
outermost fiber on the top side of the rafter. The average
compressive stress across the member will be less than
20,000 psi.
,_ RAFTER SPACING. Consider a circumferential strip of
roof plate 1 in. wide located at the outer periphery of the
conical roof, and disregard the support offered by the shell.
This strip is considered to be essentially a straight, flat,
continuous, uniformly loaded beam. · The controlling
bending moment is equal to wl 2/12 and occurs over the
supporting rafters. By Eq. 4.14,
-wl2 -p(l)l 2 = -pl 2
M max = (4.23)
12 12 12
where l = length of beam (strip) between rafters, inches
P = unit load, pounds per square inch = w when
width = 1.0 in.
Introducing the stress resulting from flexure by Eq. 2.10,
we obtain:
f = Al (2.10)
z The actual number of rafters to be specified should be a
roof plate that rafter spacing in large-diameter cone-roof
tanks should not exceed 6 ft unless heavier roof plates are
used. API Standard 12 C specifies a maximum rafter
spacing of 211' feet or 75% in. on the outer perimeter of a
ring of rafters and a maximum of 5 H ft on the inner perim-
eter (2).
The minimum number of rafters adjacent to the shell
is determined by dividing the shell circumference by the
maximum rafter spacing. The actual number of rafters
to be specified should be a multiple of the number of sides
of the polygon of girde~s supporting the other· end of the
rafters to provide a symmetrical layout; this is a further
restriction.
The minimum number of rafters to be used between two
adjacent inner girders should be based on the perimeter of
the outer polygon of girders. The length of one side of a
polygon having sides of equal length is:
.360
L 2R sm- (4.26)
2N
where L polygon-side length, feet
·N = nurpber of sides of polygon
R = radius of circle circumscribing polygon, feet
The minimum number of rafters, n, required will then be
equal to (l2NL/l) or,
24NR . 360
n=--sm- (4.27)
l 2N
where n = minimum number of rafters
l maximum rafter spacing, inches
68 Design of Bottoms and Roofs for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
multiple of the number of sides of the polygon, N, to main-
tain a symmetrical layout.
SELECTION OF RAFTERS AND GIRDERS. Rafters are
designed as uniformly loaded beams with free ends. Each
rafter is considered to support the roof plates and roof load
over an area extending on either side of the rafter and
bounded by the center line to the adjacent rafter. From
Eq. 4.8 it is seen that the maximum bending moment for
such a beam is equal to wl 2 /8 and occurs at the center of the
beam. The maximum fiber stress is directly proportional
to the square of the length of the beam, l 2• Therefore, to
avoid use of excessively heavy rafters the length of the rafter
is usually limited to from 20 to 24 ft or less.
This may be demonstrated by considering 20 ft, 0 in.
rafters spaced 6 ft, 0 in. apart at the outer side and 4 ft,
0 in. apart at th~ inner side with a roof-design load of
0.25 psi. The mailmum bending moment is, by Eq. 4.8:
/
wl 2 (0.25)(5 X 12)(20 X 12) 2
M=-
8 8
= 108,000 in-lb
Rewriting Eq. 2.10 as,
M movement of the column bases.
z = -
f 4.3c Dome and Umbrella Roofs. A dome' roof is one
for J = 18,000 psi (assumed allowable value) we obtain:
108,000 in.-lb _ O•
z = - - - - - - -2 - 6. m. 3
18,000 lb per in.
From item 1 of Appendix Ga 7 x 2H in. channel weigh-
ing 9.8 lb per ft in which z = 6.0 in. 3 may be selected to
fulfill the requirements.
For vessels of large diameter in which the rafter span is
reduced by the use of girders, column supports must be
used for each ring of girders and also at the center of the
tank. Usually five or more straight girders are joined
end-to-end to form a polygonal support for the ends of the
rafters. The girders are designed in the same manner as
the rafters. The girder load is considered to be a uniform
load equal to the roof load plus the weight of the riµters.
The roof area contributing this girder load is the length of
the girder times the distance on either side halfway to the
next rafter support. The rafters form a series of concen-
trated loads on the girders, but for practical considerations
the load may be treated as uniform whenever four or more
rafters are supported on one girder.
Self-supporting roofs have rafters under a combined com-
pressive load and bending load. In such designs, if the
unsupported length, l, exceeds 15b where b equals the width
of the compression flange, the stress in pounds per sq·uare
inch should not exceed the value calculated from Eq. 4.22.
The laterally unsupported length of beams and girders
should not exceed 40 times b (the width of the compression
flange).
The above restrictions, limiting beams to lengths with an
l/b ratio not greater than 40 and to stress not greater than
permitted by the formula for l/b ratios greater than 15, do
not; !J.pply to rafters which are in contact with the steel roof
plating. It is assumed that under full-load conditions,
friction betw~en the roof sheets and the rafters will provide
adequate lateral support to the compression flanges of the
rafters. ·
SELECTION OF CoLmINS. The design of beams and
rafters for roofs is based on a safety factor of approximately
3, that is, one third the ultimate strength. For rolled-steel
structural shapes of 55,000 psi ultimate tensile strength,
an allowable tensile stress of 18,000 psi is recommended.
The same value may be used for the maximum allowable
compressive stress of rolled-steel sections if lateral deflection
is prevented. In the case of columns, the lateral deflection
should be considered, and the maximum allowable compres-
sive stress should not exceed 15,000 psi. This stress can
be computed by Eq. 4.21.
The allowable compressive stress so calculated' is based
on the gross section of the column (including area of weld)
if the column consists of two or more sections welded ·
together. For main compression members the l/r ratio ,
should not exceed 180, and the ratio for bracing and second-'
ary compression members should be limited to 200 ...
Supporting columns for roofs may be either of standard
structural shapes or of pipe, depending upon preference in
design. In the installation of columns, clip angles should
be used on the tank bottoms to prevent any possible-lateral
formed to a spherical surface. At the beginning of the
century, tanks with dome roofs were used for a great variety
of services. Today they are seldom used for atmospheric
storage as the more simple cone-roof tank is cheaper.
Dome roofs are still used extensively for cylindrical flat-
bottom storage vessels designed for low-pressure service.
. The umbrella roof is formed so that any horizontal section
through the roof is a regular polygon with as many sides
as there are plates. Umbrella roofs are a compromise
between cone roofs and dome roofs. Umbrella roofs have
approximately the strength of dome roofs but are easier
to install because the roof plates are curved in only one .
direction.
The equation for stress in a spherical thin-walled vessel
can be developed in a manner similar to that used in devel-
oping Eq. 3.13 with the following result:
pd
t =-
4f
+ C (4.28)
By comparing Eq. 4.28 with Eq. 3.14 it is apparent that
for the same radius of curvature and the same shell thick-
ness the spherical shape is twice as strong as the cylindrical
shape.
Thus, for equal strength, the radius of curvature of a
sphere should be twice that of the cylinder. Therefore, it
is customary to make the radius of curvature of a dome roof
equal to twice the radius of the shell. The API Standard
12 C recommends this proportion and permits a 20 % varia-
tion in either direction, or
R=D (4.29)
or.
Rmin = 0.8D. (4.30)
or
Rmax = 1.2D (4:31)
 Example D~sign 4.2, Design of Roof and Structural Supports for a 122-Ft Tank 69
where R = radius of curvature of dome, feet but
D = radius of tank shell, feet
R=!...
ELASTIC STABILITY OF UMBRELLA RooFs. The specifica- 12
tions of an umbrella roof are also determined by the roof R
loads and the elastic stability of the roof under load; By
365~ = 304
t 12
following the same method of derivation as that used for
Eq. 4.6 for self-supported conical roofs, Eq. 4.32 can be or
derived for umbrella roofs as follows, starting with Eq. 2.25: R = 304t (4.34)

The constant in Eq. 4.34 differs from the constant in

Eq. 4.32 by V2. ,This is to be expected since the constant
in Eq. 4;28 differs from the constant in Eq. 3.14 by a factor
therefore of 2.0; moreover, t and r occur in the P critical equation to the
1.5 X 10 6t 2 = pr2 second power.
p == 32.65 lb per sq ft = .227 psia · (as for conical roofs) 4.4 EXAMPLE DESIGN 4.2, DESIGN OF ROOF AND
STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR A 122 FT., 0 IN.
1.5 X 106 t2 = r2
DIAMETER STORAGE TANK 48 FT, 0 IN. HIGH
0.227
SELECTION OF RooF PLATES. A tank of this diameter
V6.6Xl0 =r 6 requires column supports and rafters and girders. If the
t rafter lengths are to be limited to about 20-ft spans, two
· r 12R polygonal rings of girders plus one central column will be
2.58 X 1000 = t = -,- necessary. All roof plates will be cut from two standard
sizes of plates carried in stock: plate size A, 72 in. wide x
R = 215t (4.32) 25 ft, 374 in. long, and plate size B, 72 in. wide x 22 ft,
l½ in. long. All plates will be ¾ 6 in. thick (7.65 lb per
Equation 4.32 is recommended by API Standard 12 C for sq ft).
both umbrella roofs and dome roofs. When one applies · A study of various combinations of the above plates
the same factor of safety, 12, dome-shaped roofs have together with sketch-plate requirements indicates that an
greater elastic stability than umbrella roofs. This may be economical roof-plate layout will be like the one shown in
shown as follows. Fig. 4.12. Such a layout results in a small amount of scrap
ELASTIC STABILITY OF DOME RooFs. For elastic sta- in cutting out the sketch plates.
bility of a thin sphere under external pressure, (42) RAFTER AND GIRDER SPACING. A suitable rafter-spacing
layout based on the use of two polygonal groups of girders
2Et 2 is next determined. Girders of approximately 26-ft in
Pcritical =
r2
V 3(1 - µ. 2 )
(4.33)
length will be used because spans greater than 30 ft require
excessively heavy structural sections. Using a radius of
For steel, µ. = 0.3, and E = 30 X 10 6 psi; therefore 22 ft, 0 in. to circumscribe the inner polygon of girders
requires a polygon of five sides. To maintain symmetry a
2 X 30 X 10 6t2
p = ---;::==== decagon will be used for the outer polygon, as shown in
r 2 v3(1 - o.3 2) Fig. 4.13.
To determine the rafter spacing. Eq. 4.25 may be used.
r = V (36.3 X 10 6)/p The design load is 25 lb per sq ft live load plus 7.65 lb per
t sq ft dead load (¾ 6 , in. plate). The allowable design stress
Introducing an elastic-stability factor of safety of 12.0, for the roof plates will be taken as 18,000 lb per sq ft.
the same safety factor that was included in Eq. 2.25, used Therefore, by Eq. 4.25,
in derivations of cone- and umbrella-roof operations, we
obtain:
_ V2JhJ _ 3 / 2 X 18,000
l- t :J/p - 16 '\J (25 + 7.65)/144

74.6 in., maximum rafter spacing

Also, maximum rafter spacing 2,r ft = 75.4 in.

Assuming p 0.227, the same as for conical and umbrella The minimum number of rafters in the outer ring can be
roofs, we obtain: determined by dividing the circumference of the shell by
the maximum rafter spacing and equals (21rr /l) or
~ = 10 3 v3.o3;.221
t 2 X 3.14 X 61 X 12
nmin = -------
r 74.6
3650
= 61.5 rafters, minimum number
70 Design of Bottoms and Roofs for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels
122'-10" diameter
Cenler of roof

@ 1·,1· @

©' J0'-11½.

59'-7½" @ 12'-6%"
--- -
@ @

© @

41'·2%"

35'-6' 39'-

Bill of Moferiols
l)escnpfion Mork Make From
Pis. 12·110.2 11 x2s'-Jy4" A 30 Pis. 72"X /0.2 11 X25~3!4"
Pis. 72' X10.2 "X 22: 172" 8 . 36 Pis. 72"XI0.2"X22:l'/2·
72"X 102 111 X25~31/4'
l 4 Pis. 72' X10.2 "'X 12~ 7-r, • C 2 Pis
II, © © 4 Pis. 72" X10.2 "'X t/· 03/-,: /) 2 Pis
2Pls
72"Xl(l2 111 X22'-l'/z'
72"Xl02#X25'-3J-1"
12'-7%" ,I 4
4
Pis. 102 "X Sketch
Pis. 102" X Sketch
2
12 j
Cut 2 PLS. 12· x 10.2 f x 25'-31.f"

1· 10'-8""
·II'
13'-6%"
,I I• M~·
3'-1%'
11J>'· 4!i" I 1!•6•• 9¼: I
4
4
Ph. /02 "X Sl<elch
Pis. /02 " X Sketch
7
II t2 Pis 72"XI0.2" X25~3¼-"

I,. ® \ ® I 10 / 0 l®\®I
4
4
4
Pis. 102 • X Sketch
Pis. 102 "X Sketch
Pis 102 "'X Si.etch
/~ f
5
2 Pis 12·x1a2 • x2s•-3J1+•

2 Pis. 12·x 102 • X25'·3Y+"

13'-6%· ,II, ,I I~\·
I0'-8¼·

Cut 2 PlS. 72", 101 f • 2S'•3l("

l:6'-4%",II
. , 15'-I½"
8'-6~· ~6'-9¼"
:
Cut 2 PLS. 72' x 10.2 x 25'-31.('
4
4
Pis 102 " X Slcetch
Pis /02 # X Sketch
4
6 t 2 Pis 72"X/02 'X2S'·3i'-(

2'-71.f"
rl 1· ll'-2" •I
4
4
2
Pis 102 "X Slcetch
Pis 102 11 X Sketch
Pis. 102 ;; X Sketch
9
/0 f 2 Pis 72" X10.2 # X22'-Wz •

2 Pis 72'Xl0.2' X2S'·3Y+"

~r~!~®I I. n~,. .I
@ 2, Pis 102 " X Sketch IA J
I• ,I, •Ill=.;".
Cul 2
M\·
n;
l!'-2·
72" • I0.2f • 22'· l½" Cut 2 PLS. 72" x I0.2f x 22'-l½•
4
4 Pis !02 11 X Sketch
Pis. 102 11 X Sketch
3
13 t 2 Pis 72'XI0.2" X25'-3}'+•

2'-2Jf" Shipping Weights

12'-3¼" 7•.3• 8'-1½" \ 3'-8½·
I' 9'-8¼" 'Ii' I i--:-=-'"11' •l•'•IH 30"A'Pls. 46,410

I
36"/J"Pls. 48,744

I1. CD
10'-0- .I,
@
ll'-11¾"
I
,I
@
8'-1½" 1.t·
12A. Sketches
B"a'Skelches
18, 56+
10,832
15'-6½'-.
Cut 2 PLS. 72' • 10.2* • 22'·1½" Cut 2 PLS. 72", I0.2f x 22'-l½'

Fig. 4.12. ~ f plates for a 122-ft-diameter tank.

 Example Design 4.2, Design of Roof and Structural Supports for a 122-Ft Tank 71
As indicated in Fig. 4.13, a IO-sided polygon, or decagon,
will be used to support one end of these rafters. Therefore,
the minimum number of rafters required must be a multiple
of 10. Thus it may be seen that the minimum number of
rafters between the outer shell and the decagon of girders
is equal to 6.15 rafters per girder. An integral number of
7 rafters per decagon girder will be used, giving a total of
70 rafters.
To check the spacing of these rafters on the girders Eq.
4.26 may be used.

. 360
L = 2R Sln
2N

= (2)(39.75) s i n ~
(2)(10)
= 79 .5 sin 18°
= (79.5)(0.309) = 24.6 ft
Average rafter spacing = 24.6 ft/7 rafters = 3.51 ft Notes:
All holes u~, • q, unless otherwise noted
This spacing is less than the 5 H ft maximum allowable All caps to be welded to columns in shop
rafter spacing on the inner ring.
The minimum number of rafters required between the
decagon and the pentagon can be determined by using Bill of Materials
No. Description Mark MaklJ From
Eq. 4.27, or Girtltrs GI 5 ili IS'§ 3J.9# X 25~9'¼'
5
lu9S A to fine!. I 8or s•xl/1' UJ'-91/1•
24NR . 360 GZ
n = --sm 10 Gira'trs /011.J IS'ftl 33.9# X 24'·6frl.'
l 2N lugs (;fr,J. in&! I Bars• X'la" X#'-972"
10 Raffers- RI 10.t., a•fJtl.5 11 X 17'· 7¾,•
(24)(10)(39.75) Sill~ /0 R2 I0.!.l'IJll.5 11 1 /9'-6¾1"
(2) (10) 40 RJ 40.!. a•~ /f.S# X Zt'- 7 ¾,•
n = ----------.......--'- 70 R4 101.!, 8@11.$# 124'-7½"
74.6
I Column Cl
= 127.8 sin 18° ChannBI /u !2"@20.7" 154'·712"
Channel lu!O"@ 15.3 *X SJ'-11¾•
= (127.8)(0.309) 39.5 Clip It. ,rx 6' 1f1".ro~2tz"
Cap CIC IP!. J2"¢X3/4"
The actual number of rafters to be used must be a mul- s Columns C2
tiple of the number of sides in a pentagon and the number Channel 5i!Jl2'dl 20.7"%50'-IQ¾"
of sides in a decagon. Therefore, 40 rafters will be specified. Channt/ Slii 9"fP /1.4#,¥50'-3;1:/
The minimum number of rafters within the pentagon may Clip SD 6"%6"%'11"xo~2Y2"
Cap C2C SPls. 12'%20.4,,.Xl~S"
also be determined by use of Eq. 4.27, or /0 Columnr CJ
360 Channel /0-.J,12"/I 20.711%48'·7¾,'
(24)(5)(22.0) sin Channel tOih 9"@ tJ.4 11X,f,7'·11'½l
(2)(5) Clip !Ob 6"%6" ,f~g•.to'·2f2"
n
H.6 Cap CJC /0 Pis./2 111 20.4# ,r 1~2"
s Splices GIS SPts 4' x¾ "n~ofl1"
34.7 sin 36° 10 Splices G2S IOPls. 4" X3/8 "X /~03/4,,
16 Column /,qses CB
= (34.7)(0.588) = 20.4 Channel.r 1,'!Jw 8"@/lS" X 2'-6"
Gussets 32 Pis. 10•@10. 2 #' X l'·IO"
The actual number to be specified should be a multiple of
10 lvgs- LI 70t! 6"%4"X¾".ro~4•
five. This means that 20 rafters would be a most con- Bolf J.isf
venient number if its use can be justified. An examination 40 /?afters to cop ctJlJnlersink o/'/ X 2¼"
of Fig. 4)2 indicates that the maximum span between 6() Girders fr, columns 3/4•x2·
rafters is less than that determined by Eq. 4.27, which is 60 Girder Sf liees 3/4" X 2"
conservative. Therefore, 20 rafters will be specified. J4() Rafftrs lo girdtrs 1/._1 • X 11!-,"
SELECTION OF RAFTER S1zE. The rafter having the 140 Rafters !Dl111s 1/.f • X /¾"
64 Columnr to hoses 1/+· J. /J/2"
greatest span controls the size of the structural section 32 Columns to hoses 3/4" ,x /3/+"
required. The maximum rafter span is indicated as rafter
R4 in Fig. 4.13 and has a length of 22 ft, 9 9 16 in. The Fig. 4.13. Roof-support assembly for ct 122-ft-dictmeter lank.
spacing between the rafters at the shell periphery is approxi-
72 Design of Bottoms and Roofs for Flat-bottomed Cylindrical Vessels

¥7 n n
~- ~ 12· \112· \J12·
rr~12· rrr2·. r··r2• •J1tt
12·~ 12·v
1
r/ 2r/
1 1
4 12-v

7
2·

20'-3%· 22'•0• 23'•10\f,H 25'•101'* -"I ¾•

It"!%"

59/4,·t''
i.·-
11i1·
t<E----------------------- 25'-101'" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Inner-row girders
make 5, mark Gl

t
I . 12·21'v 12·3v·
2½·

2·

2•
i.·
---------------------24'•6~·---------------------
0uter-row girders
make 10, mark G2 . I \
\.;:P
11(
Une up hi
2~,• JI
11a· Inner-girder splices
with back of girder L make 5, mark GlS
10 PLS 5• x Jil•x 4• Required mark A 4•
l0PLS 5• x Jil•x 5%" Required mark ® t
10 PLS 5• x Jil'x 6Ji.,• Required mark ©
'l0PLS 5"x%"x71'" Required mark @
10 PLS 5" x %"x 8~• Required mark © /,/

~
) Girder lugs l0PLS 5"x ilt,"x8'lf,• Required mark Outer-girder splices

/ /I )
20 PLS 5• x %"x 4• Required mark // L
4•
make 10, mark G28

./
. 20 PlS 5* X %" X 4)s" Required mark ® // ' t
20 PLS 5• x %" x 5 'lf,• Required mark CD /
/

20 PLS 5• X %" X 5!1(" Required mark <D /

20 PLS 5• x %" x 5•~•• Required mark @'
l0PLS 5"x %"x 6~• Required mark ©
Fig. 4. 14. Girder details for a 122-ft-diameter tank.

mately 5½ ft, and the rafter spacing at the decagon end of
the R4 rafters is approximately 3½ ft.
The design of the rafter is based upon the roof load plus
the weight of the rafter: Since the rafter size and weight
is unknown, a preliminary design based on the roof load
only will be made and later will be checked with the weight
of the rafter selected.
For the preliminary calculation the rafter load will be
assumed to be uniform and will ~ taken as the load induced
by a roof plate having an average width of 4½ ft. The
live load is taken as 25 lh per sq ft, and the ¾ 6-in. roof-
plate weight is 7.65 lb per sq ft; this gives a total design
load of 32.65 lb per sq ft. This corresponds to a load of
0.227 psi.
Following the procedure presented in the section entitled
"Selection of Rafters and Girders," we find that the uni-
 Example Design 4.2, Design of R9of and Structural Supports for a 122·Ft Tank 73
forroly loaded beam with this thin type of end support has _(see item 1 of Appendix G) is a 15 x 3% in. channel weighing
a maximum bending moment as given by Eq. 4.8. 33.9 lb per ft and having a section modulus of 41.7 in. 3 •
Checking the girder by including the weight of the girder,
wl 2 we find:
Mmax =. -8
w = 57.6 + 33.9 = 60.4
w = 0.227 psi X (4.5 X 12) = 12.25 lb per in., roof load 12
l = 22.67 X 12 = 272 in.
Mma.x = (12.25)(272)2
Mma.x = (60- 4)(295)2. 656,000 in-lb
8
8

= 113,500 in-lb z = M = 656,000 = 36 .5 in. 3

f 18,000
M 113,500
z =- = 18,000
6.28 in. 3
f Therefore, the girder selected is satisfactory.
SELECTION OF COLUMN SIZE. A total of 16 columns will
Referring to item 1 of Appendix G, we find that the lightest be required: 10 for the decagon, 5 for the pentagon plus 1
American Standard channel section that can be specified supporting the apex of the cone as shown in Fig.- 4.13.
is an 8-in. x 2.H; in. 11.5-lb.per-ft beam having a section The roof area and its corresponding load increase per column
modulus of 8.1 in. 3• as the distance from the tank center increases as a result
The weight of rafters should be included in the rafter of the roof-support layout.
load. This added load amounts to: The total roof load supported by each column (C3 of
Figs. 4.13 and 4.15) of the decagon is equal to the load per
w = 11 ·5 lb per ft = 0.958 lb per in. decagon girder plus the weight of the girder itself or is
12 60.4 lb per lin in. of girder length from the previous girder-
design calculation. Therefore,
The total load is 12.25 + .96 or 13.21 lb per in.
Recalculating Mmax, we obtain: P = 60.4 X 295 = 17,800 lb
3 21 272 2
M max= (l · )( ) = 122 , 000 in-lb The minimum radius of gyration of the column section
8 is a function of the length of the column under considera-
tion. If the ratio of (l/r is not to exceed 180 and the length
z 6.78 in. 3 of the column is 48 ft, O½ 6 in. (576.5 in.) as shown in Fig.
4.15, then the minimum radius of gyration is:
Therefore, the rafter selected is satisfactory.
SELECTION OF GIRDER SIZE. Consider first the girders l = 180
(G2 of Figs. 4.13 and 4.14) of the decagon, which have a r
span of 24 ft, 6¾ in. The girders will be assumed to act
as a uniformly loaded beams carrying the rafter loads. r _l_ = 576.5 = 3.21 in.
Each of these girders supports one end of 11 rafters. The 180 180
maximum rafter loading is 13.21 lb per lin in. over an average
rafter span of (61 '- 22)/2 or 19.5 ft. Assuming that half Referring to item 9 of Appendix G under the heading,
of the total load carried on each rafter is supported by the "properties of sections consisting of two channels," one
girder, we can calculate the roof-plus-rafter load as follows: observes that the lightest channel combination which will
provide a radius of gyration of 3.21 in. or more about both
(13.21)(19.5)(12)(11) the x-x and y--y axis is the combination of a 9-in., 13.4-lh
R oof-p1us-ra f ter 1oad = - - - - - - - - channel and a 12-in., 20.7-lb channel. This combination
(295)(2)
has a value of 3.41 in. in relation to the x-x axis and a value
= 57.6 lb per lin in. of 3.62 in. in relation to the y-y axis. This combinatioµ
- wl 2 provides a cross-sectional area of 9.92 sq in. and has a
Mmax = weight of 34.1 lb per ft of combined section.
8
The allowable compressive stress for the column may be
(57.6)(295) 2 calculated by use of Eq. 4.21 as follows:
8
18,000 18,000
627,000 in-lb f (600) 2
I+ ,
z = M = 627,000 = 34.9 in.3 (18,000)(3.41) 2
f 18,000
= 18,000
__ ,_
., -.,
_ 66?0
- • psi
.
The lightest channel which will provide this section modulus
 ~ ~

I ~
t ~
C
(I)
Ill
- (0.
::s
1%'GA

..-----16'-ll'h"for RI ----------------------,--i
---------------/.---18'-11!-;.• tor R2-------.......,
-
0
tD
2.
0
Inner-row rafters Columns-
Make 1, mark Cl •·. I .I I • I . . 3
Make 10, mark Rl
Make 10, mark R2 Make 5, mark C2
Make 10, mark C3 -.l!'-
--
~
"':"?7
I
•
I ,...
:!'
I I \0
• ~
:t.

.l!'oM'-
·=
.. CA
0
;,.,c,,._II
in .,, .,.
IiI r-;""i'~
..-000
.,, in .,.
:,
o..
>( >( >( 11 >< >< >< "'
"'.,""
"'........ I 11 "'. . . """'
... ... o0
~ddl I lil~lil iil'
~
a• u @11.sf x21'-7¾.· 1§)1§)@1 .11 @)@)@ -
b~~I II NNN
i----- 17'-lll(•-----------+1
-------------18'-73'·-------
~ 8 I
cltl-al
11 =- ~
CJtl...:
~
'1'
I
----------------20'-11'¾.----------""'
19'-6J.(• : u_,:ul
,e~.2
1
1 "5158
u::'.5
tr
2.
Middle-row rafters • .e•.I
~~ii
2
'.\!,~,-
=--. o
3
Make 40, mark R3 ..,~ ... .., (,1\ t() (D

k-----~
ig~I i~
an ~
o..
n
2ls' 21'-4¾°••----------; I
I ~
I s-
__£_2'
i-1 I I I[ ~
1 - - - - - - - - 22'-2¼,---------------.,
t ff
f
V
.....- - - - - - - - - - - - 2 2 ' - 9 ! \ ' . · ~ - - - - - - - - - - - " ' 1
Outer-row rafters :'.. llllil LL L ~
iii
Make 70, mark R4
1%' 1:1.· I¼*
2!("ttt2½" 1%"

~'
2t·
17'· 11(·
ffl '",,* X 1%• slots
Shop-open
to ll:ii• pitch.7 •·
1%'

rt .
' ~•
12·
I

-~ M

·,.,
21s· 111s•..+,,-111s~,
2•-s·--
2•
21s·
6• X 4• Vii• L X

Rafter lugs
Make 70, mark Ll
•
0'-4
~
_,
"' 3~> 8'@11.5# X 2'-6"
2 PLS. IO"@I0.2f • l'-10"
-column bases
Make 16, mark CR

/
Outer-col. cap/' Inner-col. cap Center-cot cap
Make 10, mark C3C Make 5, mark C2C Make 1, mark CIC
~
"'
)_.: J

Fig. ,4.15. Rafter and column details for a 122-ft-diometer tonk.

 Example Design 4.2, Design of Roof and Structural Supports for a 122-Ft Tank 75
The actual induced stress is: it does not support girders. Its length is 54 ft, 0,-i in. or
648 in. Therefore,
p
J=-a r = -
l
= -648 =
.
3.61 m.
180 180
f = 17,800 + (50 X 34.1)
Consider a combination of a 10-in. and a 12-in. channel.
9.92 This combination has a radius of gyration of 3.83 in. in rela-
_- -
19,505 tion to the x-x axis and a radius of gyration of 3.52 in.
- - -_ 2270 psi. in relation to the y-y axis; therefore the average radius of
9.92
gyration is 3.68 in.
Therefore, the column combination is satisfactory, and In view of the low induced compressive stress on this
the radius of gyration is controlling. column and the average radius of gyration of 3.68 in. as
The size of the pentagon column supports (C2 of Figs. compared with the 3.61 in, required, its use in this applica-
4.13 and 4.15) can be readily determined because it is recog- tion can be justified.
nized that here also the radius of gyration is controlling. It is customary for many tank fabricators to use built-up
These columns have a length of 50 ft, 4 in., or 604 in., as structural sections for columns as is done in this example.
shown in Fig. 4.15. Therefore, However, it is apparent that an appreciable saving in column
material could be realized by using pipe in which the induced
l 604 • stress would be higher. For example, 10-in. schedule-IO
r = - = - = 3.36 Ill.
180 180 pipe having a radius of gyration of 3.74 in. and a cross-sec-
tional area of 5.49 sq in. would be satisfactory. This area
Thus the same column combination called for at the decagon compares with the area of 10.50 sq in. for the 10-in., 15.3-lb
supports will also be specified here. and 12-in., 20.7-lb channel combination for the center
The central column (Cl of Figs. 4.13 and 4.15) has a column. Thus a material saving of 48 % can be realized.
greater length because of the roof pitch and the fact that This gain may be partially offset by the greater cost of pipe.
;i,l

;: I.

PROBLEMS

1. Using the dimensions given in Fig. 4.16, determine the required section modulus, z,'for
rafters RA, RB, RC, and RD.
2. Using the dimensions given in Fig. 4.16, determine the required section modulus, z, for
girders GA, GB, and GC.
3. Using the dimensions given in Fig. 4.16, determine the required radius of gyration for
columns Cl, C2, C3, and C4.
4. Derive a relation comparable to Eq. 4.6 for use with aluminum roof plates.

fig. 4. 16. Rafter and girder layout for a 1SO-ft-diameter cone-roof

tank.
 C H A P ,T E R

PROPORTIONING AND HEAD SELECTION

FOR CYLINDRICAL VESSELS

WITH FORMED CLOSURES

the shell. These vessels had the fault of frequent leakage

around the rivet heads. Attempts to correct this difficulty
T h e real need for the use of formed closures on cylindri-
were made by means of fillet welding the plate edges and
cal vessels arose with the development of the power steam
seal welding the rivet heads. These vessels often were not
boiler early in the nineteenth century. As a result of the
. satisfactory unless the fillet welds were made so large that
frequ,ent occurrence of boiler explosions, the British House
the loads were carried by the fillet welds rather than by
of Commons in 1817 made the recommendation that the
heads of cylindrical boilers he hemispherical (12). Since :he rivets. When it was realized that the welds were carry-
then a wide variety of formed closures termed "heads" have mg the loads rather than the rivets, a large number of
vessels for low:.pressure service (walls less than 1 in. thick)
been developed, standardized, and extensively used in the
were fabricated entirely by oxyacetylene welding. The
fabrication of process pressure vessels. The development
limitations of the welding art at this time, in particular the
of the thermal cracking process in the petroleum industry
brittleness of the bare electrode welds, made the construc-
during the period from 1915 to 1930 resulted in the con-
tion of heavy-walled vessels impracticable. With the
struction of thousands of pressure vessels with formed heads
development of flux-coated electrodes ductile welds were
operating in the range of from 100 to 400 psi. The heads
possible. This development resulted in practical obsoles-
of these early vessels usually were of the torispherical-dish
cence of riveted-fabrication techniques for pressure-vessel
type with a small knuckle radius.
service.
The first formed heads were of a small size and were
hand-forged by "bumping out" a flat plate. One of the 5.1 b Use of Formed Heads. Cylindrical vessels with
formed heads are .used for a wide variety of applications in
~arly American steel producers, Lukens Steel Company,
which cylindrical tanks with flat bottoms cannot he used.
f' m 1885 formed a 5-ft-diameter dished head by digging a
These applications can he grouped into three classes: (1)
hole in the ground to the approximate radius of the dish
functional use, (2) pressure consideration, and (3} size
and bumping the heated plate into the depression by the use
limitations. ,
of mauls. Since then methods of- forming heads have been
highly developed by the use of dies and forging and spinning Processing equipment such as distillation columns
techniques. Figure 5.1 shows a photograph of the world's desorption units, packed towers, evaporators, crystallizers'.
largest flanging machine spinning a head with a 20 ft, 6 in. and heat exchangers are essentially cylindrical vessels hav-
diameter. ing formed heads plus other required functional parts.
If the working pressure of the process vessel is to be other
than atmospheric pressure, formed heads are usually used
5.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS to close the vessel.
5.1 a Development of Welded Construction. The early In general, all cylindrical vessels requiring a working
thermal-cracking plants of the petroleum industry used pressure in the vapor space of about 5 lb per sq in. gage or
pressure vessels in which the formed heads were riveted to more are fabricated with formed heads. Large-diameter
76

Fig. 5.1. World's largest flanging machine spinning a head 20 ft, 6 in. in outside diameter.
flat-bottomed, cone-roofed storage vessels are limited to a
working pressure in the vapor space of only a few ounces.
However, cylindrical vessels with flat bottoms and con-
siderably smaller diameters may operate under allowable
working pressure of several pounds per square inch if a
domed or umbrella roof is used. Equipment designed to
operate under less than atmospheric pressure will also
require the use of formed heads. Small horizontal storage
vessels supported off the ground are usually fabricated with
formed heads although flat ends of heavy plate are some-
times used.
5.1 c Vertical versus Horizontal Vessels. In general,
the functional requirements of the vessel determine whether
the vessel shall be vertical or horizontal. For example, dis-
tilling columns and packed towers, which utilize the force
of gravity for phase separation, require vertical installation.
Heat exchangers and storage ves:;ds may be either vertical
or horizontal. In the case of heat exchangers, the selection
is often controlled by the routing of the fluids and heat-
transfer considerations. In the case of storage vessels, the
installation location is important. If the vessel is to be
installed outdoors, the wind loads on vertical vessels may
impose the necessity of heavy foundations to prevent over-
turning. For I his reason, horizontal storage vessels are
Material Specifications n
(Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company.)
usually more economical. However, other important con-
siderations such as available floor space or ground area,
head room, and maintenance requirements may be deter-
mining factors.
5.2 . MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
Vessels with formed heads are most commonly fabricated
from low-carbon steel wherever corrosion and temperature
considerations will permit its use because of the low cost,
high strength, ease of fabrication, and general availability
of mild steel. Low- and high-alloy steels and nonferrous
metals are used for special services.
The steels commonly used fall into two general classifica-
tions: (1) the steels specified by the ASME code for unfired
pressure vessels (11), often referred to as "boiler-plate
steels," of flange or firebox quality; and (2) structural-
grade steels, some of which are permitted by the above
code in certain applications and which are widely used for
the construction of storage vessels under specifications
given in API Standard 12 C (2). The design of vessels in
accordance with the ASME code for unfired pressure
vessels is treated in Chapter 13, which includes a description
of the materials and specifications. The discussion in this
chapter will be restricted to those steels used in the fabrica-
•
 78 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures
tion of vessels with formed ends not requiring fabrication
in accordance with these codes.
5.2a Comparison of Specifications for Structural- and
Boiler-quality Steel Plates. Structural-quality steel rather
than boiler-plate-quality steel is used in the fabrication of
many vessels with formed heads because of economic con-
siderations and its availability. Both types of steel are
available in the "killed" and the "semikilled" or rimmed
quality. A "killed" steel is one completely deoxidized by
the addition of aluminum, silicon, or manganese at the time
of the casting of the ingot. The purpose of killing is to
minimize the interaction of carbon and oxygen and to
reduce the formation of blow holes. A completely killed
steel requires "hot capping," more time in the soaking pit,
and more time for the ingot heating. "Hot capping" is
the use of an insulated mold on top of the ingot mold to
hold a molten reservoir of metal for feeding the ingot as it
shrinks on solidifying. A partially killed or rimm:d steel
is a partially deoxidized steel. An ingot of rimmed steel
has a high-purity, low-carbon steel rim from which it obtains
its name. Fully killed structural steels have no advantages
over boiler-plate steel because of their high cost and limited
availability.
One of the major differences between boiler-plate steel
and structural-plate steel is the "quality" control dictated
by the number and severity of test requirements. As far
as chemical requirements are concerned, the principal differ-
ence expressed by ladle analysis . is the more restrictive-
limit placed on phosphorus and sulfur for boiler-plate steels.
The thickness tolerances are the same for boiler-plate
steels and structural steels when plates are ordered to a
given thickness. The physical tests are the same for both
steels except for the number of tests and the stipulated loca-
tion for test specimens. Structural-quality plate steels
require only two tension and two bend tests from each heat
of metal which may contain over 100 tons. Flange-quality
boiler-plate steel requires one tension and one bend test
from each plate rolled. Firebox-quality boiler-plate steel
requires two tension tests and one bend and one homo-
geneity test from each plate as rolled. There are also minor
differences in the methods permitted for repairing surface
defects in the slabs prior to rolling.
Boiler-plate steel such as SA-285 flange quality and fire..
box quality had mill quality extras of $0.40 and $0.50 per
1 100 lb respectively as of January 1956 (see Appendix C).
Other boiler-plate steels such as SA-212 and SA-201 had
mill quality extras offrom $1.20 to $1.55 per 100 lb, depend-
ing upon thickness and grade. Killed. steels had mill extras
of $0.65 per 100 lb.. The ~ of structural-grade steels
results in the minimum of quality-extra charges, and the
use of these steels is justified whenever permissible. In
selecting steels for pressure-vessel fabrication to satisfy code
requirements, Chapter 13 should be consulted.
5.2b Types of Structural-steel ·Plates. The most widely
available/types of plain-carbon structural-steel plates are
listed (67) in ASTM-A6-54T. Those most suitable for
vessel construction are A-7, A-113, A-131 and A-283.
Specification ASTM-A6-54T gives the general requirements
such as permissible variations in dimensions and weight,
methods of testing, correcting of defects, and rejection (67).
ASTM-A-7, A-283, Grade C, and A-283, Grade Dare the
most commonly used plain carbon steels in the construction
of storage vessels and are widely used for vessels with
formed heads, especially the steel designated as ASTl\1-
A-283, Grade C. Steel A-283-54 is of the structural quality
intended for general applications. It is available in four
grades, A, B, C, and D, having minimum tensile strengths
of 45,000, 50,000, 55,000 and 60,000 psi respectively, as
given in Table 5.1. This stee] is available" in thicknesses
up to and including 2 in., but its use in vessels designed to
code specification is limited to thicknesses up to , and
including ¾ in. Grades A and B are primarily used in
severe cold-forming applications where high ductility is of
prime importance and tensile strength is a minor considera-
tion. On the other hand, Grade D does not have sufficient
ductility for easy shell and head forming and is not as 'easily
welded as Grade C. As a result, Grade C is the most widely
used structural-quality plate steel for vessel construction.
The major portion of all oil-storage tanks, elevated tanks,
water standpipes, and o\her varieties of tanks of all descrip-
tions, involving both dishing and rolling, are constructed
of ASTM-A-283, Grade C.
Steel A-7 is intended for use in the construction of bridges
and buildings and for general structural purposes. It has
physical properties identical to A-283, Grade D. These
steels are the same whether made by the open-hearth or
electric-furnace processes. However, steel A-7 is also made
by the acid-Bessemer process, and steel made by this process
is not recommended for vessel construction. Steel A-7 is
available in all standard thicknesses, and its use is permitted
in vessels designed to present code specifications and having
shell thicknesses up to and including ¼ in., providing the
steel has properties equivalent to A-283, Grade D.
Steel ASTM-A-113-55 is a structural steel used for the
construction of locomotives and railroad cars except where
firebox boiler plate is required. It is made by either the
open-hearth or the electric-furnace process and is available
in nearly all standard thicknesses. This steel is made in
3 grades, A, B, and C. Steel A-113-55, Grade B has prop-
erties approximately midway between those of steels A-283-
54, Grades C and B, as shown in Table 5.1. Note that the
grade specifications for tensile _strength for the A-113·steels
run in the reverse order of the grade specifications for A-283
steels. There is no particular advantage to using this steel
in preference to A-283 steels except when it is more readily
available.· It may be used for vessels designed to present
code specifications with the same limitations as for A-283
grade steel.
Steel ASTM-A-131-55 is an improved structural steel
intended primarily for use in ship-construction. Formerly,
the specifications for this steel were essentially the same as
for A-7 and A-283, Grade D. To improve the quality of
ship-hull steels, the specification was changed in 1950 in
order to include an increase in quality specifications
with increasing thicknesses. This logical requirement of
increased quality with increased thickness warrants con-
sideration of this steel as a material of construction for
heavy-vessel fabrication. For this steel there is a limitation
on the maximum percentage of carbon and a range of from
0.60 % to 0.90 % manganese for all plates thicker than H in.
 Proportioning of Vessels with Formed Heads 79
Table 5.1. 1955 ASTM Steel Specifications (67)
Max Max% Max%
Tensile Min Yield Thickness Min% Min% Max% p s
Strength, Point, Available, Elong., in., Elong., in., C (ladle) (ladle)
Steel psi psi in. 8 in. 2 in. (ladle) (basic) (basic)
A-283-54
Grade A 45,000 to 55,000 24,000 2 27 30 no spec. 0.04 0.05
Grade B 50,000 to 60,000 27,000 2 25 28 no spec. 0.04 0.05
Grade C 55,000 to 60,000 30,000 2 23 27 no spec. 0.04 0.05
Grade D 60,000 to 72,000 33,000 2 21 24 no spec. 0.04 0.05
A-7-55T 60,000 to 72,000 33,000 15 21 24 no spec. 0.04 0.05
A-131-55*
Grade A 58,000 to 71,000 32,000 ½ and less 21 24 no spec. 0.04 0.05
Grade B 58,000 to 71,000 32,000 }~ to 1 (see Ref. 67) 0.23 0.04 0.05
Grade C 58,000 to 71,000 32,000 1 and over (see Ref. 67) 0.25 0.04 0.05
A-113-54
Grade A 60,000 to 72,000 33,000 21 24 no spec. 0.04, 0.05
Grade B 50,000 to 62,000 27,000 24 38 no spec. 0.04 0.05

-
Grade C 48,000 to 58,000 26,000 26 no spec. no spec. 0.04 0.05
* See text for limitations.

Also, for plates having a thickness of 1 in. or more, a require-
ment of 0.15% to 0.30% silicon is specified. In addition,
it is stipulated that this steel be manufactured to have an
inherent fine-grained structure. This steel is available in a
wide range of thicknesses and is of higher quality than A-7
but presently is not permitted in the construction of vessels
designed to meet unfired-pressure-vessel codes. The addi-
tional quality requirements for heavier plates of this steel
will increase its cost and may thereby eliminate any savings
from using it instead of boiler-plate steels.
Other structural-quality steels listed in ASTM designa-
tion A-6-54T are A-8, A-94, A-284, and A-242. Steel A-8
is a 3.0% to 4.0% nickel steel containing a maximum of
0.43 % carbon and having a tensile strength of from 90,000
to 115,000 psi. It is intended for use in main stress-carrying
structural members. The nickel addition results in finer,
stronger, and tougher pearlite than is found in plain carbon
steel and appreciably increases the yield point, fatigue limit,
and impact strength. The difficulties of welding this steel
plus the cost extras for nickel addition precludes its use for
vessel construction. Steel A-94 is a structural silicon steel
containing a maximum of 0.40 % carbon and a minimum
of 0.20 % silicon and having a tensile strength of from 80,000
to 95,000 psi and a mfnimum yield point of 45,000 psi.
This steel may be eliminated from consid~ration for vessel
construction on the basis of welding difficulties and the cost
extras for fully killed steel. Steel A-284 is a low- and
intermediate-strength carbon-silicon steel containing from
0.10 % to 0.30 % silicon and having tensile strengths of
from 50,000 to 60,000 psi depending upon the grade. The
steel is coarse-grained and requires heat treating for grain
refinement. The presence of the silicon tends to dissociate
carbides to form soft graphite thereby weakening the
welded joints. For these reasons and because this steel is
a fully killed steel and therefore involves cost extras, it is
not economical to use it for vessel construction.
Steel A-242 is a low-alloy structural steel intended pri-
marily for use as a stress-carrying material of structural
members when saving in weight and atmospheric-corrosion
resistance are important. Thicknesses are limited to not
under ¾ 6 in. and not over 2 in. It contains a maximum
of 1.25 % manganese and a maximum of 0.20 % carbon.
This steel has a yield point of 50,000 psi for thicknesses of
from ¾ 6 to.¾ in., 45,000 for thicknesses of ¾ to l½ in.
and 40,000 for thicknesses of 1 ½ to 2-in. in comparison to
a yield point of 30,000 psi for A-283, Grade C. For the
plates 1½-in. thick and less this represents an increase of
50 % or more in yield strength. Using the same design
factor of safety based on yield point results in a proportional
decrease in metal thickness required to resist a given load.
In designs in which stress rather than elastic stability or
brittle fracture is controlling, the use of this steel rather
than a plain carbon steel such as A-283, Grade C may result
in a saving. See Table 3.2 for specifications for this steel
and Chapter 3 for further discussion of its use.
5.3 PROPORTIONING OF VESSELS WITH FORMED
HEADS
In general, the cost of a vessel may be considered to be
proportional to the weight of the steel used in its construc-
tion. It would therefore appear that for storing a fluid
under uniform pressure a vessel having the minimum surface
area and thickness per unit volume would he the most eco-
nomical. A spherical vessel has the minimum surface area
per unit volume and the minimum shell thickness for a given
pressure and volume. If the cost of fabrication were not a
prime consideration, the most economical shape for a vessel
would therefore appear to be a sphere. However, the
fabrication costs of spherical vessels are so great that their
use is limited to special applications. Cylindrical vessels
are more easily fabricated, in the majority of cases are con-
siderably simpler to erect, are readily shipped, and are
therefore more widely used in the process industries.
For a simple cylindrical vessel with formed heads, the
optimum ratio of length to diameter, L/ D, is a function of
the cost per unit area of the shell and the formed heads.
More complex vessels such as distillation columns, heat
exchangers, and evaporators have additional parts such as
80 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures
Soh-ing for x 2 we obtain:
x2 = 4b 2 - 4y 2 = 4(b 2 - y 2)
Differential volume,

a----, Integrating we obtain:

----------D----------...i

Fig. 5.2. Dimensions for a 2: 1 ellipsoidal dished head.

trays in distillation columns and tube bundles in heat

exchangers which must also be considered in determining the
optimum proportions. The volume of an equivalent cylinder is:
The proportioning of a simple vessel may be based either
on the cost per pound of the material or the cost pe'°r unit V = 1ra 2H
area of the material. In Chapter 3 the proportioning of where H = length of cylinder
flat-bottomed, cylindrical, cone-roofed tanks was based
on the cost per unit area because land and foundation costs, Equating we obtain:
which are important for such vessels, can best be considered
on a unit-area basis. In addition, the cost of coned roofs
and fiat bottoms are relatively constant on a unit-area
basis for large-diameter tanks. However, cylindrical tanks a D
with formed ends for various pressure services have wide H= - = (5.2)
3 6
variations in thickness and therefore vary in cost per unit
area. The cost of land area and foundations is usually a Thus the volume of two ellipsoidal heads having a major-
minor consideration for such vessels. Therefore, it is more to-minor-axis ratio of 2.0 is:
advantageous to consider the cost of shell and heads in
(11'~2) (f) 2 = 11'~
3
terms of unit weight rather than in terms of unit area. Vh =
5.3a Equations for Optimum Proportions of Vessels
with Elljptical Dished Heads. Therefore, the total volume contained in the vessel is:
VoLUME RELATIONSHIPS. A cylindrical vessel closed at
both ends with elliptical dished heads has a volume equal
Vvessel = [(1rD2) 1rD3]
4 L + I2
to the volume of the cylindrical section plus twice the vol-
ume contained in one of the heads. The volume contaJned where !,, = length of the vessel, tangent line to tangent line,
in a head can be expressed in terms of a cylinder of equiva- between heads, feet.
lent volume having the same inside diameter as the cylin- Solving for L, we obtain: ·
drical section of the head. ·Figure 5.2 is a cross section of
an ellipsoidal head having a 2: 1 major-to-minor-axis ratio.
The equations for the volume relationships for a 2:1
ellipsoidal head (103) are as follows. CoST RELATIONSHIPS. The diameter of a circular plate
The equation of an ellipse is: required for forming an ellipsoidal head is approximately
22 % greater than the internal diameter of the finished ves-
sel (103). Also, the cost of the formed heads is approxi-
1 (5.1)
mately 50% greater than the cost of the steel from which
they are formed. This increase in cost results from cost
For a 2: 1 ellipsoidal dished head extras for circular plates and the cost of forming and
machining. Let
a= 2b
c8 = cost of fabricated shell,· dollars per pound
Substituting we obtain: 1.5 c8= cost of fabricated head, dollars per pound
x2 y2 t = thickness of head and shell, inches
1 p = density of steel, pounds per cubic foot
4b 2 + b2
The cost of the shell section of the fabricated vessel is:
Expanding we obtain:
CsP
( t) =
1rDL-
12
C8 {J11'D t(4V
- - D)
12 1rD2
-
3
 Selection of Optimum Plate Dimensions 81
and the cost of two elliptical dished heads is For vessels fabricated from plates from 2 in. to 6 in. in
thickness, the thickness extra will modify the cost per unit
2 X l.5c8 p [! (l.22D)
4
2
..!_]
12
weight. In this range of thickness the cost of the vessel
may he estimated as varying approximately inversely with
D¼ (103). Or
or the total cost of the vessel is: c,/'
C --

C = C8fYK - t [4V
- -
D
2
+ ¾(1.22D) 2 ]
8 - DH
12 1rD 3 Substituting into Eq. 5.3, we obtain:
2
= C p?r _!_ [1.275 V
8
12 D
- D
3
+ l.115D 2 ] C = c,"k [l.~!V + 0.782D 2• 75 ]

= C (YK ..!._ [1.275

8
12
V
D
+ 0.782D 2 ] Differentiating and equating to zero to obtain the mini-
mum, we find that
But according to Eq. 3.14, dC 1 1.275V 11
dD = - 'i" D5/4 + -r(0.782)Dl• 76 =0
t =pd= pD
2/ 24/ 8.60D 3 = 1.275 V
Substituting we obtain: D3 = 0.148V
Substituting for V, we obtain:
C = C p?r
8 pD [1.275 _!'.: + 0.782D2 ]
288/ D 3
D3 0.148 [ 1rt L + 1r~ ]
= c k[l.275 V + 0.782D 3]
8 (5.3)

where k = p,rp
D 0.116£ + 0.039D
288f 0.961
L = 0.ll 6 8.28D ;;;,; 8D (5.5)
PROPORTIONING. The cost of the shell is not a constant
hut is a function of the weight of the vessel, which in turn Or use L/ D = 8 for vessels with plate thickness of from 2 in.
is a function of the pressure and diameter. For vessels to 6 in.
having a shell plate thickness of up to 2 in., the cost of the DIAMETER AND LENGTH LIMITATIONS. The selection of
vessel may be estimated as varying approximately inversely the proportions of a vessel may be influenced by other fac-
with Dl/3 (103). Or tors such as the maximum diameter or length that can he
shipped by railroad flatcar. In general, the maximum
diameter that can be shipped on most railroad lines is
13 ft, 6 in. Larger diameters may be shipped by rail but
Substituting in Eq. 5.3, we obtain: require special routing of the shipment. lf water trans-
portation is available between the fabrication shop and the
275 erection site, large-diameter equipment may be shipped by
C Cs 'k [1. D¼ V + 0•782D%] barge or floated to the site. Two other alternatives are:
(1) shop forming and partial fabrication by welding in sec-
Holding V constant, differentiating, and equating to zero tions with final fabrication in the field or (2) field assembly
in order to obtain the minimum, we find that of plates cut and formed in the shop.
The length of a vessel is not as critical as the diameter with
dC = _1 1.275V + s(0:782)DH =0 respect to railroad shipping limitations because more than
dD '3" n;i '3" ·
one flatcar may be used. Figure 5.3 shows an oil-refinery
,6.25D 3 = 1.275 V fractionation column loaded on three flatcars, supported
on the two end flatcars with no load supported on the
D3 = 0.204V middle car. This permits the cars to negotiate a curve with
the vessel pivoting on the end cars.
Substituting for V we :find that
Other considerations such as the selection of plate widths
2 3 and plate lengths to minimize the number of welded joints
0.201 [1rD L + 1rD ] may influence the proportions of the vessel. (See the fol-
4 12
lowing section.)
D 0.160L + 0.053D
5.4 SELECTION OF OPTIMUM PLATE DIMENSIONS
0 947
L · D = 5.93D ""' 6D (5.4) PLATE WIDTH. The cylindrical shells of vessels with
0.160
formed heads may be fabricated by rolling and welding one
Or use L/D 6 for Yessels with plate thickness up to 2 in. or more plates together. A choice exists as to the plate
82 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures

Fig. 5.3. Oil-refinery fractionating tower ready for shipment on three fiat cars. (Courtesy of C. F. Broun & Co.)

widths and number of plates to be used. Usually a cir- 54 in. in diameter. The shells for these vessels might have
cumferential weld and sometimes a longitudinal weld may been ordered as follows:
be avoided by using a larger plate width. Plates having
widths in excess of 90 in. hear a cost extra which increases L Two-plate shells
with increasing width. The most economical design is often a. 48-in.-diameter vessels
one in which a wider plate is used, providing that a welded 20 plates 157H X 87 X l¾ in.
joint is thereby eliminated and the cost saved by eliminating 20 plates 157H X 85 X l¾ in.
such a joint exceeds the extra cost of wider plates. An b. 54-in.-diameter vessels
example of tile reduction in cost that may be realized by the 20 plates 176¾: X 91 X 1 1 % 6 in.
selection uf a plate size that will eliminate a welded joint 20 plates 176¾ X 93 X 1 1 % 6 in.
is given by W. G. Theisinger (104) in regard to a purchase 2. Single-plate shells
order involving 20 vessels 48 in. in diameter and 20 vessels a. 48-in.-diameter vessels
20 plates 171 X 157H X l¾ in.
b. 54-in.-diameter vessels
20 plates 183 X 176¾ X 1 1 % 6 in.

200 For two-plate shell construction the extra fabrication costs

were estimated to average $436.00 per shell or a total of
I
.5 1()0
' IJ1'
I/ $17,440.00 for the 40 vessels. With single-plate shell con-
struction the extra for the 40 wide plates at width extras
£ 80 .,,. ~ of $1.25 per 100 lb for the 1573,1-in.-wide plate and $1.50
J
t~ ±H ~
I/ per 100 lb for the 176¾-in.-wide plate and the overweight
allowance totaled $9,853.00; therefore, a net saving of

JI ffl
II 40 $7,587.00 was realized by the purchaser by using single-
a ,·
plate shell construction. In addition, the fabricating time
; 30 f
,J was reduced by 5800 man-hours, and this resulted in quicker
.c y
lr: 20 delivery. It should be pointed out that these figures are
.g l/ for prices existing in 1944 and are not representative of
I current prices. ·
a V
10 / When a vessel shell may be fabricated by one- or two-
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 piece construction, the selection may be made by simply
C,, = cost extra, dollars per 100 lb estimating the costs for each design and selecting the design
giving the lesser cost. However, for larger vessels in which
Fig. 5.4. Width extras for carbon-steel plates as of 1953. the shell· must be fabricated from many plates. the above
 Selection of Optimum Plate Dimensions 83

Table 5.2. Average Extra Fabrication Cost, Cw (104) 1rDC.,,. The total cost of all of the circumferential shell
Dollars per Foot as of 1944 welds for N number of plates (excluding the head welds)
(Based on 133 % Shop Burden) will be:
Gage, in.
H
Code Welded
3.75
4.50
Unclassified
2.50
3.00
(N -:-- l)1rDCw = (~ - 1) 1rDCw (5.7)
H
% 5.40 3.60 where l = length of shell, inches
~2 6.38 4.25 D = shell diameter, feet
% 6.98 4.65 The additional cost of using plates wider than 90 in. is
¾ 7.50 5.00 given by the equation:
½ 8.10 5.40
1 8.74 5.83 1rDllp) (Ce\ = ( 1rDlt490 )
( 144 100.z 144 X 100
[_!...]
145
(w _ 90) 1.23 53
( . )
9.30 6.20
9.83 6.55 The total extras for using plate widths wider than 90 in.
10.43 6.95 plus the costs for all the circumferential joints exclusive of
11.10 7.40 head joints is given by the sum of Eqs. 5. 7 and 5.8 as follows:

11. 78
12.60
7.85
8.40
C = 1rD [ (-£ - 1) Cw + 0.000235ll(w - 90) 1· 23] (5.9)
13.43 8.95
14.25 9.50 Differentiating the cost, C, with respect to plate width, w,
and equating to zero to obtain the minimum, we find that
2H 15.15 10.10
2H 16.13 10.75 dC = 1rD -C2w + 0.000235tl.23(w - 90) 0 -23 = 0
2% 17.25 11.50 dw w
2H 18.53 12.35 w2
- (w - 90)0.23 (5.10)
2% 19.50 13.00 3460
2¾ 20.55 13.70
21.53 14.35 Solving Eq. 5.10 for w gives the optimum width of plate
2Ji
3 22.80 15.20 to give minimum fabrication cost for the shell as a function
of joint fabrication cost, G,,,, and shell thickness, t. This
23.85 15.90 equation is plotted in Fig. 5.5 for convenience.
24.90 16.60 Since 1953 the width extra has been combined with the
25.88 17.25 thickness extra (see Appendix C). Therefore Fig. 5.5 is
27.00 18.00 useful only for first approximations.
PLATE THICKNESS. Plates having thicknesses of from
28.28 18.85 ~i in. to 1 in. are available from mills at base cost with no
29.10 19.40
30.15 20.10 thickness extras. To avoid extras for plates thicker than
31.35 20.90 1 in., a higher-strength steel often may be used to advan-
tage. This is of particular importance in connection with

)rocedure is not so simple since a number of designs may

)e possible. To determine the optimum number of plates, 40 ,....,--,..-,-~,--,_,.........~,.....,.......-.....--~,.....,.-,--,-.,.._......,......,
.he plate width resulting in the minimum cost for the fabri- .S 30 H-t--t--t-H-t--t--t-H-t--t--t-H-+++::,,.i,-g.4
:ated shell can be evaluated mathematically._
~
:::,
..
..
<I>
The width extras for plain-carbon-steel plates as of 1953 :g_ : 20 t--t-+-+-+-t-t-+-+-+-t-t-+-+::.t""'t-t-+-1-+-,1-+-l
tre shown in Fig. 5.4, in which the cost extra in dollars per e ..
i &
.00 lb is plotted against w - 90 where w is the plate width C
0
I:'.!
.,,
n inches. The equation of the line given in Fig. 5.4 is: ~ ~ 10 1-4-4--1--1--
1 :is la
,1! <I>
8 t-t--+--+-+-
C = (w - 90) 1• 23 (5.6) II~
(.) 6
" 145
JI~~ 5
,here Ge = dollars per 100 lb 4
w = plate width, inches
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
The cost of circumferential welding, G,,,, including the w = optimum plate width, inches
ost of preparation of the joint, is usually expressed in
erms of dollars per foot of weld and is given in Table 5.2. Fig. 5.5. Optimum plate widths for vessel-shell construction based on
~he fabrication cost per circumferential weld will be width extras as of 1953.
84 Proportioning and Head Selection ·for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures

Fig. 5.6. Forming dished heads by "drc,wing" In a press. Detail a, Toking circular blank plate from furnace for forming. Detail 1:u Forming of head 1½. 6 in.
thkk for a vessel 60 in. in inside diameter in c, 1000-ton press. ( Courtesy of C. F. Braun & Co.)

vessels designed to meet code requirements and is con- Although the cost of heads formed from flat plates
sidered in detail in Chapter 13. The 1957 practice in involves the additional cost of forming, the use of formed
steel pricing combined thickness extras with width extras heads as closures is usually more economical than the use
(see Appendix C). of flat plates as closures except for closures of small diam-
PLATE LENGTH. Plates having lengths between 8 and eter. This can be shown by comparing the thickness
50 ft are available from mills at no length extra. If pos- required for closures of flat plates with that of various types
sible, the plate lengths selected for a vessel should be of formed heads.
within these limits. Warehouses usually do not stock Figure 5.7 illustrates various types of the more common
plates longer than 40 ft, and this length is usually carried formed heads where
only in plate thicknesses of ¾ in. or less and plate widths
of 72 in. or less. The plates of heavier gage (up to and l = head thickness, inches
including 3 in.) and greater width are usually carried in
20-ft lengths at the warehouses. The maximum plate
icr = inside-corner radius, inches
length, thickness, and width that can be handled by the sf = straight flange, inches
shop fabricating the vessel may impose a limitation on the
size of plate that can he handled. r = radius of dish, inches
5.5 COMMON TYPES OF FORMED HEADS AND OD = outside diameter, inches
THEIR SELECTION b = depth of dish (inside), inches
Nearly all formed heads are fabricated from a single a = ID/2 = inside radius, inches
circular flat plate by spinning, as shown in Fig. 5.1, or by
"drawing" with dies in a press, as shown in Fig. 5.6. s = slope of cone, degrees
Detail a of Fig. 5.6 shows a single blank plate being removed OA = overall dimension, inches
from a furnace for forming to a head, and detail b shows the
plate in a press during the forming operation. H diameter of flat spot, inches

The inside depth of dish and overall dimension, OA, may
be determined by use of the dimensional relationships for
flanged and dished heads given in Fig. 5.8.
For purposes of welding heads to the shells of vessels,
various styles of machined edges can he supplied on the
formed head by the manufacturer. Standard machining
styles for heads supplied by one manufacturer are shown
in Fig. 5.9. It should be noted that in styles C6 and C7
the dimension t (the head thickness) must exceed dimension
s (the shell thickness) by at least ..fe in. and in styles D8,
D9 and D10 the dimension t must exceed dimensions by
¼ in. Table 5.3 gives the cost extras for the various
standard machining styles and applies to all types of formed
heads. Quantity differentials (1955) must be applied to
the cost extras given in Table 5.3 as follows for types A
and B only: list plus 90% for 1 to 4 heads, list plus 50% for
11 to 50 heads. All other styles, diameters, and gages are
list plus 90%.
5.5a Flanged-only Heads. The formed head most
economical to fabricate is that produced by simply forming
a flange with a radius on a flat plate. This head is identified
as a "flanged-only head" and is illustrated in detail a of
Common Types of Formed Heads and Their Selection 85
Fig. 5.7. The radius of a flanged-only head decreases
somewhat the abruptness in change of shape lit the junction
of the flat head and the cylinder. The resulting gradual
change in shape reduces local stresses.
The flanged-only head finds its widest application in
closing the ends of horizontal cylindrical storage vessels at
atmospheric pressure. · These vessels typically store fuel
oil, kerosene, and miscellaneous liquids having low vapor
pressures. Flanged-only heads may he u~ for the bottom
heads of vertical cylindrical vessels that rest on concrete
slabs and do not have diameters in excess of 20 ft. Table
5.4 gives the straight-flange length and inside-corner radius
for such heads as functions of head thickness. These heads
are fabricated on the basis of using the outside diameter
as the nominal diameter. Head diameters based on the
outside diameter are available in increments of 2 in. from
12 to 42 in., in increments of 6 in. from 42 to 144 in., and
in increments of 12 in. from 144 to 240 in. A head with a
246-in. outside diameter is also available.
During spinning of the heads, thinning out of the plate
occurs at the corner radius. Therefore, for heads having
an outside diameter of under 150 in., plate thicknesses must

Inside depth of
dish= !p t

. '

(a)
------=t
I. I J ID
(e)

Fig. SJ. Various types of more com-

mon formed heads, (al flanged· only,
(bl flanged and shallow dished, (cl '
flonged ond standard dished, (d)
ASME and API-ASME code flanged and
dished (torisphericall, (e) elliptical
dished (ellipsoidal), (f) hemispherical,
~/
'
--1
sf
(g) flanged and conicol dished
(toriconicall (1 OS). !Courtesy of Lukens
ID
,.17
Steel Co.)
(f)

OD
Inside depth of dish
sf

OA

1 + - - - - - - + - 0 0 - - - -.....
(d) l
J
86 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures
Table 5.3. Cost Extras for Standard Machining Styles for Heads (105)
(Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company)
Outside Diameter Gage
Style A 1,:11
,2 %" l" l7i 11
17'2 11 1%" 2" 2H" 3"
24" and under $2.00 $3.50 $4.00 $5.00 $5.50
36" $4.50 $5.00 $5.50 $7.50 $8.00 $9.00 $9.50
48" $5.50 $6.50 $7.00 $9.00 $9.50 $10.00 $10.50 $11.00 $12.00
60" $7.00 $8.50 $9.00 $11.50 $12.00 $12.50 $13.00 $14.,00 $15.00

72" $8.50 $9.50 $10.00 $13.00 $13.50 $14.00 $14.50 $15.50 $16.50
84" $10.00 $11.50 $12.00 $15.00 $15.50 $16.00 $16.50 $17.50 $19.00
96 11 $11.00 $12.50 $13.00 $17.00 $17.50 $18.00 $18.50 $19.50 $21.00
108" $12.00 $13.50 $15.00 $18.00 $19.00 $19.50 $20.00 $21.00 $22.50
120" $14.00 $15.00 $17.00 $20.00 $20.50 $21.00 $22.00 $23.50 $25.00
'.(•

13211 $18.00 $19.50 $20.50 $21.50 $22.00 $23.00 $23.50 $25.00 $26.50
144" $19.00 $20.50 $22.50 $23.00 $24.00 $24.50 $25.50 $28.00 $29.50
160" $21.00 $22.50 $24.,50 $25.00 $25.50 $27.00 $28.50 $31.00 $33.00
176" $28.00 $30.00 $32.00 $35.00 $37.00 $39.00 $41.00 $43.00 $46.00
192" $35.00 $37.00 $39.00 $45.00 $48.00 $51.00 $54.00 $56.00 · $60.00

Style B or C
2411 and under $2.50 $4.00 $4.50 $6.00 $6.50
36" $5.00 $6.00 $6.50 $8.50 $9.00 $10.00 $11.50
48" $6.50 $7.50 $8.00 $10.50 $11.00 $11.50 $12.50 $15.00 $17.00
60" $8.50 $10.00 $10.50 $13.50 $14.00 $15.00 $16.50 $20.50 $23.00
72" $9.50 $11.00 $11.50 $14.50 $15.00 $16.50 $18.00 $22.00 $25.50
84" $11.50 $12.50 $13.50 $17.50 $18.00 $19.50 $20.50 $25.50 $29.00
96" $12.50 $14.00 .$15.00 $19.00 $20.00 $21.50 $23.00 $28.00 $33.00
108" $13.50 $15.00 $17.00 $20.50 $21.50 $23.50 $25.50 $30.00 $37.00
120" $15.00 $17.00 $19.00 $22.50 $23.00 $25.00 $27.00 $33.00 $39.50
132" $20.00 $21.00 $23.00 $24.00 $24.50 $26.50 $28.50 $36.00 $42.00
144 11 $21.00 $22.50 $25.00 $25.50 $26.00 $29.00 $32.00 $39.00 $44.00
16011 $22.50 $24.50 $27.00 $28.00 $28.50 $32.00 $37 .00 $44.00 $50.00
176" $30.00 $32.00 $35.00 $38.00 $41.00 $45.00 $50.00 $57.00 $62.00
192" $39.00 $41.00 $43.00 $48.00 $53.00 $58.00 $63.00 $70.00 $75.00
Style D
24" and under $4.00 $5.00 $5.50 $7.00 $7.50
36" $6.50 $7.50 $8.00 $10.50 $11.00 $12.50 $15.00
48" $8.00 $9.50 $10.00 $13.00 $13.50 $14.00 $16.00 $19.00 $21.50
60" $10.50 $12.00 $13.00 $17.00 $17.50 $19.00 $21.00 $26.00 $29.50
72" $12.00 $13.00 $14.00 $18.00 $19.00 $21.00 $22.50 $29.50 $35.00
84" $13.50 $15.00 $16.00 $20.50 $21.50 $23.50 $25.50 $34.00 $38.00
96" $14.50 $17.00 $17 50 $22.50 $23.00 $25.50 $28.00 $37.00 $41.50
108" $15.50 $18.00 $19.00 $24.00 $24 .. 50 $27.00 $30.00 $40.00 $45.00
120" $17.00 $20.00 $21.00 $25.00 $26.00 $29.00 $32.00 $43.00 $49.00
132" $21.50 $25.00 $26.00 $27.00 $27.50 $31.00 $34.50 $46.50 $52.00
144" $22.50 $26.50 $27.50 $28.50 $29.00 $33.00 $37.00 $49.00 $55.50
160" /"' $24.00 $28.00 $29.00 $30.00 $31.00 $35.50 $40.00 $52.00 $61.00
176" $35.00 $40.00 $45.00 $47.00 $50.00 $55.00 $60.00 $68.00 $77.00
192" $46.00 $52.00 $61.00 $65.00 $70.00 $75.00 $80.00 $85.00 $93.00

be increased by ¾ a in. for plates up to 1 in. in thickness and
¼ in. for plates I to 2 in. in thickness if the minimum plate
thickness is to be maintained throughout the comers.
The manufacturer's catalog should be consulted for
greater thicknesses and diameters and for blank weight and
forming costs.
5.5b Flanged Standard Dished and Flanged Shallow
Dished Heads. The pressure rating of a flanged-only head
can be increased if the flat portion is dished. Such heads,
not designed to code specifications, are formed from a flat
. plate into a dished shape consisting of two radii: the" crown" ·
radius or radius of dish and the inside-corner radius, some-
 Common Types of Formed Heads and Their Selection 87
Table 5.4. Dimensions of Standard Flanged-only r<E---------1--0D------+1
Heads for All Diameters
(Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company)
b == depth
Gage Standard Straight Inside-corner of dish '

If . . . ._______
.i:
(Thickness) Flange (in.) Radius (in.)
t sf icr
+A
_ _.....__ _ _ _.........
½s l½-2 ¾6
l½-2½
hi:
½s
%
l½-3
Hi-3
¾
l½G
Hi
t=--=:_-a-10--+--+--Lt
r
Hs l½-3.>~ l½s
½ l½-3½ l½
% l½-3½ l½
¾ l½-3.>i 2.>i
Ja l½-4 2%
1 Hi-4 3
l.>a l½-4½ 3%
Hi l½-4½ 3¾ C
1% l½-4½ 4%
l½ l½-4½ 4½ Fig. 5.8. Dimemlonal relationshl~s for flanged and dished heads.
l¾ H~-4½ 5.>i ID
2 l,>~-4½ 6 a= -
2
b = r V(BC) 2 - (AB) 2
times referred to as the "knuckle" radius. If the radius of ID
AB= - lier)
dish is greater than the shell outside diameter, the head is 2
known as a" flanged and shallow dished head." If the radius BC =r- lier)
of dish is equal to or less than the outside diameter, the head AC = V~(B-C-c)2~--(A-B-ol2
is known as a "flanged and standard dished head." A OA. t + b + sf
flanged and shallow dished head is shown in Fig. 5.7, detail
b, and a flanged and standard dished head is shown in Fig.
5. 7, detail c. These heads are fabricated on the basis of
using the outside diameter as the nominal diameter. Head tion of vertical process vessels for low pressures, of hori-
diameters based on the outside diameter are avalable in zontal cylindrical storage tanks for volatile fluids such as
increments of 2 in. from 12 to 42 in., in increments of 6 in. naphtha, gasoline, and kerosene, and of large-diameter
from 42 to 144 in., and in increments of 12 in. from 144 to storage tanks in which the vapor pressure and hydrostatic
240 in. A 246-in.-outside-diameter head is also available. pressure is too great for the practical use of flanged-only
It should be emphasized that because of the high localized heads. Vessels with flanged and shallow dished heads are
stresses due to the small inside-corner radius, the use of primarily used for horizontal storage tanks.
flanged and shallow dished heads and· flanged and standard Table 5.5 gives the dimensions of flanged and shallow
dished heads is not permitted in vessels which must meet dished heads. Table 5.6 gives the dimensions of flanged
pressure-code requirements. and standard dished heads except for the radius of dish.
Typical applications of these heads occur in the construe- The radius of dish varies with thickness and diameter, and

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Style A Style B Style C Style D

Fig. 5.9. Standard machining styles for heads (105). (Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company.)

I
88 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures
Table 5.5. Dimensions of Flanged and Shallow economical to use an elliptical flanged and dished head.
Dished Heeds in Inches These heads are used principally for vessels designed t.o
(See Fig. 5.7.) meet the ASJ\'1E codes for unfired pressure vessels. In
(Courtesy of Buffalo Tank Company) general, these heads are used either for horizontal or ver-
OD 66 72 76 84, 90 96 102 tical vessels for a great variety,of process equipment within
the pressure ranges specified above. For pressures in the
,~
Gage

¾a
icr
>2
%
sf
3H
3½
r
120
120
r
120
120
r
120
120
r
120
120
r
197
197
r
197
197
r
197
197
range of 150 lb per sq in. gage and for higher pressures, a
cost comparison should be made between the code flanged
120 120 120 120 197 197 197 and dished heads and the code elliptical dished heads.
,% ¾ Hi
¼6 Js 6 120 120 120 120 197 197 197 The optimum choice based on total cost varies with pres-
;2 1 6 120 120 120 120 197 197 197 sure, diameter, thickness, and material of construction.
Table 5. 7 gives the inside-corner radius and radius of dish
OD 108 114 120 126 132 138 144 for code flanged and dished heads. Table 5.8 gives the
Gage icr sf r r r r r r r straight-flange length for different head thicknesses of
flanged and dished heads.
~i ,2 3½ 197 197 300 For purposes of cost estimation it is necessary to know'the
197
Js 3>2 197 197 300 300 300 300 , 300 blank weight in ortler to obtain the cost of the steel used
'16 and the cost of forming the head at the fabrication plant.
197 197
% ¾ 4>2 197 197 300 300 300 300 300 The approximate blank diameter may be determined by
197 197 use of the following relationships:
¼a ½ 6 197 197 300 300 300 300 300
197 197 . OD .
diameter= OD+ + 2sf + ftcr
½ 1 6 197 197 300 300 300 300 300 42
197 197 (for gages under 1 in.) (5.12)
¾ l>( 300 300 300 OD
diameter OD +
24 + 2sf + -jicr + t

the manufacturer's catalog should be consulted for this (for gages I in. and over) (5.13)
dimension, blank weight, and forming costs. where OD = outside diameter of dish, inches
5.5c Flanged and Dished Heads (Torispherical) to sf= straight-flange length, inches
ASME Code. The pressure rating of flanged and dished icr = inside--<lorner radius, inches
heads can be increased by decreasing the local stresses t = gage thickness, inches
which qccur in the inside corner of the head. This may be
accomplished by forming the head so that the inside-corner
radius is made at least equal to three times the metal Table 5.6. Dimensions'of Flanged and Standard
thickness; for code construction, the radius should in no Dished Heads
case be less than 6% of the inside diameter. Also, the (Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company)
radius of dish may be made equal to or less than the diam- Standard Straight .
Thickness Inside-corner
eter of the head. Figure 5.7, detail d shows a sketch of a (in.) Flange (in.) Radius (in.)
cross section of a flanged and dished head meeting the
t sf icr
ASME Code, in which is identified as a "torispherical''
head. These heads a1;,e fabricated on the basis of using the
outside diameter as the nominal diameter. Head diameters
,,
¾a

'16
l½-2
l½-2>i.
H2-3
¾6
¾
l7i5
based on the outside diameter are available in increments ¾ l½-3 l>s
of 2 in. from 12 to 42 in., in increments of 6 in. from 42 to ¼6 l½-3,2 1¾6
144 in., and in increments of 12 in. from 144 to 240 in. ½ H2-3½ I½
Heads having outside diameter of 210 in. and 246 in. are % Hi-3½ l½
also available. };i 1½-3,2 2,{
The volume in cubic feet of heads having for equal to ½ l½-4 2¾
6% of the outside diameter (not including the straight- 1 Hf-4 3
flange portion) is approximately equal to: 1% H2-4,2 3%
lH Hi-4½ 3¾
V = 0.000049<1. 3 (5.11) 1% l½-4½ 4%
H2 Hi-4½ 4½
where d, = inside diameter of vessel, inches 1% l½-4½ 4~i
V = volume of torispherical dished head to straight l¾ 1½-4>2 53,i
flange, cubic feet l½ l,2-4½ 5¾
2 l½-4½ 6
Heads of this type are used for pressure vessels in the 23,i l½-4,2 6¾
general range of from 15 to about 200 lb per sq in. gage. 2½ l½-4}2 7½
These heads may be used for higher pressures; however, 2¾ H2-4,i 8J{
for pressures over 200 lb per sq in. gage it may be more 3 l½-4½ 9
 Common Types of Formed Heads and Their Selection 89
Table 5.7. Dimensions of ASME Code Flanged and Dished Heads
(Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company)

OD 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

l tcr r tcr r icr r icr r icr r tcr r tcr r

½6 ¾ 12 ¼ 14 l 15 l½ 18 l¼ 20 l¾ ,1 l½ 24
¾
¾6 1½ 6
¾
-1•
½
191:6
14
14
1
1
i
J_
4
t
~ 4
t
20
18 +
t + •I •I
¾ l½
¾6 1½6--+ -
-fi2
_-t - -+
l½ 1\ l¾
1%6 •I 1%
21
20 I
½
¾
l½
l½
=i - -
-t-
-15
14 =t •
l½
l½
I
¾ 2¼ -+ 12
i + - + 2¾ I
-t I
l
I½
I¼
½ 2%
s-- J_
3%
3¾
-t-
../f2
-14
-+
-,
=i
-I
=t -=-t
-1
-=1
-1 -
- -,
-+ 2%
3
3%
3¾
I
I
-+ -• -=-1
-, 4½
I¾ 4¼
l½ 4½ 14 4½ 14 4½ 18 -=1 -I 4½ I
1% -I 4½ I
1¾
1½
2
2¼
2½
6¾
-, =1
18 6¾
-1
-t
20
5¾
5%
6
6¾
I
t
24

2¾
3

OD 26 28 30 32 34 36 38

Lcr r LCr r icr r icr r LCr r icr r icr r

½'6 1% 24 l¾ 26 I¼ 30 2 30 2½ 34 2¼ 36 2¾ 36
¾
1/i 6
i
I
t
I
•I !
I t t A
I
j
I
A
I t
I •I ...
I
~
I
+
I
%
½6 t t I I I I I I i I
I t I I I
½ 1% I¾ I t2 I 2½t 34
v I t I /
% l½ I I¼ l¼
I- I - -1-
30
¾
½
2¼
2% -=i
- - --"2
~. -1-
2¼ I 2¾
2% I
1
l½
3--
3%
t- .../

-t ~
-- -1
-~
+
_I
4 3
3%
I
I
I¾ 3¾ =i=. r 3¾
1%
l½
4½
4½ + I
-t ~ =-r
-i +
=1-
=i
- - -t
4½
4½
I
I
1% 4•½ I 4½
l¼ 5¼- +- -I - - -I - - -1 5¼ I
l½
2
5% I - - -1 -I I
5% I
6~
2¼ 6¾ =-r= -T- -I 6
6¾
I
2½ 7½ -'f -t -i -t -t i½ t
2¾ 8¾ 2,1 8¼ 24 8¼ 30 8¼ 30 8½ :10 8¼ :.16 8¼ 36
3

I
90 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures

Table 5.7. Dimensions of ASME Code Flanged and Dished Heads (Continued)

OD 40 42 48 54 60 66 72

l icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r

.¾s 2½ 40 2% 42 3 48 3¼ 54 3%' 60
¼
'II ,•I •II
40 ~
•t f A
I •I i 4 66 4% 72

•I
1/is
¾
½'s
I
+
I
I
I
48
42
I
I
t
54, I
I
y
i
I
I
'tI !
1.
I I
½ 40
I I I i I 48 I 60 66
t
%
¾
½
2½
2¾
36

•I +
2%
I
t
I
+ I
I
t
I
I y l
l
I I
I
54
~
I
I
I
60

+
I
I
I
I 't
. 72
6(,"

, ,- -,-
1 3 3 40 3 r / 3¼
l¼ 3% I 3% 42 3%___I 3%' _J__ 3%' I I +' I I
l¼ E--+- --- ,.._,
,__, ___ __ ,_ __
. . ---1-- --·- I
~3¾ 4 I + ·.· I'
-,- ----t-
3¾ -
1% 4½- ~---t- ,__ __ =-i= ~4½
I .. 4%
I
l½ 4½- ~I-- - - - --·- --/42"- - -
... - - ---/48'----- -c - - - -7- ---
-- --- =r_ ~¼
► 4½
I
1%
l¾
4¼- ~
5¼ - ~+- - - - --=---1-= --- - - =-1- ,___,_
►5¼ -+-- I
-,-
1---

~-r- --v- - -. r-
-=r- ----,- -- --+-
-t- - - - - - - - - - -
l¼
2
5% -
6-E-
---
__
__
,__
__
- - -/48"'- - - -T-
-5%
-6 '
I
I
2¼
2½
2¾
6¾- ~--t-- ,__
7½ ..
8¼
~+-
36 8¼
===.i- __ ,__
= 42+= 8¼-E--t-- ,_
-"54"- - - - -=r- - - -
--1-
-t- - -
--- - - - - ~~
- - -t--
►6¾
-1½
__8¼
-,- I
t
3 9 I 48 9 54 9 54 9 60 9 66

OD .. 78 84, 90 96 102 108 114

t icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r · icr r icr r

Ms
¼
¾°6 4¾ 78 5½ 84 5½ 90
5r
96 6¼ 96
¾
½6 t 78
78
l
I 'II +
I
90
84 I
96
90 • !
I
6½
+
102

•II
6¼
l
108

•I
½
%
¾
I
I
72
A
I
I
I I I •I I
I
•I I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I- I t I I I I I I
1
I½
I¼
½
I
I. I
I
I
I
84
78
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
t
90
t
96
90
t
I
I
102
96 ' I
I
I
I
1% t I I .

I
I
I I 84 I + I t
I½ t I I I I 108
4¾
I I t I
~+- __
1% 4¼ 5½ I t I I I I 102
I I
I¾
l½ 5% ◄
2 6 ....
5¼
,_
-,-
--·-
~
l .
...,. 5¼
__ --r~
----i- ---
5½

---
I
I
- - _=c ~6 ,__J__ 6½ I
I
5½
t
a-5%
6,½
I
I
I
t
I
I ' I I +
I
I
2¼ 6¾ ◄
~-,-----~-,-
2½ 1½-- e-J_- ,_ __ =+- --- --+-- --· - . . 4_ --·- -1- ,-
~6¾ 6¾ 6½
-.- -·-
e - - •
- --J- ►1½
2¾ _ _ ....
- - - -t- - - - ... --,- ~8¼
I

'
8¼-
3 9 72 9 78 9 84 9 84 9 90 9 96 9 102
 Common Types of Formed Heads and Their Selection 91

Table 5.7. Dimensions of ASME Code Flanged and Dished Heads (Continued)

OD 120 126 132 138 144 156 168

l icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r tcr r icr r

¾6
¼
¾6
% 1¼ 114 7% 120
~ 130 132 8¾ 132 9% 144
½a
½ •I +
I I •I •I 8
!
8%

•II ♦
t •I •II l
I
10¼ 144
A
%
¾ I
I t
I I
I
I
I
t
130 I
I I I
I •I I
'½
1 114 I 120
i I I I I I I
I I I I I
l¼
I
108
I t I I I I I
I I I I I
l¾
+ I
120
I I I l .I l I I
l¾ I 114 I I I I I I
l½ I I I I I I I I
1% I I + I I I I I I I I
I I I I I
l¾
I I I I I I I f I
I I
I I
l¼
I I I I 132 I I I I
2
2¼-
2½ '
1¾
7½
I
I
'
7%
I
I
I
t
8
l
I t
I
130
f +
I
t
I
I
t
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
2¾
3

OD
8¾"
9

180
'
108
8¾
9

192
+
114
8¾
9
204
t
120
8%
9

204
+
130
8¾
9
216
132 9%

228
t
144
' '
10¼
240
144

t icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r icr r

½a
¾
¾a
%
½6
½
% 11 170 11½ 170
¾
½ •I +
I
A
I tI 12¼ 170 12% 170 13 170
1
I I I
• + ~
tI i t 13¾ 180
l_¼
l¼
1%
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
•I
I
+
I
·I
14,¼ 6
~
I
180
+
I
l½ I I I I I I I
1% I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
l¾ I I I I I I I I I
I I I I t t
' '
l½ I I I
2 I I I I t t 13¾ 180 14.½a .180
2¾ I I I I I I t
I I I
t 13 170
2½ I t 170
'
12%·
2¾ t v t t 12¼ 170
3 11 170 11½ 170
Nole: Dimensions are constant between arrowheads.
92 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures

~ 250t-------t---+---i'-l--+--7"'"--t----t--t-.~-+---+-,,..,--,i-------v--------~----I
Fig. 5.10. Approximote 1955 cost of
~
0 forming per heod for ASME code
C
flonged ond dished heods if two to
four heads are purchased.

I
150 1---+---+-- 2~·-;--+---+::,,,,-,=c--+------:....-=---77"''---t,,,__--7f-7''---+-7"---7'f----+------t
II
t---+---+l¾"-2"fl--+--ir-7"~+------,,..,_--,'f--,,c--t-,,"-'-t-,C--rt---+-----t---1
I I
100 l---+--1%" -1¾"...---------+--r----+--,,C--,,f'~---,-....-+
I I I
1---+--1~·-l½"r-+-~"'9-----..-f-,<G--f-:,,,.cc.,:;>¥:,.,,c.....-t-----+--+---+---+------t
I I
l½i"-1~•

Note: Multiply costs by

factor given in table 5.10.
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Head, outside diameter, inches

The weight of material may be calculated from the blank
diameter, gage thickn~ss, and density of steel (490 lb per
cu ft). The cost of the steel may be obtained from Appen-
dix C. Table 5.9 gi'7e·s 1the cost of forming per head for
heads having an outside: diameter of up to 48 in. Figure
5.10 presents the cost of forming per head for larger-diam-
eter heads. Table 5.9 and Fig. 5.10 are based on 1955
forming costs and include the quantity differential that
applies when two to four heads are ·purchased. Table
5.10 gives the quantity-differential pricing factors for the
purchase of other quantities of heads.
If the straight flanges are machined for welding by the
fabricator, Table 5.3 with appropriate quantity differen-
tials may be used for estimating the machining cost extras.
If heads having straight flanges in excess of standard lengths
are desired, ·an extra equal to 5% of list price for each
additional ~~-in. flange length is charged.
To determine the total cost of the head at the mill, the
cost for the steel blank is first determined. To this is
added the forming cost, the machining cost, quantity dif-
ferentials, and any extras for ordering flanges longer than
standard.
5.5d Elliptical Dished Heads Meeting ASME and API-
ASME Code Specifications. The elliptical dished (ellip-
soidal) heads are used in preference to code flanged and
dished heads formed with two radii for many vessels
designed for pressures in the range of 100 psi and for most
vessels designed for pressures over 200 psi. The elliptical
dished heads are formed on dies in which the diametrical
cross section is an ellipse. If the ratio of major to minor
 Common Types of formed Heads and Their Selection 93
Table 5.8.. Typical Standard Straight Flange for ASME Table 5.9. Typical Forming Costs as of 1955 for ASME
Code Flanged and Dished Heads Code Flanged and Dished Heads Having Diameters up
Recommended to 48 Inches
Standard Max Prices per Head for 2-4 Heads•
Thick- Straight Straight Head, OD
ness, Flange, Flange, Notes on Max
Straight Flange Thickness 12-18 20-24 26-30 32-36 36-42 48
in. in. ID.
2 3" for 60" diam ¾6- ¼4 9.61 10.54 11.63 12.40 15.50 17.82
¾s H1-2¼4 ½6- % 10.23 10.85 12.40 13.95 17.05 20.15
M l½-2% 3 3" for 60" diam
3" for 96" + 10" diam ½6- ½ 11.16 12.40 13.95 16.28 19.38 23.25
716 B1-3 3½
% 12.40 13.18 15.50 17.05 21.70 24.80
% l½-3 4½ 3" for 126" diam
6 4" for 132" - 144" diam % 15.50 17.05 20.15 22.48 26.35 31.00
½s l½-3½ 1 23.40 30.23 33.15 37.05 42.90 48.75
3 ½" for 156" diam
Bi-3½ 6 5" for 168" diam 1~ -Hi 35.10 40.95 46.80 52.65 58.50 64.35
½ 1% -1½ 54.60 60.45 66.30 72.15 78.00 83.85
% H2-3½ 6 3" for 180" diam and above
1% -1% 87.75 92.63 97.50 102.38 107.25

1
%
r, l½-4
l½-4
l½-4
8
8
8
3" for 180" diam and above
3" for 180" diam and above
3" for 180" diam and above
l½ -2
2¼4
117 .00 117.00 121.88
136.50 136.50 146.25
126.75
154.05
132.60
161. 85
3" for 180" diam and above 2½ 165.75 177.45 189.15 200.85
Hs l½-4½ 8
210.60 220.35 239.85
8 3" for 180" diam and above 2% 230.10
Hi l½-4¼2
3 278.85
1% H2-4½ 8 3" for 180" diam and above
Hi l½-4½ 8 3" for 180" diam and above * Multiply by factors in Table 5.10.
1% l½-4¼2 8 3" for 180" diam and above
1% l½-4½ 8 3" for 180" diam and above
l½ Hi-4½ 8 3" for 180" diam and above
axis is 2: 1, the strength of the head is approximately equal
2 l½-4½ 8 3" for 180" diam and above
2}4 l½-4¼2 8 3" for 180" diam and above to the strength of a seamless cylindrical shell having the
2½ l½-4~2 8 3" for 180" diam and above corresponding inside and outside diameters. For this rea-
2% H2-4½ 8 3" for 180" diam and above son most manufacturers have standardized on elliptical
3 l½-4½ 8 3" for 180" diam and above dished heads having a 2: 1 ratio of axis. The inside depth

Fig. 5.11. Horizontal storage tanks with elliptical closures on the right and a hemispherical closure on a vessel in the left foreground. (Courtesy of C. F.
Broun & Co.)
94 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures
Typical Quantity-differential Pricing
Table 5.10. Table 5.11. Standard Straight Flanges for Available
Factors for Formed Heads ASME Code Elliptical Dished Heads
Based on 1954 and 1956 Prices and on Fig. 5.10 and Table 5.9 (Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company)
Heads up to Diameter Diameter
48" OD and Gage Available Standard Gage Available Standard
48" ID for (in.) (in.) sf (in.) (in.) (in.) sf (in.)
Gages over ¼ 12- 36 2-2:!,~ 2¼ 20-204 2%-4½
Heads up to ½", and ¾6 12- 42 2-3 2½ 26-192 3¾-4½
48" OD and Heads over % 12- 66 2-3 2¾ 26-180 4¼-4½
48" ID for 48" OD and ½6 12-120 2-3½ 3 34-174 4½
Gages up to 48" ID for ½ 12-120 2-3½ 3¾ 34-168 4½-5
½" Inclusive All Gages % 12-126 2-3½ 3½ 34-156 5¼-5½
Multiply by Multiply by ¾ 12-138 2-4 3¾ 34-138 5%-6
Quantity 1954 1956 1954 1956 ½ 12-156 2-4 4 48-132 6
1 head of a size 1.32 2.20 1.05 2.20 1 12-180. 2-4 4¼ 54-126 6%-6½
2 to 4 heads of a size 1.00 1.65 1.00 2.10 l¼ 12-192 2-4½ 4½ 54-120 '6¾-1
5 to 10 heads of a size 0.92 1.50 0.897 1.85 l¾ 12-204 2-4½ 4¾ 60-120 1¼-1½
11 to 20 heads of a size 0.775 1.30 0.795 /1 65 1% 12-216 2¾6-4½ 5 60-114 1½
21 to 50 heads of a size 0.71 1.20 0.720 1.50 l½ 12-216 2¾-4½ 5¾ 72- 96 7½-8
51 to 60 heads of a size 0.645 1.05 0.615 1.30 1% 12-216 2½6-4½ 5½ 72- 96 8¾-8½
Over 60 heads of a size 0.58 0.95 0.565 1.20 l¾ 12-216 2%-4½ 5¾ 72- 96 8%-9
l½ 12-216 21 ¾e-4½ 6 72- 96 9
2 12-216 3-4½
of dish is half of the minor axis and is equal to one fourth
of the inside diameter of the head.
The right side of Fig. 5.11 shows elliptical heads 1 ¾ 6 in.
thick on the ends of butane-storage tanks 144 in. in diam- Head diameters based on the inside diameter are available
eter by 120 ft long. These tanks are rated at 100 lb per in increments of 2 in. from 12 to 42 in. and in increments
sq in. gage at 400° F. of 6 in. from 42 to 216 in. Table 5.11 gives the standard
Figure 5. 7, detail e, shows a sketch of a cross section of an straight flanges for various elliptical dished heads. The
elliptical dished head. These heads are fabricated on the manufacturer's catalog should be consulted for the maxi-
basis of using the inside diameter as the nominal diameter. mum straight flange available at extra cost. The volume

Blank diameter, inches

20 30 40 50 60 70 80

,, liis-
60 2'
A ~ 3•2%* 160

50 ~ ~V ~ 150

' ~~
V
~
r9'
m
.c
~E
:~~ WV 140

i 40
A
130 :ll Fig. 5.12. Blank diameter versus
E
.!l!
\~A ~, ~ A ~ 120 .5
.c
0 head inside diameter for various

~~
thicknesses of ASME elliptical
I~ ~
"0 .:
Cl)

~ 30
w 110 e
};!
heads.
.5
,g ~ -~ ~ 100
IQ

~
~
'1/
Jf~ V
Cl)
:c / ~
90 .5
20
/.~

w ..
V
/2 w 80 :c
l
10 ~~ 70
1l4 1W'
60
2½~~,,
3
50
oo ro 8090~1wm~~1so1601ro100~~
Blank diameter, inches
 Common Types of Formed Heads and Their Selection 95
800.----,---"T"""--,-----r-----r--.--.---.---.-----.----.-----r---,,----,

7001---+---+---+------l--+---+---+------lf--+---+---+--i--+-.!-~

fig. 5.13. Approximate 1955

cost of forming per head for
ASME code elliptical heads if
two to four heads are pur-
chased.

1:ri.· -2·
100 - - - - 1 % · -1%"1""::::.,_+:..,.-,,,:;.~,s;.-q.,-,,,::.:-.,,..f'.$;-=--+--+--+--1f--+---+-----I
l½'-1%"
l¾i'-1¼"
1 - - - + - - - - - 1•..:..._---l!:~::::_
Note: Multiply costs by
factors in table 5.10.
0 _ __,__ __,__ __._ _..___....___....1-_.....1
Ol._0__2.._0__3.. _0_ __,__ __,..___60..___...,___ _.8....
40 50 70 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Head, inside diameter, inches

in cubic feet contained within the head, not including the Table 5.12. Typical Forming Costs as of 1955 for
straight-flange portion, is approximately equal to: ASME Code Elliptical Heads Having Diameters
V = 0.000076 di 3 (5.14) up to 48 Inches

where di = inside diameter of vessel, inches Prices per Head for 2-4 Head Lots*
V = volume of elliptical dished head to straight Thickness 12-18 20-24 26-30 32-36 38-42 48
flange, cubic feet
¼ 12 40 13.95 17.83 20.15
For cost-estimating purposes the procedure presented in %- ¾11 13.95 14.73 18.60 22.48 26.35 31.00
the previous section for code flanged and dished heads is Jill-.% 13.95 17 . 05 . 20 . 93 24.80 29.45 34.10
followed; Fig. 5.12 is used for the blank diameter and Table % 15.50 19.38 23.25 27.90 33.33 38.75
5.12 and Fig. 5.13 are used for the cost of forming per head ½ 20.15 24.80 31.00 35.65 41.85 48.05
1 30.23 35.10 44.85 50.70 58.50 66.30
for two to four heads. Table 5.10 may be used £or deter-
l¼-1¼ 37.05 46.80 52.65 58.50 66.30 75.08
mining other quantity diflerentials. 88.73
l½-1% 46.80 50.70 60.45 70.20 79.95
5.5e Hemispherical Heads. For a given thickness, 1%-1¾ 66.30 70.20 79.95 91.65 101.40 109.20
hemispherical heads are the strongest of the formed heads. l½-2 85.80 91.65 101.40 111.15 120.90 132.60
These heads can be used to resist approximately twice the 2~i 115. 05 124.80 138.45 148.20 159.90
pressure rating of an elliptical dished head or cylindrical 2~i 150.15 173.55 183.30 195.00
shell of the same thickness and diameter.· The degree of 2¾ 189 .15 212.55 22-1.25 235.95
forming and accompanying costs are greater than for any 3 247.65 259.35 271.05
of the heads previously described; also, the available sizes * :Multiply by factors in Table 5.10.
96 Proportioning and Head Selection for Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures
the rolls on one end according to the angle of -the cone.
The smaller opening of the conical section mlist be large
enough to accommodate the diameter of the bending roll,
which usually is 4, 8, 10, or more inches in diameter. The
greater the apex angle of the cone, the larger the smaller
opening must be in order to accommodate the roll.
Toriconical heads differ from simple conical heads in that
they have a radius at the flanged end, as illustrated in
detail g of Fig. 5.7. Toriconical heads may be formed from
flat plates in the same manner as flanged and dished heads.
They are more expensive than simple conical heads but
are better suited for pressure-vessel applications because the
localized stresses near the junction of the cone and the
shell are more uniformly distributed in the toriconical sec-
tion. Thus the concentrated localized stresses which would
exist without the knuckle radius are greatly reduced.
Spun toriconical heads are available from manufacturers
in a variety of sizes ranging from 30 to 198 in. outside
diameter (or inside diameter) in 6-in. increments for included
angles of 90° and 120°, and in gages from % in. through
2 in. Included angles of 114° can also be obtained in
diameters of from 42 to 216 in. and, included angles of
140° in diameters of from 66 to 240 in. Diameters of
240 in. are available in each of the above angles. Pressed
segmental cones having included angles of 60°, 75°, and
90° are also available in a variety of sizes.
5.5g Some Other Types of Formed Heads. Three types
of formed heads not previously described are shown in
Fig. 5.15. The flanged and reverse dished head shown

Fig. 5.14. Ranged hemispherical head 168 in. in inside diameter with Table 5.13. Dimensions of Available One-piece Spun
3-in. straight flange weighing 16,500 lb and constructed from seven Hemispherical Heads
formed sections. (Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company.) (Courtesy of Lukens Steel Company)
ID (in.) Thickness sf (in.)
Lightest to Heaviest
formed from single plates are more limited. One-piece 12 % l¼ 0-2
spun hemispherical heads available from one fabricator are 12¾a % l¼ 0-2
given in Table 5.13. A great vapety of hemispherical- 14½ % l¼ 0-2
head diameters and gages are available in segmental form 15½ % l¼ 0-2
and can be field or shop welded. Figure 5.14 shows a 16 1 ¾6 % l¼ 0-2
hemispherical head of a 168-in. inside diameter fabricated 17% % l¼ 0-2
from six plates dished to shape over an 84-in. radius former 18½ % l¼ 0-2
and then welded together with a dished head at the end to 23 % l¼ 0-2
24 % j l½ 0-2½
complete the hemisphere.
.26¾ % I½ 0-2,!,i
5.5f Conical and Torkonical Heads. Conical heads are I½ 0-2½
28% %
widely used as bottom heads for a variety of process equip- 30 % 2 0-2½
ment such as evaporators, spray driers, crystallizers, and 34 % 2½ 0-2½
settling tanks. The particular advantage of the use of 35 % 3 0-3
conical bottoms lies in the accumulation and removal of 36 % 3 0-3
solids from such equipment. Cones having an angle at 38 % 3 0-3
the apex of 60° are commonly used for the removal of 41¾ % 3 0-3
solids. Greater angles may cause accumulation of solids 42 % 3 0-3
as a result of the frictional resistance between the solids 47¾ % 3 0-3
48 % 3 0-3
and the inside cone surface. Another common application 0-3
50½ % 3
of conical sections is for changing the diameter of cylindrical
shells; this is often necessary in some fractionating-column
designs. Figure 5.3 illustrates such an application.
54
60
64¾
%
%
%
i~
3½
0-3
0-3½
0-3½
Conical sections can be formed on the rolling equipment 72 % 3½ 0-3½
used to roll cylindrical shells. This is done by spreading 94 % 3½ 0-3½
 Common Types of formed Heads and Their Selection 97
in detail a of Fig. 5.15 is often used on the ends of vessels equal to the inside diameter. Gages are available from
intended to tace against a plane surface such as the bottom ¾ 6 in. throug:h 2 in.
of steel vessels resting on concrete slabs. In this respect
this type of head has the advantage of a hearing surface in
one plane and also· the additional strength resulting from
dishing. The radius of dish, R, is equal to the outside
diameter of the vessel, and the heads are available in 2-in.
increments from 18 through 24 in. outside diameter and in
6-in. inccements from 24 through 132 in. outside diameter.
A head 144 in. in diameter also is available. The gages
vary from ½ 6 in. t1fough 1 in.
Dished-only heads such as shown in detail b of Fig.
5.15 can he used as the center piece of built-up hemi-
spherical heads of large sizes and may also be used in specially
designed equipment where flanges are undesirable. Such
heads are available in a large number of sizes, from 12
through 24 in. in increments of 2 in. on the outside diam-
eter, from 24 through 144 in. in increments of 6 in., and
from 144 through 180 in. in increments of 12 in. Gages
range from ½ 6 through 3 in.
Flared and dished heads, shown in detail c of Fig. 5.15,
may be used for cover plates of kettles and hoppers and
in $pecially designed equipment. Such heads are available
in sizes from 18 through 132 in. inside diameter in incre- Fig. S.1 S. · Some other types of formed heads: (al flanged and reverse
ments of 6 in. The corresponding outside diameter is equal dished, (bl dished only, (cl flared and dished (1 OSI, (Courtesy of Lukens
to the inside diameter plus 6 in. The radius of dish is st-1 Co.I

PROBLEMS

1. A horizontal vessel 10 ft in diameter and 60 ft long is to he fabricated from ASTM-A-283,

Grade C plate ½ in. thick by code welding. Determine the optimum number of plates for the
shell and the plate width. (See Appendix C, item 4, section g.)
2. Heads for six vessels approximately 48 in. in diameter for 190 psi, service are required.
Determine the cost of 12 elliptical dished heads 48 in. in inside diameter and ¾ in. thick, and
compare it with the cost of 12 torispherical heads 48 in. in outside diameter and ½ in. thick.
(Both heads are suitable for 190 psi service.) Steel is to be ASTM-A-285, Grade C, and heads
are to be shipped with standard straight flanges.

STRESS CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION
OF FLAT-PLATE AND CONICAL CLOSURES
FOR CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
~
n the fabrication of process equipment flat plates or cones
may he used as closures for cylindrical vessels because such
closures are easily formed with conventiona.l shop equip-
ment, hut their use usually is limited to lo\v-pressure service
or to closures for small-diameter vessels. Flat plates are
often used as closures for hand holes, manholes, and
so on.
The sharp discontinuity in shape existing al the junction
of a cylindrical vessel and either a flat plate or a conical
closure results in localized stress concentrations at the
junction. In low-pressure service, where the magnitude
of these stresses is low, they often may be disregarded.
However, for adequate evaluation of a design, a knowledge
of the magnitude of these stresses is essential.
The nature of the stress concentrations is complex in that
bending moments, shear, and stress reversals must be con-
sidered in addition to the membrane stresses resulting from
internal pressure.
The use of a flat plate as a closure often results in the
plate's being considerably thicker than the cylinder to
which it is attached. The difference between the flexi-
bility of the flat plate and of the cylinder results in the two
parts of the vessel attempting to deform radially and angu-
larly at different rates under the influence of internal
pressure. This movement is prevented by the rigid junc-
ture of the two elements and results in shear and flexural
stresses which may be quite severe. Similar but less
severe localized stresses result when conical heads are used
as closures. In addition to the juncture stresses, bending
stresses in the central portion of the flat closure may also
be critical.
98
C H A P. T· E R
6.1 RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON THE THEORY OF
ELASTICITY
6.1 a Stress-Strain Relationships. By definition the
modulus of elasticity, E, is the slope of ~he straight line or
elastic portion of the "stress-strain" diagram (see Fig. 2.1)
or by Eq. 2.3:
(2.3)
where J = stress, pounds per square inch
E = unit strain, inches per inch
E = modulus of elasticity, pounds per square inch
Therefore, if the elastic limit is not exceeded, elastic
deformation occurs under induced stresses. The amount
of deformation or "strain" is simply related to the induced
stress by ,the above relation. Thus
(6.1)
When a specified segment of metal is lg;ded in one direc-
tion only, with resulting induced stress and corresponding
strain, strain is also induced in a direction or directions at
right angles to the induced stress. For example, a tensile-
test specimen elongates under tensile load and reduces its
diameter by lateral contraction.
Experiments have proved that such axial elongation is
related to the corresponding lateral contraction. The ratio
of these two deformations is a constant within the elastic
limit and is known as Poisson's ratio. This ratio may be
 Relationships Based on the Theory of Elasticity 99
expressed as follows: And the corresponding net unit elongation, Et,2, in the y
direction will be:
(6.2)
(6.5)
where Ee = unit lateral contraction or
Ee = unit axial elongation (6.5a)
µ = Poisson's ratio, a constant depending upon the
material (0.3 for structural steel) Equation 6.4 can be combined with Eq. 6.5 to give a pair
of useful equations in which the stresses J" and JII are func-
This relationshipj!Pay also be used to calculate the lateral
tions of the strains Ez2 and Noting that J11
E112 as follows.
expansion resulting, from axial compression of a material. E
In the case of a closed cylindrical vessel containing a in Eq. 6.4 may be substituted for by its equivalent from
pressure, the shell may he considered to be subjected to
three forces. One force results from the pressure pushing Eq. 6.5, we find that from Eq. 6.5 bt.E E11 2 + µ!.!..
E
against !he heads. This load on the heads is transmitted
to the shell in an axial direction and therefore results in a Substituting in Eq. 6.4, we obtain:
longitudinal tensile force and tensile stress being set up in
the shell. A circular or "hoop" stress is also induced in
the shell by the contained pressure acting against the cir-
Ed = i µ. [ Ey2 + µ. ~]
cular shell. A third stress exists in the radial direction, Expanding we obtain:
which may be disregarded in thin-walled vessels. The two
principal tensile stresses act at right angles to each other
producing a two-dimensional stress condition. or
The resulting elongation in one of these directions will
Ex2E = fx - P.E112E - µ.2Jx
depend not only upon the tensile stress in this direction
but also upon the stress in the perpendicular direction. Factoring we obtain:
If one refers to one direction as x and the other as y, the
unit elongation by Eq. 6.1 in the x axis direction due to the Ex2E = Jx(l - µ. 2) - P,Ey2E

tensile stress, f:,,, will be: Solving for fx, we obtain:

_ Ex2E + µ.E 112E
E
X
= fx
-E (6.la) JX - 1 - µ. 2
or
J _ (Ex2 + P.E112)E (6.6)
The tensile stress in the y direction, J11 , will produce an : ,; - 1 - µ.2
elongation, E11, in they direction and a lateral contraction,
Ee, in the x direction, as indicated previously. In like manner it may be shown that
J _ (E 11 2 + P.Ex2)E
II - 1 - µ.2 (6.7)
(6.lb)
Equations 6.6 and 6.7 are convenient relationships giving
The accompanying contraction, Ee, in the x direction will the stresses in two directions perpendicular to each other
equal µE 11 (because Ee is equal to the e11 resulting from J11 ) or in terms of the respective strains resulting from the
stresses, Poisson's ratio, and the modulus of elasticity of
(for J11) the material in question. It is assumed that the material
is homogeneous and the deformations are all within the
Ee JJEy (from Eq. 6.2) . elastic limit.
Therefore 6.1 b General Bending Relationships. It has previ-
(6.3) ously been shown by Fig. 2.3 and by Eq. 2.6 that the unit
elongation in a deflected beam is equal to: ·

If both stresses Jx and JII are acting simultaneously, the y

Ex= - (2.6)
net unit elongation, Ex2, in the x direction will be (the sub- r
script 2 refers to the net stress or strain for the biaxial
Substituting for 1/r as given by Eq. 2.13, we obtain:
loading condition) :
d2y
fx f11 Ex=Y- (6.8) ""
E;r;2 =- - µ.- (6.4) dx2
E E
or An elemental strip of a plate under deflection can be
(6.4a) compared to a simple beam, and Eq. 6.8 can be used to
100 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
express the unit strain in terms of the radius of curvature stitution of D for EI, or
of the deflected plate. In reference to Fig. 2.3, the unit
strain of an elemental strip in the z direction is assumed to shear Q · (6.17)
be negligible. Rewriting Eqs. 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6 for the
element shown in Fig. 2.3, we obtain: and
d4y
fz fz load w D-
dx4
(6.18)
f,:2 =- - µ- (6.9)
E E
6. lc Bending Relationships in a Circular Flat Plate.
0 (6.10) Referring to Fig. 2.3 and considering it to represent a strip
in a circular plate, we find that the dishing of a circular
flat plate under uniform pressure will result in curvatures
(6.11) in both the x and z directions. In reference to Eq. 2.6
the unit strains may be written:
but if
y
Ez2 = 0 E:;:2
r,,
then /

fz =~ (6.12) E:,2 = 1'.

rz
1 - µ,2
Substituting for the strains in Eqs. 6.6 and 6.7, we find that
Substituting Eq. 6.8 for e,, in Eq. 6.12, we obtain:
fx = (E:;:2 + /J.EzhE = ~ [_!_ + µ. .!..] (6.19)
1 - µ, 2 1 µ. 2 r.x · r,,

For the strip of the plate in the x direction having thick- fz = (Ez2 + /J.Ex2)E
2
= ___!FL_2 [_!_ + µ. _!_] (6.20)
ness, i, and unit width in the z direction, Eq. 2.7 may be 1 µ. 1- µ rz rx
modified to: Figure 2.3 also shows that the strain and corresponding
M = f +t12f
-t/2 x.Y
dA (6.14) stress is zero at the midplane and is_at a maximum at the
outer fibers. The effect of the stress on either side of the
Substituting for fx by use of Eq. 6.13, we obtain: midplane is to produce a couple which may be expressed
as a bending moment. Equation 2.7 may be applied to
+112 E both the x and z directions to determine the bending
M-
f -112 1-
y2 d2y dA
dx 2 moments from. the combined stresses as follows (see page
41 of Reference 107):
But by Eq. 2.8
J
0.5t•
_ _ •
0 51
fx.Y dy dz = M,, dz (6.21)
(2.8) 0.5t.

and for a unit strip

f _ _
0 51
J,.Y dy dx = Mz dx (6.22)

Substituting Eqs. 6.19 and 6.20 for f x and J.11 in Eqs. 6.21
,a and 6.22, respectively, integrating, and substituting Eq.
I 6.15 (107) we obtain:
12
Therefore
Mx = Eta [_!_ + µ. _!_] = D [_!_ + µ. _!_] (6.23)
12(1 - µ, 2) rx rz rx r 111

Let M,. = Eis [_!_ + µ, _!_] = D [_!_ + µ, _!_] (6.24)

12(1 - µ, 2) rz r,, rz r,,
(6.15) A uniformly loaded circular plate will)iish in a spherical
manner; therefore r,, = rz = r.,z, and Mx = M,. = Mxz•
where D = flexural rigidity; then Therefore, Eqs. 6.23 and 6.24 reduce to:
M,,z
M=Dd2y -1 = ------"--- (6.25)
dx2
(6.16) r,,,. D(l + µ,)
A comparison of Eq. 6.16 and Eq. 2.14 shows that D, the Referring to Eq. 2.13 and letting the radial distance r,
equal to x, we obtain:
flexural rigidity of a plate, is equivalent to the quantity
EI for beams. It therefore follows that the Eqs. 2.15
(6.26)
and 2.16 for beams may he modified for plates by the sub-
 Relationships Based on the Theory of Elasticity 101
Referring to Fig. 6.1, by similar triangles, we obtain:
r dy
-=-
rz dr
or
I dy
(6.27)
rz rdr
Substituting Eqs. 6.26 and 6.27 into Eqs. 6.23 and 6.24,
we obtain:

(6.28)

(6.29)

where M,, is the bending moment per unit length along the
circumferential section, and M,,, is the bending moment per
unit length along the diametral section of circular plate. fig. 6.1. Deflection in a dished circular plate.
In reference to Fig. 6.2, a circumferential section of a flat
cover plate having a uniformly distributed load, p, is
designated as element abed. A summation of the forces If the small differences in shear on these two sides are
resulting from the bending moment may be taken about disregarded, these two forces result in a couple in the x-y
the sides ad and be. Arc length ad r def,, and arc length plane equal to
be = (r + dr) def,. -Qr def, dr (6.34)
ad couple = M,,,r def, (6.30)
Summing up the couples in the x-y plane with proper
regard for sign, we find that (107)
be couple [ M,,, + d!"' dr] (r + dr) def, (6.31)

The sides ab anded have couples which are each equal to [ M,,, + d:,,, dr] (r + dr) def, - Mxr def, - Qr def, dr
M. dr, and they have a_resultant in the x-y plane equal to
- Mz dr def, =O (6.35)
Mz dr def, (6.32)
Disregarding small high-order quantities, we find that
The symmetry of the element results in no shear on the
sides ab and de. The shear per unit length, Q, times the dM,,, M Qr= 0 (6.36)
M,,,+--;i;-r- z
length of the arc ad gives the total shear on the arc and is
equal to Qr def,. The total shear on the side be is correspond-
ingly equal to Substituting Eqs. 6.28 and 6.29 into Eq. 6.36, we obtain:

d 3y+Id 2y_];_dy Q
(6.37)
(6.33)
dr 3 r dr2 r 2 dr D

+
Fig. 6.2. Bending, moments in a
circulor flat plate. ;y

M,M(I l)M,d, ",.

l;y
View A-A
102 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
Equation 6.37 may be written as ( 107): Combining terms and factoring gives:

d
dr
[!rdr~ (r dy)]
dr
= g_
D
(6.38) y =L
64D
(d24 - r2)2 · (6.48)

The shear per unit length of circumference, Q, at any The maximum defection will occur at the center of the
radial distance, r, in a uniformly loaded circular plate is: plate, where r = 0.
Q = force = p7r_r2 = pr (6.39) pd4
circumference 2rr 2 Yme.x = 1024D (6.49)

Substituting Eq. 6.39 into Eq. 6.38 gives:

To determine the stresses in a flat cover plate, Eqs. 6.28
~
dr
[!r (r dy)] =
d
dr dr
pr
2D
(6.40)
and 6.29 are used with the substitution of Eq. 6.48 for y,
by which
2
Integrating once gives: Mx =·J!.. [d (1 + µ) .:... r 2(3 + µ)] (6.50)
16 4
1drd (r dy) = pr2 + Co (6.41) and
r dr 4D
Multiplying both sides of the equation by r and integrating
/
M. = l!..
16
[d4 2
(1 + µ) -· r 2 (1 + 3µ)] (6.51)

again gives: At the edge of the plate, where r = d/2,

r dy = pr4 + Cor2 + C1 (6.42) pd2
dr 16D 2 (6.52)
32
Dividing by r and integrating again gives:
µpd2
pr 4 Cor 2 2r M =-- (6.53)
• 32
y = D+ + C1 log d + C2 (6.43)
64 4 At the center of the plate, where r 0,
UNIFORMLY LOADED FLAT PLATE WITH THE EDGES
CLAMPED. The constants of integration, Co, Ci, and C2 (6.54)
must be evaluated from the boundary conditions at the
edge of the plaie. For a circular plate with the edge . The maximum moment is at the edge, as indicated by the
clamped,. the slo~ of the plate at the center and at the comparison of Eqs. 6.52, 6.53, and 6.54. The maximum
periphery is zero. Therefore, stress may be determined by substituting Eq. 6.52 into

(dy) _0_[ Ci] (6.44)

3 Eq. 2.10.
pr + Cor +
dr r=O 16D 2 r r=O .f =Mc= M (2.10)
I z
and
where z for a unit-width rectangular strip of the flat plate
located on the center line is equal to t11. 2 /6. Therefore,

From Eq. 6.44, C1 = 0 and by substituting for C1 in fme.x -

I6MI
t1,. 2 -
1-6pd I (d)
32l1,. 2
2

-
3p
16 ln.
2
(6.55)
Eq. 6.45, Co is evaluated. Therefore, or
pd2 t1,. = d V(h;)(p/f) (6.55a)
Co= - -
32D UNIFORMLY LOADED FLAT CrncuLAR PLATE Snr1PLY SuP-
Substituting for Co and C1 in Eq. 6.43, gives: PORTED AT THE EDGE. The condition of the circular plate
with a clamped edge differs from the condition of a circular
pr4 p d2r2 plate freely supported by the bending moment at the edge ·
y = 64D - 128D +C 2 (
6.46)
of the plate as given by Eq. 6.52. If t~J:iending moment
is removed, spherical dishing will result.
Applying the condition that y = 0 at r = d/2 (for a
The radius of curvature, rx, of a spherical dished plate
clamped plate) and solving for C2 gives:
may be determined by reference to Fig. 4.3 and Eq. 4.1.
pd4
C2 D (6.47) A2 = BD - B 2 (4.1)
1024
For small values of B, the term B 2 may be disregarded.
Substituting for C2 in Eq. 6.46 gives: Therefore A 2 = BD (approximately). Using the notation
P d2r2 pd4 for circular plates, A r, B = y, D = 2r.a:, gives:
y = 64D 128D + 1024D r 2 ;:::'. 2yr"'
 Relationships Based on the Theory of Elasticity 103

therefore CONCENTRIC LOAD ON A FLAT CIRCULAR PLATE. A con-

centric load on a flat circular plate creates a bending
,p. moment, M1, and a deflection, y, which dishes the plate.
Ymax =- (6.56)
8r:i: Equation 6.27 gives the radius of curvature of a spher-
To determine the deflection at any point, r, ically dished cylindri~l plate in terms of r.
1 dy
Yatr = Yma:a: - ~ = _!_
2r:i:
(d
2ra: 4
2
- r 2)
-=-

Substituting for 1/rz by Eq. 6.25, we obtain: Rewriting we obtain:

r/
..::, (,p.
Mz 2)
(6.57) j tl./ 2
dy =
jtl./Z r dr 1 jd/2 r dr
Yatr - 2D(l + µ) 4 - r r rz rz r

By Eq. 6.52 therefore

Yatr = 64D(l + µ) 4 -
-pd2 (d2 r2) (6.58) (6.63)

Equation 6.58 is the deflection equation for pure bending But by Eq. 6.25,
of a circular plate with a bending moment at the edge equal 1 Mz
-=---
and opposite to the bending moment of a uniformly loaded rz D(l + µ}
circular plate with clamped edges. If the deflections for
Substituting gives:
these two conditions are combined by superposition, the.
deflection of a uniformly loaded circular plate simply sup-
ported at the edges wm he obtained. Thus, Eq. 6.48 may y = D(l
M
+ (d8 - 2
1
µ)
2
r
2
) (6.64)
he combined with Eq. 6.58 to give (107):
where y = deflection due to concentric load on flat circular
plate
M1 = moment caused by concentric load on flat cir-
(6.59) cular plate

The maximum deflection occurs at r = O; therefore 6.1 d Bending Relationships for a B~am on an Elastic

Yme.x =
pd
1024D
4
(5 ++ µ)
1 µ,
(6.59a)
Founaation. The deflection of an elemental longitudinal
strip of the shell or radial strip of the flat-plate closure is
similar to the deflection of a beam on an elastic foundation.
The bending moments for a uniformly loaded flat circular Therefore, the relationships for such a beam will he dis-
plate simply supported may he obtained by adding the cussed. The deflection of such a beam at any point in the
edge bending moment, pd 2/32, to Eqs. 6.50 and 6.51 to beam will he proportional to the reacting force on the beam
give: at the point in question.
Such a beam under a point load will deflect immediately
Mz = ~ + µ) - r 2(3 + µ) ] + !!__
,p.
16 [ -4 (1
32
under the load because the supporting foundation is elastic.
The stiffness of the beam will transfer a portion of the load
therefore to either side ·of the force; this will result in a smaller elastic
deflection which is a function of the resistance of the founda-
Mz =
16
[ (3 + µ) ( : - ,r2) ] (6.60)
tion and the distance from the point of load application.
and Let ,,
2 2
Mz .E_ [d (1
.. 16 4
+ µ) - r 2 (1 + 3µ)] + pd
32
:i: = horizontal distance along the beam
y deflection of the beam
therefore w = resistance
of the foundation per unit length at any
-p
16
[d2-4 (3 + µ) - r 2(1 + 3µ) J (6.61) point
c1 = constant depending upon the stiffness of the beam and

The maximum bending moment occurs at the center of the resistance of the foundation
E = modulus of elasticity of the beam
the circular flat plate when r O; therefore
I = moment of inertia at the beam
"M.,, = Mz = -p (d2)
- (3 + µ) (6.61a)
M = bending moment at point a;
16 4 For a beam on an elastic foundation, the deflections of the
The corresponding maximum stress is: unloaded portion of the beam at any distance, x, from the
point of load application is given by: ""
6M 6pd (3 µ)
2
+ 3 ( d)
2

fmax(r=O) = l1/J· = (16)(4)t,.2 = 32 (3 + µ)p 4. (6.65)

(6.62) The resistance w of the foundation per unit length at any
104 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
the load approaches zero as the distance from the point
of load application increases. This requires that the con-
stants A and B be equal to zero. Therefore

y e-/3x(c cos {3x + F sin {3x) (6.69)

p The constants C and F must be evaluated for the par-

ticular conditions of the beam under consideration. In the
following section these constants are evaluated for a cylin-
d Flat-plate drical shell with a flat-plate closure.

t
closure

6.2 STRESSES IN CYLINDRICAL VESSELS WITH FLAT-PLATE

CLOSURES
In reference to Fig. 6.3, the internal pressure, p, acts
upon the flat cover of thickness, l,,, and upon the cylindrical
Fig. 6.3. Forces and moment at junction of flat cover plate and cylindrical
shell of thickness, l8 , to produce the forces Q 0 and No and
shell (I 08, 109).
the moment M 0 • The force Q 0 is the shear force per unit
where p :.::: internal pressure, pounds per square inch gage t'

1, = thickness of flat cover plate, inches

length of circumference, which acts to restrain the shell
1. =- thickness of cylindrical shell, inches
from expanding and separating circumferentially froin the
Q 0 = shear force at junction per unit length of circumference, flat cover plate. The force No is the axial tensile force per
pounds per inch unit length of circumference resulting from the pressure
No = tensile force ot !unction per unit length of circumference, load on the flat cover plate, which acts to separate the
pounds per Inch cover plate axially from the shell. The result of these
Mo = bending moment at jundion per unit length of clrcum• forces is the bending moment Mo. The relations, based
ference, Inch pounds per inch upon the theory of elasticity, between Q0 and Mo can he
d = diameter of cover plate and shell, inches derived. A longitudinal strip of the shell in the neighbor-
x = longitudinal distance along shell from iundlon, Inches
hood of the junction which is bent inward is selected for
)'1 = defledlon of shell at jundlon, inches analysis. The force causing this deformation can he con-
y: = deflection of flat plate at junction, Inches
r = radial distance along flat plate, inches sidered to be an inward radial shear force acting on the
N1 = head radial tensile force per unit length of clrcumfer• end of the strip. This force is resisted by the bending
ence, pounds per Inch forces set up in the strip and by the compressive hoop stress
M1 = axial head bending moment per unit length of cir• opposing a tendency for the shell circumference to decrease.
cumference The total resistance to this tendency to deform inward
results in radial shear forces, longitudinal bending stress,
and circumferential compressive stresses.
6.2a Bending in the Shell. The deflection curve of an
point, x, can be expressed in terms of dy Idz, the slope of elemental longitudinal strip of a shell resulting from the
this deflection curve. forces and moments in Fig. 6.3 is comparable to that of a
herun on an elastic foundation. 'J'he general solution of the
d4y equation for the deflection curve for such a beam is given
E I - = -w (2.16)
dz4
by Eq. 6.69.
Substituting for win Eq. 2.16 by means of Eq. 6.65 and
rearranging gives:
y = e-P"'(C cos fJx + F sin {Jx) (6.69)

The two constants C and F can be determined from the

(6.66) conditions at the loaded end of the elemental strip. From
Eq. 6.16
letting the quantity I/Elc 1 = 4{1 4 gives:
Mo (6.70)
(6.67)
and from Eq. 6.17
Equation 6.67 has the following solution (107):
y = tfi"'(A cos {Jx + B sin (:Jx) + e-tlx(C cos (:Jx + F sin (:Jx) (6.71)
(6.68)
where (6.15)
The arbitrary constants must he evaluated from the
known conditions at certain points along the element. The
deflection, y, of the beam at points greatly removed from By substituting Eq. 6.69 for yin Eqs. 6.70 and 6.71 and
 Stresses in Cylindrical Vessels with Flat-plate Closures 105

differentiating, the constants C and F are determined. the positive x direction taken away from the junction. The
strain due to bending (Eq. 6.75) and the strain due to pres-
1 sure-stress considerations (Eq. 6.79) are in the same direc-
C =- 2{,aD1 (Qo + /1Mo) (6.72)
tion and must have the same sign.
The slope of the deflection curve at x = 0 resulting from
F=~ (6.73) the combined effects of bending and pressure stresses is
2/j 2D1
obtained by differentiation of Eq. 6.80. This equation is
Therefore identical with Eq. 6.76.
To evaluate the constant /j in Eq. 6.80 reference is made
to Fig. 6.4. Detail a of this figure shows a cross-sectional
view of a longitudinal elemental strip of a shell of radius ,r.
(6.74) The width of the element is b inches, The curvature of the
The maximum deflection due to bending occurs at the shell results in the forces f 8 t8 on each side of the element
end of the shell at the junction with the head. Therefore reacting less than 180° apart. This results in a component,
w, radially inward, which is normal to the surface. (See
1 detail b of Fig. 6.4.)
(y)-.o = - /j 3D (/lMo + Qo) (6.75)
2 1

The slope of this deflection curve at this point is equal to: ; = fsls sin G)
(6.76) For small angles sin (8/2) = b/2r, or

The relationships as given in Eqs. 6. 75 and 6. 76 are

limited to the bending resulting from the reaction at the
junction of the shell and the closure. The shell will also For a longitudinal strip of unit width b = l; therefore
deform as a result of the effect of longitudinal and circum- feta 2fala
ferential stresses from internal pressures. These two w=-=- (6.81)
r d
stresses as determined by Eqs. 3.13 and 3.14 may be com-
bined by the use Eq. 6.5 to give the radial deformation where w = normal force, pounds per linear inch
u~~= -
By Eqs. 6.la and 6.78

Ey2 =
fu ·
E- E µ. f.:
(6.5)
Ea= -
J.
E
-2y
= --
d
Substituting Eqs. 3.14 and 3.13 into Eq. 6.5 gives:
Therefore
Ey2 --µ.-
2lsE
pd pd
4t8 E
(6. 77)
(6.82)

To convert from the unit radial deformation as given by or

Eq. 6.77 to total deformation it is necessary to multiply (6.83)
Eq. 6.77 by r.
I.. y 2y
ty = - = - (6.78)
r d
pd2 µpd2
'\'. =4t-E- - 8t
• JJ
-- E
8 8
or
(6.79)

where YP = total strain due to pressure ,

The deformation as given by Eqs. 6.75 and 6.79 are
directly additive (in accordance with the principle of
superposition). Therefore

Ycombined =
1
-3- (/,Mo
2{l D 1
+ Qo) - -
pd2 (
,1t.E
1- -
2
µ.) (6.80)
(a) (b)
The second term is negative because the location of the
x-y axis' was originally taken at the center line of the Fig. 6.4. Circumferential slreues in cylindrical shell under internal
shell wall 'Yith the positive y direction radially outward and pressure.
106 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
Substituting Eq. 6.83 into Eq. 6.81 gives:
w (6.84)
Substituting for w in Eq. 6.18 gives:
6.2b Bending in a Flat-plate Closure. The flat-plate
closure is considered to deflect as a uniformly ,loaded cir-
cular plate simply supported at its edge with a superimposed
concentric load from the reaction at the junction with the
shell. Superimposing the deflections by means of Eqs. 6.59
and 6.64 gives Eq. 6.93

Substituting for D by Eq. 6.15 and rearranging gives:

(6.85) (6.93)

or where

12(1 - µ, 2)
by Eq. 6.67
Differentiating Eq. 6.93 with respect tor and evaluating
at r = d/2 gives:
therefore
-/12(1 - µ,2)
4
(6.86)
(dy2)
dr r=dl2
= - [
64D2(l
pd3
+ µ,)
+
2D2(1
Mid
+ µ,)
] .. (6.94)

(3 - '\J d2t/·
Inspection of Fig. 6.3 shows that (dyi/d:ll) = (dy2/dr).
A stress intensification factor for the stress caused by the Substituting for (dy2/dr) in Eq. 6.94 and multiplying
deflection y is obtained by dividing Eq. 6.82 by Eq. 3.14. through by Eq. 6.89 gives:

ls
!hoop=
4EtsYI
d 2p
(6.87) Et.(dyi) = [ -{3 pd t. ]
d2 d3l 64(1 µ,)th 3
4

+
3 3
+[ 4
/3 Midta
3

2(1 + µ,)t1,, 3
j (6_ 95 )

Equation 6.87 can be expressed in terms of the moment

and shear by substituting Eq. 6.80 for y.
Dividing through Eq. 6.95 by - pd and by t•
2t,. th
2
t
3
gives:
2
_h_ = 4Et
2
8
[- _l_ (/3Mo
3
+ Qo) _ pd (l _ ~)] (6.96)
!hoop dp 2/3 Di 4t8 E 2

The shear force at the junction Q 0 results in a radial

tensile force, Ni, in the cover plate. If Ni is taken at the
midplane of the cover plate, a lever arm equal to th/2
Since by Eqs. 6.15 and 6.86 exists between these forces. This results in a bending
D _ Eta moment, Mi, which may be evaluated by the summation
/3 4 1 - d2 (6.89) of moments.
(6.97)
substituting Eq. 6.89 into Eq. 6.88 results in a dimensionless and
relationship.
M1 = Qol,h - Mo
2 .
(6.98)
ls
!hoop Substituting Eq. 6.98 for M 1 in Eq. 6.96 gives:
Another dimensionless equation in terms of the bending
moment, Mo, and the shear, Q 0, can be derived from Eq.
- Eth
2
(dy1) = + 2
/3 d2t,, _ {321.Qo
/3 2p d34 d3l .-o 64(1 + µ,)t1i, 4p(l + µ,)
6.76. Multiplying Eq. 6.76 by Eq. 6.89 gives:
+ 132t.Mo (6.99)
~~ (ti)-.o = f3"Di [2/3!Di (2/3Mo + Qo)] ~(l + µ,)th
Substituting Eq. 6.86 for f3 and rearranging gives:
Therefore
-Et1,,
2
(dy1) [6(1 - µ,) dd] Mo
Eta (dy1) = 2/3Mo + Qo (6_91) /3 2p d 3t. dx :.e=o = (/3d) 2 t. °i;. pd2
/3 2d2 d3l 2
Z=O .
+ [-3(1 - 2 µ,) ~] Qo + [-3 (1 - µ,) d ~] (6.l00)
Dividing Eq. 6.91 by ( -pd/2t8 ) gives: ({3d) l8 pd 16 ({3d) 2 t8 th

-Els (dyi) = -fJMo _ .9_!!._ 6_

( 92) -Ei
h2
(dyi) = b1 Mo+ b2 Qo + b3 (6.101)
/3 2pd3 d3l z=O pd 2pd /3 p d 3t8
2
dx z=O
2
pd pd
 Stresses in Cylindrical Vessels with Flat-plate Closures 107
where bi, b2, and b3 are the respective coefficients in the Multiplying through Eq. 6.106 by (th/t,) and rearranging
parenthesis of Eq. 6.100. (See Table 6.1 for tabulated gives:
values.)
Inspection of Fig. 6.3 shows that the radial stress in the Et,.y1 = [- 3 (1 _ µ,)
d 2p
.!!.]
Mo
th pd 2
+ [ 2 (1 _ µ,)] Qo
pd
flat plate is equal to Ni/th and the unit radial strain is equal
to l>/r. By elastic theory and Eq. 6.4,
+ [Sd(l - µ,)] (6.107)
32th
l> Er = h_ - µ, ~ (6.4)
r E E

Q0 = D2 i (-!Y}/Y)
or r di dr 2
(See Reference 32, p. 121.) .
where a1, a 2, and aa are the respective coefficients given in
Substituting dy/dr and d 2y/dr 2 by differentiating Eq. the brackets of Eq. 6.107. (See Table 6.1 for tabulated
6.93 gives: values.)
6.2C Combination of Relationships in Dimensionless
Groups. Watts and Lang (108) combined the relationships
for bending and shear in the shell and cover plate in the
But form of dimensionless groups as given by Eqs. 6.101 and
6.108. The advantage of this procedure is to give general
relationships independent of the system of units. The
and coefficients or "influence numbers" group the variables
describing the geometry of the vessel.
The equations for the shell may he put in the same form
therefore as Eqs. 6;101 and 6.108. Multiplying 6.90 by (th/ 4i8 ) and
rearranging gives:
fr =Jc
Substituting for fr and Jc in Eq. 6.4 gives:

l> = __! (l _ µ,) ( -Qo)r (6.102)

E th
The strain l> is measured at the mid~plane of the plate,
and the displacement at the junction will he:

1h = l> + ~2 (dydr 2
)
r=d/2
(6.103)
where a4, a5, and as are the respective coefficients given in
the brackets of'Eq. 6.109. (See Tables 6.2 through 6.9
At the junction the displacement of the shell must equal for tabulated values.)
the displacement of the head. Therefore

(6.104)
Equation 6.92 is multiplied by the ratio (tr and is
rearranged to give:

By using Eq. 6.82 and substituting for y 1, we obtain:

th (dy2) ]
2 dr T=d/2

where b4, b5, and bs are the respective coefficients given in

Eq. 6.111. (Note that b6 = 0.) (See Tables 6.2 through
(6.105) 6.9 for tabulated values.)
.,
Equation 6.110 may be equated to Eq. 6.108 to give:
Substituting Eq. 6.98 for M 1 and Eq. 6.15 for D2 and
Mo Qo Mo Qo
dividing through by (pd/2i8 ) gives: a1 - + a2 -d + as = a4 - + as - + a5 (6.113)
pd 2 p pd2 pd
Ei,Y1 -ts(l - µ,)Qor 3t.d(l - µ,) .
Equation 6.101 may be equated to Eq. 6.112 to give:
d 2p = ti,pd 2 32th 2
+ 3t (1 8 µ,)Qo 3l,(l µ,)Mo (6.106) b1 Mo+ b2 Qo + bs = b4 Mo+ br, Qo + bs (6.114)
2p dih p dth 2 pd 2 pd pd2 pd
108 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
or Tobie 6.4. Coefficients for Cylinder, th/ls = 1.0
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
Mo = pd2 [ (aa - a5)(bs - b2) - (ai; - a 2)b 3 ] of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
(a4 - a1)(bs - b2) bi) Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) (108)
(6.115) d/l, a4 a5 as b4 bs
and
Qo _ pd [ (a4 - a1)ba - (as - as)(b4 - b1) ] 4.00 -6.6091 -1.8178 -0.2125 -3.6357 -0.5000
- (a4 - a1)(bo - b2) - (au - a2)(b4 b1) 10.00 -16.5227 -2.8743 -0.2125 -5. 7485 -0.5000
20.00 -33.0454 -4.0648 -0.2125 -8.1296 -0.5000
(6.116)
30.00 -49.5681 -4.9784 -0.2125 -9.9567 -0.5000
40.00 -66.0908 -5. 7485 -0.2125 -11.4970 -0.5000
80.00 -132.1817 -8.1296 -0.2125 -16.2592 -0.5000
100.00 -165.2271 -9.0892 -0.2125 -18.1784 -0.5000
300. 00 -495. 6813 -15. 7429 -0.2125 -31.4859 -0.5000
Table 6.1. Coefficients for Flat Head (108) 500.00 -826.1356 -20.3241 -0.2125 -40.6481 -0.5000
· (Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical b5 ""0
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.)
t
a, aa ba

4.0 -8.4000 +1.4000 +0.2625 + s.0839 -o.6355 -0.1589

10.00 -21.0000 +l.4000 +0.6563 +12.7098 -0.6355 -0.3972
40.00 -84.oooo +1.4000 +2.6250 +50.8391 -o.6355 -1.5887
80.00 -168.0000 +l.4000 +5.2500 +101.6782 -0.6355 -3.1774 Table 6.5. Coefficients for Cylinder, l1,/l8 = 1.2
100.00 -210.0000 +I.4000 +6.5625 +127.0978 -0.6355 -3.9718
300.00 -630.0000 +I.4000 +19.6875 +381.2933 -0.6355 -ll.9154 (Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
500.00 -1050.0000 +1.4000 +38.8125 +635.4889 -0.6355 -19.8590 of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) (108)
d/l, a4 a5 ae b4 b5

Table 6.2. Coefficients for Cylinder, t1.jt. = 0.5 4.80 -9.5171 -2.3896 -0.2550 -5. 7351 -0. 7200
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission 12.00 -23.7927 -3.7783 -0.2550 -9.0679 -0.7200
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical 24.00 -47.5854 -5.3433 -0.2550 -12.8240 -0.7200
Ertgineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) 36.00 -71.3781 -6.5442 -0.2550 -15. 7061 -0. 7200
. 48.00 -95.1708 -7.5566 -0.2550 -18.1359 -0.7200
d/t. 04 06 06 b4 b& 96.00 -190.3416 -10.6867 -0.2550 -25.6480 -0. 7200
120.00 -237.9271 -11.9481 -0.2550 -28.6754 -0.7200
360.00 -713. 7812 -20.6947 -0.2550 -49.6672 -0. 7200
4 -3.30513 -0.9090 -0.10625 -0.9090 -0.1250 600.00 -1189 .. 6352 -26. 7167 -0.2550 -64.1200 -0. 7200
10 -8.2630 -1.4373 -0.10625 -1.4373 -0.1250
20 -16.5240 -2.0325 -0.10625 -2.0325 -0.1250
30 -24. 7885 -2.4894 -0.10625 -2.4894 -0.1250
40 -33.0510 -2.8745 -0.10625 -2.8745 -0.1250

b6 =0

Table 6.6. Coefficients for Cylinder, t1i/t11 = 1.6

Table 6.3. Coefficients for Cylinder, t,./t. = 0.8 (Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) (108)
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) (108)
d/t, a, afi ae b4 b5
d/l, a4 aa ae b, b1

6.40 -16.9193 -3. 6790 -0. 3400 .}- 11. 7730 -1. 2800
3.20 -4.2298 -1.3007 -0.1700 -2.0812 -0.3200 16.00 -42.2981 -5.8171 -0.3400 -18.6147 -1.2800
8.00 -10.5745 -2.0567 -0.1700 -3.2906 -0.3200 32.00 -84.5963 -8.2266 -0.3400 -26.3251 -1.2800
16.00 -21.1491 -2.9085 -0.1700 -4.6537 -0.3200 48.00 -126.8944 -10.0755 -0.3400 -32.2416 -1.2800
24.00 -31. 7236 -3.5622 -0.1700 -5.6996 -0.3200 64.00 -169.1926 -11.6342 -0.3400 -37. 2294 -1. 2800
32.00 -42.2981 -4.1133 -0.1700 -6.5813 -0.3200 128.00 -338.3851 -16.4532 -0.3400 -52.6503 -1.2800
64.00 -84.5963 -5.8171 -0.1700 -9.3073 -0.3200 160.00 -422. 9814 -18. 3952 -0. 3400 -58.8648 -1.2800
80.00 -105. 7454 -6.5037. -0.1700 -10.4059 -0.3200 480.00 -1268.9443 -31.8615 -0.3400 -101.9568 -1.2800
240.00 -317.2361 -11.2647 -0.1700 -18.0236 -0.3200 800.00 -2114.9071 -41.1330 -0.3400 -131.6257 -1.2800
400.00 -528. 7268 -14.5427 -0.1700 -23.2684 -0.3200
be= 0
b5 =0
 Stresses in Cylindrical Vessels with Flat-plate Closures 109

Table 6.7. Coefficients for Cylinder, t,./t = 2.0

8 x1 and x2. The bending moment at x 1 is M 1 and at x 2 is
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission M 2 • The induced bending stresses vary from zero at the
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical x axis to a maximum at the outer fiber. The bending stress
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) (108) in the strip at any distance y from the x axis is given by
d/l, Eq. 2.10.
At Xi,

Jl = M1y
8.00 -26.4363 -5.1416 -0.4250 -20.5665 -2.0000
20.00 -66.0908 -8.1296 -0.4250 -32.5185 -2.0000 I
40.00 -132.1817J-ll.4970 -0.4250 -45.9881 -2.0000
60. 00 -198. 2725'<-. l 4. 0809 -0 .4250 -56. 3237 -2. 0000
80.00 -264.3634 -16.2593 -0.4250 -65.0370 -2.0000
160.00 -528.7268 -22.9941 -0 4250 -91.9762 -2.0000
200.00 -660.9085 -25. 7081 -0.4250 -102.8325 -2.0000
600.00 -1982. 7254 -44. 5278 -0.4250 -178.1112 -2.0000
1000.00 -3304.5424 -57 .4851 -0.4250 -229.9406 -2.0000 The corresponding forces acting upon the element dA are
f11f dA.
ba = o
At X1,

Table 6.8. Coefficients for Cylinder, t,./t = 6.0

8

(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission

of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.)
f 11A11• =~
2
le y dA

d/t, Q4 as as b4 bs Also, a shear force exists at y equal to:

fshearA:u fshearb dz
4 -39.6612 -10.908 -1.275 -130.8960 -18.00
10 -99.1560 -17.2476 -1.275 -206.9640 -18.00 Since the element is in equilibrium, the summation of the
20 -198.288 -24. 2820 -1.275 -292.6800 -18.00 forces must he equal to zero. Therefore
30 -297 .4614 -29.8728 -1.275 -358.4736 -18.00
40 -396.6120 -34.4940
80 -793.1640 -48. 7800
-1.275 -413.928
-1.275 :....585.360
-18.00
-18.00
M 2y
I 111
re y dA - Miy
I 111
re y dA - fshearb dx =0 (6.117)
100 -991.5372 -54.5400 -1 275 -654 480 -18.00
300 -2973.916 -94.4550 -1.275 -1133.460 -18.00 Rearranging gives:
500 -4957.268 -121.9500 -1.275 -1463.400 -18.00
(M2 - M1)y {c
b1 = 0 !shear= lbdx 111 ydA (6.117a)

But (M2 - M 1) dM, and by Eq. 2.5 dM/dx = V.

Table 6.9. Coefficients for Cylinder, 11 /l. = 10 Therefore
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
of the Publisher, the American SQciety of Mechanical !shear
V
= lb 111
re Y dA (6.118)
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.)
d/t, a4 as ae b4 bs In a rJctangular section of width band depth t,

4 . ,-66.1025 -18.18 -2.1250 -363.60 -50.00 !shear= - v1c11

lb
by dy -V
21
(C2 -y 2) . (6.119)
10 .:...165,•260 -28. 745 -2.1250 -574.90 -50.00
20 -330.480 -40.65 -2.1250 -813.00 -50.00 The value of !shear = 0 when y = c and is maximum at
30 -495.769 -49. 788 -2.1250 -995. 76 -50.00
40 -661.020 -57.49 -2.1250 -1149.80 -50.00
80 -1321.940 -81.30 -2.1250 -1626.00 -50.00

g,
100 -1652.562 -90.90 -2.1250 -1818.00 -50.00
300 -4956.526, -157.40 -2.1250 -3148.00 -50.00
500 -8262.113 -203.25 -2.1250 -4065.00 -50.00

b6 0

6.2d Stresses in the Shell. k--b--1

Section H-H
SHEAR STRESSES AT THE JUNCTION. Figure 6.5 shows a
longitudinal strip of the shell of width b under bending
action: Consider an elemental length, dx, between points Fig. 6.5. Bending in an element of c plgte,
 110 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
the vertical axis where y = 0. Therefore the maximum This stress exists at Xa, the location of the maximum axial
shear stress is: stress in other places than at the junction. ·

Vc 2 V(t 2/4) 3V =
1('
(6.129)
fshear = 2/ 2(bt 3/12) 2bt
(6.120) Xa X8 -
413
If the shear at the junction is expressed as shear per unit 6.2e Stresses in the Flat-plate Closure.
length of circumference, Q(bo = LO), SHEAR STRESSES IN THE PLATE AT THE JUNCTION. From
Eq. 6.39
s Qo
J,shear= :l'la (6.12))

AxIAL STRESSES. The combined axial stresses in the The shear force per unit length in the plane at 90° is of
shell at the junction will consist of the axial stress from equal magnitude (29). Therefore by Eq. 6.121
internal pressure and the axial bending stress, or by Eqs.
3.13 and 2.10: J,shear = i 4,Q = Spd
St11,
(6:130)

pd Moc
!axial eombined = 4t + I AXIAL STRESSES AT THE JUNCTION. The combined axial
• stress in the plate at the junction is composed of the axial
shear stress plus the bending stress from the action of the
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESSES AT THE JUNCTION. The
shell on the plate, or
combined circumferential stresses will consist of the hoop
stress from internal pressure and the circumferential bending
stress, plus the component of the axial bending stress. faxial eombined = I?: I+ I I 6t~l (6.131)
The circumferential bending stress (circum. bending) may
he obtained by substituting Eq. 6. 75 for y in Eq. 6.82, or . Substituting Eq. 6.98 for M 1 in Eq. 6.131
3
Jcireum. bending
-2Ey
= -d- = d
E (fJMo + Qo)
{3 2D (6.123)
!axial combined = I?,.O j + j6t~O - l~O I (6.132)
1
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESSES AT. THE JuNCTION. The
hut
combined circumferential stresses in the plate at the junc-
tion are composed of the circumferential shear stress, the
(See Eq. 6.89.) eircumferential bending stress from the action of the shell
on the plate, and the circumferential bending stress from
Substituting in Eq. 6.123 gives: the action of pressure on the plate (see Eq. 6.61). The
bending moments causing these stresses have opposite signs.
{3d(fJM o + Qo)
fmreum. bending = t. (6.124)
/oiroum. combined = I?: I+ t: IM1 - 2 M.,j (6.133)

fclreum. combined = 2pd

t. + I{3d(fJMo
ls
I
+ Qo) + I7
µ.6Mo I Substituting Eq. 6.98 for M1 and Eq. 6.61 for Mz evalu-
ated at r = d/2 in Eq. 6.133 gives:
(6.125)

STRESSES IN THE SHELL IN OTHER PLACES THAN AT THE fcircum. combined = I?: I
JUNCTION. Watts and Lang (108) have given the following
~elationships for stresses in the shell in other places than + I 6Mo2 -
I t,.
3Qo - 6p
t,.
(!l.)2 (1 32- µ.). I
. t,.
r (6.134)
at the junction:
STRESS IN CENTER OF FLAT PLATE. At the center of the
,
J shear
= 3Qo VI + 2(/3Mo/Qo) + 2(/3Mo/Qo) 2 ( .
6 126
) flat-plate closure the axial stress is equal· to the circum-
t 6:r:
2 Be •· ferential stress. The combined maximum stress is equal
to the sum of the shear stress and the :t,ending stress from
where x, = location of maximum shear stress in the shell in the action of pressure on the plate (see!Eq. 6.62a).
other places than at the junction,

x. = Itan -1 / Qo + 1) (6.127)
Jrni,,x combined = I?: !+ t: IM1 2 M.,.,j {6.135)
f3 \flMo
Substituting Eq. 6.98 for M 1 and Eq. 6.62a for• M:r:z in
J' axial combined = _longitudinal pressure stress + axial Eq. 6.135 gives:
stress.
Qo I+ Ij 6Mo 3Qo - 6p (~)2 (3 + µ.) I
(6.128)
. f rni,,x combined = l t1. th 2 t,. t,. 64
(6.136)
 Stresses in Cylindrical Vessels with Flat-plate Closures 111
Solution of the previous equations shows that when the
~=!=6
thickness of the ·flat plate is greater than the thickness of ta ¼
the shell, the maximum stress is the combined axial stress 4
located in the shell at the junction. If the flat plate has a ti
/J
= <12(J/-)2
)<- 91 ) = 0.606 .· (6 .86)
thickness equal to or less than the shell, the maximum
stress is the combined axial stress located in the flat plate at
the junction. Thus, there is a ratio between the thickness d 6(1 - µ.)
. a1 = -3(1 - µ.) t~ = -50.4 b1 = 30.5
of the cover plate and the thickness of the shell, t1;/t8 , ,. (32l1;la
which will result in equal stress in the plate and shell.
This ratio will var/Jrom 1: 0 to 1: 2 depending upon the a2 = 2(1 - µ.) = 1.4. b2 = - 3 (l - µ.) = -0.635
ratio of diameter to thickness of the cover plate. However, /s 2dta
it is usually advantageous to use a ratio of t1;/t8 greater than
1: 2 in order to reduce the magnitude of the maximum aa = -3 (1 - µ.)
d
= 1.575 b3 = - ~ 1 2- µ. = - 0.953
32 t,. 16 {3 t1.ta
stress concentration. Therefore, for such designs the
maximum stress concentration is located in the cylinder at
the junction with the flat cover plate and may be deter-
a 4 = -({3d)
2
2
~
t8
= -1428 b4 = -{3d (~Y -785.4
mined by Eq. 6.122. 2
l1;
For purposes of comparison it is convenient to express a11 = -f3d-
2t8
= -65.46 b6 = - !2 (~)
t
= -18
the stress concentration at the junction/max, in terms of the 8

hoop stress in the shell for the same conditions. t,. 2 -

ae= - - = -1.275 b6 = 0
Max stress ratio, I = !max (6.137) t8 8
/hoop pd/2t8
Substituting into Eqs. 6.115 and 6.116 gives:
Figure 6.6 is a plot of I, the ratio of the combined axial
stress in the shell at the junction to the hoop stress in the Mo pd2 (aa - a6)(b5 - b2) - (a5 - a2)ba = 478
shell. Watts and Lang (108) have evaluated.and tabulated (a4 - a1)(bs - b2) (as - a2)(b4 - b1)
the stress-intensification factors for the major stress in the
shell and flat-plate closure. Qo = pd (a4 - a1)ba - (as - a&)(b4 - bi) = _ 426
Figure 6.6 indicates the stress concentrations that would (a4 - a1)(br, - b2) - (ar, - a2)(b4 - b1)
exist if the theory of elasticity held up to the stress levels
indicated. These stresses usually are not reached because Stresses in the shell:
the yield point of the material used in the construction of By Eq. 6.121,
the vessel usually is exceeded. Above the yield point,
plastic deformation occurs and the theory of elasticity no -2,550 psi
longer holds. For analysis of the plastic stresses, the
theory of plasticity must be applied. The present state By Eq. 6.122,
of this theory is such that it is not possible to evaluate these
stresses. Strain gages applied at anticipated points of f a.xia.J. combined
100 X 36 + (6)(478) = 49 300 .
l (1)2 , PSI
stress concentrations make it possible to evaluate the actual 4XT 4

stress concentration.
Figure 6.6 shows that the stress concentration at the
junction between the shell and the head may result in a
10
localized bending stress in the shell many times greater
than the hoop stress in the shell even when relatively thick
cover plates are used. This is quite often ignored in many 8
designs. Fbrtunately, plastic deformation at the point of
stress concentration tends to relieve an excessive localized JIJ' II
bending stress and thereby to prevent failure. This illus- 6
trates the definite advantage of using formed heads which i en
tend to reduce localized stresses at the junction. ~ 4
6.2f Example Design 6.1. Determine the various
theoretical stresses in the shell and in the flat-plate closure .
'Iii
>(

of a steel condensate collector operating at 100 lb per sq ...

E
2
in. gage. The shell of the collector is fabricated of rolled
steel plate ~i in. thick, and the flat-plate closures have a
thickness of 1½ in. The vessel is 6 ft long and 3 ft in
diameter. Ratio of shell diameter to shell thickness, d/t 8
Solution:
d 36 Fig. 6.6. Maximum stress ratio in the shell at the junction for flat-plate
- = .! 144
ls 4 closures.
112 Selection of flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
By Eq. 6.125, The stress in the center of a flat plate by Eq. 6.136 is:
(100)(36)
Jcireum. combined = 2 fmaxeombined = 1-2841 + jl275 + 852 14,0801

l
T .• = 12,137 psi
I(0.606)(36)1(0.606 X 478) - 426]
+I ¼ If this vessel had been fabricated from SA-283, Grade C
steel, two of the stresses in the shell, fa.xis.I combined and
+ I(Q.3 ~ :)(478) I
1
fciroumferential combined, would be above the minimum yield
point of 30,000 psi for this material. This _indicates that
some plastic deformation will occur and that these com-
= 7,200 + .11,900 + 13,750 = 32,850 psi puted theoretical stresses will not he reached since they
Stresses in the shell in other places than at the junction: will be relieved by plastic deformation. H this vessel was
By Eq. 6.126, operated under cyclic loading conditions, failure might have
occurred by brittle fracture if the stress range had exceeded
J, _ (3/2)(-426) VI + (2)(-0.68) + (2)(0.463) twioe the yield point. (See Chapter 2.) ···
shear - (l/4)e0.606XUo It should be pointed out that vessels of such design are
seldom used for pressures higher than 25 psi because they
-2556 vo.566 (-2556)(±0.752) = ± 12~.8 si are impractical. Vessels of such size operating at pressures
e2.7 14.9 p above 25 psi usually have formed closures, termed dished
Location of this stress is given by Eq. 6.127. heads.
6.2g Practical Design of Cylindrical Vessels with flat-
- 1 tan-I ( Qo + 1) plate Closures. As a first approximation, the thickness of a
Xs - 0.606 {JM o cylindrical shell under internal pressure may be determined
by the membrane equation (Eq. 3.14). The thickness of the
1 -1 ( -426 1) flat-plate closure may be determined by considering the plate
= 0.606 tan (0.606)(478) + as a circular plate with clamped edges (Eq. 6.55a) or
= 4.45 in. from junction
By Eq. 6.128, t - pd (See Eq. 3.14)
8 - 2/
, 100 X 36 _~
f axial =· + 3.41 V 36/T ± 128.8
4XT1 t,. = d "V3p/l6f (See Eq. 6.55a)
= 3600 + (3.41) ( ± 12) ( ± 128.8)
~- = d "V3p/l6f <2J) = 0.866 VJ/p (6.138)
= 3600 ± 5260 = +8860 psi or -1660 psi t8 pd

Location of this stress is given by Eq. 6.129.

The thickness ratio obtained by the use of Eq. 6.138
1 results in ratios in which the thickness of the flat-plate
Xa = x, - = 4.45 - - X -1- = 4.45 - 1.3
1r
-
1r
closure is several times the thickness of the shell for usual
4 fJ 4 0.606
values of allowable stress and operating pressure. Some
= 3.15 in. from junction improvement in design proportions may be made possible
Stresses in the flat-plate closure: by increasing the thickness of the shell to reduce the maxi-
By Eq. 6.130, mum theoretical combined axial stress in the shell at the
junction. However, such an increase in shell thickness
I 3 Pd 3 100 X 36 . does not result in a corresponding decrease in the required
Jehear = 'S' - = 'S' X 3 = 900 pm
t,. 'I' thickness of the flat-plate closure. (The maximum theo-
By Eq. 6.132, retical combined axial stress in the shell at the junction
also can be decreased by increasing the thickness of the
-426! + 16 X 478 - (3)(-426) I flat cover plate.)
faxial combined
1 i (i)2 t The maximum theoretical local combined stress may
." exceed the yield point appreciably lfith imperceptible
= 284 + 1275 + 852 = 2441 psi permanent strain since only the outer fibers undergo plastic
By Eq. 6.134, deformation. (See Fig. 2.5, detail b.) If the vessel is
stressed under cyclic conditions, the maximum· theoretical
-4261
fcircum. combined =
1
T .+ 16. X(!)478
2
3(-426)
(i) local stress range can approach a value equal to twice the
yield point without danger of causing failure by brittle

- 6 X 100 (~Y (1 I 32 .3)

fracture. (See Eq. 2.37). If the vessel is not to be stressed
in a cyclic manner, a higher theoretical (elastic) local stress
might be tolerated. Under such conditions the theoretical
= 1-2841 + 1121s + .a52 598ol . stress loses its significance, and it is suggested that strain
= 4137 psi be used as a design criterion.
 Stresses in Cylindrical Vessels with Conical Closures 113
6.3 STRESSES IN CYLINDRICAL VESSELS WITH By small-angle relationships, we obtain (see Fig. 7.6h and c):
CONICAL CLOSURES
A flat plate may be cut and rolled to the shape of a cone Fhr = 2Fh de/, = fht dl de/,
2
and used as a closure for a cylindrical vessel. Shops having
facilities for rolling cylindrical shells usually can roll conical
shapes; this makes this type of head convenient for many
types of process vessels. By a summation of forces in the normal direction
Figure 6. 7 shows an element in a conical closure defined
Fhrn - Fp = 0
by length dl and anle de/,. For very small angles the side
opposite the angle,is numerically equal to the angle in fhtdld</,cosa pdlrd</, =0
radians times the length of a long side. Therefore the
area, A, of the element is: therefore

A= dl (rd</,) !h = _!!!_ = pd = _p_d_ (6.139)

tcosa 2tcosa 2tsin8
The force, Fp, on the element and normal to the surface is (For angle 8, see Fig. 4.8 and Eq. 4.2.)
equal to the internal pressure times the area, or At the junction of the conical head and the cylindrical
shell, a compressive force is exerted by the cone on the
Fp = pA = p dl (r de/,) cylinder. The shell under the influence of internal pressure
attempts to expand radially outward against this inward
This force is resisted by the normal components of the force; this results in a bending moment and shear at the
forces of the stresses induced in the element. The meridio- junction. The inward compressive force produced by the
nal forces, Fm, are 180° apart on either side of the element conical head can be evaluated as follows, by referring to
and therefore have no normal component. However, the Fig. 6.8. .
hoop forces, Fh, are not 180° apart and have a normal com- Axial tension in the shell = P pounds per linear inch of
ponent, Fhrn• The normal component, Fhrth may be deter- shell circumference.
mined from the radial component, Fhr, as follows:
p pd
(6.140)
4

Fig. 6.7. Hoop siren in a conical head.

114 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels

a1
bsEo 2 tan a sin a b- = 2GEo 2 taii a
2 ' C + 2µG4
(Eo 2B/4) µ2<; • A/2
as = sin a bs
C+2µG C+2µG

a9 =
2-
seca--tana+
as 3bs(l + µ) sec a
p 8 4 Eo2 ';-'

6(1 + µ) b bs tan a 3 sec o: csc a

b9 = - - - 7CSC 2 a-----
f~ 4 2E~
where

A = Eo bei2 Eo - bei,/ Eo ber2 Eo)

Eo(ber2 1
B = (ber2' Eol + (bei2 Eo)2 1

C = Eo(ber2 Eo ber2' Eo + bei2 Eo bei2' Eo)

G = (ber2 Eo) 2 + (bei2 Eo) 2
and
Fig. 6.8. Compressive force at iunctloo of cone and cylinder. Eo = cone parameter at the base
= {3d v' 2(l /lc)8 cot a csc a

The component of axial tension in the cone = T pounds The ber and bei Bessel functions are given by Mac
per linear inch. Lachlan (111).
The calculations for the coefficients are based on the
relations:
T = _!!_ = -1?!!_ (6.141)
cos a 4 cos a
bero Eo = Mo cos 9o beio E = Mo sin 9o
The component of axial tension in the cone expressed as ber1 Eo = M1 cos 91 bei Eo = M1 sin 91
compression at the junction C pounds per linear inch.
Figure 6.9 shows diagrammatically the location of these
C = P tan a= pd tan a (6.142) forces and moments. The nomenclature used in Fig. 6.9
4 is the same as for Fig. 6.3 in the previous section on flat
cover plates.
As a result of this compressive force (Eq. 6.142) it is
impossible to design a conical head to eliminate moment
and shear at the junction since the cone always tends to
deflect inward, and the shell outward under the influence
of internal pressure.
6.3a Bending in the Shell and Conical Closure at the
Junction. It was shown previously, in the analysis of a shell
having a flat-plate closure, that two dimensionless equations
(Eqs. 6.109 and 6.111) could be derived for the section of
the shell at the junction. ]for convenience these were
rewritten to give Eqs. 6.110 and 6.112. These equations,
including the coefficients, are valid for the shell at the
junction of the cone. Relationships for the conical closure
comparable to Eqs. 6.101 and 6.108 for the flat-plate closure
may be developed as reported by Watts and Lang (110).

ElcYt
- - Mo+ as-
a1- Qo + a11 (6.143)
pd2 pd2 pd

-Etc:2
pd2
(dy1)
dx X=O
= b1 Mo+ bs Qo + b11
pd2 pd
(6.144)

where y 1 = radial deflection of shell at junction, inches Fig. 6.9. Forces and moment at junction of cylindrical shell and conical
le thickness of conical section, inches head (110).
 Stresses in Cylindrical Vessels with Conical Closures 115
Equation 6.143 may be equated to Eq. 6.110 to give: Table 6.13. Coefficients for Cone, a 60° (110)
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
Mo Qo
a1 - 2 + as - + a9 = a4 -Mo2 + ao Qo
- + a5 (6.145) of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
pd pd pd pd Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.)
a1 as bs bt
and Eq. 6.144 may be equated to Eq. 6.U2 to give:

b1 Mo+ bs Qo + b9 = b4 Mo+
2
br, Qo + be (6.146) 8.4853
21.2132
-12.2604 +1.5114
-33.0871 +2.6361
-o.3201
-o.7559
+6.9846
+n.4443
-0.4372
-0.4720
+o.1486
+0.1309
pd2 pd pd pd 58.1018 -93. 7150 +4.6013 -1.5823 +19.2842 -0.4881 +0.2009
84.8528 -137. 7469 +5.6295 -2.0229 +23.3930 -0.4913 +0.2052
169.7056 -277 .5290 +8.0911 -3.0837 +33.2351 -0.4949 +0.2103
212.1320 -347.4572 +9.0817 -3.5114 +37.1965 -0.4957 +0.211'1
294.1406 -482.6728 +10. 7465 -4.2314 +43.8550 -0.4966 +0.2126
400.3580 -6S7.846S +12.5860 -S.0271 +51.2120 -0.4972 +0.2135
636.3959 -1047.2780 +15.9426 -6.4797 +64.6377 -0.4980 +0.214S

6.3b Stresses in the Shell.

Stresses al the Junclion. The maximum shear stress at
the junction is given by Eq. 6.121. The maximum com-
bined axial stress is given by Eq. 6.122. The maximum
The coefficients a4 through a9 and b4 through b9 are tabu-
combined circumferential stress (circum. combined) is given
lated in Tables 6.2 through 6.13.
by Eq. 6.125 with the following modifications:

Table 6.10. Coefficients for Cone, a = 15° (110)

fcireum. combined = I:t - fJd(ft~: + Qo) I+ I 6t7 I
µ O

(6.149)
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Note that the sign of the second tenn in Eq. 6.149 is nega-
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) tive whereas that of the second term in Eq. 6.125 is positive
as at b1 bs b, because the direction of bending in the shell with. a conical
closure is in opposite direction to the bending in the shell
3.9231 -6.3685 +1.6824 +0.1020 +3.6189 -0.4913 +0.0199 with a flat-plate closure.
9.8076 -16.0642 +2. 7141 +o.o36o +5. 1543 -oA957 +0.0216
29.4229 -48.4194 +4. 7646 -0.0999 +9.9995 -0.4980 +0.031:4 Stresses in the Shell in Other Places than at the Junction.
49.0382 -80. 7915. +6.1153 -0.1941 +12.9205 -o.4986 +0.0322 Watts and Lang (110) have derived relationships for the
104.9320 173.0657 +9.0713 -0.3879 +18.9165 -0.4991 +0.0329
194.0819 -320.2775 +12.3660 -0.6085 +25.7384 -0.4994 +0.0331 maximum stresses in the shell in other places than at the
310.4304 -512.4285 +15.6604 -0.8291 +32.5598 -0.4995 +0.0333 junction as follows:
498.6781 -823.3524 +19.8700 -1.1111 +41.2758 -0.4996 +0.0333
2
fshea.r max= 3Qo VI+ 2 (/3Mo/Qo) + 2(fJMo/Qo) ( 6 .l
50)
Table 6.11. Coefficients for Cone, a = 30° (110)
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
· 2t8 tan- ~to+
1
1)
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical The location of this maximum shear stress in the shell is
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.) given by Eq. 6.127. The maximum axial stress is given by
d/th a1 as at · hr bs bt Eq. 6.128, and the location of this stress is given by Eq.
6.129.
4.0825 -6.3676 +1.5220 +0.0030 +3.8148 -0,4120 +0.0447 6.3c Stresses in the Conical Closure. Relationships for
16.3299 -26.5094 +3.2502 -0.2291 +1.1911 -o.4913 +0.0634
40.8248 -66.8682 +5.2433 -0.5138 +12.3988 -0.4957 +0.0683 evaluat'mg the stresses in the cone at the junction have
77.0489 -126.6027 +7.2665 -0.8047 +17.0707 -0.4972 +0.0700 been pr~sented by Watts and Lang (110).
122.4743 -201.5488 +9.2045 -1.0840 +21.5459 -0.4980 +0.0707
204.1239
308.1955
500.0751
-3$6.2996 +11.9299 -1.4770 +27.8398
-508.0946 +14.6953 -1.6760 +34.2261
-824.8978 +18.7620 -2.4629 +43.6180
-0.4986
-'-0.4989
-0.4992
+0.0713
+0.0715
+0.0718 fshea~ = f Qo =I I ~ lQo
t,, 2t0
cos a - pd sin a
4
I
(6.151)

Table 6.12. Coefficients for Cone, a = 45° (110) pdl cos a Qo sin a
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission !axial combined = ""i; - 4- + pd + 6~,Mol
lc 2 d
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical (6.152)

r [/3
Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.)
as a, b1 bs bo
fcircum. combined=
2
dl8 sin a1;: (b1 + µ:1;d::)~ a)
3

4.0000
10.0000
40.0000
-5.7796 +1.2340 -0.0125
-15.5974 +2.1524 -0.2654
-64;9345 +4.5965 -0.8558
+4.0325
+6.6074
+13.5059
-0.4372
-0.4720
-0.4913
+0.0141
+0.0977
+0.1163
+ Qo b2 + bs I+ M~ 2a1 + Qo
pd
Ipd pd
(2a2 +µsin a)
80.0000
100.0000
300.0000
500.0000
--'130.8284 +6.6064 -1.3547
-163.7929 +7.4152 -1.5562
-49a.6916 +13.0111 -2.9547
-823.7623 +16.8714 -3.9179
+19.1883
+21.4754
+37.3186
+49.2200
-0.4949
-0.4957
-0.4980
-0.4986
+0.1202
+0.1211
+0.1235
+0.1240
+ 2a +
3 c:s a I] (6.153)
116 Selection of Flaf-p late and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
14 stress concentration and determining its value, "\Vatts and
Lang (110) have presented suitable tables.
13 For cones with a equal to or less than 45°, it is''desirable
to make the thickness of the cone equal to the shell thick-
12 ness. When the cone is thinner than the shell there is a
large axial stress in the cone at the junction. Similarly,
11
when the cone is thicker than the shell, there exists a large
axial stress in the shell at the junction. If it is not practic-
10
able to make the shell and cone the same~thickness it is
9
desirable to make the cone thicker than the shell. When a
is greater than 45°, the cone should he made thicker than
2 the shell.
l': 8
"'"' All the stress concentrations except the circumferential
f!
-:;;
7 stresses increase in magnitude as the angle a is increased.
E This is indica~d for the shell axial-stress ratio in Fig,,.6.10.
:I
E At one limit, where a is 0°, the cone becomes a cylinder
.,
·;;; 6
::E having the same mean diameter as the shell, and no stress
5 intensifications will occur if the two cylinders have the
same thickness. In the other limit, when a = 90°, the
4 cone becomes a flat cover plate, and the analysis of the
previous section on flat plates holds (see the dashed line in
3 Fig. 6.10). This limit is shown in Fig. 6.6. Comparing
1.0 the ordinate of Fig. 6.6 to that of Fig. 6.10 indicates that
2 15• an approximately tenfold reduction in stress concentration
exists when conical heads are used rather than flat cover
l plates.
a = ½ apex angle of cone
The high stress ratios shown in Figs. 6.6 and 6.10 are a
00 300, 400 direct result of sharp-corner construction. The use of a
formed "toriconical" head rather than a simple conical head
will greatly reduce the stress concentrations at the shell-
Fig. 6.10. Maximum stress ratia In the shell at the junction for canlcal and-cone junction.
clasures. 6.3e Experimentally Determined Stresses. To verify
the theoretical relationships, experimental tests were con-
ducted by O'Brien et al. on conical vessels by the use of
strain gages (U2).
6.3d Location of Maximum Stresses. IC the thickness The experimental vessels were 48 in. in diameter with
of the cone is equal to or greater than the thicJmess of the conical heads having a = 45°. The cones were slightly
shell, the maximum stress concentration usually is the axial thicker than the shells, the cones having a thickness of
bending stress in the shell at the junction. This stress may 0.755 in. and the shells a thickness of 0.633 in. Figure
be calculated by use of Eq. 6.122, which assumes elastic 6.11 shows the profiles of the junction of the cones with the
behavior to the stress level indicated. For purposes of shells. Vessel A-2 (Fig. 6.11) approximates a toriconical
comparison it is convenient to express the stress concentra- head.
tion as a stress ratio, as indicated in Eq. 6.138. Figure 6.10 Strain gages were suitably placed both inside and outside
graphically indicates the stress concentration in the shell of the vessel in the vicinity of the shell-cone junction to
at the junction with conical heads as a function of angle a measure the circumferential and axial strains. The stresses
for head-to-shell thickness ratios (110) of 1 and 2.
Conditions under which the axial stress in the shell may
not he maximum are as follows:

1. When thickness of the cone is less than the thickness

of the shell. Shell
2. When the thickness of the cone is equal to the thick-
ness of the shell, but the d/lc ratio is small. 0.625 assumed
3. When a = 45° or less, and the ratio of d/lc is small. 0.633 actual
Radius 8:gg :',,~
These exceptions apply to designs of unusual proportions 0.884 a$$Umed
0.755 actual
that rarely occur in process equipment. For exceptions 1 Profile at cone-shell Profile at cone-shell
and 2 the maximum stress concentration will be the axial junction, vessel A-2 junction, vessel A-1
stress in the cone. For exception 3 the maximum stress
concentration will he the circumferential stress in the cone Fig. 6.ll. Profiles at cone-shell junctions of experimental vessels (112).
at the junction. For convenience in locating the maximum {Courtesy af American Welding Society.)
 Stresses in Cylindrical Vessels with Conical Closures 117
Cylinder

-- ,_
Cone 50
40
-:::.-- -
.... ............. ........ \30
{? .,,,,,,. ,..,/
,,;:· ..s:>- 0

'\
7 6 -s-.;;:j ~ 2 a=> ...... 1 _...... - V-4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
0 Inches from junction

160 nner c1rcum erentiaI stress Curves

\ \150
\ \
\ \
\' \,.
\
o\ 90100
1
\
80
0 \
7f
I I ,;.. \
" ~
' J
so' r,
40
\
Cylinder
Cone
- /
/
., / 30
- \. ~
\
I I I I I I I I I I I I I

'· ' -
20
I I I I f ./ I\. I I - I I I I I I I I I
s-;: .........
7
c;,
6
,_.,.5 __ ,'
.,...4_/ 2 1 0 1 2 "-3~ '- .s
I I
9
Inches from junction
10 11 12
I
13
1
14 15
I I
16
I
17
I
18
I
19
I
Inner longitudinal stress curves
Cone Cylinder
50 ...
- ::.:--
' ' "'-
40
30
20
/
,,, V
,/
,,,-- l..,.,AT
Inches from junction
7 6 '
5. '4, "~
.....
2 l 0 2'
,· ,I
., 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Icf'
" -h
/ Outer circumferential stress curves

' '"· ' -20

L3o' /
I
.....

,
0
,F i~f
,so,
-60
Cylinder
Cone 50
0
40
30 ,
,,, ✓ . - ........ ---..... 0
/

7 6 s. 4 3 " 1 0
20
., I
,.( 3
/
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
', '\ 1
·, , - ,0. /
.____.__ _.___.,_ _,_,r--ll---?',----1-20--i'-t--i---'---'---'---'---JL-..----.:.-----'--...,___._
Inches from junction
_,__..__,__.,__...J
• '.\ t. J 3d....,f--li-..., Outer longitudinal stress curves
' \ L;JJ-
~~-2.60-
' ~\-1-
I I
I I
I ...,..I..__,
I 11-1--1---c
I
-120-

Fig. 6.12. Measured and computed stres~es in experimental vessel (112). (Courtesy of American Welding Society.)

Yere computed from the strains delet·mined experimentally where fx, fy = longitudinal and circumferential stress, re-
)y means of Eqs. 6.6 and 6.7. spectively, pounds per square inch
µ = Poisson's ratio
E modulus of elasticity, pounds per square inch
E
fx
1
( E;c2 + fLEy2) (6.6) Er2, E!I~ = longitudinal and circumferential strain, re-
spertively, inches per inch
E
fy =
1 -
(Ey2 + µE.,2) (6.7) The inner and outer longitudinal stresses computed from
strain measurements are compared in Fig. 6.12 with the
118 Selection of Flat-plate and Conical Closures for Cylindrical Vessels
stresses as determined from theoretical considerations.
The solid curves represent the theoretical stresses for the
vessel A-1 having the sharp junction, and the circles are the
experimentally determined stresses for the same vessel.
The dashed curves represent the theoretical stresses for
vessel A-2 having a toriconical junction, and the solid
circles are the corresponding experimentally determined
stresses.
The inner longitudinal (or axial) stress is a tensile stress
whereas the corresponding outer stress is compressive. In
Eq. 6.122 the two terms are additive for the inner surface
and are of opposite sign for the outer surface because the
bending moment Mo is positive in one case and negative
in the other. Thus, the greatest stress occurs at the inner
surface, where the stress due to bending and the longitudinal
pressure stress are additive. Examination of Fig. 6.12
indicates that, except for a few local discrepancies, the
general trends of the stress distribution for the head-to-shell'
junction in vessel A-1 are the same whether determined
experimentally or calculated from theory. The agreement
is not quite so good for vessel A-2, however. The maximum
stress in this vessel is considerably lower than that in
vessel A-1; this indicates the reduction in maximum stress
obtained by the use of a toriconical head rather than a
conical head. Figure 6.12 indicates that the theoretical
relationships satisfactorily predict the stress distribution
within the elastic range.
A comparison may be made between Figs. 6.10 and 6,12
by calculation of the maximum stress at the junction as
follows:
Diameter of vessel A-1 = 48 in.
Shell thickness, l, = 0.633 in.
Cone thickness, le = 0. 755 in.
d The ASME code for unfired pressure vessels (11) uses the
ls
= 75.7
le 0.755
la 0.633 = 1.2
Referring to Fig. 6.10 and using the line for a = 45° and
= 1.2, we find that the maximum stress ratio is 3.8.
le/la
PROBLEMS
I. A cylindrical vessel has a shell ¾ in. thick and 20 in. in inside diameter. The vessel is
closed at both ends with a Oat cover plate welded to the shell and has a thickness of l½ in. If
the internal pressure is 200 psi, calculate: Mo, Q0, and the maximum weal fiber stress in the
vessel.
2. For the vessel described in problem 1, calculate:
a. shear stress in the plate at the junction,
b. maximum combined circumferential stress in the shell,
c. maximum combined axial stress in the plate at the. junction,
The hoop stress in the cylindrical shell is:
pd_ p48
J 2t - (2)(0.625) = 33 .4p
The maximum stress is:
f max = (3.8 X 38.4p) = 146p
If p = 1 psi
Jmax 146
This compares favorably with the maximum inner longi-
tudinal stress indicated in Fig. 6.12, which is also plotted
for LO psi.
Although the stress concentrations shown in Fig. 6.12
which exceed t~e yield point are seldom reached because of
plastic deformation, the results of the elastic analysis,indi-
cate the location of the stress concentration and the zoq.e in
which plastic deformation can be expected to occur.
Most commercial pressure vessels, including those having
conical heads, are given a hydrostatic test at one and one-
half times the working pressure. The vessel deforms elas-
tically during the early part of the test. At some pressure
level the yield point of the material is exceeded at zones of
local stress concentration. Some plastic deformation fol-
lows which permanently deforms the zone of stress con-
centration, giving the vessel a new shape. This permanent
deformation may not be very great and may not be appar-
ent. However, a system of residual stresses is set up in the
plastic zoI;J.e that remains after the pressure is removed.
In service this vessel may deform elastically at the working
pressure, but the stresses cannot be calculated because the
shape and the stress-intensity pattern are not known.
Thus, in many practical cases plastic flow permits a vessel
to resist concentrated stresses without damage, provided
that the material of construction has sufficient ductility.
The general .discussion in the last paragraph of section
6.2g on Oat-plate closures also applies to conical closures.
following modified form of Eq. 6.139 for conical heads that
have a half-apex angle, a, not greater than 30°:
pd
(6.154)
l = 2 cos a(JE - 0.6p)
Additional information on the design of conical closures is
given in Chapter 13.
 Problems 119
d. maximum combined circumferential stress in the plate at the junction,
e. maximum combined stress in the center of the plate.
3. For the vessel in problem 1, determine the maximum shear and maximum axial combined
stresses in the shell in other places than at the junction and the location of these stresses.
4. If one of the flat cover plates in problem 1 is replaced with a 90° cone (a 45°) having a
thickness of }i in., calculate: Mo, Qo, and the maximum local fiber stress at the cone end.
5. For the vessel in problem 4, calculate the maximum shear stress in the shell at the cone
end in other places than at the junction, and determine its location.

STRESS CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION
OF ELLIPTICAL, TORISPHERICAL,
AND HEMISPHERICAL DISHED CLOSURES
FOR CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
[Elliptical, torispherical, and hemispherical dished
closures. shown previously in Fig. 5.7, are considerably
stronger than conical or flat-plate closures for cylindrical
vessels. The great majority of cylindrical vessels have
either elliptical or torispherical dished heads. Figure 7.1
shows the welding of an elliptical dished head to a 102-in.-
diameter shell. Although the hemispherical dished head
is stronger than either the elliptical or torispherical dished
head, it is not so widely used because of the excessive
forming required in its fabrication. In general, t~s results
in a higher fabricating cost and a more limited range of
available sizes. However, hemispherical heads in limited
sizes are now extensively used as closures for propane and
butane horizontal storage vessels and for this service are
more economical than elliptkal dished heads. See Fig. 5.11.
The principal advantage of dished heads over flat cover
plates or cones as closures is the large reduction in the dis-
continuity in shape at the junction between the cylindrical
vessel and the closure, resulting in a reduction of discon-
tinuity stresses at or near the junction.
The hoop and meridional stresses in the central portion
of these three types of dished heads are relatively easy to
evaluate. For a given vessel these stresses will be at a
maximum in the torispherical head and at a minimum in
the hemispherical head. However, the discontinuity
stresses at or near the junction are difficult to evaluate.
As a result of the difficulty of evaluating these stresses, an
extensive literature has developed in this field (113-125).
A history of the design of heads for pressure vessels is
included in a recent article entitled "Report on the Design
of Pressure Vessel Heads" prepared by the Design Division
of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee (12).
120
CHAPTER
7.1 ELLIPTICAL DISHED CLOSURES
The excessively high stress concentrations existing in the
sharp-corner junctions of vessels with flat cover plates and
with conical heads have been discussed in the previous
chapter. The use of a knuckle radius on a cone to form a
toriconical head reduces the stress concentration at the
junction. An additional improvement in design is obtained
if the torus ring· is retained and the conical element is
replaced with a spherical dished element. Such· a head is
referred to as a torispherical head and is widely used in the
fabrication of process equipment. A further improvement
in design resulting in a greater reduction of stres.ses in a
formed head is obtained from the use of elliptical dished
heads. The stresses in such heads have been analyzed by
two methods: (1) by strain measurements on heads of
vessels subjected to internal pressure and then by mathe-
matical computation of the stresses from the strain measure-
ments, and (2) by mathematical analysis of the head
geometry.
7.2 STRESS ANALYSIS· FROM STRAIN MEASUREMENTS
An early study of strain measurements on elliptical
dished heads was reported by E. Hohn (113) a translation
of which appeared in Mechanical Engineering (114). In
this study an elliptical head having a 1.97 to LOO major-to-
minor-axis ratio and having an outside diameter of 31.7 in.,
a head-plate thickness of 0.47 in., and a shell plate thickness
of 0.313 in. was subjected to internal pressures of 8, 16, and
24 atm.
Before and after application of the pressure to the vessel,
Hohn made templates of the contour of the elliptical dished
head and also templates of torispherical dished heads that
were included in the investigation. He found that the
 Stress Analysis from Strain Measurements 121
torispherical dished heads deformed considerably, approach-
ing the shape of an ellipse with a major-to-minor-axis ratio
of about 2.0, whereas the elliptical head retained its origi-
nal contour. This tends to indicate that the natural shape
for a dished head on a cylindrical vessel under internal
pressure is an ellipse having a 2: 1 major-to-minor-axis ratio.
Strain gages were placed about the vessel in such a man-
ner that strains were measured in the radial and longitudinal
directions at 18 different positions along the shell and
around the head.
The strains measured were the result of elastic deforma-
tion in three directions. In thin-walled vessels radial
stresses are of minor importance, and the two principal
stresses in the head act at right angles to each other and
are identified as hoop stress, J,., and meridional stress J,,..
At the junction of the head with the shell, these stresses
become the hoop (or circumferential) stress of the shell and
the longitudinal stress of the shell, respectively. If both
of these stresses are acting simultaneously, they may be
calculated from strain measurements by use of Eqs. 6.6
and 6.7.
fn. = (En.2 + /J,Em2)E (6.6)
1 - µ1
and
f,m
_ (e,,.2 + µen,2)E (6.7)
- I -µ 2

If these stresses are divided by the shell hoop stress, stress-

intensification factors are obtained which are convenient
for comparing the two principal head stresses with the cor- Fig. 7.1. Welding elliptical head ½ in. thick to shell with automatic
responding shell hoop stress existing outside of the dis- welder--vessel is 102 in. in diameter and designed for 50 lb per sq in.
continuity at the _junction. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 are plots gage, 200° F serviGe. (Courtesy of C. F. Braun & Co.}

1.6

!
1.4

1.2
"' \ r ----- ...
.......
~
<.:!I
"'
10
'
\
-...... r--....._
I ............

~
'I

i'-' 0.8
r--..._
j

I
,.,
..!1! t---.....
C: 0.6
0
r----... i'-.. I
~
;;:: 0.4
fig. 7 .2. Hoop-stress-intensiflca•
lion factor for vessels with ellipti-
'vi
C:
J!! 0.2
I
.E
cal closures-from Hohn's experi• I
f\
mental data (I 14).
~ 0
\
'tf -0.2
8
.i:: -0.4 \
!
II
.,;;- -0.6

-0.P
V
-1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 110 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0,8 0.9
~ Head radial distance to meridian -;,.k- Shell axial distance from junction _ _
Shell radius Shell radius
122 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures
of these stress-intensification factors as calculated from
Hohn's data.
Figure 7.2 shows the hoop-stress-intensification factor,
J,. = J,./J,. shell, in the head and in part of the shell of the
vessel. Note that J,. in the head from the center of the
head to the point of tangency of shell and head is plotted
on the left-hand portion of the figure whereas J,. in the shell
is shown in the right-hand portion of the figure. Therefore,
the horizontal axis to the left of the point of tangency of
head and shell represents fractional radial distances from
the axis of the vessel to the point under consideration. The
horizontal axis to the right of the tangency represents dis-
tances along the longitudinal axis of the shell measured
from the point of tangency in terms of fractions of the
radius. The vertical-axis intensification factor represents
tensile stress above the reference line of zero and compres-
sive stress below the reference line. Figure 7.2 shows that
I
the central section of the head thinned out in forming thus
accounting for the peculiar hump in the head-stress curve
near the center of the head. Figure 7.3 shows the corre-
sponding curve for the meridional-stress-intensification fac-
tor in the head and the longitudinal-stress-intensification
factor in the shell. Note that similar reversals also occur.
7.3 HUGGENBERGER' S THEORETICAL ANALYSIS FOR
MEMBRANE STRESSES
The work of Hohn previously described in which stresses
were determined from strain measurements indicated that
two critical stress groups exist: (1) the stresses in an element
of an elliptical dished head resulting from internal pressure
and the geometry of the head and (2) the stress concentra-
tions in the neighborhood of the junction of the head.and
the shell. Huggenberger (ll5, 116) developed an analysis
of the stresses in an element of an elliptical dished liead

u
I'"'-~
.
'ill 1.2
.r:
'\,
~
-..;;.
..,!l
..:
1.0
---~ -~~ i \ 1

.s J \
"'
J! 0.8
C
.2
-:.; 0.6
' r---.. - V '' I \
~
'iii
C 0.4 \, I " Fig. 7.3. Meridional-stress-intensi-
.!!!
·,m
C

0.2 I fication factor for vessels with ellip-

tical closures-from Hohn's experi-

~ \ mental data (114).

iii 0
C
.2 I /
] -0.2
:E
V
.....·~ -0.4
-0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
I
'""'•---
Head radial distance to meridian
Shell radius
,
'
I., Shell axial distance from junction
Shell radius

the central portion of the head is under tensile stress and
that a reversal to a compressive stress occurs at 0.86 radius
units from the axis. A maximum compressive stress is
reached at about 0.95 radius units from the axis, after which
point the compressive stress decreases to zero at the point
of tangency. The curve further indicates the influence of
the head on the hoop stress in the shell. The hoop-stress
intensification factor in the shell increases from zero at the
point of tangency, reaching a maximum at about 0.3 radius
units from the point of tangency; it then drops to a lesser
value, after which drop it levels off at about 0.7 radius units
from the tangent line to a constant vaiue of LO, the normal
hoop-stress-intensification factor in the shell.
The dotted line on Fig. 7.2 from the center of the head to
the experimental curve indicates the probable curve that
would have resulted if the elliptical dished head used by
Hohn had been of uniform thickness throughout. Actually,
from mathematical considerations. In Huggenberger's
analysis the bending moments at the junction of the head
and shell were disregarded. The equations of Huggen-
berger are developed in the following section.
Figure 7.4 is a three-dimensional sketch of a differential
element of an elliptical dished head. Arc m-n is a meridian
formed by passing a plane through point O and through the
w-w axis. Arc 0-0' is formed by passing a plane through
point O perpendicular to the w-w axis. The stress f m is
the stress on the element in the meridional direction and is
called the meridional stress. Stress J,. is the stress acting
circumferentially on the element and is termed the hoop
stress. These are principal stresses, and no shearing stresses
exist on the sides of the element.
Figure 7.5 is a view of the meridional plane through the
element. Because of the symmetry of the head about the
w-w axis, the location of this meridian is not significant.
 Huggenberger' s Theoretical Analysis for Membrane Stresses 123
Similarly, the circumferential or hoop force acting on
opposite sides is:
F,. = J,.tr 1 d<J,
As shown in Fig. 7.6, detail b, this force has a resultant
force in the radial direction which is perpendicular to the
w-w axis and is:

As shown in Fig. 7.6, detail c, this resultant force has a

component in the direction normal to the plane of the ele-
ment, which is:

Fkrn = F,. d0 sin <J, = J,.ir1 sin <J, d<J, d0

Summing the forces normal to the plane of the element

results in:

or
Fig. 7.4. Stresses acting on differential element In an elliptical dished head.

Combining gives:
The location of the hoop plane is defined by angle <J, made
by the normal to the surface of the element and the w-w
axis. The radius, r1 defines the curvature of the element Dividing by r 1r0t gives:
in the plane of the meridian; the radius r2 defiiies the curva-
ture of the element about the w-w axis, about which axis fm +f" sin <J, = !!_
it generates a cone; and r 0 is the radial distance of the ele- r1 ro t
ment from the w-w axis.
The length of both sides of the element in the meridional From Fig. 7.5 it follows that r 0 = r2 sin </,; therefore,
plane is equal to r 1 d<J,, and the length of the upper side of
the element in the circumferential plane through point O is fm +.f!:. = !!. (7.4)
ro d0. This follows from the fact that for very small angles r1 r2 t
expressed in radians, the side opposite the angle is numer-
ically equal to the angle in radians times the length of a
long side. The surface area of the element is equal to the
product of the two sides, or

(7.1)

The internal pressure acting on this area produces a

normal force having the value of:
Fp = pA = pr1ro d<J, d0 (7.2) z
where p = internal pressure, pounds per square inch
This force is resisted by the components of the principal
forces, the components being taken in the direction of the
normal to the plane of the element. The principal force
in the meridional direction acting on opposite sides is:
r1 = meridional radius of
curvature at point P,
(7.3) inches

Figure 7.6, detail a shows that this force has a component r2 = radius of curvature of the
section perpendicular to the
in the dh-ection normal to the plane of the element because meridian at point P, inches
the forces on opposite faces are not 180° apart. For a
finite element,
w

This follows because of small angle relationships. Fig. 7.S. Meridional $eclion of element of an elliptkal dished head.
124 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures

I
I

I.

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.6. Components of forces in meridional ond circumferential planes. lo) Components of forces in a meridional plane. (bl Components of forces in o
circumferential plane.. (c) Normal component of forces from a circumferential plane.

The axial force (along the w-w axis of Fig. 7.5) equals Therefore the distance x in Fig. 7.5 is given by:
meridional force, Fm, times sin ¢.

Axial force 1rro 2p Fm sin ¢

Force (stress)(area)
Fm = J;,.(2rrof,)
1rra2p = J,.,.(21rrof,) sin ¢ Let k = a/b. Therefore
or ro 2
x=- (7.7)
J' _ rop k2Z
Im - (7.5)
2t sin ¢ From Fig. 7.5 and by Eq. 7.7,
The equation of an ellipse is:
= ro [Vro2 + (ro2/k2z)2]
ro2 z2 sin¢ r 0 2/k 2Z
-+-=I
a2 b2
(7.6)
= Vk4z2 + ro2
where ro, Z, a, and b have the significance of a:, y, a, and b, Substituting for Z 2 its equivalent as given by Eq. 7.6
respectively, as indicated in Fig. 5.2.
and making k = a/b, we obtain:
Figure 7.5 indicates that/mis perpendicular to r 2 and is
tangent to the ellipse at the point P. The slope of fm is
(7.8)
calculated as follows:
dZ Therefore
slope=
dro
Differentiating Eq. 7.6 gives:

2ro dro + 2Z dZ = 0 . = [(ak) 2 + r 02 (1 - k2)]½ (7.9)

sm ¢
a2
or Multiplying both sides of Eq. 7.8 by (p/2t) gives:

(2tP) (}!_) )PS

dZ
[(ak) 2 + r 0 2({ - k2
dro sin¢ 2t -
 Huggenberger' s Theoretical Analysis for Membrane Stresses 125
But dished head. These equations were first given by Hug-
rop genberger (115) in 1925.
(from Eq. 7.5) Examining these equations for the extreme conditions
fm = sin <f, 2t
when r = a and b = oo, we find that the stresses at the
Therefore junction of the head and the attached cylinder for this
(7.10) condition reduce to the longitudinal and circumferential
stresses in a cylinder, or
By mathematical definition the radius of curvature, r1, is: rp
fm. =-
2t
(7.11)
and
From Eq. 7.8, rp
!h=-t
At the crown center, when r 0 0, the two stresses J,.
and fm become equal and have the value:
rkp
f1, =fm =- (7.16)
2t

For a hemispherical head, when k LO, Eq. 7.16 reduces

to the stress equation for a hemispherical head.
rp
fh =fm =-
2l

For an elliptical dished head where a = 2b, Eq. 7.16

becomes:
rp
fm =-
l
Simplifying, we find that This indicates that an elliptical dished head having a major-
[(ak)2 + ro2(1 - k2)]¾
(7.12)
to-minor-axis ratio of 2: 1 should be expected to have the
r1 = a2k2 same stress in the crown as the hoop stress in the attached
shell if bending moments at the junction are not considered.
Rearranging Eq. 7.4, we find that For any elliptical dished head having a value of k greater
than 1.0 and less than 2.0, the maximum stress will occur
in the center of the crown and will lie between the values
of rp/t and rp/2t, as given by Eq. 7.16.
Substituting from Eqs. 7.10 and 7.12 gives: Huggenberger's equations, 7.10 and 7.15, are cumbersome
because of their length. The principal advantage in their
!!.. [(ak) 2+ r 0(1 - k 2)P1] use lies in the expression of the stresses in terms of the radial
p 2t distance r 0• These equations may be modified so as to
fn = r2
[
t- -[-(a-k)_2_+_ro_2_(l--k-2)-]'-~ express the stresses in terms of the radius of curvature of
a2k2 the closure.
From Fig. 7.5 it is evident that
(7.13) • ro
sm <f, = -
r2
From Fig-. 7.5 and Eq. 7.9,
Substituting into Eq. 7.5 gives:
r2 ~ = [(ak) 2
+ r0 2
(1 k 2
)J}2 (7.14)
sm <f,
Therefore

fh = [(ak) 2 + ro 2 (1 - k 2)Fi [1 - 2[(ak) 2

a k
+
2 2
]
rl(l - k2 )] t
:e This relationship can be transferred to stress-intensifica-
tion form (press. is pressure) by dividing by fhoop(shell) to
(7.15) give:
Equations 7.10 and 7.15 describe the two principal (7.17)
stresses, J,,. and fh, in terms of the geometry of the elliptical
126 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures
3 value at the junction with the shell (if bending moments
k=2L_
--
--
at the junction are ignored). For all elliptical dished heads
2
4+
3-i, in which k is greater than 2.0, the maximum stress will be
2t ~ i::-..... this compressive stress {bending moments being ignored)
u. -=::: ~ tk-1 occurring at or near the junction with the shell.
-......,__ Although Huggenherger's relationships do not take into
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 account the bending-stress concentrations in the head near
0.7~~~
the junction with the shell, they are useful in analyzing
\\ 1\3
the stresses in the remainder of an elliptical dished head
for any major-to-minor-axis ratio.
\ \\
7.4 COATES'S THEORETICAL ANALYSIS FOR BENDING
C.
g
:c -4
\\4 STRESSES AT THE HEAD-SHELL JUNCTION

-5
s\ \ The relationships developed by Huggenberger are limited
because no allowance was made for bending moments _that
exist in the head at and near the junction. The existence
3 -~-......,.---~-..,..--..--~---.-----,
of this bending moment is graphically indicated by· the
k=5 curves determined from Hohn's data as shown in Figs. 7.2
and 7.3 and is further indicated in Fig. 7.7, in which hoop
stresses calculated from Eqs. 7.17 and 7.20 are plotted.
Comparing the hoop pressure stress for an elliptical dished
head in which k = 2.0 as predicted by the appropriate
curve of Fig. 7.7 with the combined hoop stress in Fig. 7.2.
we find that a sharp discontinuity is indicated at the junc-
tion of the head and the shell. This discontinuity exists
because the head and shell have been treated as separate,
disconnected membranes with no restraints at the edges.
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Head radial distance to meridian
Figure 7.8 shows the deformation of an ellipsoid of revolu-
Shell radius tion having a major-to-minor-axis ratio of 2.0 when under
internal pressure. A vessel of such a shape when under
fig, 7:,. EIRpticol-heodstress-intensiflcation foctors bosed on membrone internal pressure will deform to become more spherical,
theory of Huggenberger (115, 116). the shell deforming outward along the minor axis and
inward along the major axis.
Figure 7.9 illustrates the effect of the deformation of an
elliptical dished head when attached to a cylindrical vessel.
Under internal pressure the elliptical dished head shown in
r2 Fig. 7.9 will tend to deform inward as was shown in Fig.
l m(press.) = d {7.18)
7.8. The cylindrical shell will tend to deform radially out-
ward under the influence of internal pressure. The joining
A comparison of Eqs. 7.15 and 7.14 indicates that Eq. of the head to the shell restrains both of these deformations.
7.15 can be written in the following form: This results in the introduction of bending moments in the
a2k2] 4.p head and in the shell. The effect of the junction is to bend
fh = r2 [1 - 2r 22
{7.19) the shell inward and to bend the head outward with respect
to their unrestrained positions. As a result a compressive
Converting Eq. 7.19 to stress-intensification form gives: stress is induced in the outermost fiber of the knuckle of the
!h k2t82
lh(presa.) == f 2lm(preM.) - 41 . l 2 {7.20)
hoop(shell) m(presa.) h
where lm(prees.> is given by Eq. 7.17. .,,,,---- ----- ........

/,. I \
//;,t# ........ ,

If k = a/b 2, and l, = ih, ~

l h(press.)
.
= 21 m(press.)
The values of h(press.) and lm(press.) given by Eqs. 7.17
- l
1
m(presa.)
(7.21)
·-·+·-·---t~-t--
! 1
and 7.20 are plotted in Fig. 7.7.
As shown in Fig. 7.7, the hoop stress, fh, has a maximum
Shape prior • ✓.,,'-shape after
to deformation ---- ✓ deformation
value in tension at the center of the crown where r 0 · = 0.
As ro approaches a, the hoop stress in tension decreases,
passes through zero, and reaches a maximum negative Fig. 7.8. Deformation of an ellipsoid of revl>lution under intemol pressure,
 Coates's Theoretical Analysis for Bending Stresses at the Head-Shell Junction 127
Y1 = deflection of shell at junction
T 2 = normal hoop force
Q = meridional shearing force
M1 meridional bending moment
Original position of shell M2 hoop bending moment
with zero pressure
Deformation of shell under The following relationships summarize Coates's deriva-
internal pressure if unrestrained tions for the shell:

-+
Shape of shell and attached
head under internal pressure
Deformation of head under Y1 =
2{1 D
e-/31:i.:t [Qo cos /31x1 + /31Mo(cos /l1X1
internal pressure if unrestrained
Original position of head sin /l1X1)] (6.74)
with zero pressure
I where D =
El8 3
(6.15)
2
12(1 - µ,)
Fig. 7.9. Deformation of an elliptical dished head and shell in the junction
zone. (Courtesy of F. L. Maker.)
fJ = 4/3(1 µ,2)
(6.86)
1
'1 (rt") 2

and
head whereas a tensile stress is induced in the innermost
fiber at the same location. Similarly, the bending of the µ, = Poisson's ratio
shell in the opposite direction tends to increase the tensile
stress in the outermost fiber of the shell in the neighborhood
of the junction.
7.4a Coates's Relationships for Local Bending Stresses
at the Junction when Head and Shell Are Not Joined.
d 8y1
W. M. Coates (117) mathematically investigated the bend- Q = D - -3 = -e-13111:1 [Qo(cos fJ1z1 - sin /hx1)
ing at the junction of a dished head and cylindrial shell. dx1

A longitudinal strip of the shell in the neighborhood of the - 2{11Mo sin fJ1x1] (7.23)
junction which is bent inward under the influence of the 2
head is selected for analysis. The force causing this - D d y 21 = 1 e-/3111:1 [Qo sin flix1
dx1 /11
deformation can be considered to be an inward radial shear
force acting on the end of the strip. This force is resisted + /l1Mo(cos /31X1 + sin /l1x1)] (7.24)
by the bending forces set up in the strip and by the com- (7.25)
pressive hoop stress opposing a tendency for the shell cir-
cumference to decrease. The total resistance to this ten- The corresponding relationships of Coates for the head
dency to deform inward results in radial shear forces, longi- are:
tudinal bending stresses, and circumferential compressive
stresses. (7.26)
Since the shell behaves in an elastic manner and is rela-
tively thin in comparison to the diameter. the radial force
on the strip under consideration can be considered to be (7.27)
proportional to the radial deflection. Therefore, the strip
may he considered to act like a beam on an elastic founda-
tion. Such a beam under a point load will deflect immedi-
ately under the load because the supporting foundation is
elastic. The stiffness of the beam will transfer a portion of
the load to either side of the force, and this will result
in a smaller elastic deflection, which is a function of the
resistance of the foundation and the distance from the point
of load application. The theory for such a beam was
developed in Chapter 6. The equation of the deflection
curve for such a beam is given by Eq. 6.74. By use of this
relationship Coates deYeloped an analysis of the discon-
tinuity stresses.
Figure 7.10 illustrates an element of the shell under
consideration where
r radius of shell
t = thickness of shell
8

x 1 = longitudinal distanC'e from junction Fig. 7.10. Forces end mcmenls acting on element of shell.
128 Selection of Elliptical, Torispheric:al, and Hemispherical Dished Closures
1.0 and
0.9 \ Mo= 0
\I I I
0.8 Substituting these values in the equations developed for
0.7 I\ the cylinder and for the head, gives the following equations.
\ For the shell,
0.6
0.5 \ 2
' I\ 6M1 J
- 2- = m(bending) =
( -3pk
-- ) e-{J:,;
1 l •
SI!).
R
1-11X1 (7.33)
0.4 t. ' 4/31 2t. 2 .
\.
0.3 r-,....
0.2
/✓
I'\. I'-<: i.-e-13" sin 6x -pk2a) -fJ"'
Jh(bending) = ( - - e 1 1 COS 1-'a 1X l (7.34)
0.1 I I',. ~ 4t8

--
-0.1
-0.2
0
I
-
........ ~ ,_e-l'l"cosf;Jr._ r-- r--
,__
For an elliptical dished head (r 2 is a variable)

6M1 .
= f m(bending) =
[
4
V -3pk a 2
2 2

3(1 - µ )tw-2
]

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0

Fig. 7.11. Fundions for computing stresses based on the theory of beams
/jx
· [e -!"'*O Pt dz,
1· sin l1"''
0
P2 dx2 1
J·
(7 .35)

on elastic foundations (29).

where x2 = distance measured along meridian from plane

of junction, inches
7.4c Solution of Equations for the Shell. Equations
r 2 = radius of curvature of hoo-p section of head,
7.33 and 7.34 predict the major bending stresses developed
inches (See Fig. 7.5.)
in the shell as a result of the discontinuity at the junction.
1 The terms in the right-hand side of these equations are
- -3 (e-tlz:r:2)[Qo cos {:hx2 usually constant for a given vessel and pressure with the
2f31 D
- f32Mo(cos P2x2 only variable, :i:1, the linear axial distance (inches) from the
junction measured along the shell. Use of Fig. 7.11 reduces
the solution of these equations to a simple calculation.
The constant fJ 1 is evaluated for the shell, and suitable
increments of x 1 are selected (such as Lix 1 = 0.05a). Values
of the. product fl1x 1 are tabulated, and the corresponding
(!...) /~ (e-tl2:r:2)[Qo(cos fJ2x2
r2 "\Jr2
functions of e-P 1 ilsin {31x 1 and e-tl 1"'1 cos fJ 1x 1 are deter-
mined by use of Fig. 7.11. These functions are multiplied
- sin fJ2x2 + 2fJ1Mo sin P2x2)] (7.30) respectively by 3pk 2/4{:J 12t8 2 and by -pk 2a/4t8 to give the
2 two major discontinuity stresses,!m(bending) andfh(bending), in
D d y2 = r (e-P 2:r: 2)[-Qo sin fJ2x2 the shell as a function of x 1. ·
dx2 2 r2f31 The stress-intensification factors, I m(bending) and I h(bending),
+ fJ1Mo(cos f32x2 + sin P2x2)] (7.31) may be computed by the use of the following relationships:)
tan a dy2
M2 = µM1 - D(l - µ 2) - (7.32) 2
r2 dx2 I m(bending) = f-m(bending)
- - - = ( --
3k
2-
) :-fJ 1:,; 1 •
e Sill /:J lZl (7.37)
fh(preM.) 4(31 laa
where a is the angle between the normal to the head and 2
the plane of the junction. Figure 7.11 is shown for con- I h(bending) = fh(bending)
- - ~ = ( - -k ) a
e-ti 1x 1 cos 1-11X1 (7.38)
venience in evaluating the functions of P1x1 or f32x2. fh(pr-.) 4
7.4b Analysis of Edge Loads and Local Stresses when
lf k = 2, Eqs. 7.37 and 7.38 reduce to:
Head and Shell Are Joined. The joining of the head to the
shell imposes the following restrictions if the shell and head
are of the same thickness: lm(bending) = (-+-)
fl1 t.a
e-t11x 1 sin /:J1X1 (7.39)

I. The radial displacement of the shell and of the head at I />(bending) = -e-,91"'1 COS /:J1X1 (7.40)
the junction must be equal.
2. The slope of the total-displacement curves for the The functions e:-flx sin fix and e-p., cos {jx have maximum
head and for the shell at the junction must also be equal. values at {jx = w/4 and fix = 1r/2, respectively. As a
result the maximum meridional bending stress in the shell
Therefore
occurs at a distance of fl 1x1 = 1r/4, and the maximum hoop
bending stress in the shell occurs at {j 1x 1 = 0. This cor-
responds to the following.
 Coates's Theoretic:al Analysis for Bending Stresses at the Head-Shell Junction
The location of maximum I m(bending in shell) is:
:t1 = 0.61 Val 8 of a. Equation 7.45 defines a function denoted by E(K, a)
The location of maximum I h(bending in shell) is:
X1 = 0
The distance to damp out bending stresses is:
:t 2.44 Vat.
7.4d Solution of Equations for an Elliptical Dished Head.
Equations 7.35 and 7.36 predict the major bending stress
in an elliptical dished head as a result of the discontinuity
at the junction. The solution of these equations is more
difficult than the solution of those for the shell since the
radius of curvature of a hoop section of the head, r 2 (see
Fig. 7.5) is a variable. Therefore (3 2, which is dependent
upon r2 (see Eq. 7.27) is also a variable. A further com-
plication arises from the fact that x 2 is the linear distance
along the meridian of the head (as measured from the
junction). This distance is not a simple function of ro
(the head radial distance to the meridian) and can only be
evaluated graphically or by the use of elliptic integrals.
This prevents the formal integration of the term (3 2 dx 2 in
both Eq. 7.35 and 7.36.
To show a method of determining the distance x 2 as a
function of ro, reference is made to Fig. 7.12, which illus-
trates an ellipse of axis a-b circumscribed by a circle of
radius a (126).
The distances ro and Z may be expressed as:
ro = a sin a
And by Eq. 7.6
Z=~Va 2 -ro 2
a
Z=bcosa
129
Mathematicians have proved that Eq. 7.45 can not be
evaluated in finite form in terms of the elementary functions
which because of its origin is termed an "elliptic integral."
or
E(K, a) = /o" Vl - K 2 sin 2 a da (0 < K < 1) (7.47)
Values of the function E in terms of K and a have been
determined by the use of infinite-series calculations. Tables
of values of the function are given in the literature (127).
To determine :t2 as a function of r 0 , the value of s at the
point in question is subtracted from the value of s for
a = 90°. As the function E is equal to s/a (see Eqs. 7.45
and 7.46) and as it is convenient to plot stress-intensifica-
tion factors versus the dimensionless ratio r 0/ a, a table may
be prepared for an elliptical dished head giving correspond-
ing values of a, ro/a, s/a, x2/a, and r 2/a. Such a tabula-
tion is shown in Table 7.1 for an ellipse with a major-to-
minor-axis ratio (k) equal to 2.0 to 1. In preparing this
table even angles of a were selected rather than even incre-
ments of ro/a in order to avoid the necessity of interpolation
of tables of elliptic integrals (127) used to determine values
of E. Selecting a fixes ro/a because by Eq. 7.41 r0/a equals
sin a. The value of rz/a (radius of curvature divided by
shell radius) is determined by use of Eq. 7.14.
Equations 7.35 and 7.36 may he solved by tabulating r 2,
f32, and x2 as a function of ro. A summation of the incre-
ments of f32 .ix2 is used to determine the integral of (3 2 d:t 2.
The values of this integral may then be used to determine
the corresponding functions of e-P2z2 sin {3 2:t 2 and e-fliz2 cos
(7.41) f32x2 by means of Fig. 7.11. Substitution of the values of
these functions and the corresponding value of r 2 into Eqs.
7.35 and 7.36 permits the determination of the major
(7.42)

Measuring the arc length, s, from point B, the top of the

minor axis, we obtain:

BP J ds = JVdro 2
+ dZ 2 (7.43)
But
dro = a cos a da
dZ b sin a da
therefore
s J: Va 2
cos 2 a + b2 sin 2 a da (7.44)

where the upper limit of a corresponds to the value of a at

point P.

Substituting 1 sin 2 a for cos 2 a gives:

s Jo" Va 2 - (a 2 - b2) sin 2 a da

= a / 0" Vl - K 2 sin 2 a da (7.45)

~
where K =- --- eccentricity of the ellipse (7 .J6)
a Fig. 7.12. Trigonometric variables for an ellipse.
130 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures
Tobie 7.1. Dimensionless Ratios for an Ellipse in If k = 2 and i, = 11,,
Whkh a/b 2:0
(See Fig. 7.12 [127}.) lm(bending) = -
3a (e -f ~/J,dx•)
2

(sin f•• /32 dx2)

r2 V3(1 - µ 2) Jo
(7.50)

a sin a Ea (E90 E,.) K(E90 Ea)

r2
a h(bending) r: (e -f~'fl,dx,) (cos lo"' /32 dx2). (7.51)
90° 1.0000 1.2111 0 0 1.000
89° 0.99985 1.2023 0.0088 0.0076 1.0015 7.4e Combined Stress•intensifkation Factors. The
88° 0.99939 1.1936 0.0175 0.0152 1.002 bending stresses can. be combined with the pressure stresses
87° 0.99863 1.1848 0.0263 0.0228 1.004 to give the maximan combined stresses.
86° 0.99756 1.1761 0.0350 0.0303 1.008 For the shell,
85° 0.99619 1.1673 0.0438 0.0380 1.012
80° 0.98481 1.1225 0.0886 0.0768 1.044 / m(combined) / m(bending)+ / m(press.)
75° 0.96593 1.0759 0.1352 0.1172 1.096
70° 0.93969 1.0266 0.1845 0.1600 1.164 = /~(bending) + 0.5 ·(See Eq. 7.37.) (7.52)
:-,-.
65° 0.90631 0.9743 0.2368 0.2051 1.239 I h(combined) = I h(bending) + J h(press.)
60° 0.86603 0.9184 0.2927 0.2540 1.322
55° 0.81915 0.8588 0.3523 0.3051 1.410 = I h(bending) + 1.0 (See Eq. 7.38.) (7.53)
50° 0.76604 0.7954 0.4157 0.3610 1.496
45° 0. 70711 0.7282 0.4829 0.4182 1.581 For the elliptical closure,
40° 0.64279 0.6575 0.5536 0.4794 1.660
35° 0.57358 0.5833 0.6278 0.543 1.734
I m(oombined) = I m(bending) + I m(press.) (7 .54)
where Im(bending) is given by Eq. 7.50, and Im(press.) is given
by Eq. 7.17,
bending stresses, f m(bending) and h.(bending), in an elliptical
dished head.
I h(combined) I h(bending) + I /,(press.) (7.55)
Equations 7.35 and 7.36 may be converted into stress• where h(bending} is given by Eq. 7.51, and h(press.) is given
intensification.factor form by dividing by (pd/2t8 ), or by Eq. 7.20.

. -3t8k a
2
( - /~•(;I, tk•) 7.5 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS USING COATES'S
Im(bending) = 4ihr2 V3(1 - µ2) e METHOD OF ANALYSIS

(sin lox, /32 dx2) (7.48)

A cylindrical steel vessel has elliptical dished closures
with a major•to•minor-axis ratio of 2:0. The diameter of
the vessel is 80 in,, and the vessel is to operate under an
(7.49) internal pressure of 100 psi. The shell and the heads have
the same thickness, l¼ in. Determine the maximum

Table 7.2. Solution of Stress•intensiflcation Factors in the Shell

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

X1
(:) f:J1x1 F1(x1) F2(x1) I m(bending) I h(bend\ng) lm(combined) li.(combined)

0 0 0 1.0 0 0 -1.0 0.50 0

1 0.025 0.182 0.82 0.15 0.272 -0.82 0.772 0.18
2 0.05 0.364 0.66 0.255 0.463 -0.66 0.963 0.34
3 0.075 0.546 0.50 0.30 0.544 -0.50 1.044 0.50
4 0.10 0.728 0.37 0.325 0.590 -0.37 1.090 0.63
6 0.15 1.092 0.15 0.30 0.545 -0.15 1.045 0.85
8 0.20 1.456 0.03 0.23 0.418 -0.03 0.918 0.97
10 0.25 1.820 -0.04 0.155 0.281 0.04 0.781 1.04
12 0.30 2.185 -0.06 0.100 0.182 0.06 0.682 1.06
14 0.35 2.558 -0.06 0.025 0.045 0.06 0.545 1.06
16 0.40 2.912 -0.04 0.010 0.018 0.04 0.518 1.04
18 0.45 3.276 -0.01 0 0 0.01 0.500 1.01
20 0.50 3.640 0 0 0 0 0.500 1.0
where F1(x1) = efhz:, cos tl1x1
F2(x1) eP1" 1 sin /j iX1
 Example Calculations Using Coates's Method of Analysis 131

stress-intensification factors in the shell and closures in the To solve the above equations, Table 7.2 was prepared.
neighborhood of the junction. One-inch increments of x1 were selected up to 4 in. from the
For the shell, a = 40 in., b = 20 in., k a/b = 2.0. junction, and 2-in. increments from 4 to 20 in. These
By Eq. 6.86 and withµ = 0.3, values were divided by a (40 in.) and tabulated in column
2, and also were multiplied by f31 (0.182) and tabulated in
= 4 /3(1 - µ2) = 4/ 3(1 0.32) = 0.182 column 3. The values of e-P1x1 cos (3 1x 1 and e-l31z1 sin (3 1x 1
f3i '\J r2t/ '\J (40) 2(1.25) 2 were determined from Fig. 7.11 and tabulated as F 1 (x 1)
and F 2 (x 1), respectively, in columns 4 and 5. Substitution
Therefore of values from column 4 into Eq. 7.40 gives J h(bending) tabu-
lated in column 7. Substitution of values from column 5
(~ ) = 1.815
4(31 2t.a into Eq. 7.39 gives I m(bending) tabulated in column 6. Sub-
stitution of values from column 6 into Eq. 7.52 and of
By Eq. 7.39, I m(bending) = l.815e-l\x1 sin f31x1 column 7 into Eq. 7.53 gives I m(oombined) and J h(combined)
By Eq. 7.40, Ih(bending) = -e-ll 1x 1 cos f31x1 tabulated in columns 8 and 9, respectively.
By Eq. 7.52, J m(cornbined) = [m(bending) + 0.5 The example calculation for the head is as follows.
By Eq. 7.53, hccombined) = h(bending) + 1.0 Since the head has a major-to-minor axis ratio of 2.0 tol,

Table 7.3. Solution of Stress-intensification Factors in the Head

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

a r2 f32 X2 (in.) D..x2 f32 D..x2 '2";(32 D..x2 F1(x2)

90 40.00 0.1818 0 0 0 0 1.00

89 40.06 0.1817 0.304 0.304 0.0552 0.0552 0.935
88 40.08 0.1815 0.608 0.304 0.0552 0.1104 0.89
87 40.16 0.1813 0.912 0.304 0.0551 0.1655 0.83
86 40.32 0.1811 1.212 0.300 0.0543 0.2198 0.78
85 40.48 0.1808 1.520 0.308 0.0557 0.2755 0.725
80 41.76 0.1780 3.072 1.552 0.2763 0.5518 0.500
75 43.84 0.1738 4.688 1.616 0.2809 0.8327 0.300
70 46.56 0.1688 6.400 1.712 0.2890 1.1217 0.150
65 49.56 0.1634 8.204 1.804 0.2948 1.420 0.050
60 52.88 0.1580 10.160 1.956 0.3090 1.720 -0.025
55 56.40 0.1531 12.20 2.040 0.3123 2.041 -0.060
50 59.84 0.1488 14.44 2.24 0.3333 2.375 -0.080
45 63.24 0.1447 16.73 2.29 0.3314 2.706 -0.060
40 66.40 0.1405 19.20 2.47 0.3470 3.053 -0.02
35 69.30 0.1382 21.70 2.50 0.3455 3.399 0

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)

F2(x2) /1,(bentlrng) J m(bending) f m(press.) J/i(preu.) J m(combined) [ h(comblned)

0 1.000 0 0.500 1.000 0.500 0

0.06 0.935 · -0.109 0.501 -0.993 0.392 -0.058
0.10 0.89 -0.181 0.502 -0.990 0.321 -0.100
0.14 0.83 -0.252 0.503 -0.986 0.251 .-0.156
0.175 0.77 -0.312 0.505 -0.975 0.193 -0.205
0.220 0.715 -0.394 0.506 -0.966 0.112 -0.251
0.300 0.480 -0.520 0.523 -0.868 0.003 -0.388
0.325 0.273 -0.538 0.548 -0. 729 0.010 -0.456
0.290 0.128 -0.450 0.583 -0.545 0.133 -0.417
0.240 0.040 -0.350 0.620 -0.375 0.270 -0.335
0.175 0.019 -0.240 0.661 -0.193 0.421 -0.212
0.120 -0.043 -0.155 0.705 -0.010 0.550 -0.053
0.075 -0.054 -0.097 0.748 +0.158 0.651 +0.104
0.020 -0.038 -0.023 0.790 +0.31'1 0.767 +0.276
0 0.012 0 0.830 +0.455 0.830 +0.443
0 0 0 0.865 +0.572 0.865 +0.572
-
132 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Clo~ures

---
1.2

1.0
4 I
·- --- ~
A
--- ~
·-

- 0.8
~c
........._
c/
~ V
~ I'--- ..,
0.6 '
I
,.:$
.:
:g 0.4 I'\.
1C ' l"'- II
0.2

·-
Fig. 7.13. Hoop-stress intensifi-
y ,-
I
I;:: \ 3/ r-
cation based . on combination
-~
.!!
C
·;i; --0.2
0
\. I
of Huggenberger's membrane
stresses and Coates's bending
stresses.
V
~
ti
C.
-04
'·
\ I

8 A - Huggenburger's membrane-stress curve

:c -0.6 r - - B- Coates's bending-stress curve
\g I
-0.8
C- Combined curve \A
\
\ I
I
\
-1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
I
,-E..----
Head radial distance to meridian = l!Jla)
Shell radius \:
j Shell axial distance from junction =
----a,-.,,- Shell radius
(!1)-

Table 7.1 may be correctly used in the analysis of the stresses To determine the combined stress-intensification factors,
in the head. By Eq. 7.27, the pressure-stress-intensification factors must be added to
4 4 the bending-'stress-intensification factors. The meridional
2 2
/32 = /3(1 - µ ) = /3(1 - 0.3) = 1.15 and hoop pressure-stress-intensification factors may be
'\J r2 2th2 '\J r2 2(1.25) 2 ✓r; determined by Eqs. 7.17 and 7.20, respectively, and are
tabulated in columns 12 and 13, respectively, of Table 7.3.
The value of r2 may be determined from column 6 of The combined meridional and hoop stress-intensification
Table 7.1 (a = 40 in.) for the values of angle a selected in factors determined by use of Eqs. 7.54 and 7.55 are tabu-
column 1 of Table 7.3. The coefficient for Eq. 7.50 is: lated in columns 14 and 15, respectively.
-3a (-3)(40) -72.5 The bending-stress-intensification factors for this vessel
at and near the junction, I h(bending) and I m(bending), are
r 2 v'3(1 - µ 2)
plotted in Figs. 7.13 and 7.14. It should be pointed out
By Eq. 7.50, that these curves are specific for a vessel having the dimen-
sions given in the problem and are not general.
lm(bending)
-72.5
= ------;;- e ( - ! XI O 13• dx, ) ( Slil
• loXI
/32 dx2
O
) Referring to Fig. 7.13, we find that the computed hoop
stress-intensification factor at or near the junction by use
Coates's method of computation is shown as a dashed curve
By Eq. 7.51,
labeled B. Inspection of the curve indicates that the
I h(bending) = 40
r ( e "'13
O
2
d )
x,
f (
cos J("•
/32 dx2 )
bending stresses in both the head and the shell are rapidly
damped out within a short distance from the junction.
2 O
Huggenberger's theoretical curve for the hoop stress in an
As /32 varies with r 2 , the above equations can not be elliptical dished head having a major-to-minor-axis ratio
formally integrated. Integration of /3 2 dx2 is performed by of 2 to 1 and the theoretical hoop stress in the shell are
steps. By use of column 5 of Table 7.1, values of x2 are shown in Fig. 7.13 by the dotted curves labeled A. Addi-
determined for corresponding values of a and r 2• These tion of curve A to curve B results in the combined curve
values of x2 are tabulated in column 4 of Table 7.3. Differ- shown as a solid line labeled C. This combined curve, C,
ences are taken to give the incremental values of ..!lx 2 listed gives the predicted stress-intensification factor in both the
in column 5. Values of ..!lx2 are multiplied by {32 and tabu- elliptical dished head and shell for the vessel described.
lated in column 6. Accumulative summations of /32 ..!lx2 Figure 7 .14 shows the corresponding meridional stress-
are tabulated in column 7 and correspond to the integral intensification factors for the same vessel.
from 0 to x2 of /32 dx2. Then values of F 1(x2) and F2(x2) Although the combined curves of Figs. 7.13 and 7.14 are
are determined by the use of Fig. 7 .11 in the same manner as specific for the vessel described, it is interesting to compare
previously indicated to give h(bending) and lm(bending) listed these curves with those of Figs. 7.2 and 7.3, which were
in columns 10 and 11. co_mputed from strain measurements of E. Hohn. In gen-

eral it may be seen that the meridional and hoop stress-
intensification factors have the same shapes in the corre-
sponding curves.
7.6 EFFECT OF MAJOR-TO-MINOR-AXIS RATIO
The American Petroleum Institute formed the API Com-
mittee on Unfired Pressure Vessels in 1930 to formulate a
code for the petroleum industry. An unpublished memo-
randum entitled "Streses in Heads of Pressure Vessels"
was prepared for this committee in 1932 by F. L. Maker,
then of the Standard Oil Company of California.* In this
memorandum curves were presented for computed maxi-
mum stresses and maximum strains for elliptical heads of
various depth ratios; the computations were made by using
Coates's method of calculation and a ratio of shell radius,
r, to head thickness, t, of 32 (r/t = 32). Figure 7.15 shows
the ratio of maximum stress or strain in the head to the
hoop stress or strain in the shell as a function of the ratio
of major to minor axis k of the elliptical head. The follow-
ing is a quotation from Maker's original memorandum in
reference to Fig. 7.15: "It was found that as the ratio of the
axes of the ellipse varied there was a change in the location
of the point at which the maximum stress occurred. For
heads flatter than k 2.5, hoop compression on the outside
face of the knuckle is the governing point. For heads
having the value of k between 2.5 and 1.2, the meridional
tension on the inside face of the knuckle governs. For
heads having the value of k between 1.2 and 1.0 (the last
representing a hemispherical head) hoop tension at the
juncture is the governing stress. For the usual shape of
elliptical head having a depth ratio of 2.0, the discontinuity
stresses added to the membrane stresses give a maximum
* Private communication.
Effect of Major-to-minor-axis Ratio 133
of 1.09 times the stress in the cylindrical shell of the same
thickness."
The upper dashed line in Fig. 7.15 shows the maximum
strain ratios calculated by Coates's relationships. The
solid line from k = 3.5 to k 2.5 and the dot-dash line
from k = 2.5 to k = 1.0 are also maximum stress ratios
calculated from Coates's relationships. The maximum of
strain ratios is greater than the maximum of stress ratios
over the entire range for k greater than 1.25. However,
the maximum-stress theory is generally used as the basis
of pressure-vessel design since experimental tests have come
out in agreement with calculations based on this theory.
Experimental tests have shown that elliptical heads having
k = 2.0 are as strong or stronger than the shell. (One
point from a test by T. M. Jasper is shown in Fig. 7.15 at
k = 2.0.) For this reason the proposed curve was lowered
slightly to pass through 1.0 at k = 2.0. Calculations based
on the maximum-strain theory failure have indicated that
a hemispherical head should. have a thickness of only 41 %
of the shell thickness. Simple membrane theory without
allowance for the discontinuity stresses would indicate a
head thickness of 50 % of the shell thickness. Tests of
vessels with hemispherical heads having thicknesses of 50%
of the shell thickness have shown such heads to be as strong
or stronger than the shell. For these reasons the proposed
curve was drawn to pass through 0.5 at k = 1.0.
For many years the proposed curve shown as a solid line
was used as the stress-intensification factor, referred to as V,
by the ASME code (11). In recent years this curve has
been replaced by Eq. 7.56.
V = ¼(2 + k 2) (7 .56)
t= pdV +c (7.57)
2JE - 0.2p

1.4

1.2

.
~
~

~
.:
j 1.0

0.8
A andc
- i--
r-- I
/ i'-,.C
~
r\
t'~~. I
.s
j
~~
0.6

0.4
" 6\ "· ---J ~ '
_4.,_
r-..
I
"
Fig. 7. 14. Meridional-stress inten•
slflcation based on combination of
~C
~ 0.2
\ I \
Huggenberger'$ membrane stresses
c:md Coates's bending stresses.
i ~, \ '~,

ifl-0.2
0
~,
.9 A - Huggenburger's membrane-stress curve '· B
"C
li -0.4 ,__ B- Coates's bending-stress curve f\
:ii!
-0.6
C-Combined curve \
-0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10 0.1 0.2 0.3 , .0.4 0.5 0.6

I• Head radial distance to meridian

Shell radius
= f~a)
\: ------
I• Shell axial Shell
• distance from junction = ·1xa1)
radius \:
134 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures
- 3.5 r----r---r--.--r--.----,--....--.-----r--,--.---,-'"""T--r--r-"""T-r---i---r--.--.---,---,--....--,
ai
.s::
<JI

.S Hoop strain-outside
'§ 3.0 '< face of knuckle
t,
0
, , 4f,
, $,-i<f;
I(t minimum
Proposed
depth
<JI
<JI ',tlJq/ or elliptical heads
t 2.5 L,
'T°'1
'-~q·
...:f_l}..._.
<JI
C.
8
2> C1
°-"1..o,.,0
'!!!.s;c1,
...._~c$
I• L--ASME standard
.s::
.s-s,01) ....__-...f!!•._lrlJlJ. ! elliptical head
~
0

l3
2.0 .....
OV/l. I '~
----C.fl, I fig. 7.15. Computed maximum
.s::
.s
s,0'0
~
C0 0,
. --........_
.......
'--....~ Strain Hemisphere
stresses and strains, in elliptical
heads as ratios of stresses and
'§ 1.5 .fl)t,,. .............. ! strains in attached cylindrical
t, C.f,:
! IS' ·=-- ~ shell. (Courtesy of F. L. Maker.)
0 1
Stress ·--. i
t
<JI
<JI

<JI

E
~
1.0
..
Meridional tension -
inside face of knuckle
.
/! --·::::--,. . _
·t---.
I
',...._ Hoop tension
·:::::::-:::-,
at junctioJ

Jasper's test ,· , ·::::::;::,,

E
·;;.
eo.5 I Proposed curve · ·

0
0
I i
:.:,
~ o._......_.__._......__.__._....___.._..__.___._....._.....__._.....__.__.___.__.__._....___.._..__.__,
3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
k. ratio of major to minor axis of elliptical head

where V = stress-intensification factor from Eq. 7.56 inwardly at the junction under internal pressure results in
E = welded-joint efficiency (See Chapter 13.) a radial shear force inward on the shell. This force opposes
c = corrosion allowance, inches the internal pressure acting in the opposite direction on the
k a . . . . shell at the junction. Thus the head may be considered to
= i/ maJor-to-mmor-ax1s rat10. act as a reinforcing ring on the end of the shell reducing
the average hoop stress on the shell near the junction.
The most widely used elliptical dished head is that having Although the outer-fiber stresses resulting from bending
a major-to-minor-axis ratio of 2.0 and a thickness approxi- may exceed the hoop stress in the shell proper, the net
mately equal to the thickness of the shell to which it is result of the bending stress, membrane stress, and shear
attached. The discussion here will be limited primarily will be a reduction in average stress in the shell cross section
to vessels with heads of this shape. in the longitudinal direction at and near the junction.
Inspection of the hoop and meridional stress-intensifica- The shear between the head and the shell acts radially
tion curves computed from strain measurements (see Figs. outward on the head opposing the tendency of the head to
7.2 and 7.3) and from elastic theory (see Figs. 7.13 and 7.14) bend inward at the junction. The net result is to reduce
indicates that in the neighborhood of the junction, the the compressive stress in the head near the junction. Thus
maximum tensile stress is the combined meridional bending the shell serves to reinforce the head.
and longitudinal stresses in the outer fibers of the outer sur- At the center of an elliptical dished head having a major-
face of the shell near the junction. The combination of to-minor-axis ratio of 2.0, both the meridional and cir-
hoop discontinuity and shell-hoop stresses in the same region cumferential hoop stresses are equal to the hoop stress in
produces a tensile stress nearly as great. The maximum the shell proper. However, this is a point condition, and
compressive stress is the combined membrane and meridional the average stress over a finite area at the center of the
bending stresses located in the outer fiber on the outer sur- head is less than the hoop stress in the shell proper.
face of the head near the junction. The statement is sometimes made that an elliptical. --~
The meridional bending stress produces a tensile stress dished head having a major-to-minor-axis ratio of 2.0 is as
on the outer surface of the shell near the junction and a strong as the cylindrical shell to which it is attached. On
compressive stress of about equal magnitude on the inner the basis of average stresses over any finite area of the head
surface. The net effect is to produce a nonuniform stress or the shell near the junction, such a head and the junction
distribution across the thickness of the head and of the can be considered to be slightly stronger than the cylinder
shell. A very small amount of plastic deformation will proper. This has been verified by years of experience and
relieve these high longitudinal stresses and cause a redis- a multitude of tests. In 1931, T. M. Jasper, then Director
tribution of the stresses which cannot be evaluated by the of Research of A.O. Smith Company, made the comment
theory of elasticity. (124) "Elliptical heads of 2 to 1 ratio will fail a cylinder
The tendency of the elliptical dished hea_d to deform wall of the same thickness if properly made and attached."
 Relationships of Rhys-Stresses at Junction of Knuckle and Crown in Torispherical Closures
7.7 TORISPHERICAL DISHED CLOSURES
The torispherical head, often referred to as the flanged-
and-dished head, has previously been shown in Fig. 5.7
(details c and d'J. This head is formed from a flat plate
with two radii, the larger being the crown radius or radius
of dish and the smaller being the knuckle radius, sometimes
referred to as the inside-corner radius. Heads of this type
were widely used before the development of dies for the
elliptical dished head. In the early years the knuckle did
not have any particular radius, and the radius was fre-
quently only 1 or 2 in. The radius used was whatever the
boilermaker or flangesmith could hammer out on hot form-
ing blocks. The crown radius was always made equal
to the diameter of the shell on the theory that this provided
a stress in the spherical portion of a head equal to the stress
in the cylindrical shell. Failures in the field and a number
of tests indicated the weakness of the knuckle of this type
of dished closure. Because of these failures, larger knuckle
radii were used, and the ASME Boiler Construction Code
added the restriction that the knuckle radius he not less
than 6% of the vessel diameter. This limitation is an
improvement but does not define an optimum dished head.
Figure 7.16 illustrates some of the various shapes of tori-
spherical dished heads possible for a given depth of dish,
b, less than the diameter of the vessel. One extreme case
is shown by the uppermost curve where the crown radius
is infinity and the knuckle radius, rb, is a maximum and
is equal to the depth of dish. The other extreme case is
shown by the lowermost curve where the knuckle radius
is equal to zero and the crown radius, r 3, is a minimum.
An infinite number of knuckle and crown radii combinations
exists between these two extremes, one of which is illus-
trated by r1 and r2.
An examination of Fig. 7.16 indicates that as the crown
radius increases from its minimum value of ra to infinity,
the ratio of the knuckle radius to the crown radius (r 1 to re)
goes from zero to a maximum value and back to zero.
Hohn (114) and Boardman (128) showed that when this
ratio is maximum, the resulting torispherical dished head
most closely approximates an elliptical dished head.
Hohn showed that the ratio of ri/rc of a torispherical head
is maximum when
135
where r 1 = knuckle radius, inches
a radius of shell, inches
(90 - ¢) angle between r 1 and diameter
In determining f:32 (Eq. 7.27) Eq. 7.59 is used to evaluate
r2 rather than Table 7.1, which was used for the elliptical
closure.
For the knuckle zone,
(7.60)
Equation 7.60 may he used with Eq. 7.58 to determine
the values of (:3 2x2 for the solution of Eqs. 7.50 and 7.51 for
the knuckle.
The limit of the knuckle in terms of the angle ¢ is given
by:
where re = radius of crown, inches
The value of the angle ¢ determined by the above
equation may be substituted into Eq. 7.60 to determine
the maximum value of x 2 in the knuckle zone.
Tables similar to Tables 7 .2 and 7 .3 may be established
for the torispherical head to determine values of both
Im(bending) and h(bending) in the shell and head, respectively,
at and near the junction of the head and shell.
7.9 RELATIONSHIPS OF RHYS FOR STRESSES AT THE
JUNCTION OF THE KNUCKLE AND CROWN IN
TORISPHERICAL CLOSURES
The change in the meridional radius of curvature at the
junction of. the knuckle and crown produces an additional
discontinuity. C. 0. Rhys (124) has suggested the follow-
ing equations for calculating the bending stresses at and
near the junction of the knuckle and the crown.
For the knuckle,
(7.61)

V(k 2 +~)-k
(7.58)
rcmax V(k 2 + 1)- 1 b

a
where k
b

7.8 APPLICATION OF COATES'S ~ELATIONSHIPS TO

TORISPHERICAL CLOSURES Fq)R STRESSES AT THE
JUNCTION OF THE SHELL AND KNUCKLE
i
The same procedures used for ;calculating hoop and
meridional bending stresses in elliptical closures may be
used for torispherical closures 1n t · knuckle zone. The
radius of curvature, r 2 , of a torisp cal knuckle is different
from that in an ellipse and may he calculated as follows:
Fig. 7.16. Possible variations of radii in torisphericol heads. (Courtesy
(7.59) of F. L. Maker.)
136 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures

I m(bending) -_ [ - 3(.
2- 0
4{3 at1, •
(re i)] e
-
r1
-
-fix SIIl
• X , (7 .74)

7.10 DISCUSSION OF EQUATIONS OF COATES

AND RHYS
In using the equations of both Coates and Rhys for tori-
spherical closures, the different radii that are used should
not be confused. The knuckle radius, r 1, is a radius in a
meridional plane, is a constant for a given liead, and is
identical to icr in Table 5.7. The knuckle has another
radius of curvature, r2, in the plane perpendicular to the
(a) (b) meridian, as shown for the case of the ellipse in Fig. 7.5.
This radius is a variable, as given by Eq. 7.59, is equal to
fig. 7.17. Deformafion of o torispherical head under internal pressure . the shell radius at the junction of the knuckle and shell,
(after Hohn [1141). (al Elastic; deformation. (b) Plastic deformafion. and is equal to the radius of the crown, re, at the junctfon
of the crown and knuckle. Because f32 and r2 are variables
in the knuckle, integration of the functions of f3 dx are
, required. In the crown, r 2 is a constant equal to re- There-
pr2 fore {jz. is also constant, and f32x can be determined -without
f m(press.) = th (7.62)
2 integration.

/h(bending) 3prc
= [ __
4at1,
2
(r )]
_!:, -
r1
1 er• dz: cos
e- f"'s !oz: f32 ·dx
o
In using the relationship~ of Rhys, the distance x is the
positive distance from the junction of the knuckle and
crown in the direction of the knuckle for the knuckle stress
(7.63) equations and in the direction of the crown for the crown
stress equations. ,
According to the relationships of Rhys, the maximum
bending stress is the meridional bending stress in the knuckle
due to the discontinuity at the crown-knuckle junction.
This stress is 'equal to:

(7.65)
f m(bending) max (7.75)
at,.
I _ r2t. (7.66)
m(press.) - 2at,.
The relationships of Coates and Rhys for bending stresses

1A(bending) = [ - t8 - - 1
3rc-
4~ ~
2
(re )] e-/"'13,dz:
O COS l"o
f32 dx
in torispherical heads are discontinuous when combined
with the pressure stresses in the head. Also, these calcu-
lated combined stresses fail to damp out in the same manner
(7.67) as those determined by Coates's relationships for an ellip-
tical dished head. A further complication exists in the
fact that prior to failure a torispherical head plastically
deforms. This fact invalidates the use of elastic-theory
relationships.
7.11 DEFORMATION OF TORISPHERICAL HEADS
For the crown, UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
I pre Although a torispherical head having approximately the
/h(press.) = Jm(press.) = 2t,. (7.69) shape of an ellipse is considered to be the strongest head of
this type, it is rarely used because of the availability of
/A(bending) = [~:a(;: - 1)] e-fiz cos {jx (7.70)
dies for elliptical dished heads when heads of such strength
are desired. However, for reasons of economy torispherical
heads having less than the maximum ratio of r1 /rc are
fm(bending) = [ ;~,. 2 ( ~
4
- 1)] e-l'lz sin {3:i: (7.71)
extensively used.
Torispherical heads having less than the maximum ratio
of ri/rc tend to deform to the shape of an ellipse under the
rcl8 influence ofintemal pressure, as was shown by Hohn (114).
I h(press,) = I m(press.) = 2.at,. (7 .72)
Figure 7.17a (from Hohn) illustrates the change in shape
that occurs within the elastic limit of the material, and
],.(bending) = [ ~: (~ - 1)] e-fJz COS {3:i; (7.73) Fig. 7.17b indicates the permanent set produced when such
a head is plasticly deformed. The crown expands out-
 Development of Stress-intensification Factor for Code-designed Torispherical Closures
ward, the knuckle flattens, and the profile becomes more
elliptical. As a result of this plastic deformation, the
head becomes stronger with a redistribution of the stresses.
Elastic theory does not permit the calculation of such
stresses after plastic set has occurred. Therefore, it has
been necessary to use experimental tests of vessels under
pressure supplemented with observations of vessel failures
to establish an empirical correlation for the design of tori-
spherical heads.
Hohn reported 344 cases of failures of dished heads in
Europe, most of which had ring cracks on the inside of
the knuckle discovered in the course of inspections and in
fifteen of which violent ruptures occurred. Hohn pointed
out that as the meridional and hoop stresses are of opposite
signs at the inner surface of the knuckle, large shearing
strains exist at an angle of 45° with the meridians but
observed that no case of failure had occurred which could
be attributed to these strains. The cracks that were
observed always occurred along a ring in the knuckle. The
bending stresses in the knuckle are large because of the
sharp radius of the knuckle, and the bending stresses do
not follow the linear rule in passing from compression to
tension throughout the thickness of the knuckle. The
stress-distribution curve has a hyperbolic shape, and the
stress is much greater at the inner surface than it would be
in the bending of a straight beam. It has not been feasible
to determine the stresses on the interior surface of a tori-
spherical dished head by strain measurements on the exte-
rior surface. However, such external strain measurements
137
have been useful in developing empirical correlations for
the design of torispherical heads.
7.12 DEVELOPMENT OF STRESS-INTENSIFICATION
FACTOR FOR CODE-DESIGNED TORISPHERICAL
CLOSURES
Hohn analyzed all of the reliable test data then available
on torispherical heads and performed many tests of his own.
He noted that the yield point of the head material was first
reached in the knuckle, and measured the pressure required
to produce such yielding. He then computed the stress in
the center of the crown at this pressure by use of the equa-
tions for spheric!J,l shells based upon membrane theory.
Next he determined the ratio of the yield point to the stress
in the center of the crown and used this stress-intensification
factor for correlation purposes. After trying a number of
methods of correlation, he concluded that the results could
best be correlated by comparing the computed stress ratios
with the ratio of the knuckle radius to the crown radius
ri/rc•
Hohn plotted 20 points with r1/rc varying from 0.025 to
0.19 and drew a curve through these points for which he
fitted an empirical equation. Hohn's data and equation
are shown in Fig. 7.18. The equation or curve gives a
factor by which the head thickness computed by means of
the equation for spherical shells may be multiplied to give
a torispherical head thickness having sufficient strength.
Figure 7 .18 was originally part of a memorandum of F. L.

\
35
· \
1
l I I I I
\ / Hohn's empirical function
!\
\
,,R-+\-i--
·3.0 1-,.+-- -
w= 20r/R+3
20 r/R + I -+--+--+----+---t--+----+--+-- Legend
'I 0
□ Bursting tests by Standard Oil Co. of NJ.
i-;...,,.-1-~\.....i---+--+----1----1---1---1----,,-----1-- "" Elastic tests by Siebel and Koerber _ ___,
! \ ',.__ o Elastic tests by Hohn
iJi 2.5 1--t---+---'~.~-+-
,-+--+--+---+--+---t--+- ~ Test of A.O. Smith Co.
I \ ~,
.2 ~ ....- -
j 2.0 \ I"'-...;:_:--.. --. g D

E '\ 6 ~r:--,;;;:;;--.... _ □- ::::z:::~!:!_E for~~---- ---+•--1

E ·, Prop0~--- t,, - - _____o_ - ~ A

·~ 1.51---+--1-.-,..,.:+-,-+---+--f---+- urve..- ~ 1- . _ -:.,... _ _

E ~-....
,-.
j. ~ D -
Tol.O
o --1 . atr/R=l.O
t"ir'-·-,....
-io 1.01----+--+---+--+----1-.::- u
~ 1-s ·-'it'·--·--·----- - . ------
Elliptical heads (computed maximum stresses for head -
o I~ thickness equal to shell thickness)
t----+--+---+--+----1-.!:! en -+--+---t--+--+--+---+--+----+--+---+--+----t--
'li,
.. I< >,
0.51----+--+---+--+----I- E I.Q -+---+--+--+--+---+--+--+--+---+--+----1--
E "51 .
1----+--+---+--+---+- .s 1·e - - Ratio of major axis to minor axis of ellipse, k --+--+----t'--+--1
·- ;I::

o 6io 4;o 3;0, ::li: I i fi4 I -.2;2 I I 12io I I I 1;8

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20
Ratio of minimum knuckle radius to crown radius, r/R

Fig. 7.18. Computed maximum stresses and strains In elliptical heads as ratios of stresses and strains in attached cylindrical shell I12). (Courtesy of
American Welding Society.)
138 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures
l\Iaker* prepared for the API-ASME committee and was
later published (12). The data and curves of Hohn were
reproduced, and additional data from tests in this country
an = + -t
Mo [
2
j1 + j2
2
•
µ-(-J:--.2-J-1--J-2J-=-1_)_+_M-2(-J-1J-:-1-+-J-2J-=--1)
J
were added. A curve was also included based on computa-
tions made by using Coates's method for determining
stresses in elliptical dished heads of various depth ratios. a12 0.0875
A comparison of this curve with the empirical curve of
Hohn indicated that the curve for torispherical dished heads
bio = + M1M2 [--=-.______,J_1__+_J_2_2 2
_-,-----:--]
2 µ(J~1 J2J1) + M2(J1,z1 + J2J2)
should turn upward more abruptly than was specified by
Hohn. Therefore, the "proposed" curve was bent upward b _ M1 [ j2J1 hj1 • ]
to the form. given in Fig. 7.18 in order to give better agree- 11

ment with some of the data for the low ratios of ri/rc•
- - 4 µ(j2J1 - J2j1) + M2(J1j1 + J2j2)
It should be emphasized that the curves for torispherical b12 =0
heads in Fig. 7 .18 are based on tests in which stress-intensi-
fication factors were determined by observation of the
pressure at which yielding occurred on the outside of the
M1 = Vl2(1 :_ µ 2 ) (t)
knuckle of the head, and are empirical. The "proposed"
curve was included in the first edition of the API-ASME ,
code, published in 1934, and has withstood the test of
M2 = ✓M/ - µ2

20-years' use. The 1956 edition of the ASME code (11) The coefficients (influence numbers) a 10, a 11 , a 12 , and
substituted Eq. 7.76 for evaluating the stress-intensi- b10, bn are given in Table 7.4. The quantities J 1 and J 2
fication factor, W. are, respectively, the values at the junction of the real and
W = ¼(3+ ~) (7.76) imaginary parts of the hypergeometric function res;ulting
f~om the theory of spherical shells. The quantities J 1 and
prcW +c (7.77) J2 are the derivatives of J 1 and J 2, respectively (109).
2fE - 0.2p Because of the difference between the coefficients for a
where W = stress-intensification factor for torispherical hemispherical head and for a flat plate, Eqs. 6.113 and 6.114
dished heads become Eqs, 7.78 and 7. 79.
.c = corrosion allowance, inches
a10 Mo + an Qo + a12 = a 4 Mo+ a5 Qo + a& (7.78)
pa'- pd pd2 pd
7.13 HEMISPHERICAL DISHED CLOSURES
\
A thin-walled spherical vessel theoretically requires only b10 Mo+ bu Qo + bu = b4 Mo+
2
bu Qo + b& (7.79)
pa'- pd pd pd
half the shell thickness of a cylindrical vessel of the same
diameter to contain the same internal pressure. This is but bs = 0, b12 = O; therefore
indicated by a comparison of Eq. 3.14 and 4.25, which
(a12 - a6)(b.; - bu)
define the theoretical hoop stress based on membrane Mo = pa- _,9.

theory. If large access openings for manways or nozzles (a4 - a1o)(b5 - bn) - (a5 - a11)(b4 - b10)
for piping are to be cut into formed closures, the hemispheri- (7.80)
cal head may be used to advantage because its greater Qo = pd -(a12 - a5) (b4 - b10)
strength will make less reinforcement required. Some
(a4 - a1o)(b, - bu) - (ai; - au)(b4 - b10)
consideration must be made of the thickness discontinuity (7.81)
that exists when a hemispherical dished head having lesser
thickness than the shell is attached to a cylinder. The 7.14 STRESSES IN THE SHELL AT ITS JUNCTION WITH
extent of bending and shear at the junction should also be HEMISPHERICAL DISHED CLOSURES
considered.
The maximum shear stress in the shell at the junction is
G. W. Watts and H. A. Lang (129) analyzed the stresses given by Eq. 6.121. The maximum combined axial stress
in a pressure vessel with a hemispherical head. The
method used was the same used by these authors for flat-
plate closures and conical closures, described in Chapter 6.
Table 7..4. Coefficients for Hemispherical Heao (129)
Dimensionless equations having the form of Eqs. 6.113 and
(Extracted from Transactions of the ASME with Permission
6.114 were used. However, for a hemispherical head
of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
attached to a cylindrical shell, the coefficient b12 = b6 = 0. Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y.)
For the cylinder a4, a,, a6, b4, b,, and b6 are the same as
for the cylinder in Eqs. 6.109, 6.UO, 6.lll, and 6.ll2 and d/t,.
are tabulated in Tables 6.2 through 6.6. The constants 4.00 -6.9690 +1.8200 -0.0875 +3.6608 -0.5272
a10, an, a12, and b10, bu, b12 for the hemispherical head 10.00 -16.7131 +2.8631 -0.0875 +5.7319 -0.5058
were defined by Watts and Lang as follows: 20.00 -33.2457 +4.0574 -0.0875 +8.1196 -0.5030
30.00 -49.7670 +4.9729 -0.0875 +9.9470 -0.5020
• Private communication. 40.00 -66.2900 +4.7438 -0.0875 +11.4886 -0.5015
 Location of the Maximum Stress 139
in the shell is given by Eq. 6.122. The maximum combined
circumferential stress is given by Eq. 6.125.
f,shear= s(Qo)
V fn (7.84)

7.15 STRESSES IN THE SHELL IN OTHER PLACES THAN The maximum combined axial stress is given by Eq. 6.125
AT THE JUNCTION with the same substitution for wall thickness, or
The maximum shear stress in the shell in other places
pd I 6M0 I (7 .85)
than at the junction is given by Eq. 6.126, and its location Axial = 4th + th 2
is defined by Eq. 6.127. The maximum axial stress in the
shell in other places than at the junction is given by Eq. The maximum combined circumferential stress is given
6.128, and its location is defined by Eq. 6.129. The maxi- by Eq. 7.86.

+ a o·)
mum circumferential stress in the shell in other places than
at the junction is given by: /circum. pd --1-16µ.Mo
4th . t2
I+ ! (a10Mo
th d
11 0 (7.86)

fciroum.
1
= ;: + 0.733 v'd]t; Ushear') (7.82)
7.17 STRESSES IN THE HEMISPHERICAL HEAD IN
8
OTHER PLACES THAN AT THE JUNCTION
wherefshear' = Eq. 6.126
For a hemispherical head the axial and meridional stresses
The location of this stress is given by: are identical and are given by Eq. 7.87.
1.072
Xe= Xa + -/3- (7.83)
f meridional = 4l,.
pd
(7.87)

where Xa is from Eq. 6.129, and {3 is from Eq. 6.86.

7.18 LOCATION OF THE MAXIMUM STRESS
7.16 STRESSES IN THE HEMISPHERICAL HEAD AT THE The maximum stress in a vessel having a hemispherical
JUNCTION closure is dependent upon the ratio of the thickness of the
The maximum shear stress in the hemispherical head is head to the thickness of the shell, as indicated in Fig.
given by Eq. 6.121 with the modification that th, the thick- 7.19, in which the stresses are plotted as stress-intensifica-
ness of the head, is used rather than l 8 , the thickness of tion factors versus the ratio of th/t.. For ratios of head to
the shell, or shell thickness of from 0.6 to 2.0, the maximum stress is

1.4 . - - - - - - , . - - - - , - - - - , - - - - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - - - .

1.20-...----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----I

Icm(shell) ({) =4 to 40
-----,----
gl.O
,.:;
-..;;:.
.,
)<

~
II
2 0.8
e
"'"'
~
"'
E
:::, 0.6
E
·;;; ••...o---··
<II

... 0.4
E

---
Iaj(head)

- -
0.2 t - - - - - t - - - - - , - - - - - : - - - - + - - - - + - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - + - - - - - - 1

o,_______...___-'----.1...-----'-----'----.1...-----l..---....l---___J
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Ratio of head thickness to shell thickness, thft,

fig, 7, 19. Stress-intensificotion foctors for vessels with hemispherical closures.

------· ----------------------------
140 Selection of Elliptical, Torispherical, and Hemispherical Dished Closures
located in the shell and is the circumferential stress as
defined by Eq. 7.82; it is equal to 1.037 times the hoop
stress in the cylinder. For head-to-shell ratios of 0.6 and
under the maximum stress is the circumferential combined
stress in the head at or near the junction as defined by
Eq. 7.86.
The other stress-intensification factors plotted in Fig.
7.19 may be identified as follows:
Iaj(shel!J = maximum combined axial stress intensification
in the shell at the junction, Eq. 6.122
I cj(shell) = maximum combined circumferential stress
intensification in the shell at the junction, Eq.
6.125
I aJ(headJ = maximum combined axial stress intensification
in the head at the junction, Eq. 7.85
Iam(head) = meridional hoop stress intensification in the
head in other places than at the junction, Eq. ,.
7.87
7.19 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 7.19 shows that the bending stresses at or near the
junction in vessels with hemispherical closures are much less
significant than in vessels with flat-plate, conical, elliptical,
or torispherical closures.
· If one judges on the basis of membrane theory, the hemi-
spherical head has twice the strength of a cylindrical shell
of the same diameter, as indicated by Eqs. 3.13, 3.14 (note
that the hoop stress in a hemisphere is the same as the axial
stress in a cylinder). This is shown in Fig. 7.19 where the
curve I am is equal to 1.0 when lh/18 = 0.5. The maximum
combined stresses in the head and shell are equal at t,,,/t8
0.6. This is indicated in Fig. 7.19 where ·the curves
Icm(shell) and Icj(head) intersect at lh/l8 = 0.6. This, in
turn, indicates that the optimum ratio of th/ls is 0.6. For
such a ratio, the shell thickness may be evaluated by the
thin-wall equation, and the maximum stress in the shell
will be only 1.7% greater than the theoretical circum-
ferential stress. If the head thickness is equal to 0.6 times
the shell thickness, the maximum shell stress· will be only
3.7% greater than the theoretical circumferential shell
stress. :for th/ls ratios of less than 0.6, both the axial and
the circumferential stresses in the head at the junction are
increased rapidly as this ratio decreases. If the head is
made with half the thickness of the shell, the combined
circumferential head stress at the junction is 11.5 % greater
than the theoretical hoop stress in the shell, and· the com-
bined axial stress in the head is 7.9 % greater. This increase
in stress is a result of the bending moments at and near the
junction. If either of these stresses exceeds the yield point
of the material, plastic deformation will result, which will
relieve the excessive stress. If some plastic deformation
can be tolerated in high-stress conditions or in hydro-
static testing, a thickness ratio of 0.5 can be considered
satisfactory.
The ASME Code (11) gives the following relationship for
the thickness of hemispherical heads:
Pili
l1. =--'---+c (7.88)
4JE - 0.4p
where E = joint efficiency

PROBLEMS

1. A natural-gasoline stabilizing column is to he constructed of ASTM-A 285, Grade C steel

The column is to operate at 200 psi. The vapor leaves the top of the column at 160° F. The
tower has a nominal diameter of 6 ft. Select a torispherical closure and an elliptical dished
closure for this application if the allowable design stress is 13,750 psi and the minimum corrosion
allowance is ½' 6 in. (The joint efficiency for a single-piece closure is 100%.)
For the case of the elliptical closure, assuming a joint efficiency, E, of 85 % in the shell, deter-
mine the combined hoop stress-intensification factor curves in the shell and in the closure.

prinalde + ·0 ) (See Reference 11.) ·

/E - 0.6p
2. For the conditions given in problem 1, determine the combined meridional stress-intensifi-
cation factor curves in the shell and closure.
3. For the case of the torispherical closure in problem 1, assuming a joint efficiency of 85 %
in the shell, determine the meridional bending stresses in the knuckle resulting from the change
in the meridional radius of curvature at the junction of the knuckle and crown.
4. For the conditions in problem 3, calculate the meridional bending stresses in the crown
resulting from the change in the meridional radius of curvature at the junction of the knuckle
and crown.
5. For purposes of beat transfer it is desired to attach a steel hemispherical head ¼ in. thick
to a steel cylindrical vessel 1 in. thick and 10 in. in inside diameter. If the vessel is under a
pressure of 1000 psi, calculate the maximum stress in the head.
6. Calculate the plot the maximum-shear-stress-intensification factor in the shell at the
junction for various hemispherical closures as a function of t,Jt. when d/t11 = 40.

DESIGN OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
WITH FORMED CLOSURES
OPERATING UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
~
wide variety of chemical and petrochemical processes
require equipment operating under partial vacuum. Exam-
ples are: vacuum condensers for evaporators and distilla-
tion columns, vacuum columns such as lube oil columns,
vacuum crystallizers, and so on. Such vessels are under
external pressure from the atmosphere. Vessels are some-
times jacketed and heated by means of steam, Dowtherm,
or other condensing vapors under pressure in the jacket;
this also produces an external pressure on the vessel. These
vessels are usually cylindrical with formed heads as closures.
A cylindrical vessel under external pressure has an induced
circumferential compressive stress equal to twice the longi-
tudinal compressive stress because of external-pressure
effects alone. Under such a condition the vessel is apt to
collapse because of elastic instability caused by the cir-
cumferential compressive stress. The collapsing strength
of such vessels may be increased by the use of uniformly
,paced, internal or external circumferential stiffening rings.
From the standpoint of elastic stability such 'stiffeners have
the effect of subdividing the length of the shell into sub-
,ections equal in length to the center-to-center spacing of
the stiffeners.
Long, thin cylinders without stiffeners or with stiffeners
,paced beyond a "critical length" will buckle at stresses
lelow the yield point of the material. The corresponding
:ritical pressure at which buckling occurs is a function only
)f the t/d ratio and the modulus of elasticity, E, of the
naterial. If the length of the shell with closures, Z, or the
listance between circumferential stiffeners, l, as the case
nay be, is less than the critical length, the critical pressure
it which collapse occurs is a function of the l/d ratio as
rell as of the t;d ratio and the modulus of elasticity, E.
141
CHAPTER
The relationships for the conditions beyond the critical
length will be developed first. (See Timoshenko [42].)
8.1 ELASTIC STABILITY OF LONG, THIN CYLINDERS
UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
A cylindrical shell under external pressure tends to
deform inward as a result of the external radial pressure.
The relationship between the radius of curvature, the prod-
uct EI, and the bending moment producing curvature is
given by Eq. 2.9.
(2.9)
Consider a cylindrical shell having an original radius of
curvature of ro under no load. A local section of this shell
under external radial pressure will have a new radius of
curvature of r. The relationship between the bending
moment, the two radii, and the product EI is given by:
M = EI (.!.r - !)
0 r
(8.1)
Figure 8.1 is a diagram of a shell section before and after
deformation under external pressure. The shell has an
original radius of curvature of ro and at the point under
consideration has a radius of curvature of rafter deforming
through a radial distance, w. Points a and b represent the
limits of an elemental strip, ds, in the shell prior to deforma-
tion. The points a' and b' are the corresponding limits of
the same elemental strip after deformation. The elemental
strip subtends an angle of d8 before deformation and an
angle of d8 + tl8 after deformation.
142 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures Operating under External Pressure
Substituting Eqs. 8.5 and 8.7 into Eq. 8.3 for !.l.dS and
!.I.dB, respectively, gives:

1
,. (8.8)

2
1 (l _ ~) = dB + d w dS
r ro dS dS 2 dS ,
Substituting 1/ro for dB/dS, by Eq. 8.2a, gives:
2
l=.!:._+~+d w2
r ro rr 0 dS

! = _!_
r ro
(1 + ~) + d2wr dS 2
(8.9)

Substituting Eq. 8.9 into Eq. 8.1 gives:

Undeformed shell
(1; - ;;;1) = (rro)
w d2w
+ dS 2 =
M
El
Assuming rro ~ ro 2, we fmd that
Fig. 8.1. Deformation of a cylindrical-shell section under external pressure.
d2w w M
(8.10)
From Fig. 8.1 and small-angle relationships,
dS 2 + ro 2 = - El

ab= dS = ro dB (8.2) Multiplying through by r 0 2 and substituting for Eq. 8.2a

gives, therefore (42) :
therefore
I dB d2w + = -Mri (8.11)
-=- (8.2a) d8 2 w El
ro dS
After bending Figure 8.2 shows a quadrant section of a cylindrical vessel
1 dB+ lidB under external pressure. The dotted lines show a possible
-= (8.3) deformation of this shell under the influence of external
r dS +
.6.dS
where dS + lldS = length of element a'b'
F
If the small angle dw/dS is disregarded, for small-angle
functions where the tangent of the angle equals the angle
expressed in radians,

(8.4)
or
dB (ro - w) = dS + lldS
Subtracting Eq. 8.2 from Eq. 8.4 gives:

lldS = -w dB = -w dS (8.5)
ro
Inspection of Fig. 8.1 indicates that the difference between

the angles ( : ) and ( : + !; dS) is the same as the

difference between the angles dB and (d8 + lid8), or
(: +: dS) - (:)=(dB+ lld8) - dfJ (8.6)

therefore
!J.d8 = d2w dS (8.7)
dS2 Fig. 8.2. Bending moments in a shell deformed by external pressure.
 Elastic Stability of Long, Thin Cylinders under External Pressure 143
pressure, p. In the deformed condition the bending The solution to this differential equation is:
moment M O and the force F will exist at point c. Consid-
ering a circumferential element of unit longitudinal width, pra3wo - Moro 2
w = A sin qfJ + B cos qfJ + (8.21)
we find that the compressive force F will be equal to the EI+ pro 3
pressure times the projected area, or Introducing the conditions at c and g (Fig. 8.2) where the
F = p(ac) p(ro - wo) (8.12) deformed shell is perpendicular to the axes, we find that

Taking a summation of moments about any arbitrary dw) _ 0

point, e, in the deformed shell gives: ( dO e...o
and
M = Mo+ F(bc) - p(ce)(½ce) (8.13)
Substituting for F in Eq. 8.13, by Eq. 8.12, we obtain: (~;)B-r/2 = O
M = Mo+ p[(ac)(bc) - ½ce 2] (8.14) Equation 8.21 may be differentiated and set equal to zero
Considering the two triangles abe and cbe, we find that for the conditions of fJ O:

(ae) 2 (ab) 2 (be) 2 dw) = A(cos qfJ) - B sin q8 = 0

( dB e...o
and
(ce) 2 = (bc) 2 + (be) 2 therefore
A 0
Substituting gives:
For the condition of fJ = 1r/2 we have:
(ae) 2 = (ab) 2 + (ce) 2 - (bc) 2
= (ce) 2 (ac - bc) 2 - (bc) 2 ( dw) = - B sin q8 = 0
dfJ e,,,,.,,,12
(ae) 2
= (ce) 2
+ (ac) 2
- 2(bc)(ac)
therefore
or
½(ae 2) = ½(ce) 2 + ½(ac) 2 - (bc)(ac)
-Bsinq!=O
2
therefore
(ac)(bc) - ½(ce) 2 ½[(ac) 2 - (ae)2] (8.15) and therefore

Substituting Eq. 8.15 into 8.14 gives: •

sm 1('
q- =0 (8.22)
2
M = Mo + ½p[(ac) 2 (ae) 2 ] (8.16)
These unique values of q define corresponding unique
But ac = r 0 - wo, and ae ro + (-w). Therefore, values of p in Eq. 8.19. The lowest of these values is
substituting into Eq. 8.16 gives: q 2 and defines p critical. Equation 8.22 is satisfied when
q is equal to 2 or multiples of 2. Substituting this value of q
M Mo+ ½p[(ra2 - 2rowo + wo 2) (ro 2 - 2row + w2)] in Eq. 8.19 and solving for p gives (42)
2
Mo+ p [ row - rowo + w
0 w0] 3EI 24EI
2 Ptheoretical = (8.23)

Furthermore, the small quantity ½(w 0 2 w2) may be dis- Equation 8.23 expresses the theoretical or critical load
regarded. Therefore per unit circumferential length of unit width of circum-
ference. For a strip of unit width the critical load is the
M = Mo + pro(w wo) (8.17)
pressure at which buckling theoretically occurs. If the ring
Substituting Eq. 8.17 into Eq. 8.11 gives: is a part of a long cylindrical shell, the adjacent metal or
either side of the ring will offer restraint to the longitudinal
2
pro 3w + pro 3wo
- Moro
---- - ·-- deformation of the strip. To allow for this restraint Eq.
EI EI EI 8.23 may be divided by (1 - µ 2 ). (See Eqs. 6.la and 6.12.)
2 3 3 2 To express the critical stress in terms of the shell thickness,
dw+ (l + pro ) = pro Wo - M oro (8.18) t8 , a substitution for I may be made for a rectangular strip.
d0 2 w EI El
Let bt3
l=
12
(8.19)
where b 1 for a strip of unit width. Making these sub-
Therefore ( 42) stitutions in Eq. 8.23 gives:
d 2w
d0 2
+ .,
q-w =
priwo - Moro 2
El (8.20) Ptheoretical = l 2E
_ µ2 (1)d 3
(8.24)
144 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures Operating under External Pressure
100 where le = critical length, inches
' ' d = diameter of shell, inches
''
'"" ''''' t = shell thickness, inches
'I

r\
.,
' '\ "I\ ' I'\.
,'\." I'( I'.
8.3 COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF VESSEL SHELLS WITH
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STIFFENERS

~ ~l~ '{q;'~z~
I\
For vessels in which circumferential stiffeners are spaced
K 10.0
' ✓~ at less than the critical length, the coefficient of Eq. 8.25
' ' ' must be modified according to the proportioni of the vessel
' '' ''
' 'I'\. '' (158, 159), or
"' t's..' 1,'
" ' '... ,''~ ................ KE (~Y
""~ "' r---..." r--...
Ptheoretieal =

Applying a factor of safety of 4 gives:

(8.29)

1.0
0.5 1.0 2 5 10 20 50 100 Pallow.
. = K E
4
(')a
d (8.30)
(J_)-
d -
(distance between stiffeners)
diameter of ves.el
where K = coefficient according to the proportions of the
Fig. 8.3. Collapse coefficients for cylindrical shells under external prenure vessel, as indicated in Fig. 8.3 (134). (Note
(134). that the minimum value of K is 2.2 as by Eq.
8.25.)
Substituting Eq. 8.29 into Eq. 3.14 (disregarding cor-
Substituting for Poisson's ratio,µ, = 0.3, gives: rosion) we find that the circumferential compressive stress
3 from external pressure at which collapse occurs is:
Ptheoretica.l = 2.2E (~) (8.25)
J
Ptheoretiea.J
2l
d dKEey
2l d
Equation 8.24 gives the theoretical "critical" pressure
(external) at which a long cylindrical vessel will buckle. or
This equation is the generally accepted theoretical formula
of Bresse (130) and Bryan (131) for long, thin tubes
J
E E = f (~Y (8.31)

under external pressure.
Stewart in a number of tests using commercial tubing and
pipe investigated the applicability of Eq. 8.25 and found
that collapse occurred at a critical pressure of 27 % less-
than the theoretically predicted pressure. For design of
long, thin cylindrical vessels operating under external pres-
sure, a factor of safety of 4 may be applied to Eq. 8.25,
giving (132):
Pallowa.ble = 0.55E
8.2 CRITICAL LENGTH BETWEEN STIFFENERS
Equations 8.25 ·and 8.26 apply to long, thin cylinders
under external pressure without circumferential stiffening
rings or with the stiffening rings spaced at or beyond the
"critical length." To make allowance for the added
restraint offered by stiffeners spaced at less than the critical
length, the critical length may first be evaluated.
The expression for the critical length was first developed
by Southwell (133). Southwell's analysis involves a 15-row
determinant solution and is beyond the scope of this text.
The relationship resulting from Southwell's analysis is
given by:
le= 4-,r2"!6 (VI- µ )(d viii5
Substituting,µ, = 0.3, gives:
le= l.lldvi7i
Equations 8.25 and 8.31 may be plotted for convenience
of solution as shown in Fig. 8.4 (11). The inflections in the
parameters occur at the critical lengths, which correspond
to the critical lengths determined by Eq. 8.28. The ver-
tical parameters of dlt above the inflections represent the
region where the spacing between stiffeners exceeds the
critical length and the collapsing pressure is independent
of the lid ratio. Equation 8.25 applies in this region.
(1) 8
(8.26) The inclined parameters below the inflection represent the
region where stiffeners have an effect and the collapsing
pressure is a function of the lld ratio as expressed by the
coefficient Kin Eq. 8.29. It is significant to note that Fig.
8.4 is general and is independent of the material of construc-
tion. To use the chart to predict the ratio of lid at which
collapse occurs, it is necessary to know the value of (JI E)
for the material at the temperature under consideration.
Figure 8.5 shows a group of stress-strain curves for sev-
eral materials and indicates that for mild steel at room tem-
perature the stress-strain curve can be approximated by
two straight lines (135). Unfortunately, this approxima-
tion is the exception rather than the rule and is limited to
carbon and low-alloy steels at temperatures below 500° F.
Carbon steels at temperatures above 500° F and other
materials such as high-alloy steels and nonferrous metals
2 (8.27) have nonlinear stress-strain curves with a variable modulus
of elasticity and no definite yield point. Figure 8.6 shows
the variation of the modulus of elasticity, E, for plain car-
bon steel and austenite steel as a function of temperature.
(8.28) The error caused by using a constant modulus of elasticity
 Collapsing Preuure of Veuel Shell, with Cirwmf• r-.ntial Sti-ffeners US

• +-+-HH-+l
0
10
•
6 \

f19. U 0-.01 (iior, fo, <OI·

•3
lopM of v..,.i, " " " ' ol•no1 tl(d) 2
p tttllll'• lhc,wi,9 ,..'°""''"
b.._.._ Ill• dn.noionol ,oi.o,,
d/ r nnd 1/ d ....., the phyo1col o•••LO
..,• .,..,. ,, , ( 1 35►.
••.,
03

.,...
0.08

t t • •1 6t 2a •t•• ii•u• ia•~•a ts•s••

0.000001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 OJ
t •(f/BJ

80,IXX) ' ' .

I

70,000
!
I
I
I
~
Sl!llehr.1! I f ~ ll:led
60,IXX)
V

I
I
27 SJ -.rtinoffl .i»t
I

-·-
50,00:, I

fl~ U Typl(ol ..,_ , ,...,;., y

...,,..., to, ,.,..,ol - ••loll. ,r
{birc11:ted frOM Tr- c K - of I / l.'1$Tal1~ -
.... ASME tns)
...Mo P<fM ' " -
of lflo ~ II._, ._, Ame"w11
Socltt, of M•dloakol &:9inu r,,
?9 Wt'lt 3?1> St., New Yort(,
:,0,IXX)
.
I /I
I /_,,- - Nill UHi
.........ml
N.Y.)

~ I/ .. ~e:i,.- I
~Aw 53$ ~ i • m 111,;y
20,000

10,000
1/ I/ /

~
V a$0c:imire.~1ao1 p.,..
..IM!itu-ltd
"-"-s l Pol'I~ "1.11rin.1m-• mu1tc1

0.00, O.Oll' 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.0 14 O.Olli

St1III\ lntht& Ott _,.(ft
6etiermln~ on 8-,r,. Bili~ i1n(lfl
146 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures Operating under External Pressure
32 hmizontal line and corresponds to the horizontal line of
30 Fig. 8.5. The 650° F line shows a break at a lower value
-i-- I I I of (J/2) and levels off thereafter.
·:g_28 r-- ,_ Plain carbon

~ 26
--- r-----. - N r--... Figures 8.4 and 8. 7 can be used to determine the safe
.2
~ 24
l'il 22
0
::J 20
Austenitic
-....
:-
r.r-- l'--..
~
'\
I',
external working pressure of an existing vessel under
external pressure. The dimensional ratios l/d and d/l are
first computed and the corresponding value off/E is deter-
mined from Fig. 8.4. This value is used wi.~h Fig. 8.7 to
::, '\ determine the value of the quantity (Pallow.)(d/t) from which
118 the value of Pallow. is directly computed. In designing a
16 vessel the dimensional ratio l/ d is usually known, but the
14 value of d/t is unknown as t is to be determined. The
0 200 400 600 800 1000 value of t must first be assumed and the calculated safe
Temperature, deg, F
allowable work4:ig pressure checked with the desired work-
ing pressure as indicated above.· · ·
Fig. 8.6. Modulus of elasticity of ploin carbon and austenitic steels as a
function of temperature. (Extracted from the 1956 edition of the ASME
As both of the curves of Figs. 8.4 and 8.7 have a common
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unflred Pressure Vessels [11 ], with per• ,, abscissa off/E, they may be conveniently superimposed
mission of the publisher, the American Saciety of Mechanical Engineers, as indicated in Figs. 8.8 and 8.9 (for plain carbon steel up ·
29 West 39th St., New York, N.Y.) to 900° F). .

8.4 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF A SHELL

for materials having nonlinear stress-strain curves may be
avoided by using a "tangent" modulus of elasticity, that is,
the slope of the stress-strain curve at the stress and tern•
perature under consideration. For convenience, to avoid
the necessity of measuring the tangent modulus, the simul•
taneous value of (J/ E) can be plotted versus stress in terms
of pressure and dimensions of the vessel. In designing a
vessel for a given value of (J/E) based upon the material of
construction and operating temperatures, one bases his
design upon the strain at which collapse occurs rather than
upon an allowable stress.
Using a design factor of safety of 4, in which the allow-
able pressure is considered to be one fourth of the theoretical
pressure at which collapse occurs, we obtain:
Given: A fractionating tower 14 ft in inside diameter by
21 ft in length from tangent line to tangent line of the
closures. The tower contains removable trays on a 39-in.
tray spacing and is to operate under vacuum at 750° F.
The material of construction is SA-283, Grade B plain
carbon steel, which has a yield strength of 27,000 psi (see
Table 5.1).
The required thickness of the shell will be determined
both without stiffeners and with stiffeners located at the
tray positions.

2ft · 20,000
= d= (8.32) I J
- --
Ptheoretieal 4Pallow.
100°F - -
wliere PtheoretieeJ. = theoretical external pressure at which i,,"i--- -l I I
10,000 fii:J.. f
/ ---"Ii

- -
collapse occurs, pounds per square inch 8,000
..,. ..... ........-
,.,.,
Pallow. = allowable external pressure, pounds per
'Xl 1/' ~·t
square inch II ) ) i:..-
-.
~ '1 I---'""
::::,,.5,·ooo
Rearranging Eq. 8.32, we obtain: II
,:.::,
1/J ~
~ 3,000
,VI
Pallow, (¥) = PtheoreueeJ. (l) = i ~ B ~ 2,000 /,
// I/
1// I/

or

Pallow. = B ( ~) (8.33)
1,000
v
800

Using Eq. 8.33 and appropriate stress-strain diagrams, 500

2 4 6 2 4 6
0.0001 0.001 0.01
we can determine simultaneous values of (f/E) and (J/2) Strain, E = ({IE)
and can plot them as shown in Fig. 8.7. The 100° curve
in Fig. 8.7 has an inclined line of constant slope below the Fig. 8.7. Chart for plain carbon ,teel showing allowable pressure under
yield point because at 100° F and below the modulus· of external loading at 100° F to 900° F. (Extracted from Transactions of the
elasticity does not vary with stress. Above the yield point ASME [135] with permission of the publisher, the American Society of
in the plastic region the stress-strain curve is nearly a Mechonical Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N.-Y.)
 Example Design of a Shell 147

50 ..--,--,-,....-....,.,.--,---,,-.,...,-,...,.,.-,--.,....,....-,-,,--..,'"T'""T...,...,."T'T"",-,-r,r-Tlr-r-"'T'"'Tr-r-T'T"MT--r---r-r-,---,....,.-,-r-r-r, 50,QOO
_,,.,I g-o -lij I I I I I ,_.,,I
6 -!!lI
I I
--
--
1.
8-fll 5s -5s 0 1-- .... 0
s
40 "'--"' -~
.--- "' ---~ ""II II ,- "' "'II -11 --
...- ...- ...
II t---t--t-e-+--+-+-+++-+-140,000
""
35 !:!.""'~ -11~
30
,.g> -: 0
.g> 0
...
II
0\~
II
-~
~---a;~ -
...
--11 -11
,.... 'c; --a ~
"'
~

... ...
II
0 --;;;
~
0 0
-:-

H-+'-11-r++-,-i-t---,H-f-+-+--H-+-t+++t-+-t+t-+++--+-t+-t-+t-+t-l--t--+-i-+--+--+-t+I-H 30,000
~ t--+--+--+-+-+-1f-+-+++135,ooo
0
... ... ... --... ...
\
25 t-it--t--t-t-t-tt--t---t-t-t-H-t--r-t-t--t--1t--tt--t--t-it-t-t-t--t--;-ii--r--tt1r-t-1 l-+-+++-H---+--+-+-+--l--l-+-+-++-125,000
\
20 l--1H---+l--+-t+-+-+-'11-+++++-+++-,1-¼--H--+-!-ll-+-H--+-1--Hf-+H--t--1+-+-++++l--+--l---+-+-+-+--l-l-++l 20,000
18 \ \ =--.;-t-1--t--1!-,1,M-i--t--t-t--t-t-H--t---tt--t-t-,-t--tt--t---t-~~~~...L..t--t-116,000
18,000
16 1--\1---+-t--t---t-'lt-l--ftr"I-Hr--t-t--t-
14
12
~ 9 '\

\
\ \

\
'

,...- •:
-
~ff-+--+-¼
~
..-mm ,.:-.-
Upto300°FF
1-i-,,---500•
....-_::-=--1oo•F
14,000
12,000
lj:, , 1 \\ ,..~ _ ..- .- __......- 800°F
10 ~~•'O \ , ~ , - .., _...r' ----90Q•F 10,000
9.0 ,~\ ,\ , \ \ , \ .,., __ ... -- __ ,.,,..---- 9,000

~:~ ~~ \ \' \ ' \ t ' ':.- ,_ c.- - ~ -- _.,., ~::

6.0 ~~\
, '
, \ \ \
\ \
, "(0 \ ., -
i>t:,t--i'l"H--\,,f9-\l-t-....-7"'1F--t-~~.-cJ---tt-+-t-t-tH:--t--HH-t-++-il+IH6,000
~..:I'\. \ '\. \ \ \ ,,_Q 'l-,,H11"_,'i\-l--:MA'--\,...--a,oi¥',=-t-ll-t-lf\-\+-t+++-+-+-t-+--+--+--+-t-+f-H
~ 5.0 ~ 1 \ ' \ ' \ ' \ \ , N. 'f ,,,.- \ ' \ \ 5,000

i~ 4.0~~ \ , ' , \ , 1\ '1, \~~I(' , \ \ !\ \ ' \ 4,000

II II 3.5 .,_\ \ \ \ \ , \ , ~" \ \ \ , \ \ j\ 3,500
i ~ 3.0 ~ \ \ \ \ ' !\ [\I, V \ \ '\ I\ l\ \ \ \ \ 3,000 ; R
!I
~ -;
2.5
2.0
\ \ \ \ ' \ \ K \ \ ~ \ \ \ I\ \ \ \ \ I\
I\
2,500 I!
2 000 .. z
·- I\ r.. ' , XI 'IC I\ ' \
sg 1.8 , \ \ , ./// ,
\
\
,
\.
'
I\. \.
' , I\ '
1,800 ~
.2
i
.1:1

.~ + <II
1.6
14
\ I\ \ I/XI/, \
r/1J/
\ \ , \_ \ ,
'
11.
\ \ II. \
:\
I\
\
,
I\
I\
1,600 _g.:;:
},400 ~'c;:
t .:! . \ \ , r/fA , \ ' ' \ ', I\ r\ r\ \ ' \ i\_ 'I\ 1,200 ~II
~ ...
~~
s; 1.2 ' "' \ ', \ \ \ \ \ \. \ \
'-t'"rl---'tt--1'n-t-1t+t~-\\--'k-f"t-t-"~l\~\.\-H'-P,'k-',rt-i\_~+\+-+-+N~~-..
1.0 t--t-t-++-l'c-t-\-nf1'1Yilt-n--\--t1->t+ 1,000 -§
'- <II \ ~ !\ \ ' ' \ I 1\1 I ~, \ \. \. \ 'I. \. ' i\. I\.~
~ c 0.90 t---+-+-++-+-'H'lfM.~>t-,41--'k-,+-k-,~,+ttttf---'~ ,-\,+-''t-\.-t-'\1---➔!\.-t-'t-,t-Hf-'r-'\.k-\.--J>,\rl-~,rt--H~~· 900 if
:§ 'i;i 0.80 l--+-t-+-i--i--Mfffll-H--\---l\r-+\l--t-\:~Hlt-+#.-'\--+~-l'r-l-->\.-+"lt-H----\:-~~k--+-4>rt+l4.:I-I 800
~ ; 0.70 II ~ ' ' !\ \ \ \ ~ I\" \ ' 'I. \ " ' "\l'I. j\_l'I.~~ 700 :#
"': ;: ,; ; ' \\', \ '\' \' \<<\ \ \ ,'" ~,>1~
, \ i\ \ \
600
500
0.40 r//, ' r. ' \ \ ' ' I\ ' ' !\ ' ' I\ I\ ~'J 400
o.35 1'
'II
1
\
\
\ \ \
, ,
\
,
' \
\
I\
,
\ \\
, , \
i\ \
, ,
\. \. '
, I\ ,
' I\~
,
~\J 350
,~J:
o.3o l(//I \ \ , ,i\ , \ \ \ \[\I\ , \ \ i\. \ ?~ 300
0.25 ), VI , \ I\ " \ \ I\ \ \\ , \ I\ I\ \ ~:~ 250
I V \ \ \ I\ \ \ \. I\ I I\ i\1'-,,,

Fig. 8.8. Combined chart for determining thickness for carbon-steel shells under extern~! press11re-for yield strengths of 24,000 to 30,000 pd. {Extracted
from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Press11re Vessels [l I J, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N.Y.)
•

148 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with formed Closures Operating under External Pressure

500

400
350
300
250
200
180
160
140
120

2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 6 78
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Factor A = f/E = e

Fig. 8.9. Combined chart far determining thickness for carbon-steel shells under external pressure-for yleld strengths of 30,000 to 38,000 psi. (Extracted
from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Cade, Unfired Pressure Vessels [11], with permission of the publbher, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 29 West 39th St., New York, N.Y.)
 Design of Circumferential Stiffeners 149
8.4a Required Shell Thickness without Stiffeners. The Enter Fig. 8.8 with an lido of 0.231 and move :to a doll
determination of the shell thickness is a successive-approxi- of 386; this gives: E = 0.0012 in. per in. Move vertically
mation calculation. Assume a shell thickness of % in. to the 750° F line and to the right to give B = 6200.
The maximum allowable pressure for the assumed shell
_ = 21 X 12 = ~ = 1. 49 thickness is:
do (14 X 12) +
1.25 169.25
Pallow. = WI- = 16.1 psi {which is adequate)
do = 169.25 = 271
The weight of the shell is 17.85 lb per sq ft. Therefore
t 0.625
the shell weight = 3.14 X 14 X 21 X 16.1
Enter Fig. 8.8 with lid= 1.49 and move horizontally to
intersect the diagonal line for dlt = 271; this gives: E = = 14,900 lb
0.0002 in. per in. Move vertically to the material line for
750° F (interpolating between the 700° F and 800° F mate- This represents a saving in shell steel of (30,700 - 14,900)
rial lines) and then move horizontally to the right-hand = 15,800 lb. However, this is offset in part by the weight
side of the chart and read B = 2300. The maximum allow- of the stiffening rings. This point is covered in the exam-
able external pressure for the assumed shell thickness of ple design in the section following the stiffening-ring section.
% in. is: The weight of the rings of a satisfactory design was found
to be 2700 lb. Therefore a net saving of (15,800 - 2700) or
B 13,100 lb of steel is realized.
Pallow. = dolt (8.33)
8.5 DESIGN OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL STIFFENERS
Therefore
In designing circumferential stiffening rings for vessels
Pallow. = "27T
!!]lj)()
= 8.48 psi• under external pressure each stiffener is considered to resist
Since this pressure is considerably lower than the desired the external load for a (ll2 distance on either side of the
external pressure of 15 psi for full vacuum, the calculation ring (where l is the spacing between rings). Thus the load
must be repeated with a greater thickness assumed. There- per unit length on the ring at collapse is equal to l(ptheoreticaI).
fore assume a shell thickness of 1 ¾ 6 in. We may rewrite Eq. 8.23 noting that in this equation the
term l is taken as unity. Therefore
252
=-- 1.49
do 169.63 24El
p = Ptheoretioal ( l) (8.34)
do 169.63 = _
7
208 5
l 13116 where P = load on combined shell and stiffener in pounds
per inch of circumferential length.
Entering Fig. 8.8 with lid= 1.49 and moving to dolt= Or
208.5 gives E = 0.00029 in. per in. Moving vertically to
the 750° F material line and horizontally to the right gives I
Ptheoretical d3l
B = 3400; therefore 24E

3400 . Multiplying by tit and rearranging gives:

Panow. = 208.5 = 16.3 psl

Therefore a 1 :½ 6 in. plate, if available, is adequate.

I (d12Elt) 2
(Ptheoretica1d)
2t
A shell plate of this thickness weighs 33.15 lb per sq ft.
The shell weight is: Substituting Eq. 3.14, f = pdl2t, and Eq. 6.1, c = f IE,
gives:
wt 1r d lp
I = d2l t (j) = d2l tE (8.35)
wt = 3.14 X 14 X 21 X 33.15 12E 12
wt = 30,700 lb The moments of inertia of the stiffening ring and the shell
8.4b Required Shell Thickness with Stiffeners. The act together to resist collapse of the vessel under external
required shell thickness of 1 :½ 6 in. for the condition of no pressure. Timoshenko (42) has shown that the combined
internal stiffeners can be materially reduced by the inclusion moment of inertia of the shell and stiffener may be con-
of stiffening rings at the tray locations. Assume a shell sidered as equivalent to that of a thicker shell, or
thickness of H. 6 in.
ly = t + Ay = t + Ay (8.36)
l = 39 in. dy l
39 where ly = equivalent thickness of shell, inches
= 0.231
do (14 X 12) + 0.875 168.875 Ay = cross-sectional area of one circumferential
stiffener, square inches
do = 168.875 = 386 l = dy = distance between circumferential stiffeners,
t 0.-1.375 inches
150 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures Operating under External Pressure
Substituting Eq. 8.36 into Eq. 8.35 gives: 24.1 in. 4 (see Appendix G) and A. 11 3.58 sq in. Suh-
st.ituting into Eq. 8.39 gives:
I = d2l
12
(t + Au) E
l
(8.37)
B = Pa.now.do = 15 X 168.875
4790
where I = required moment of inertia of stiffening ring, t + (A 71 /l) 0.4375 +
(3.58/39)
inches 4 Enter the right side of Fig. 8.8 with B = 4790 and move
Equation 8.37 is the same as that specified by the 1956 horizontally to the material line for 750° F; then move
ASME code (11) for stiffening rings for vessels under vertically to the bottom of the chart where. E = 0.00045.
external pressure except that the coefficient in the denomi- Substituting into Eq. 8.38 gives: ··
nator is 14 in the code equation rather than 12 as in Eq. 3 58
8.37. The value of 14 in the code equation may be approxi- (169) 2 X 39 (o.4375 + · ) 0.00045
mated empirically. In general, the combined moment of I= 39
14
inertia of the stiffener and the shell together varies from
30 % to 70 % greater than the moment of inertia of the I = 18.95 in. 4

stiffener alone (10). Using a conservative allowance of a

As the required moment of inertia is less than that pro-
30 % increase in the I of the stiffener when combined with
vided by the assumed 7-in. channel, the design is satis-
the shell and introducing additional safety in design by c1
factory. The weight of five such stiffening rings is:
increasing the load by 10 %, we obtain:
I_ 1.1 d l
- (1.3)(12)
2
(t + A 11
l
)E Wt of rings = 5 X 3.14
= 2,700 lb
X 14 X 12.25

Therefore
The weight of the shell is:
(8.38)
Wt of shell = 14,900 lb +2700 lb
where = 17,600 lb
E = unit strain (see Figs. 8.8 and 8.9)
The total weight of the shell with stiffeners is 17,600 lb,
Equations 8.37 and 8.38 give the moment of inertia required compared t~ a total weight of 30,700 lb if a shell without
for the stiffening for the same collapsing pressure as that of stiffeners is specified; this represents a saving of 13,100 lb
the vessel designed by use of Fig. 8.8. The allowable steel.
operating pressure is one-fourth the pressure at which
collapse theoretically occurs. 8.7 OUT-OF-ROUNDNESS OF SHELLS
In order to utilize Fig. 8.8 in the design of stiffening rings, Any out-of-roundness after fabrication of a vessel designed
it is necessary to proceed in the opposite direction, entering for external pressure will reduce the strength of the vessel.
the figure with the value of B. If B is expressed in terms The out-of-roundness results in increased stress concentra-
of the equivalent shell thickness, leq., (including the con- tions, and the effect of external pressure is to aggravate the
tribution of the stiffening ring), then by Eq. 8.33, condition. Thus a shell of elliptical shape or a circular
shell, either dented or with flat spots, is less strong under
B = [ = Ptheoretie!.ldo =. P.allow.do (8.39) external pressure than a vessel having a true cylindrical
2 4(teq.) t + (A 11/l) shape. The following procedure may be used to determine
If gaps are placed in the stiffening rings, they should be the additional stress from elliptical out-of-roundness.
staggered between alternate rings. In this case the dis- In reference to Fig. 8.2, the dashed section may be con-
tance between stiffening rings should be taken as twice the sidered to be a deformed cylinder in which wo is the maxi-
ring spacing to allow for the lack of continuous support of mum eccentricity radially inward. Timoshenko (136) has
the shell at the gaps in the stiffening rings. Permissible shown that the initial radial displacement, w1 , at any point
gaps in the stiffening rings of external-pressure vessels are may be assumed to follow the relationship:
specified by the ASME code (11). (See Chapter 13 on
w1 = w0 cos 20 (8.40)
code vessels.)
If a uniform external pressure, p, is superimposed upon
8.6 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL
this initially deformed cylinder, an additional radial dis-
STIFFENERS
placement, w, will result. This displacement w was pre-
The design of the circumferential stiffening rings for viously defined by Eq. 8.11.
the 14-ft-diameter fractionating tower given previously
d2w -Mro2
(Required Shell Thickness with Stiffeners) in this chapter dfJ 2 +w =~ (8.11)
will be illustrated. The required shell thickness was found
to be ½ 6 in., and the stiffeners spaced at 39 in. The Noting that D, the flexural rigidity of a plate as given by
tower operates under full vacuum. The calculation of the Eq. 6.15, may be substituted for EI, we obtain:
required moment of inertia of the stiffening rings requires
successive approximations. d2w
-
+w - Mr 2 -12(1 - µ 2 )Mr 2
--'------'--- (8.41)
Assume a 7 in. channel weighing 12.25 lb per ft. I = d0 2
D Et. 3
 Elastic Stability of Hemispherical and Torispherical Dished Closures 151
To determine the bending moment M in the shell, con- . for = M = 6M (8.49)
sider a strip in the circumferential direction of unit width. z bi. 2
By Eq. 8.17 for the region A tog (see Fig. 8.2)
For a longitudinal strip of the shell of unit width (b = 1)
M = pro(w - Wo) {8.42)
for = 6M = 6prowo (8.50)
and for the region c to A (see Fig. 8.2)
is 2 ls 2 (1 - p )
M = pro(w + wo) (8.43) Ptheoretical

The total stress in an out-of-round shell under external

For a vessel having an initial maximum out-of-roundness
pressure is the sum of the stress given by Eq. 8.50 plus the
radially inward of w 0 and a radial out-of-roundness at any
external-pressure stress, or
point of w', as given by Eq. 8.40, Eqs. 8.42 and 8.43 reduce
to: 3pdowo + pdo (8.51)
M pro(w + w')
,.2 (1 p ) 2t.
= pro(w + Wo cos 28) (8.44) Ptheoretical

Substituting into Eq. 8.41 gives: Substituting Pallow. for P and letting Pallow. = %Ptheoretieal
in accordance with Eq. 8.33 gives:
d2w -12(1 - µ 2)
-
d8 2
+w = Ei8 3
pro 3(w + w 0 cos 28) !max = r~rrdo [!18t I+ 1] (8.52)
8 . 8 I

Rewriting gives:
The maximum stress as given by Eq. 8.52 occurs in the
d2w outer fiber only and may be permitted to exceed the average
d8 2 compressive stress in the shell but should not exceed the
yield point. The ASME code (11) gives a table of permis-
(8.45) sible values for out-of-roundness. (See Chapter 13, on
code vessels.)
However, by Eq. 8.24, 8.8 ELASTIC STABILITY OF HEMISPHERICAL AND

Ptheoretical = 4 (l E
_ µ 2) (i)
;:;;
3 TORISPHERICAL DISHED CLOSURES
Formed closures under external pressure are subject to
failure by elastic instability as are shells. Equation 4.33
Substituting into Eq. 8.45 gives: applies in the case of hemispherical or torispherical heads
2 and gives the theoretical pressure at which collapse would
d2w2 + w [1 + 12 (1 - µ )] = -3wo cos 28 (8.46) occur because of elastic instability.
d8 4(1 µ 2)
2E(l) 2
Timoshenko (42) has shown that by substituting Eq. Ptheoretieal =
r 2
V3(1 - µ 2)
(4.33)
8.24 into Eq. 8.45 and applying the condition at A of Fig.
8.2 (45° position), the following solution to the differential or
equation Eq. 8.46 is obtained: (8.53)

w = ( ___ f!!oP · - ) cos 28 (8.47) Applying an approximate design factor of safety of 4.4,
\ptheoretical P that is, using a thickness 4.4 times as great as that al which
buckling theoretically occurs, we obtain:
where Ptheoretical = theoretical collapsing pressure (Eq. 8.24)
p = external pressure acting on shell, pounds th = 4.4ltheoretical 4.4r Vp/2E v1'3(1 µ 2) +C (8.54)
per square inch ·
For steel construction where µ = 0.3,
The bending moment at point A of Fig. 8.2 is zero, 0

whereas the maximum bending moment occurs at 8 = 0 28

4.tir(l. ) -Vp/E + c = 4r Vp/E + c (8.55)
and at 8 1r, where 1.41

Wop )
where th thickness of head, inches
Mma" = pro ( Wo + p = maximum external pressure, pounds per square
Ptheoretioal - P
inch
= corrosion allowance, inches
(8.48) c
E = modulus of elasticity at operating temperature,
pounds per square inch
r radius of dish for hemispherical and lorisphedenl
This bending moment resulting from extermil pressure dished heads, equivalent head radius for ellipti-
acting on an out-of-round shell produces a str, · s, for: 0
cal dished heads, inches
152 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures Operating under External Pressure
As Eq. 8.55 contains the modulus of elasticity, E, which
may decrease at elevated temperatures as a function of
stress, it is convenient to use Fig. 8.8 in a manner similar
to that for cylindrical shells. The dashed line labeled
"Sphere line" of Fig. 8.8 is shown for this purpose. To use
the same chart, the scale for the sphere line is modified in
that the vertical axis is now equal to r/l00th where r is the
radius of curvature (outside of head) and th is the head
thickness (both in inches). Figure 8.8 is used to determine
B, the same procedure being used as for shell design. The
maximum allowable pressure, Pallow., is then determined by
Eq. 8.56.
B the head and at this point is equal to twice the radius of the
Pallow. = r/lh
8.9 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF A HEMISPHERICAL DISHED
CLOSURE
A hemispherical closure will be designed for the vessel
described in the section entitled "Example Design of a
Shell." The design is a successive approximation because
the tangent modulus of elasticity at this temperature
(750° F) is also a function of the stress, f.
Radius of curvature = .LP- 84.5 in.
Assume a head thickness of --A,; in.
84.5
= = 2.7
100th 100 X 0.3125
Enter the left-hand side of Fig. 8.8 at a value of 2.7 and
move horizontally to intersect the sphere line at JI E =
0.00044. Move vertically to the material line for 750° F
(interpolating between 700 and 8000 F) and then move
horizontally to read B = 4800. The maximum allowable
external pressure for the assumed shell thickness of :½: 6 in.
is:
B approximation.
Pallow.
r/ih
4800
Pallow. = 2.7 X 100 = 17.8 ps1'a (which is gre'ater than
14.7 psia)
Therefore the thickness assumed is satisfactory.
8.11 ELASTIC STABILITY OF ELLIPTICAL DISHED
CLOSURES UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
The radius of curvature of an elliptical dished closure
changes about the meridian of the head. To use the pre-
vious relationships for elliptical closures, an equivalent
radius of curvature must be used. The radius of curvature
of an elliptical dished head is maximum at the center of
(8.56)
shell for a head- having a major~to-minor-axis ra~o of 2.0.
Design of the head based on this maximum radius of curva-
ture would result in considerable overdesign because -the
radius of curvature decreases as the point under considera-
tion is moved away from the center toward the junction
with the shell. This. decrease in the radius results in an
increase in rigidity and greater elastic stability. Thus, an
elliptical dished head has greater elastic stability than a
torispherical dished head having the same diameter, thick-
ness, and radius of curvature at the center of the head. As
the radius of curvature of an elliptical dished head varies
along the meridian, an average radius may be used. How-
ever, the average must not be taken too far from the center
of the head, which is the least stable point on the head.
Table 8.1 lists the equivalent radius of curvature as a func-
tion of the major-to-minor:-axis ratio for heads of vessels
under external pressure (11).
8.12 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF ELLIPTICAL DISHED
CLOSURE
An elliptical dished closure, a/b = 2.0, will be designed
for the vessel described in the section entitled "Example
Design of a Shell." This design also involves successive
From Table 8.1,

= 4800 = 17 8 ~ = 0.90
Pallow. 2.7 X 100 ·
re = (0.90)(169) = 152.1 in.
the vessel is to be designed for 1 atm. (14.7 psia) the
a urned head thickness is satisfactory.
Table 8.1. Equivalent Radius of Curvature to Be Used
8. 0 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF A TORISPHERICAL DISHED for Design of Elliptical Dished Heads under External
CLOSURE
Pressure (11 )
torispherical closure will be designed for the vessel (Extracted from the 1956 Edition of the ASME Boiler and
. ribed in the section entitled "Example Design of a Pressure Vessel Code Unfired Pressure Vessels, with
Shell." This design is also a successive approximation. Permission of the Publisher, the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, 29 West 39th St.,
Radius of dish (radius of curvaiure) = 169 in. New York, N.Y.)
Major-to-minor-axis ratio,
Assume a head thickness of % in. a/b 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8
Avg radius of curvature Te
1.36 1.27 1.18 1.08 0.99 0.90 0.81
Vessel diameter •d
...!.£_ = 2.7
100ih
Major-to-mioor-am ratio,
a/b 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0
Proceeding as before, B = 4800. (See example design Avg radius of curvature re
of shell.) 0.73 0.65 0.57 0.50
Vessel diameter •d
 Pipes and Tubing under External Pressure 153

Assume a head thickness of Yi s in.
= 152.1/(100)(0.5625) 2.7
lO0t,.
Proceeding as before, B = 4800. (See example design
of shell.)
43
Pallow. = 00 = 17.8 psia
2.7 X 100
Therefore the assumed thickness of YJ: 6 in. is satisfactory.
8.13 ELASTIC STABILITY OF CONICAL CLOSURES
UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Conical closures under external pressure can be classed
in three groups. If the apex angle is small (45° or less) the
conical closure is considered to behave as a cylindrical
shell having the same diameter as the large end of the cone
and a length equal to the axial length of the cone, provided
the cone has no stiffening rings. If circumferential stiffen-
ing rings are used, the metal thickness may be decreased
in each successive section as the apex is approached. In
this case, each section is designed by using the greatest
diameter of the section as the equivalent shell diameter, D,
and the axial length between stiffeners (center to center)
as the equivalent shell length between stiffeners, L.
For conical heads having an intermediate apex angle
8.15 PIPES AND TUBING UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
The relationships presented earlier for long, thin cylinders
under external pressure are conservative. Tubing and
pipe usually have (t/do) ratios greater than 0.02 and as a
result are subject to failure by elastic-plastic buckling
rather than by elastic failure. Because of this and the
general uniformity of commercial tubing and pipes, more
liberal values of the allowable external working pressure
may be permitted than for the case of vessel shells. The
ASME ·Special Research Committee on Vessels under
External Pressure reviewed this problem with the object
of increasing the value of allowable external working pres-
sures (213).
Stewart (132) developed the following empirical relation-
ship for the collapsing pressure of a steel pipe having a
yield strength of 37,000 psi at room temperature:
p = 86,670 ( ; ) - 1386 {8.57)
The ASME code committee revised Stewart's formula
(213) to include the effect of material having a yield point
other than 37,000 psi as follows:
p = 2.344fy (~J- l.064fy fiY" (8.58)

(45° to 120°) the same procedure is followed except that the

diameter at the large end of the cone is taken as the length
of the equivalent cylinder if no circumferential stiffeners
are used. If circumferential stiffeners are used, the pro-
cedure is the same as for stiffened cones with apex angles
of less than 45°, described above.
For flat cones having apex angles greater than 120°, the
conical head is designed as a flat plate having a diameter
equal to the largest diameter of the cone.

8. 14 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF A CONICAL CLOSURE

A conical closure having an apex angle of 45° and without
stiffeners will be designed for the vessel described in the
section entitled "Example Design of a Shell." This design
is also a successive approximation. 8_ 1,000
Assume a thickness of 1 H 6 in. "' 800
-0
C
:::,
0
Q..
600
84.5 500
.5
= 204 in. E 400
tan a 0.4142 :::,
"'
<I)
4)
300
l3.
1.21 llO 200
C
~
do 169
246
0
3:
100
1(/ y i
l1i. 0.6875 I : I
I
i I
80 ' i : I
I I
J : I I
Entering Fig. 8.8 with lido = 1.21, move horizontally 60
i
:
' I

50
I I Ii I i I I!
to d0/th = 246 intersecting eurve atf/E = 0.00030. l\Iove I I i ! I ! I ! i ! !
40 :
vertically to 750° F material line lo read B = 3700. 30..__..__,__.___,_ ! ! i
i i .......__._.,__..___-'-----'---'---'----'-..J
i !
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32
B a,oo • •. t/D ratio
Pallow. = d Ii = -TTB- = 1.:, .0.:, psm
0,
Fig. 8.10. Allowable working pressures for tubing and pipe under external
Therefore, the thickness of 1 ~{
6 in. is satisfactory. pressure (21 3).
154 Design of Cylindrical Vessels with Formed Closures Operating under External Pressure
where p = collapsing pressure, pounds per square inch
t = tube thickness, inches
d tube outside diameter, inches
fy yield strength at operating temperature, pounds
per square inch
E = modulus of elasticity at operating temperature,
pounds per square inch
The code committee considered that the modified Stewart
formula, given by Eq. 8.58, was conservative when used
for (t/do) ratios up to 0.14.
No extensive data and no theoretical relationships exist
for the collapsing pressure of very thick tubes having a
t/do ratio of 0.30 or greater. However the committee was
of the opinion that such thick tubes fail hy plastic yielding
rather than by collapse. On this basis the allowable pres-
sure for tubes having a t/do ratio of 0.30 or greater was
calculated upon a modified hoop-stress relation as given by '
Eq. 8.59.
Equation 8.59 is based upon thin-wall theory (see Eq. 3.14)
and the assumption that the yield strength is one half of
the. ultimate strength. A 5 % reduction factor is included
in the denominator on the basis of both theoretical con-
siderations and experience.
For the intermediate range of t/do ratios lying between
0.14 and 0.30, a gradual transition was selected by the
committee (213). By selecting allowable working stresses
(w.s.) equal to 40% of the yield strength1.for steel and
allowable working pressure equal to one fifth of the col-
lapsing pressure as determined by Eq. 8.58, Fig. 8.10 was
constructed.
In reference to Fig. 8.10, the transition zone was drawn
as a straight line from t/ d0 = 0.14 to t/ d0 = 0.30 for each
of the curves. · A eross plot of this curve with numerous
parameters of t/d is presented in Fig. 13.5 of Chapt~r 13
for convenient use in design applications. Although Fig.
8.10 and Fig. 13.5 were prepared for mild-steel tubes, these
figures can be used for other ferrous materials when a factor

dot)
4fy ( (8.59) of safety of either 4 or 5 is employed and for nonferrous
p = 1.05 materials when a factor of safety of 5 is employed.

PROBLEMS

1. Determine the maximum allowable vacuum that can be applied to a low-carbon-steel

cylindrical vessel 10 ft in outside diameter with elliptical dished heads (k = 2.0). The head
and shell thickness are both½ in., and the vessel is 30 ft long (tangent line to tangent line).
2. Determine the minimum number of equally spaced circumferential shell stiffeners required
to permit use of full vacuum with the vessel described in problem 1.
3. (a) Determine the minimum required moment of inertia for the stiffeners required in prob-
lem 2. (b) Select the minimum-weight channel suitable (see Appendix G) for this purpose.
4. The shell for a vacuum crude tower 30 ft in diameter is constructed of low-carbon-steel
plate Hi'. 6 in. thick. Circumferential shell stiffeners are to be located 6 ft apart. Determine
the required moment of inertia for the stiffeners, and suggest a possible design for the stiffeners.
A corrosion allowance of ¾ 6 in. is required.
5. A vacuum crystallizer 12 ft in diameter is to be fabricated of mild steel and is to have a
60° cone (apex angle) at the base and a torispherical closure at the top. The distance from
the junction of the cone with the shell to the point of tangency of the top closure is 18 ft.
Specify the design for: (a) the torispherical head, (b) the shell, and (c) the cone.

DESIGN OF TALL VERTICAL VESSELS
T a n vertical vessels may or may not he designed to he
self-supporting. The design of self-s~pporti~g vertical :es-
sels is a relatively recent concept m eqwpment design;
high structures were formerly stabilized by the use of guy
wires. The self-supporting type of tower is widely used
today since it has been found uneconomical to allocate
valuable space for the wires of guyed towers. Further-
more, the esthetic appearance of a clean-looking plant has
been recognized as having commercial value. Self-sup-
porting columns 200 or more feet high that posse~s attra~-
tiveness, safety, utility, and economy of construction are m
use today. The conditions under which vertical pressure
vessels operate are often severe, and since the contents are
quite often inflammable, structural f~ilur~ is a ~rious
matter. Simple membrane stress relat10nsh1ps are msuffi-
cient to predict the stresses induced by the action of wind
and seismic forces.
9.1 INDIVIDUAL STRESSES IN THE SHELL
The stresses in the shell of vertical vessels are essentially:
(1) the axial and circumferential stresses resulting from
internal pressure or vacuum in the vessel; (2) the compres-
sive stresses resulting from dead loads including the weight
of the vessel itself plus its contents and the weight of insula-
tion and attached equipment; (3) stresses resulting from
bending moments caused by wind loads acting on the v?s.sel
and its attachments; (4) stresses caused by any eccentncity
resulting from irregular load distribution; (5) stresses result-
ina from seismic (earthquake) forces. · The circumferential tensile stress is:
In addition, stresses may result from fabrication proce-
dures such as cold forming, and welding. Figure 9.1 shows
the cold forming of a cylindrical shell from flat plates, and
155
CHAPTER
Fig. 9.2 shows the welding of an inside longitudinal seam
of a vessel shell. Figure 9.3 shows a completed welded
vessel entering the oven for stress relieving.
9.2 AXIAL AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL PRESSURE STRESSES
A cylindrical vessel under internal pressure tends to
retain its shape in that any out-of-roundness or dents result-
ing from shop fabrication or erection tend to he removed
when the vessel is placed under internal pressure. Thus,
any deformation resulting from internal pressure tends to
make an imperfect cylinder more cylindrical. However,
the opposite is true for imperfect cylindrical vessels under
external pressure, and any imperfection will tend to be
aggravated with the result of possible collapse of the vessel.
For this reason, a given vessel under external pressure in
general has a pressure rating only about 60 % as high as it
would have under internal pressure. This is only an
approximation and other considerations must be taken into
account in determining the rating of vessels under external
pressure.
9.2a Tensile Stresses Resulting from Internal Pressure.
The axial and circumferential stresses due to internal pres-
sure in the shell of a closed vessel ·.vere developed in Chapter
3 and are given by Eq. 3.13 and Eq. 3.14, respectively.
The axial tensile stress is:
pd
f ap = 4(t8 c) (3.13)
pd
fcp = 2(t. - c) (3.14)
156 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
where W = weight of shell above point x, pounds
Do outside diameter of shell, feet
Di = inside diameter of shell, feet
X = distance from top to point under consideration,
feet
p8 = density of shell material, pounds per cubic foot
= 490 lb per cu ft for steel construction
. And

(9.2)

where Dms. = mean diameter of insulation, feet

Wins. = weight of insulation
Pimi. = insulation density, pounds per cubic foot
= 40 lb per cu ft for most insulation
limi. = insulation thickness, inches
fig. 9.1. Rolling vessel shell from 3-in. plate, (Courtesy of C. f. Braun & , Since compressive stress is force per unit area, disregard-
Co.)
ing corrosion allowance, c, gives:

1r/4(Do 2 - Di 2 )Xp8 Xpa

(9.3)
fdea.d wt shell= 1r/4(Do2 - Di2)144 144
9.2b Compressive Stresses Resulting from External
Pressure. External pressure acting upon a cylindrical shell 3.4X (if p8 = 490 lb per cu ft) (9.3a)
and its heads may result in failure of a vessel either by
yielding or by buckling. . If the vessel has a relatively thin The stress due to the dead weight of insulation is:
wall, the stress at which wrinkling or buckling begins to
occur is usually below the yield strength of the material. (9.4)
If the vessel has a relatively thick wall, the stress at which
buckling occurs is the yield point of the material under
consideration at the temperature of service. where Dm = mean diameter of the shell, feet
Since vessels operating under external pressure must be Dimi. ~ Do
designed in accordance with elastic-stability criteria, the t8 = shell thickness, inches
design is based upon the critical pressure at which buckling
occurs rather than upon an allowable stress for the material.
The design procedure to be followed is given in the previous
chapter. After designing the vessel for external pressure
service (using procedures given in Chapter 8) we may use
Eqs. 3.13 and 3.14, referred to above, to evaluate the
induced compressive axial and circumferential stresses.

9.3 COMPRESSIVE STRESSES CAUSED BY DEAD LOADS

The dead load acting on the vessel is determined by the
weight and location of all the exterior and interior attach-
ments such as: trays, overhead condensers, platforms,
insulation, and so on. Those loads which act eccentrically
may be reduced to vertical forces and moments acting at
the central axis of the tower. This section will consider
only the vertical compressive forces acting on the vessel,
and a later section will cover the summation of the moments
produced by eccentric loads.
Stresses caused by dead loads may be considered in three
groups for convenience: (1) Stress induced by shell and
insulation (2) Stress induced by liquid in the vessel (3)
Stress induced by attached equipment.
STRESS INDUCED BY SHELL AND INSULATION. At any
distance, X feet, from the top of a vessel having a constant
shell thickness,

(9.1) Fig. 9.2. Welding inside longitudinal seam of 3-in.-thick · shell section.
(Courtesy of C. F. Braun & Ca.)
 Tensile and Compressive Stresses 157

Fig. 9.3. Welded column entering oven for stress relieving. (Courtesy of C. f. Braun & Co.)

Therefore, where f dz = the total dead-load stress acting along the

Pins.Xtina. longitudinal axis at point X, pounds per square
f.dead wt ins. = c) (9.4a)
144 (l,. inch
STRESS INDl;CED BY SUPPORTED LIQUID.
If the vessel does not contain internal attachments, such
2; liquid wt as trays which support liquid, but consists only of the shell
fdead wt liq = 121f'Dm(ls _ c) (9.5) insulation, the heads, and minor attachments such as man-
holes, nozzles, and so on, the additional load may be esti-
STRESS INDUCED BY ATTACHMENTS SUCH AS TRAYS, mated as approximately equal to 18% of the weight of a
OVERHEAD CONDENSERS, ToP HEAD, PLATFORMS, AND steel shell, or as shown by Nelson (139),
LADDERS.

2; weight of attachments fd:x = (I.18)(3.4)X = 4.0X (9.8)

fdeadwtattacb. = 121f'Dm(ts _ c) (9 .6)
9.-4 TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRESSES CAUSED
The weight of steel platforms may be estimated at 35 lb BY WIND LOADS IN SELF-SUPPORTING VESSELS
per sq ft of area, and the weight of steel ladders at 25 lb
The stresses produced in a self-supporting vertical vessel
per lin ft for caged ladders and 10 lb per !in ft for plain
by the action of the wind are calculated by considering the
ladders (139). Trays in distilling columns, including liquid
vessel to be a verticle, uniformly loaded cantilever beam.
hold-up on trays, may be estimated to have a weight of 25 lb
The wind loading is a function of the wind velocity, air
per sq ft of tray area.
density, and the shape of the tower. The United States
The total dead-load stress, f dx, acting along the longi-
Weather Bureau (137) has correlated the above factors in
tudinal axis of the shell is then the sum of the above dead-
the following relation:
weight stresses
fdx = f dead wt shell + faead wt ins. + fdead wtdiq (9.9)
+ faead wt attach. (9. 7)
158 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
105• 100· 9. 90"

Q..
••• Chin
• • • Santa Ana winds
"•" Wasatch Mountain winds
• ,. • -Columbi8 River Gorge wi
20 25 · 30 35
psf

Wmd pmsures were compoled IS lol!Gws:

Wealhet Bureau records through 1951 of !he fastest rnile
vtklcily at anemomoter 1ml were rtduCld lo 30-ft level by
the one-seventh - r formula. TIit ~ Vtloeitie$ were
multiplied by 1.3 hi a...unt l1lr psis, lm111ct [IIISIUfts
coITesponditlg to 1us1 velocities were then ealclllaled.
finally, !G oblain Ille desip pressures, a slltpe ftdor of 1.3
(the effect of Ille combined Inward amt oulwa1d pressures .,.
emrior surf- of otdinary redangular buildincs) wes epplitd.
1 • 95• 90•

Fig. 9.4. Minimum allowable resultant wind pressures (137). (This material is reproduced from the Amerir:an Standard Building Code Requirement, for
Minimum Design Loads in Bui/dings and Other Structures, A58.1-1955, copyrighted by the American Standards Association.)

where B = barometric pressure, inches, mercury
Pw wind pressure on a flat surface, pounds per
square foot
Vw = wind velocity, miles per hour
F8 = shape factor = 1.0 for flat plate at 90° to the
wind
For a barometric pressure of 30 in. of mercury Eq. 9.9
becomes:
(9.10)
The shape factor, F.. for a smooth cylinder has been found
to be 0.60 (137). Thus the resistance of a smooth cylinder
is 60 % of that of a flat surface normal to the wind and hav-
ing the same projected areas as the cylinder. Projections
of auxiliary equipment loaded on the tower will cause
turbulence, and the use of a value of F8 based on smooth
cylinders is questionable. Therefore, the value of F8 used
by designers varies from 0.60 to 0.85, depending on the
amount and shape of the projections on the vessel. If a
value of 0.60 is used for the shape factor then Eq. 9.10
becomes
(9.11)
The appropriate wind velocity that should be used in
Eq. 9.11 is dependent upon the location in which the equip-
ment is to he erected. In the Gulf Coast area winds up to
125 mph are experienced. Most other regions experience
intermediate maximum wind velocities; therefore a figure
of 100 mph is often used. Figure 9.4, published by the
American Standards Association (137) is a map of the
United States indicating minimum allowable resultant wind
pressures at 30 ft of elevation.
To obtain the design force, P10 , the wind-velocity pres-
sures should be multiplied by a shape factor and a height
factor. In the use of Fig. 9.4 a shape factor of 0.6 is recom-
mended for chimneys and clean circular towers, and a shape
factor of LO for rectangular buildings and structures.
The height factor is LO for structures having heights from
30 to 49 ft. For higher structures the height factor varies
directly as the (height/30) raised to the ~ power (138).
In using Table 9.1 reference is made to Fig. 9.4 to deter-
mine the wind pressure at an elevation of 30 ft for the
locality in question. The design pressure for the tower is
obtained from Table 9.1 after one knows the height of the
tower. The value obtained from Table· 9.1 should he
multiplied by the appropriate shape factor, Fa for cylindrical
towers. These design values are recommended as minimum
and do not provide allowance for tornadoes.
As pointed out by Bergman (140) the relationships given
by the ASA (137) presented here for use with Fig. 9.4 and
 Tensile and Compressive Stresses 159
100 where Mwx bending moment due to wind at X distance
from the top, inch-pounds
f\.
deir. = effective diameter of vessel, inches

10
"'"" ,_.,.....-Lamb
' -
'
This equation is subjected to the limitation that the wind
acts over the total distance, X.
The stress in the extreme fiber of the shell, due to the
'
"' --- --£..__\
k = 00 - Smooth Rough
surface'\ su~ace)
wind, is obtained by use of Eq. 2.10:

(9.13)
~-\

-ST
I,_
,1
D- u,..... At the base of the tower,

fwb (9.14)
101 10 2 10 3 10 4
R
where r0 outside radius of shell, inches
Fig. 9.5. Drag coefficients far circular cylinders (1.41). (Courtesy of I = rectangular moment of inertia perpendicular to
McGraw-Hill Book Co.) and through the longitudinal axis, inches 4
Jwx stress at extreme fiber due to wind load, pounds
per square inch (compressive stress on down-
wind side, tensile stress on upwind side)
Table 9.1, do not consider the effect of velocity on the drag
coefficient. The drag coefficient is similar to a friction In design calculations it is assumed that auxiliary equip-
factor and varies with the Reynolds number, Re, as shown ment will add load to the vessel but will not aid· in its sup-
in Fig. 9.5. port; therefore, the extreme fiber is at the outside surface
Figure 9.5 shows that between Re = 500 and Re = of the shell.
500,000, the drag coefficient is fairly constant, with a value For any values of l/r that would be encountered in vessel
of about 1.1 for cylinders with L/D = 00. However, at a design, this relationship can be simplified as follows.
value of Re equal to 6 X 10 5, the drag coefficient drops The equation of a circle is:
abruptly to 0. 7 for rough-surface cylinders and to 0.3 for
smooth cylinders. The wind pressure determined by use
x2 + y2 = 7 2
of Table 9.1 is based upon the higher drag coefficient and and by Eq. 2.8:
values of Re between 5 X 102 and 5 X 10 5• The value of 111 = Jx 2 dA
Re is equal to 9100 DV where D is the vessel diameter If the integration is performed in the first quadrant, then
in feet, and Vis the wind velocity in miles per hour (140).
Thus a vessel having a diameter of 8 ft in a wind having a 111 =4 for z 2
dA
velocity of only 10 mph would have a Reynolds number of
Assume that the area of a thin shell is 21rrt and that dA =
7.28 X 10 5 , which is above the transition value of about
tds. Introducing the derivative of an arc length (38) gives:
6 X 10 5 • Therefore the use of Fig. 9.4 and Table 9.1
results in a wind-pressure safety .factor of about 2 to 3,
depending upon the smoothness of the vessel. ds Vl + (dy/dx) 2 ck= Vr2r- z2
ck
The force, P w, acts over the projected area of the column,
Therefore
and some designers compensate for the turbulence caused
by the projections by using an "effective" diameter, detJ., of dA= tr dz
the vessel and the allied equipment. This effective diam- ~
eter is the diameter of the vessel plus twice the thickness of
the insulation plus an allowance for the projected area of
4t rr xr dx (9.15)
piping and attached equipment. For open-framed struc- Jo Vr 2
- x2

tures the effective area is taken as twice the projected

area, 'alld an allowance of 17 in. is made for caged ladders
(139). Table 9.1. ASA Recommended Wind Pressures for
Figure 9.6 shows a group of self-supported vertical vessels Various Height Zones above Ground (137)
with caged ladders and platforms. Note also the external (Courtesy of American Standards Association)
piping, which increases the effective diameter (deff.) to Wind pressure-map areas
wind loads. Height zone (lb per sq ft)
After determining the values of the wind loading and the (ft) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
projected area upon which it acts, the bending moment any
distance X from the top of the tower can be expressed ns: Less than 30 15 20 25 25 30 35 40
30 to .19 20 25 30 35 JO .15 50
p .X (deff.) (12X) 50 to 99 25 30 JO 45 50 ;);) 60
" 12 2 100 to .t99 30 40 45 55 60 70 75
160 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels

Fig. 9.6. Self-supporting vertical vessels with caged ladders, platforms, and external piping. (Courtesy of C. f. Braun & Co.)
 Guyed Vessels 161

Substituting x = r sin fJ 9.5 GUYED VESSELS

12 The chief advantage of using guy wires for restraining
ly 4tr 3 for sin 2 0 df) a tall vertical vessel is the reduction in the size of the founda-
tion and in the size and number of foundation bolts. This
= 4lr 3 [~ - ! sin Ocos 0]1r/"1. is offset in part by the anchorages for the guy wires and by
2 2 o the nuisance created by the wires. The design of guyed
vessels has been discussed by Marshall (142, 143).
= 4tr
3
[ 1] The wires used for guying purposes are usually of wire
rope fabricated of high-strength-steel strands around a
therefore
(9.16) hemp core saturated with a preservative and a lubricant.
The wire rope is generally specified by two numbers, of
Or, including an allowance for corrosion and using the which the first gives the number of strands per cable, and
mean radius, rm, we obtain: the second gives the number of wires per strand. Thus, a
6 x 7 wire rope, which is commonly used for guying pur-
(9.16a) poses, contains 6 strands with 7 wires per strand.
Commercial wire rope is available in several grades:
where extra-high strength, plow steel, and cast steel. The approxi-
mate breaking strengths in tons for these grades are given
Substituting Eq. 9.16 into Eq. 9.13 gives (because by the following equations for 6 x 7 cable:
rm ::::::: ro):
T = 4ld2 (for extra-high strength) (9.22)
(9.17) T = 36d2 (for plow steel) (9.23)
T = 30d2
(for cast steel) (9.24)
By substituting Eqs. 9.12 and 9.15 into Eq. 9.13 the
general equation for the bending stress on the vessel shell where T approximate breaking strength, tons
due to a given wind load, Pw, may be obtained. d = wire-rope diameter, inches

f _ PwX 2detr.ro (9.18)

The approximate costs of 6 x 7 cable is (144):
wz - 2Tr~ 3(t8 - c)
Dollars per foot 0.44d2 (for extra-high strength)
But rm ::::::: r 0 and do/2 ::::::: rm; therefore, Eq. 9.18 can be (9.25)
simplified to: Dollars per foot = 0.40d2 (for plow steel) (9.26)
(9.19)
Dollars per foot = 0.28d2 (for cast steel) (9.27)

Simplifying Eq. 9.19 for the case where Pw is 25 lb per For design purposes a factor of safety of 4 is usually
sq ft gives the following two equations. applied to Eqs. 9.22, 9.23, and 9.24 to obtain the allowable
For insulated towers, cable loads. Greater factors of safety are used where
sudden loads are anticipated.
_ 15.89detJ.X2 Usually three or four sets of guy wires are equally spaced
f (9.20)
wx - do 2 (l8 - c) around the vessel. For vessels up to 50 ft in height one
For noninsulated towers, cable is used in each position; for vessels 75 ft in height
two cables are often used in each position; for vessels over
2
f V!Z = 15.89X (9.21) 75 ft in height three or more cables are commonly used in
do(ts - c) each position. These wires are attached to a rigid collar
usually located at two thirds and sometimes three quarters
Equations 9.20 and 9.21 are limited by the following the height of the vessel.
restrictions: 9.5a Tension in Guy Wires. To avoid the danger of
1. The wind pressure is 25 lb per sq ft. having a slack guy wire, an initial tension of one fourth of
2. The wind acts at the above intensity over the entire the allowable cable load is applied by tightening the turn-
length of the column. buckles on the cable. ·
3. There are no external attachments on the tower. The guy wires are used to counteract the bending moment
4. The moment of inertia of the shell about its transverse caused by the wind load, given by Eq. 9.12. Using this
axis is: equation with X equal to the total height, H, and with the
I 1rrm 3(t, - c) guy ring located at %H, we find that the horizontal force,
Fw, to be absorbed by each set of wires in pounds is:
5. The mean radius of the shell is approximately equal
to the outside radius. PwHdetr.
---- (9.28)
16
The general form of Eq. 9.19 incorporates assumptions 2,
4, and 5 above. In Eq. 9.28 the lever arm of the total wind load is assumed
 162 Design of Toll Vertical Vessels
to be HH whereas the lever arm of the horizontal component where Mwxo = bending moment between guy ring.and base,
of the force on the guy wires is %H. inch-pounds
If four sets of n number of guy wires are used on the vessel Pw = wind pressure, pounds per square foot
and if allowance is made for a wind load from any direction, det1.. = effective diameter of shell for wind load,
each set should be designed to carry this load in addition inches
to the initial tension load. The guy wires are usually con- H = vessel height, feet
nected to the vessel so as to make an angle, 0, with the X distance from top of vessel, feet
· vertical of from 30° to 70°. Therefore, the total tensile ro = inside radius of shell, inches
force, F0 w, in each guy wire on the upwind side will be: t8 = shell thickness, inches .,
c = corrosion allowance, inches
F = ¾PwHdeff. (9.29)
ow 16n sin 8 9.6 EXAMPLE CALCULATION 9.1
9.5b Compressive Stress in Vessel Induced by Guy- Compare the maximum bending moments from wind
wire Tension. The tension in the guy wires will have aver- loads and stresses induced by such bending in a self-sup-
tical component downward which will add to the compres- ported vessel with those in a guyed vessel. The. vessel is
sive stresses in the shell. This component Fco is equal to the 100 ft, 0 in. high, 7 ft, 0 in. in outside shell diameter, nnd
total tension in each cable times the number of cables times has a shell thickness of% in. Corrosion allowance is 711 in.;
the cos 8. For four sets of n number of guy wires with F0 w magnesia insulation 3 in. thick is used. No other attach-
downwind and both neutral sides equal to F0 w/5 upwind, ments are considered in this problem. The maximum
anticipated wind pressure is 25 lb per sq ft. For the guyed
s F.
Fcg = 4nv-ir ow cos
O = PwH<ieff.. (9.30) condition four cables equally spaced making an angle of
8 tan 8 45° with the vertical will he used with the guy ring at
66 ft, 8 in.
Therefore, since do """ elm: In the self-supported tower,
fco = Fcg = P,,,Hdeff. Pw = 25 lb per sq ft
A, 8 tan lhrd0 (t, - c)

_ 0.04PwH <ieff.. The bending moment in the unguyed vessel will be a

Jcg- tan B(t. - c) do
- (9.31) maximum at the base.
By Eq. 9.12, for an unguyed vessel where X = 100 ft,
where Jco = compressive stress in shell from vertical com-
ponent of four sets of guy wires, pounds per Mwx = ½P.,,X2<ieff..
square inch = ½(25)(100) 2(84 + 6)
The oompressive stress fen induced in the shell by the = 11.25 X 10 6 inch pounds
vertical component of the guy wires must be added to the
compressive stresses from dead weight, and so on in analyz- By Eq. 9.17
ing the combined stresses in the vessel. f _ Mwx = 11.25 X 10
6
= 4070 i
9.5c Bending Moment. From the top of the vessel to wx - 1rr 02 (l8 - c) 1r(3.5 X 12) 2 (0.5) ps
the guy ring, the vesse~ is designed like an unguyed vessel,
and the bending moment in this region is given by Eq. Or by Eq. 9.20
9.12. From the guy ring to the base of the vessel, the
bending moment caused by a wind load on a guyed tower ~ = 15.89det1..X2 = (15.89)(90)(100) 2 = 4050 si
Jwz do(l8 - c) 84 2 (0.5) p
is considered to he that of a beam overhanging one support
with a uniformly distributed load. If the guy ring is In a guyed tower, by Eq. 9.33,
located at ¾H, the bending moment, Mwxg, between the
ring and the base is given as: M _ Pwde:ff..H2 _ (25)(90)(100) 2
w:ro(max) - 32 - 32 ·
Mwxg = Pwdeff. (3HX - F/2 - 2X2) (9.32) = 0.703 X 10 6 inch pounds
4
By Eq. 9.34
The maximum value 'of the moment Mwxo is given by
6
Eq. 9.33 and is located at a distance of H/4 feet above the Mwxg = 0.703 X 10 = 254 si
base. fwzg = 7r7'o 2 (t8
- c) 1r(42) 2 (0.5) p
Pwdeff.lfl By Eq. 9.31
M w:i:g(max) = 32
(9.33).
fco = 0.04PwH deff. = (0.04)(25)(100) (84 6) +
By substituting by means of Eq. 9.13 the corresponding tan 8(t8 - c) do (1.00)(0.5) (84)
bending stress, f w.,0 , may he determined. = 213 psi
(9.34) Thus the maximum bending stress due to wind load is
4070 psi in the self-supported tower and only 254 psi in
 Stresses Resulting from Seismic Forces 163
the guyed tower. However, an additional compressive Note: The term yin Eq. 9.35 is the deflection of a beam,
stress of 213 psi is induced in the guyed tower as a result of whereas the term Ye in Eq. 2.10 is the distance from the
the downward vertical component of the guy-wire reaction. neutral axis of a beam to the fiber in question. The maxi-
To calculate the size of guy wire required when four cables mum value of Ye is equal to c.
are used, by Eq. 9.29, The bending moment M varies along the length of the
beam; therefore, the stress f varies both with the distance
= 5
4
PwHdeff. = (5)(25)(100)(90) = 6200lbor3.l tons from the neutral axis and along the beam. Substituting
Fow 16n sin 0 (4)(16)(4)(0.707)
Eq. 2.10 into Eq. 2.26, gives:
Using a factor of safety of 4, and a cast-steel cable, we
find that by Eq. 9.24 U= f (2.26)
2E
Breaking strength = T = 30d 2

Af2ye2
30d2 U=--
2El2
(9.36)
T allowable = - - = 3.1 tons
4
Consider a differential volwne in the beam dA dx (see
Solving for d we obtain: Fig. 6.5). The differential strain energy in this differential
volume is:
d = (4 )( 3.l) = 0.642 in.
30 Af2 2
d U = _I_.E__2 dA dx (9.37)
Therefore, use four cables ¾ in. in diameter (or a larger 2El
number of smaller-sized cables). Integrating we obtain:
9.7 STRESSES RESULTING FROM SEISMIC FORCES
(9.38)
Earthquake phenomena in certain geographic locations
result in the production of vibrational loads. The seismic
probability in various localities of the United States as From Eq. 2.10
prepared by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey is shown
in Fig. 9.7. The chart indicates a division of the United
f 2
Ye dA = I
States into seismic zones according to the amount of damage
Substituting into Eq. 9.38, we obtain
caused by earthquakes. Maximum hazard of damage to
equipment occurs in seismic zone 3.
Current practice in designing for these seismic forces is
empirical and is based upon the theory of vibration. In
UTotal = _!_
2E
f M dx
I
2
(9.39)

developing the relationships for vibrational loads, it is con- Substituting for Min Eq. 9.39, by Eq. 2.14, we obtain:
venient to use the theories of strain energy and simple 2
harmonic motion. M = El d y (2.14)
dx 2
9.7a Strain-energy Relationships. Consider the gen-
eral condition of a uniformly loaded beam having a dis-
tributed load of w lb per lin in. Each elemental load will
U = El
2
f (d 2
y)2 dx
dx 2
(9.40)
be equal to w dx (see Fig. 2.3). If the load is gradually
applied, the average elemental force will be equal to (w/2) dx. To apply Eq. 9.40 to the vibration of a vertical vessel
The beam will deflect a distance of y (see Eq. 2.17) and the under seismic load, the deflection curve for the vessel must
work done by each elemental force will be equal to (w/2)y dx. be known. A vertical vessel bolted to a foundation behaves
The work done by the load on the beam is equal to the as a cantilever beam.
integral. 9.76 Deflection of a Uniformly Loaded Cantilever
Beam. Figure 9.8 is a sketch of a beam of uniform cross
U=~f ydx (9.35) section deflecting under uniform load.
The moment at any point, xis:
In order to solve this relationship, the deflection equation
l - X w
for the beam must first be evaluated and then substituted M = w(l - x) - - = - (l - x) 2 (9.41)
for y in Eq. 9.35. 2 2
The strain energy may also be evaluated in terms of the But
internal resisting stress in the beam. Equation 2.26 gives 2
M = El d y (2.14)
the unit strain energy at any point in the beam in terms of dx 2
the stress at the section in question. The stress varies from Therefore
a maximum tensile stress to a maximum compressive stress,
~ (l
2
passing through zero at the neutral axis, as defined by Eq. El d y = - x) 2 (9.42)
2.10. dx 2 2

f = Myc d 2y w(l-x) 2
(2.10) (9 .-13)
I dx 2 =2 El
 I

....
0,.
I
.i,..

0
100' 95' 90• 85" 80' 75• 65' (I)
70'
"'
1.0'
::I

....0
--.._ ·r·----
·-·\;,~
~

N I 0 N O F N \ "' \ \ ,iW),')../'"\ ~ -i
C
• N. l>Ak.
I 45'
<
-
...
(I)

'
I
I
f-s·;;K-· ~--.;-- n·
C

<
(I)

"'"'
I !.
L. ____ _ • 40'
"'
INES.

I
_...J.. ___ 7

'
KAN.

l 0
35' 35'

I •
. I
/·----
' .
•
OKI.A. 1 °TEml.-

----

/ " I TEXAS I Al.A. \

, I . •
I
,
,
I
-----+...:. I
•
•
30' , ! 30'
<if-.F---~-- --.J

Zone 0- no damage
Zone 1- minor damage
25' Zone 2-moderate damage 25'
Statute miles Zone 3-major damage
GULF OF MEXICO
100 50 0 100 200 300 400
Kilometers
Ii I I t I t t I I
100 50 0 200 400 600 800
115' 110' 105' 100' 95' 90' 85'

Fig. 9,7. Seismic probability map of the United States !from the U;S. Coast and Geodetic Survey).
 Stresses Resulting from Seismic Forces 165
initiates a harmonic vibration in a vertical vssel similar to
that in a reed or a tuning fork clamped at the base and set
in motion by a sudden force.
The relationships for such a simple harmonic vibration
can be derived by considering the motion of a weight sus-
pended on the end of a completely elastic spring. Consider
this system first in its equilibrium position. If a force, F,
is applied to the weight parallel to the axis of the system,
the weight will be displaced along the axis. The displace-
ment, y, will be proportional to the force, F, and to the
spring constant, k. Considering the force, F, to be positive
Fig. 9.8. Cantilever beam deflecting under uniform load. downward (increasing spring tension) and negative upward
(decreasing spring tension), we obtain:

Integrating Eq. 9.42 gives: Fdown = -Fup = ky (9.47)

= ~ [z 2 x
3
El dy - lx 2 + x ] + C1 (9.44) Using Newton's relationship (force is equal to mass times
dx 2 3 acceleration), expressing mass as W/g and acceleration as
the second derivative of y with respect to time, t, we obtain:
But dy/dx O at x = O; therefore 0 1 = 0. Integrating
again gives: F =ma= W(d2y)
g dt2
(9.48)
Ely
CombiningEqs. 9.47 and9.48 fora force upward, we obtain:
But y = 0 wh~n x = 0; therefore C2 = 0. Therefore
-ky = W
g
(d2y)
dt 2
(9.49)
(9.45)
Using the notation that p 2 = kg/W, we obtain:
9.7c Strain Energy of a DeAected Vertical Vessel.
If a vessel is deflected elastically from its vertical axis by d2y
dt2
+ p2y = 0 (9.50)
seismic forces or wind load, elastic (strain) energy is stored
in the deflected vessel. The same relationships hold as The general solution to this differential equation (9.50)
in the case of the elastic deformation of a beam; the strain is:
energy is defined by Eq. 9.40, and the second derivative of y = C1 cos pt + C2 sin pt (9.51)
the deflection by Eq. 9.43. By combining the two equa-
tions, with h, the vessel height, substituted for l, the beam The term p has the significance of angular velocity and
length, the following relationship is obtained: the term pt is the angular displacement in radians at any
time, t. The functions cos pt and sin pt are periodic func-
_ El
U- !oh (d2y)2
- dx
E[w2
8(E/)2 Jo
fh
(h
tions that repeat when the angular displacement reaches
2 0 dx2 21r. The interval of time between such repetitions is called
the period T, and the reciprocal of the period 1/T is the
Integrating we obtain: frequency of vibration. Therefore
U = w2_ [-(h - x)S]h = w2h5 (9.46) pT 21r (9.52)
BEi 5 o 40EI

If a vertical tower is vibrating, the maximum velocity

y
and therefore the maximum kinetic energy occurs at zero
displacement. As the tower displacement approaches a
maximum, the kinetic energy approaches zero and the
elastic energy of strain approaches a maximum. The
maximum kinetic energy (at zero displacement) must equal
the maximum strain energy (at maximum displacement) if -y,
the energy in the system is considered to be constant. The ~
solution of this equality involves the evaluation of kinetic T T T
4 4 4
energy due to harmonic vibration.
9.7d Harmonic Vibration. A displacement in the _j_
earth's crust produced by seismic forces results in a sudden
shift in the foundation of a vessel relatiYe to its center of
gravity. The inertia of the vessel restrains the vessel from
moving simultaneously with the foundation and this results
in an elastic deflection of the Yessel. This elastic deflection Fig. 9.9. Harmonic vibration components.
-
166 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
and

dy = - PYo sin pt (9.59)

dt

\
\ I
,. Using the fundamental relationship that kinetic energy
is equal to one half the mass times the square of the velocity
\ I dy/dl gives:
\ I
\ I
\ I
(9.60)
\ l;
KE

h where h = tower height measured from base

\
\ 1'
I /
But the maximum kinetic energy exists at zero deflection,
\ I I y = 0, and whei;i pl = 1r/2. Substituting this condition
\ I
\ I into Eq. 9.59 gives:
\I
dy • 7r
- = -pyo sm = -pyo (9.61)
dl 2
Therefore
Fig, 9.10. Vibrational displacement af a vertical tower.
(::)2 = p2y02 (9.62)

Combining Eqs. 9.52 and 9.49 gives: However, in a vibrating tower the velocity of sway varies
with the height, increasing to a maximum at the top, as
T = 21r 21r "VW/kg (9.53) shown in Fig. 9.10. The total kinetic energy of the sway
p is equal to the integral from O to h, or
To evaluate the constants of Eq. 9.51 consider the condi- KE = w [h (dy)2 dx (9.63)
tion when the weight, W, has a displacement of Yo from its 2g }o dl
equilibrium condition and is moving at a velocity of
(dy 0/dl). If this condition is taken as zero time (t 0), Substituting Eq. 9.62 into Eq. 9.63 gives:
by Eq. 9.51.
Yo C1 cos O + C2 sin. 0
wp2
KE= - Yo 2 dx
lah (9.64)
2g o
therefore
C1 = Yo (9.54) Substituting for Yo by Eq. 9.45 gives:
2 2
The first differential of Eq. 9.51 with respect tot is:
KE wp (1• [ ~ (a: 4 - 4ha:3 + 6h 2x 2) ] dx
2g }o 24El
-pC1 sin pi+ pC2 cos pl (9.55)

Therefore at i = 0 the following is obtained:

(d~o) = -pC1 sin O + pC2 cos O pC2
Therefore

KE
3 2 9
w p h [ 104 ] (9.65)
therefore E 212g (1152)(45)
Equating Eq. 9.65 to Eq. 9.46 gives:
(9.56)
w2hs wsp2h9 [ 104 ]
Substituting these values of C1 and C2 into Eq. 9.51 gives 40EI = E 212g (1152)(45)

y = Yo cos pi + ~ ( d~o) sin pt (9.57)

· Solving for p gives:
(ll52)(45)Elg
p=
Inspection of Eq. 9.57 shows that the vibration consists of (104) (40)wh 4
two parts. The major part is a vibration which is propor- therefore
tional to cos pt and depends upon the initial displacement,
y 0, as is shown in Fig. 9.9. The minor part is a vibration
p = 3.53 v' (Elg/wh 4) (9.66)
which is proportional to sin pi and depends upon the initial The period of vibration, T, is equal to p/21r by Eq. 9.53,
velocity dy 0/di. therefore
If the minor vibration is disregarded,
T- 21r f:;;,;,.
y '.::::'. Yo cos pt (9.58) 3.53 "\J Elg
 Stresses Resulting from Seismic. Fore.es 167
Table 9.2. Data on Some Disastrous Earthquakes (145)
(Courtesy of American Society of Civil Engineers)
Approximate
Horizontal
Main Period, Acceleration
Location Date seconds (fraction of g) Comment
Japan June 1894 1.3 0. 09 Serious damage
San Francisco April 1906 ? 0 . 25 * Disastrous
Tokyo September 1923 1.35 0 . 10 Disastrous
Long Beach, Calif. March 1933 0.30 0.23 Damage of $40-70,000,000
1.50 0.11
1.80 0.02
Helena, Mont. October 1935 0.13 0. 13 Damage of $3--4,000,000
0.3
1.0
* Estimated.

For a vertical steel cylindrical tower Eq. 9.67 may be
simplified as follows. Let
E = 30,000,000 psi, modulus of elasticity
I moment of inertia of shell given by Eq. 9.16
g = 32.2 ft per sec 2, gravitational constant
Substituting gives:
data obtained from the disastrous Japanese earthquake of
1923 known as the "Great Kwanto Disaster." Surveys
were made of all buildings left standing with minor damage
after this disaster, and it was found that buildings designed
with a seismic coefficient of 0.10 or greater successfully
withstood the seismic forces. It has also been observed
that flexible structures can more readily absorb seismic

T 2.65 X 10-a (~Y (w~)H (9.68)

where T = period of vibration, seconds
H = total tower height, feet (vessel plus skirt)
D = tower diameter, feet
w = tower weight, pounds per foot of height
t tower shell thickness, inches
9.7e Seismic Load Coefficients. Design for earth-
quake loads is primarily based upon empirical analysis of
structures that have withstood severe earthquakes. Earth-
quake motions are quite complex and not simple harmonic
motions as are the vibrations induced in vessels. However,
earthquakes have had certain marked periods as shown in
Table 9.2.
The fourth column of Table 9.2 gives the seismic coeffi-
cient, which is the approximate horizontal accleration in
terms of fractions of g, the acceleration due to gravity.
From Newton's relationship that force equals mass times
acceleration we obtain:
F ~W= CW (9.69)
g mined from Eqs. 9.68. A summary of recommended coeffi-
where a/g = C = seismic coefficient.
Although Table 9.2 gives only the horizontal component
of seismic acceleration, it should be noted that a vertical
component also exists. However, the vertical seismic forces
are usually far less damaging to vertical structures and
usually are disregarded in the designing of vessels.
In the empirical application of seismic coefficients to
building design it has been customary to allow for a hori-
zontal force equal to ClV where lV is the weight of the
building and C is a seismic coefficient. Coefficients used
today for such purposes were based primarily upon the
forces without damage than rigid structures.
The Uniform Building Code (Pacific Coast) of 1952 (146)
specifies a seismic coefficient of 0.10 for free-standing stacks
and similar structures such as vessels in zone 3 along with
an increase in allowable stress of %. For buildings the
effect of flexibility of structure in reducing the coefficient
is recognized by the specification of a variable coefficient.
Although the Uniform Building Code does not specify such
a variable coefficient for free-standing stacks and related
equipment such as vessels, it is believed that such a con-
sideration is reasonable.
Vessels having short periods of vibration of 0.4 sec or less
may he considered to he rigid structures, and a seismic
coefficient of 0.20 for zone 3 is recommended for such
designs. This coefficient is twice the value of the coefficient
for free-standing stacks recommended by the Uniform
Building Code. Vessels having a period of LO sec or greater
may be considered to be flexible and are therefore more
capable of absorbing seismic forces. For such vessels a
coefficient of 0.08 for zone 3 is recommended. For vessels
in zone 3 having a period in the transition region between
0.4 and LO sec, it is recommended that a seismic coefficient
of 0.08/T be used where Tis the period in seconds as deter-
cients for various seismic zones and various vessel periods
is given in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3. Recommended Coefficients for Various
Sesmic. Zones (1.45)
Seismic Coefficient, C
Seismic Period Period Period
Zone < 0.4 sec 0.4-1 sec > 1.0 sec
1 0.05 0.02/T 0.02
2 0.10 0.0.t/T 0.0.t
3 0.20 0.08/T 0.08
168 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
9.8 EXAMPLE CALCULATION 9.2
For the unguyed vertical tower described in Example
Calculation 9.1, calculate the seismic bending moment and
resultant stress at 25 ft and 50 ft above the base of the
tower. The tower weighs 1800 lb per vertical foot of height
(180,000 lb total) and is to be erected in southern California.
Calculation of vessel period:
By Eq. 9.68

T = 2.65 x 10- 5 (~Y (wtDy~

therefore
T = 2.65 X 10-s (-4Jl-)2 (180i.r 7rr,_
Fig. 9.11. Seismic forces on a vertical vessel.
T = o:856 sec
Determination of seismic coefficient:
9.7f Shear and Bending Moment Resulting from Seismic , In reference to Fig. 9.7, southern California is in seismic
Forces in Unguyed Vessels. The seismic forces act to pro- zone 3, and by Table 9.3 the period of vibration 0.856 sec
duce horizontal shear in vertical unguyed vessels. This lies between 0.4 and 1.0 sec. Therefore the seismic coeffi-
shear force in turn produces a bending moment about the cient, C, is given by
base of the vessel. The shear loading will be triangular
with the apex at the base, as shown in Fig. 9.11. The C = 0.08
center of action for such a triangular loading is located at T
%H. The shear force at the base resulting from seismic 8
forces is given by Eq. 9.69. C = 0.0 = 0.0935
0.856
The shear force, V8 x (pounds) at any horizontal plane in
the tower X feet down from the top is given by: Determination of seismic bending moments at 25 and 50 ft:
By Eq. 9.71
Vsx = CWX(2H - X) (9.70)
H2 Msx = 4CWX 2 (3H - X)
H2
where C seismic coefficient from previous section
w total weight,.of tower, pounds w 180,000 lb, at 25 ft (X = 75 ft), therefore
H total height of tower, feet 2
(4)(0.0935)(180,000)(75) (300 - 75)
The bending moment M 8 :r, (inch pounds) at plane X (100) 2
resulting from the shear forces above plane Xis given by: = 8.50 X 10 8 in-lb
At X 50 ft
M ~ 4CWX2(3H - X) . (9.71)
s:i: - H2 Msx = 4.20 X 106 in-lb
The corresponding bending stress may he determined by Determination of seismic stresses at the 25 and 50 ft levels:
Eq. 9.17. Thefefore By Eq. 9.72

(9.72)

The maximum shear and bending moment are located at At 25 ft

the base of the tower and may he found by substituting Msx = 8.50 X 10 6 in-lb
X = Hin Eqs. 9.70 and 9.71, respectively, or Therefore

Vsb = CW (9. 73)

8.50 X 10s = 3080 si
r(42) 2 (0.5) p
and
At 50 ft
M.b = 2CWH(l2 in. per ft) = 8CWH (9.74) Max = 4.20 X 10 6 in-lb
3 Therefore
Substituting Eq. 9.74 into Eq. 9.72 gives the seismic 4.20 X 106 = 1514 si
bending stress at the base of the skirt of the vessel. ,r(42) 2 (0.5) p
8CWH 9.9 STRESS CAUSED BY ECCENTRIC LOADINGS
(9.75)
rr 2(t8 - c)
In vessels such as bubble-cap columns the shell and trays
where r = tower radius, inches are placed symmetrical about the longitudinal axis, but
t8 = skirt thickness, inches external attached equipment usually acts as an eccentric
 Combined Stresses in the Shell 169

Fig. 9.12. Erection of a carbon

dioxide absorption tower 84 ft, 0 in.
by 7 ·ft, 6 in. (Courtesy of The
Girdler Company and the Miuissippi
Chemical Carp.)

load and should he considered as such. Most external Eccentric loads produces a bending moment equal to
attached equipment produces a negligible moment, and ~W.(e). The additional bending stress at plane X caused
engineering judgment must he used in the calculation of by this moment is:
stresses. Equipment such as small ladders, pipes, and
manholes may usually he disregarded, but the total com- ~-M~ = ~W.(e)
bined moment of heavier equipment such as overhead or 1/c 1/c
side condensers is important. The eccentricity is calculated Substituting for J by Eq. 9.16 gives:
by:
~We(e)
e (9. iG) (9.77)
c)

where e = eccentricity, the distance from the column axis to 9.10 COMBINED STRESSES IN THE SHELL
center of reaction, inches A controlling combined tensile or compressive stress
~Me summation of moments of eccentric loads, inch occurs as a result of combinations of stresses. It is import-
pounds ant to consider the intended construction, erection, and
~ll'e = summation of all eccentric loads, pounds test schedule which is to be followed in erecting the vessel
170 Design of Toll Vertical Vessels
X compressive dead loads and wind loads become significant,
¾ fw,: (from wind load)
or
fu .(from seismic load)
fd% (from total developed load)
+1111111~1111.111
fop (axial stress from internal
tlllllll~llllllt pressure)
i following equations for the maximum combined stress can
Fig. 9.13. Stress conditions In the shell of a vertical vessel.
and placing it on stream. With this in mind, the condi-
tions must be determined which establish the controlling ·
stresses. Figure _9.12 shows the erection of a tall self-
supporting tower on its foundation.
.An evaluation must be made of the effect of the combined
stresses induced in the shell of a vertical pressure acted upon
by wind loads. These stresses are additive at specific
points in the shell of the vessel. During the construction
and subsequent use of the vessel, the total combined stresses
will vary according to the forces acting on the vessel at
any given time. The stressed condition of the vessel may
be divided into the following possible cases:
Case. 1 : vessel under construction
a. empty shell erected
b. shell and auxiliary equipment such as trays or pack-
ing but no insulation
Case 2: vessel completed but shut down
Case 3: vessel under test conditions
a. hydrostatic test
b. air test
Case 4: vessel in operation
In the consideration of wind and earthquake loads it is
assumed that the possibility that the most adverse wind
and earthquake load will occur simultaneously is remote and
the possibility that these lateral forces will occur in the
same direction is even more remote. Therefore, the result-
ing stresses for wind loads and earthquake loads are com-
puted separately, and the most adverse loading condition
used in the design.
In analyzing the combined stresses calculations are usu-
ally made beginning at the top of the vessel. The mini-
mum shell thickness in the upper portion .of the .tower is
usually controlled by the circumferential stress· resulting
from internal pressure or vacuum. The shell plate. thick-
ness at the top of the column can usually be specified on this
basis by using a standard plate thickness slightly larger
than the minimum. At lower sections of the vessel, where
the shell thickness must be increased in order to resist these
additional loads.
The distance down the vessel for which the initial shell
plate thickness may be used without exceeding the allow-
able stress is determined by calculating the combined
stresses again, remembering that the specified distance
should be reduced to some multiple of standard plate widths
to avoid cutting a plate unnecessarily. .
In designing the shell it is not necessary to ailo~ for the
compressive stress resulting from the weight of the liquid
' in the hydrostatic test since the bottom head of the shell
transfers this load directly to the skirt. It is essential to
check the lower sections for wrinkling failure before the
final specifications are fixed.
Therefore, in the case where thermal, eccentric, and live-
load stresses are negligible, and for positive pressures, the
be applied in the calculation of plate thickness. It must be
noted, however, that if the stress due to eccentricity is
appreciable, it should be included in the dead-weight-stress
and bending-stress terms.
Figure 9.13 is a diagram indicating the stress conditions
in a vertical vessel resulting from the loads indicated. By
reference to this figure it is apparent that the maximum
tensile stress exists on the upwind side of the vessel and the
maximum compressive stress exists on the downwind side
of the vessel. .
Maximum tensile stress (upwind side) at point X with
.an unguyed vessel under internal pressure and in the absence
of eccentric loads is:
ftm,,.r. <Jwz or fa,:) + lap - !dz (9.78)
For external pressure the equation becomes:
ftma.r. = (J.,,,: or fsz) - fap - fdr,, (9.79)
Maximum compressive stress (downwind side) at point X
with an unguyed vessel under in~rnal pressure and in the
absence of eccentric loads is:
lcmo.r. = <Jwz or lsz) + !dz - f ap (9.80)
For external pressure the equation becomes:
fcl1lll.X = <Jwz or fu:) +/dz+ fap (9.81)
9.11 DETERMINATION OF THICKNESSES OF SHELL
PLATES FROM TENSILE STRESSES
The diameter and height of the vertical vessel are deter-
mined by the process requirements. In the case of a dis-
tillation column the diameter is determined by the maximum
vapor load and allowable vapor velocity. The height of
the tower is determined by the number of trays required
to effect the desired separation and the selected tray spacing.
The material of construction is determined by corrosion

requirements, temperature and pressure levels, economic
considerations, and availability.
The minimum required shell thickness usually occurs in
the top course of the vessel where cumulative stresses from
wind loads and dead weight are s-mall. A trial thickness for
the top course can be selected on the basis of pressure con-
siderations by using Eq. 3.14. However, seismic loads may
be significant in the upper portion of the vessel if the vessel
is to be erected in seismic zone 3, in which case the selected
thickness must be checked for the combination of pressure
stresses and stresses from seismic forces by using Eq. 9.72
in Eq. 9.78 or 9.81, whichever is appropriate. If the selected
thickness is satisfactory, it is next necessary to determine
how many courses of this thickness may be used in the
vessel.. The limiting value of X for the initial plate thick-
ness selected may be determined by substituting into Eq.
9.78, using Eq. 9.7 for fa,z, Eq. 9.17 for fwx, Eq. 9.72 for fsx,
and Eq. 3.13 for f ap• This may be done by trial and error
by assuming the number of courses down from the top and
checking the combined stresses at this level.
An alternative procedure is to solve directly for the dis-
tance X down from the top of the vessel at which the maxi-
mum induced stress is equal to the allowable stress by
means of a quadratic relationship. For unguyed vessels
under internal pressure fabricated of steel and for the case
in which the maximum lateral loads are determined by
wind loads rather than seismic forces for operating condi-
tions, the following equation may be used:
.i- _ 2PwX2 + pd
Jt max - ( )
1rd(l8 - c) 4 l8 - c
where P-,.., is given by Eq. 9.11.
This equation may be modified to fit erection and other
conditions not covered by the limitations above. To deter-
mine X, the distance at which the induced tensile stress
is equal to the allowable stress, fallow. may he substituted
for f 1 rna.x and the equation arranged in the form of a
quadratic.
2Pw ]
[ 1rd(t. - c)
x 2 + r-'It(w/ft)] X
1rd(t. c)
+ [ 4(t,pd- r ] _
c) - Ja.llow. -
Equation 9.82 has the following form: .
aX2 + bX + C
where the coefficients a, b, and care defined by the quantities
in the respective brackets. The solution of the binomial
equation is:
X
-b ± -Vb 2 - 4ac
2a
After determining the yalue of X by means of Eq. 9.83,
it may be desirable to adjust the plate thickness, t8 , for the
top courses so that the height of the section, X, will be a
multiple of the plate width used. Usually the plate thick-
ness originally selected is satisfactoi·y for a number of
courses. Plates below distance X must have an increase
Checking Shell Compressive Stresses for Elastic Stability 171
in thickness in order to withstand the increase in tensile
stress resulting from wind load. In this case the calcula-
tion using Eq. 9.83 is repeated, with the larger plate thick-
ness substituted. The bending moment due to wind loads
increases with X 2 • Therefore, the plate thickness required
will increase more rapidly with respect to X near the bottom
of the tower than in the upper region.
In checking the tensile load conditions the various cases
of stress conditions should be investigated individually to
determine the controlling condition. If the vessel is
designed for high-pressure service, the limiting condition
will usually exist when the vessel is operating under pressure
and under a wind load. As the vessel would not· be tested
with air pressure under high-wind conditions, this case is
not considered to be controlling. Vessels designed for
low-pressure service may encounter maximum-stress con-
ditions when the erected empty vessel is exposed to a high
wind load.
Any additional compressive loads such as those induced
by trays with liquid inside a distillation column or overhead
external condensers will relieve the tensile load.
9.12 CHECKING SHELL COMPRESSIVE STRESSES FOR
ELASTIC STABILITY
9.12a Critical Compressive Stress. After determining
the shell plate thicknesses in order to satisfy tensile stress
requirements, the design should be checked for compressive
stresses on the downwind side. This analysis is more com-
'It(w/ftHt)X
plex because elastic stability must be considered. Thin-
1rd(l8 c) walled columns stressed along their longitudinal axis may
fail in two ways: by Euler's buckling or by wrinkling.
Failure due to Euler's buckling involves bending of the shell
as a whole and is seldom controlling in vertical vessels with
cylindrical shells. Wrinkling is local in nature and depends
upon the combined compressive stresses at the point under
consideration. It is necessary to determine the stress under
which this phenomenon occurs. The allowable critical
compressive stress at which wrinkling does not occur when
a steel cylinder is under axial compression was given in
Chapter 2 by Eq. 2.25.
o
(9.82)
fca.llow. (2.25)
0
9.12b The Influence of Stiffeners. Vertical vessels may
be stiffened by the addition of internal or external members
attached to the shell. The members may be attached in
either the longitudinal or circumferential direction and in
some cases in both directions. Timoshenko has shown how
allowance may be made for the stiffening effect if the mem-
(9.83) bers are uniformly spaced (42).
Equation 2.25 may be modified as follows to allow for the
stiffening effect:
!callow. = 1.5 X 10 6 t
r
-V (lyl;1jl 2)
1.5 X 10 6 _ r;-;- <
= ---- V lyi,, = ~~ y.p. (9.8-1)
r
172 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
where Therefore use ¾ 6 in.
Selection of head:
(the equivalent thickness of the (9.84a)
tu= t + ;u shell in the circumferential direc-
A preliminary calculation indicates that the required
y elliptical-head thickness will be 91 6 in. Since elliptical
tion)
dished heads 7 ft, 0 in. in diameter are not made this thin,
(the equivalent thickness of the (9.84b) a torispherical dished head will he used. Also, torispherical
shell in the longitudinal direction) heads are nominal on the outside diameter.
Calculation:
where Ay = cross-sectional area of one circumferential stif- By Eq. 13.12
fener, square inches
dy = distance between circumfe1·ential stiffeners, t = 0.885prc
inches JE - 0.lp
A., = cross-sectional area of one longitudinal stif-
fener, square inches
= (0. 885 )( 40)(84 ) C = 0.275 0.125
d., = distance between longitudinal stiffeners, inches (12,650)(-0.85) - (0.1)(40) + +
It is significant that any additional area added to the = 0.400 in. -tii--in. thick head
shell as stiffeners increases the buckling strength of the
vessel in proportion to the square root whereas the addi- ,
tional metal area added uniformly to the shell by increasing By Eq. 5.12
its thickness will increase its strength in direct proportion.
The obvious conclusion is that it is more economical to Diameter OD + OD + 2sf + tier (5.12)
stiffen a shell by increasing the shell thickness than by 24
adding stiffeners.
9.13 EXAMPLE DESIGN, SHELL CALCULATIONS FOR
From Table 5.7, icr = 5~i in., and from Table 5.8,
sf= 3H in.
A TALL VERTICAL VESSEL
A close fractionation tower is to be fabricated and installed Diameter = 84 + H + 2(1½) + f(5¼)
in the west-central area of Texas. The vessel has the fol-
lowing specifications: 84 + 3.5 + 3 + 3.4
Shell outside diameter = 7 ft, 0 in. = 93.9 in.
Shell length, tangent line to tangent line = 150 ft, 0 in.
Operating pressure = 40 lb per sq in. gage • 1rd2t p .
Weight of head =- --
Operating temperature 300° F 4 1728
Shell material = SA-283, Grade C
Shell, double welded butt joints stress relieved but not = 1r(93.9)2(*) fM
radiographed 4
Skirt height = 10 ft, 0 in.
Tray spacing = 24 in. (71 trays) = 860 lb
Top disengaging space = 4 ft, 0 in.
Bottom separator space = 6 ft, 0 in. Calculation of axial stress in shell:
Tray loading including liquid = 25 .lh per sq ft di :::::. do; therefore use = 84 in.
Tray-support rings = 2½ in. x 2½ in. x % in. angles By Eq. 3.13
Corrosion allowance, c = ¾ in.
Overhead vapor line = 12 in., outside diameter pd (40)(84) = 4480 si
Insulation (ins.) = 3 in. on column and vapor lines fav = 4(l - c) = (4)(0.1875) p
8
Accessories = one caged ladder
Allowable stress (see Chapter 13 on code vessels): Calculation of dead weights:
SA-283, Grade C stress relieved hut not radiographed has
an allowable stress of 12,650 psi (see Table 13.1), and a fd(lSd wt shell = 3.4X (by Eq. 9.3a) .
welded-joint efficiency of 0.85 is specified by the ASME
code (11) (see Table 13.2). Note: Eq. 9.3a applies only to shells of constant thick-
Calculation of. minimum shell thickness: nesses and may he used for the top section where the thick-
ness is constant.
t = pro +C (13.1)
SE - 0.4p Pins.Xlins.
1
Jdead wt ins. = 144 ({, _ c) (by Eq. 9.4a)
(40)(42) J

= (12,650)(0.85) - (0.4)(40) + tr 40X3

=----- 4.44X
= 0.156 + 0.125 = 0.281 (144)(0.1875)
 Example Design, Shell Calculations for a Tall Vertical Vessel 173
Wt of top head = 860 lb Calculation of combined stresses under operating conditions:
UpWind side: By Eq. 9.78
Wt of ladder = 25 lb per ft
Wt of 12-in. schedule 30 pipe (from ft(ma.x) = fwz + fap - fdz
Appendix K) = 43.8 lb per ft
= l.297X 2 + 4480 - 19.76X + 2.05
Wt of pipe insulation =
l.297X 2 - 19.67X + 4478
'.!:: (1.5 2 - 1.0 2)40 = 39.3 lb per ft
4
For an allowable stress of 12,650 psi and a joint efficiency
Total (860 + 108.lX)lb of 0.85,
W = 860 + 108.lX
(12,650)(0.85) psi = l.297X 2 - 19.76X + 4478
:zw
fdea.d wt attachments= - - - -
or
(not including trays) rd(ls - c) X2 - 15.25X - 4830 =o
= 860 + 108.lX = 17.4 2.19X Solving for X gives:
(3.14)(84) (0.1875) +
The weight of trays plus liquid (below X = 4) is calcu- X = +15.25 ± -V(l5.25) 2 + (4)(4830)
ated as follows. 2
= 77.5 ft
X
n= ( X-4
- - + l) --1 Downwind side:
2 2
By Eq. 9.80

. + trays) =
(1- 1) 25 ( ~ ) fc(max) = fwz f ap + fdz
dead wt (liquid
l21rD(t c) l.297X 2 - 4480 + 19.76X - 2.05

(~ - 1)c25)(7) x = 1.297X2 19.76X - 4478

= (48)(0.1875) = 19 ·45 (2 - 1
) From elastic stability, by Eq. 2.25,

fdw = 3.4X
=
+ 4.44X +
(9.73X - 19.45)

2.19X + 17.4 + 9.73X - 19.45

Jc 1.5 X 10
6
G) ~ '!Y•P•

= (19.76X - 2.05) = 1.5 X 106 (0·~~75)

Calculation of stress due to wind loads:
The wind pressure as obtained from Fig. 9.4 and Table 9.1 6690 psi
~: Therefore

From Fig. 9.4,, wind pressure at 30 ft = 25 psf l.297X 2 + 19.76X - 4478 = 6690
'rom Table 9.1, the corresponding wind pressure above
X + 15.3X -
2
8640 = 0
100 ft 40 psf
X = -15.25 ± -V(l_5.25) 2 + (4)(1)(8630)
fa shape factor of 0.65 is applied, the effective wind pres-
2
ure above 100 ft will be 26 psf. Table 9.1 shows that
rind pressure corrected for shape will be abou·t 20 psf below 85.5 ft
00 ft elevation. Therefore, a design wind pressure of
5 psf will be used in the design calculations. This permits If credit is taken for the stiffening effect of tray support
he use of Eq. 9.20. rings, a higher allowable compressive stress will result.
(To minimize wind load place ladder 90° to vapor line.) Therefore

= (insulated tower + vapor line)

eff. (see Eq. 9.84a)
= (84 + 6) + (12 + 6) 108 in.
By Eq. 9.20 where ly equivalent thickness of shell, inches
2 Ay = rr-,ss-sectional area of one circumferential
f _ 15.89deff.X _ 15.89(108X2)
stiffner
wz - d0 2 (i8 - c) - (84) 2 (0.1875)
du = distance between circumferential stiffeners,
'herefore inches
fwx = l.297 X 2 (since no longitudinal stiffener are used)

.
174 Design of Tell Vertical Vessels
The tray-support rings are 2;!,~ x 2;!,:f x % in. angles. Calculation of combined stresses for condition of partial
Therefore erection:
Upwind side:
A 11 = 1.73 sq. in.
ft(max) = 0.727X2 - 4.234X 10.42
d11 = 24 in. (tray spacing)
(12,650)(0.85) = 10,750
73
ly -- 0.1875 + 1.24 0.1875 + 0.072 X2 5.81X - 14,800 = 0
Therefore
t11 0.26 in.
+5.81 ± v(5.81) 2 + (4)(1)(14,800)
By Eq. 9.84 X
2

(see Table 5.1) = 125 ft

Downwind side:
~ ¼y.p. ~
5 10 30 00 (No credit is taken for stiffening rings.)
= 1. ~ v<o.26)(0.1815) ·~
4
f c(max) = fwx + f dx = 6690
= 7880 < 10,000
= 0.727X2 + 4.234X + 10.42
1.297X2 + 19.76X 4478 = 7880 Therefore
X 2 + 15.25X - 9.540 = 0 X 2 + 5.81X 9,200 = 0
Therefore Therefore
X = -15.25 ± V (15.25) 2 + (4)(9540) X = -5.81 ± V (5.81) 2 + (4)(1)(9,200)
2 2

= 90.0 ft = 93.1 ft
This credit for stiffness by the tray-support rings results Thu.s the controlling stress conditions exist under oper-
in a X value of 90.0 compared to the previous computed ating load with a superimposed wind. The 72-ft distance
value of 85.5 ft. The next step is to check the shell for will be acceptable since the upwind condition under oper-
empty condition, no trays, no insulation, no pressure, vapor ating load is controlling. For this reason, specify nine
line in place, only wind load acting. Credit may be taken courses of 8-ft-wide ?:(6-in. plate.
for corrosion allowance under erection conditions. Calculation of second (lower) tower section consisting of
Calculation of stresses: ½.s-in. plate:
Upwind side: (A value of ½ 6 in. is assumed for t8 in the next lower
Calculation of dead weight: section.)
Operating conditions:
]dead wt shell = 3.4X Calculation ofaxial stresses:
Other dead weights are:
Jap. = 4(t pd- = (40)(34) = 2 680 si
Wt of top head = 860 lb 8
c) (4)(0.3125) ' P
Calculation of dead weights:
Wt of ladder = 25 lb per ft Equation 9.3a can no longer be used directly because of
Wt of vapor line =. 43.8 lb per ft the change in shell thickness. Equation 9.3a can be modi-
fied by treating the top zone as a constant load.
Total 68.8 lb per ft + 860
~w 1 · = ,r Dm (t - c)72(490) + _ (X _
34 72 )
]dead wt attachments = -dt Jdead wt shell 11' Dm (t2 - c) 144
11' "
= 3.4X - 97.5
68 8 860
· X + = 0.834X + 10.42
(3.14)(84)(0.3125) J,dead wt ins. 40X(3) = 2.66X
(144)(0.3125)
!dw = 3.4X + 0.834X + 10.42
W = 860 + 108.lX
4.234X + 10.42
860 + 108.lX = 10 _4 + l. 3lX
Wind-load stress:
]dw attachments
,r(84) (0.3125)
(Note that detr. is increased by 17 in. for caged ladders.)
de!i. = 84 + 17 = 101 1
+ Iiquid)
(I - 1)25(7)
= -'------"--- =
X
11 .65 (-
J,d ea d wt (trays (48)(0.3125) 2 - 1)
J = 15.89(10l)X2 = 0_727X2
wx (84) 2 (0.3125) = 5.83X 11.65
 Example Design, Shell Calculations for a Tall Vertical Vessel 175
Therefore Erection conditions:
The previous calculation for the top section indicated
fax = 3.4X - 97.5 + 2.66X + 10.4 + l.31X
that ¾ 6 -in. plate would not be overstressed under erection
+ 5.83X - 11.65
= 13.2X - 98.75 conditions with wind load on the upwind side for a distance
of X = 124.9 ft and on the downwind side for a distance of
Calculation of stress due to wind loads: X = 93 ft. Therefore, only the downwind side of the ½ 6 -in.
2 plate section will be checked.
f = 15.89(108)X = o.n 6x 2 Calculation of dead-weight stress:
wx (84) 2 (0.3125)
1r Dt1 (72) (490)
Calculations of combined stresses under operating conditions: /dead wtshell = ,rDt ( 144 ) + 3.4(X 72)
Upwind side: 2

ft(max) = fwx + f ap - fax :;,= 3.4X - 70.5

= 0.776X2 + 2,680 - 13.2X + 98.75 68.8X + 860

/dead wt attachments = ,r(84)(0. 4375 ) = 0.595X + 7.44
For an allowable stress of 10,750 psi (12,650 X 0.85)
law= 3.4X - 70.5 + 0.595X + 7.44
10,750 = 0.776X2 - 13.2X + 2778.8
= 4.0X 63.06
x2 - 11 .oox - 10,250 o
Calculation of wind-load stress:
Therefore (A total of 17 in. is added to deff for a caged ladder.)
X = +1100 ± V(l7.00) 2 + (4)(10,250) deff. = 84 + 17 = 101
2
_ 15.89(10l)X 2 _ 2
= ll0.l ft fwx - (84)2(0. 4375 ) - 0.519X

The length of ¾ 6 in. plate = 72 ft; therefore Calculation of allowable compressive stress:
length of '½ 6 -in. plate = (U0.l - 72)
38.1 ft
ty = i8 + (~:)
Downwind side: 0.4375 + 0.72
fc(max) = fwx f ap + fax = 0.5095 in.
= 0.776X 2
- 2,680 + 13.2X - 98.75 1.5 X 10 6 ~ /~---- 1
fc(allow.) = --
r
- V (0.51)(0.4375) ;:;;i ~ y.p.
The equivalent thickness of the shell with stiffness credit
for tray-support rings is as follows. · ~-- 30000
By Eq. 9.84a = 1.5 X 10 6 V0.472/42 ;:;;i -'3-
Therefore
16,900 > 10,000
= 0.3125 + 0.072 fc(allow.) = 10,000
Calculation of combined compressive stresses:
= 0.383 in.
By Eq. 9.84 J~(rnax) = fwx + faw
1.5 X 10 _ 1 6
. = 10,000
fc(a.llow.) V (0.383)(0.3125) ;:;;i 10,000
42 0.519X2 + 4.0X 63.06 = 10,000
= 12,350 > 10,000 X 2 + 7.7X - 19,400 =0
Therefore
Jc 10,000
X = 7.7 ± V(7.7) 2 + (4)(19,400)
and 2
2
0.776.X + 13.2X 2779 = 10,000 = 135.5 ft

X 2 + 17.00X - 16,450 = O Therefore the erection condition is not controlling, and

Therefore four courses of plate 8 ft, 0 in. wide und Yi 6 in. thick will
be used for the second section. At the end of the ½ 5-in.
X = -1700 ± V(l7.00) 2 + (4)(16,450) plate section X 72 + 32 = 104 ft.
2 Calculation of third section:
= 120.0 ft It is apparenl llwt since the ,vind load stress ..-aries with
176 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
2,
X the plate thickness must increase at a more rapid rate. therefore
Therefore %-in. plate will be used for the third section.
0.486X 2 + 9.53 - 1680 - 195 = 10,000 .
Calculation of third (lower) tower section consisting of
%-in. plate: X 2 + 19.6X - 24,400 0
Operating conditions:
Calculation of axial stress: X = -19.6 ± V(l9.6) 2 + (4)(24,400)
2
pd (40)(84) .
fap = 4(t8 - c) (4)(0. 50) = 1680 psi 146.7 ft

Use five courses of plates 8 ft, 0 in. wide and % in. thick.
Calculation of dead weights:
X at the end of the %-in.-plate section = 72 + 32 + 40
l1(72)(490) t2(32)(490) 144 ft.
!dead wt shell = l (l4 4 ) +
2
ta(l 4•1,) + 3.4(X - 104) The bottom course will be made of one plate 6 ft, 0 in.
wide and 1 ½" 6 . in. thick. (This 1 :!,16 -in. course must be
= 3.4X - 194.2 specified as ASTM~A-285, Grade C to meet oode require-
ments-see Table 13.1, footnote.) The calculation of stress
40X(3) at the bottom tangent line is X 150 ft for 1 ¼ 6 -in. plate.
fdead wt ins. = (l 44 )(0. 50) = l.67X Calculation of axial stress:

f dw attachments
860 + 108.1
= 11"( 84) (0. 50) = 6.52 + 0.82X
f, = pd ~ (4 0)(84) = 1495 si
op 4(l8 - c) (4)(0.5625) p

(X/2 - 1)(25)(7) Calculation of dead weights:

!dead wt (trays+ liquid) = (48 )(0.50)
5

'= 3.64X 7.28 /dw(shell) = [(3.4)(150) - 194.2} 1~ = 283.4 psi

r1r
Jd:1/ = 3.4x - 194.2 + 1.67 X + 6.52 + 0.82X ., . _ (40)(150)(3) _ si
+ 3.64X - 7.28 Jdw(uu;.) - (144)(0.5625) - _222 p
= 9.53X - 195
_ 860 + (108.1)(150) _ 17,060 _ ll .
f.dw(attachments)
Calculation of stress due to wind loads: - ( .l )( )(0.
3 4 84 5625 ) - ~ - 5 pSl

15.89(108)X2 (144/2 1)(25)(7) _ 460 .

fwx = (84) 2 (0.50) 0.486X2 /dw(trays + liquid) (48)(0.5625) - psl

Calculation of combined stresses under operating conditions: /dw(total) = 283.4 + 222 + 115 + 460 1080 psi
Upwind side:
Calculation of stress due lo wind loads:

f. _ (15.89)(108)(150) 2
= 0.486X 2
+ 1680 - 9.53X + 195 w::: - (84) 2 (0.5625)
For an allowable stress of 10,750 psi 9700 psi

10,750 = 0.486X2 - 9.53X + 1680 + 195 Upwind side:

X 2
- 19.6Xl8,250 = 0 /t(max) = fwx+ f ap - fd:::
Therefore
= 9700 + 1495 - 1080
X = +19.6 ± V(l9.6) 2 + (4)(18,250) = 10,105 psi
2
Downwind side:
= 145.3 ft
/ c(max) = f wz - f ap + /dz
Downwind side:
= 9700 - 1495 + 1080
/c(max) = fwx - fap + /d::: = 9285
= 0.486X 2
- 1680 + 9.53X - 195
Therefore the design is satisfactory with regard to loading
fc(a.Uow.) = i: Y·P· conditions in which the wind load rather than the seismic
load is controlling.
= 10,000 Check of stresses due lo seismic loads:
 Other Methods of Analysis 177
Referring to Fig. 9.7, we find that West Central Texas l;Wcx-104) laz7rd(t,. - c)
is located in seismic zone 2.
The weight of the tower plus attachments, liquids, and = (13.2X - 98.8)(1r)(84)(0.3125)
30 on at the bottom tangent line may be calculated by = 105,500 lb
multiplying the total compressive stress due to dead weights
therefore
by the cross-sectional area of the tower at this position, or
M _ (4)(.04)(105,005)(104) 2 (48 - 104)
l;W(=l50) law(total)1rdis B (X=l04) - (l 60) 2
= (1080)1r(84)(0.6875)
or 2,785,000 in-lb
W = 196,000 lb The corresponding stress is:
196 000
Wcavg) = • = 1305 lb per ft 2,785,000
150 Jz(X=l04 ) = 11"(42) 2(0.3125)
The period of vibration may be calculated by use of Eq.
= 1550 psi
~.68. /
T = 2.65 X 10-a (i)2 (w~)~. The stress due to wind load at this point i i 0.776X 2•

f w(X=l04 = (0.776)(104) 2 = 8380

The determination of the period of vibration of a column
having thickness variations is somewhat involved. It is Therefore the wind load is controlling at this level of the
column.
mfficient for design purposes to approximate the period by
asing a ( single shell thickness. The most conservative The evaluation of seismic stresses at X = 72 ft where the
shell thickness is ¾ 6 in. is:
:lesign will result when the greatest thickness is used.
fherefore Wcx-12) = fa,,1rd(ta c)
T = 2.65
·
X 10-5 (
160
7
)
2
(<1305 7 11
)( ))~
0.6875
= 1.59 sec = (19.76X 2.05)(1r)(84)(0.1875)
= 70,300 lb
Referring to Table 9.3, we find that the seismic coefficient
M _ (4)(0.04)(70,300)(72) 2 (480 - 72)
C, for zone 2 and for a period greater than 1.0 sec is equal to: a(X=72) - (160)2
C = 0.04
= 930,000 in-lb
The moment due to seismic forces may be calculated by 930,000
Eq. 9.71. Ja(X=
72
> = 1r(42)2(0.1875)
M _ 4CWX2 (3H - X)
BZ - H2 fa(X=72) = 893 psi
The seismic moment at the bottom tangent line is: The stress due to wind load at this point is 1.297 X 2•
(4)(0.04)(196,000)(150) 2[(3)(160) - 150} fw(X-72) (1.297)(72) 2 = 6700 psi
(160) 2
Therefore the wind stresses rather than seismic stresses are
9,090,000 in-lb controlling over the column height. This is due to a long
period of vibration and corresponding low seismic coefficient.
The corresponding stress is given by Eq. 9. 72.
However, if this vessel had been located on the lower West
·Max Coast in seismic zone 3 rather than in zone 2, the seismic
fsz = 1rr2(ls - C
) stresses would have been doubled, and the wind stresses
reduced.
9,090,000 The design of the skirt, bolting ring, and foundations for
1r(42) 2 (0.5626) this tower is covered in Chapter 10. Figure 9.14 is a sketch
of the tower designed in this example.
= 2910 psi
A comparison of the seismic stress of 2910 psi with the 9.14 OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS
,,•ind load stress of 9700 psi indicates that the wind stresses In the preceding sections of this chapter essentially one
ire controlling at the bottom tangent line. method of combining the stresses has been employed. This
As the next upper course occurs only 6 ft above the method is known as the maximum-principal-stress theory
)ottmn tangent line, no calculation of the seismic load will and is the method most widely used. Other theories may
)e made at this point, but it will be evaluated at X = 104 be used to determine the thickness of the shell required.
't where ls= H6 in. The maximum-principal-stress theory and three other
178 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels

Torispherical head
7'-0"J
~=\-'-----.....---~
Y,, • thick, 7' -0• 00
r 4•-0·
Some structural materials have physical properties such
that the maximum-principal-stress theory is not the best
method of analysis. High-tensile-strength materials in
which the tensile strength to shear strength ratio is higher
than usual are more likely to fail in shear than in tension.
Other evidence of failure by shear has been observed in
simple tension tests when there is slipping of planes inclined
to the tensile-load axis. This would indicate the need of
9 courses 8'-0' ea. considering more than just the principal stress.
bI of '1:, • plate
N
,..... 9.14b Maximum-shear Theory. The maximum-shear
theory, developed by J. J. Guest (147) assumes that yielding
3• insulation on shell starts when the maximum shearing stress becomes equal to
the maximum shearing stress at the yield point in a simple
71 trays (24' spacing)
tensile test.
The relationships involved caii be developed with refer-
ence to Fig. 9.15, which shows the stress condition iri an
b
0'
element under uniaxial tensile load. Consider any plane,
/
~ m-n, at an angle, 8, to the axis of the element. The cross-
4 courses 8'-0' ea. sectional area at right angles to the axis of 'the element is
bl of ¾," plate
N taken as a. The area of the element lying in the plane
,..
M

};
m-n is:

amn = .a
cos 8

. 0l
~
5 courses 8' -o• ea.
of%' plate
The tensile stress, ft, in the axial direction measured
over the area in the m-n plane is:
p
(COS 8) = /axial COS (}
a
1 course 6'-0"
of 1Yi,• plate
The component of ft normal to the plane m-n is:

In = ft cos 8 = la.xia.l cos 2 fj

The tangential component called the shearing stress,/8 , is:

Fig. 9.14. Sketch of a 160-ft, 0-in. tower for the example design.

J8
•
f t SIIl (J = f a.xia.l SIIl
• 8 cos 8 = (f-2-
a.xial) sm
• 28

methods of analysis are listed below and compared in the

following sections. fa will be.maximum when 8 = 45°, or
I. Maximum-stress theory fax;,.1
2. Maximum-shear theory J
: s(max) = - 2-
3. Maximum-strain theory
4. Modified-strain-energy theory
9.14a Maximum-stress Theory. The maximum-stress p
theory, sometimes known as Robinson's theory, is the oldest
and simplest theory for designing any section subjected to
stresses in three directions. It simply assumes that the
maximum of the three stresses J.,, f'II, and fz controls the
design because yielding is taken to occur when the maximum
stress reaches the yield point of the material. This theory
makes no allowance for the effect of the components of the
two minor stresses on the principal stress. This simple
theory may result in over or underdesign of the section
under consideration.
The theory is most applicable for brittle materials.
However, vessels with designs based on relationships devel- p p
oped from this theory and fabricated from structural steels (a) (b)
are widely used and have proved satisfactory in service.
It is assumed that/., > f'II > fz• Fig. 9.15. Stresses in an element under uniaxial tensile load.
 Other Methods of Analysis 179
In the case of two-dimensional stress such as exists in the fza = fyp = E = 1 ['
,hell of a thin-wall cylindrical vessel, the two principal E E ;i;
3 E JZ (9.87)
tensile stresses at right angley to each other are:
1. The longitudinal stre¢,' fz (y-axis direction).
(9.88)
pd
Ji= - (3.13)
fza fyp 1 [f
4t
E = E = Ez3 = E z (9.89)
2. The hoop stress, fn (x-axis direction).
pd where the subscripts x3, y3, and z3 refer to the z, y, and z
'r =21 (3.14) directions in a three-dimensional system.
Equations 9.87, 9.88, and 9.89 can be transformed to
Consider the plane m-n with its normal at an angle () to express the stresses in terms of strains as follows:
;he a.xis of the vessel as shown in Fig. 9.16 noting thatf1i =
?fz. The shearing component of /z in the plane m-n will µE . E
Je obtained by letting Ji in they axis = faxia.J.•
(1 + µ)(l _ 2µ) (E:i;3 + Ey3 + Eza) + l +µ E:i;a
(9.90)
!al = ½Jz sin 20
The shearing component of fn in the plane m-n will be
µE E
/ya = (l + µ)(l _ 2µ) (E.z3 + E113 + E,,3) + (l + µ) E113 (9.91)
>btained by letting In in the x axis = Jaxial•
µE E
Ian = ½J1i sin 2 (~ - 0) = ½J1i sin 20 fza = (1 + µ)(l - 2µ) (Ez3 + E11a + E,:3) + (1 + µ) Ez3 (9.92)

The components J8 1i and f 8 z are in opposite directions;
,herefore the resulting combined shear stress in two-dimen-
fonal analysis (!82) is:
!s2 = ½(fz - !h) sin 20
The value of / 82 will be maximum when 0 is 90°. There-
ore
/s2max = ½<Jz - f h)
In a similar manner it can be shown (29) that in the case
,f three-dimensional-stress analysis the maximum shear
tress is defined by one half the algebraic difference between
he maximum and minimum of these stresses, or
(9.85)
This theory is in good agreement with experimental
esults obtained on ductile materials. For purposes of
omparison with other theories the maximum actual shear
tress and the allowable shear stress will be doubled by
emoving the ii from each side of the equation. Therefore
In the case of thin-walled vessels in which the radial
stresses can be disregarded, fz may be taken as equal to zero.
This simplification results in Eqs. 6.4a and 6.5a. There is
limited evidence against the use of this theory. In the case
of a simple plate subjected to tension in two perpendicular
directions, the elongation in each direction will be reduced
by the tension in the perpendicular direction. This would
indicate that a plate loaded in this manner would have a
greater yield point than a plate loaded in simple tension in
one direction. This conclusion is not supported by limited
experimental tests.
9.14d Modified-strain-energy Theory. There are a
number of modifications of the theory based upon the
premise that yielding begins when a given quantity of strain
energy is accumulated in a given volume of material.
Equation 9.35, which gives the strain energy in a deflected
:I'

fz - f,: = /max (9.86)

It should be noted that in Eqs. 9.85 and 9.86 both stresses
c and fz are assumed to have the same sign; that is, both
re compressive stresses or tensile stresses. Designs based
n relationships developed from this theory are more con-
~rvative than designs based on the principal-stress theory.
9.14c Maximum-strain Theory. The maximum-strain
h.eory developed by Saint-Ven.ant (148) assumes that yield-
lg of a ductile material begins when the maximum strain
ecomes equal to the strain at the tensile-test yield point.
'his theory permits the combining of stress-strain relation-
1ip in three dimensions.
Equations 6..l and 6.5 give the strains, and Eqs. 6.-la
nd 6.5a give the stresses from two-dimensional stress-
:rain analysis. Equations 6.-! and 6.5 can be modified for Fig. 9.16. Stresses in an element cf a vessel shell under two-dimensional
nee-dimensional analysis as follows: stress.
180 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
Substituting into Eq. 9.94 for the condition at the yield
point gives:

U:,r;(y.p.)
1 r·
= E }o fx df:,;
therefore
2
1
Vz(y.p.) = E 2 (9.99)

Setting Eq. 9.97 equal to Eq. 9.99 gives: ·

fx 2 + f/· + fz 2 2µ(f,J11 + fzfx + fyfz) = fy.p. 2 (9.100)
Setting µ equal to the theoretical maximum value of 0.5 •
gives a simplified equation
½[(f:,; -!11 ) 2 + (!11 f,J 2 + (f,. - fx) 2] fy.~. 2 (!U0l)
Equation 9.101 is identical to that developed by Huber
fig. 9.17. Graphical comparison of four theories of foilure. (150), Hencky (151), and Von Mises (152) to bring the
theory into agreement with the fact that materials can
undergo large hydrostatic pressures without yielding.
beam, can be modified for the strain energy of an element Equation 9.100 for two-dimensional strain reduces to:
strained in two directions as follows:
(9.102)
Uy=
r ••
Jo !11 <h11 (9.93)
9.15 GRAPHICAL COMPARISON OF. THE FOUR
Ux / 0"'J:,; dEx (9.94) THEORIES
Figure 9.17 graphically shows a comparison of the four
The total strain energy stored in the element is equal to methods of analysis for a two-dimensional stress system
the sum: (fz = 0). · The upper right quadrant represents tension for
Uxy = Uy+ Ux (9.95) both fz and f 11• The upper left quadrant represents f 11 in
Equations 6.4 and 6.5 give the strains in the x and y tension andfz in compression, and the lower right quadrant
directions resulting from the stresses f x and f 11 represents fx in tension and f 11 in compression. The solid
lines in the figure represent the locus of the conditions at
Ex2
b. - µf11 which yield is assumed to begin according to the four
E E theories. The square a-b-c-d represents the maximum
stress theory. Point a represents equal tension in both the
!'II µf:,; x and y perpendicular directions, both of which are con-
Ey2 = E-E sidered to be equal to the yield-point stress obtained from
Substituting into Eq. 9.95 gives: a simple tensile test.
According to the maximum-stress theory, yielding does
1 ('.. 1 [• .. not occur inside the square. As f 11 is decreased and fz is
U:i: 11 =E Jo f 11d[J:i; - µf11 ] + E Jo fzd[fz - µ,f11] held constant, fz is controlling from point 1 to point 2, at
therefore which points f 11y.p. in compression is taken as equal to f 11 y.p.
in tension.
The irregular hexagonal figure l-a-2-3-c-4 represents
the maximum-shear theory and is the same as the maximum-
For an element strained in three directions it can be shown stress theory in the upper right quadrant, l-a-2, and the
in a similar manner that lower left quadrant, 3-c-4, but is more conservative in the
other two quadrants where the stresses are of opposite signs.
l This can be explained by Eq. 9.85, which is for the three
u.,IJZ = 2E [(fz
2
+ 111 2 + fz 2) - 2µ(fzf11 + fzfz + f11fz)l dimensional theory. If f II and f., are both positive and f z is
(9.97) equal to zero, the maximum minus the minimum stress will
he equal to either f., minus zero or f 11 minus zero. However,
Equation 9.97 is due to Haigh (149) and has been called the iffx is negative andf11 is positive andfz is zero, the maximum
strain-energy function. minus the minimum will be J11 - f.,, which will give the
Yielding is assumed to occur when the total strain energy diagonal line 1-4.
is equal to that obtained in simple tension at the yield point; The rhombus A-B-C-D represents the maximum-strain
therefore theory. By referring to Eqs. 9.87 and 9.88, in which f, is
(d""' ) y.p. = d(fx)y.p. (9.98)
taken as equal to zero for two-dimensional stress, it may be
E seen that if the stresses fz and f 11 have the same sign, then
 Example of a Vessel in Which the Four Theories are Compared 181
either fx or f y can appreciably exceed the yield point of the Table 9.4. Summation of Combined Stresses in a Tall
material. This is true because the strain in die y direction Tower (According to Brummerstedt} (153)
reduces the strain in the x direction and vice versa when the Resulting Stress, psi Ratio
stresses have the same sign, as is the case at point A or Theory (based on l½-in. shell) (basis of max stress)
point C. Maximum-stress 9,620 1.000:l
The strain-energy theory is represented by the ellipse Maximum-strain 9,204 0. 957: 1
and can be evaluated by means of Eq. 9.102. Maximum-shear 11,780 l. 225: 1
Strain-energy 10,450 1. 088: l
9.16 EXAMPLE OF A VESSEL IN WHICH THE FOUR
THEORIES ARE COMPARED
Because a tall fractionating tower has inherent stresses importance. However, as indicated in an earlier section, a
resulting from dead weight, pressure stresses, and super- tall tower operating under a low design pressure may fail
imposed loads such as wind or seismic forces, it is ideal for because of elastic instability. To design for such a condi-
comparing the four theories discussed in the previous sec- tion the appropriate relationships presented must be applied.
tions. Brummerstedt (153) in 1943 presented an example Shell and head thicknesses based only upon membrane-
design of a tower comparing the four theories. His problem stress equations provide no allowance for superimposed
concerned an analysis of stresses in a 70-tray fractionating loads on vertical vessels. However, the shell thicknesses
tower which had a 10 ft inside diameter and a height of obtained by such equations provide a convenient starting
160 ft. The tower was to withstand an internal pressure point for evaluating the thicknesses for vertical vessels
of 200 psi and a superimposed seismic force equal to 20 % since the thicknesses thus obtained may he modified to
of its operating weight. This force was assumed to apply satisfy structural requirements. In the case of vessels
at the center of gravity of the tower. operating under internal pressures of 30 lb per sq in. gage or
The tower was to be designed to a maximum allowable more it is usually convenient to first check the cumulative
stress of 13,750 psi for the material of construction. The tensile stresses from pressure, wind bending moments,
welded-joint efficiency was to be 82 %, This resulted in an and/or seismic moments. The design of tall vessels for
allowable stress is 13,750 X 0.82 or 11,300 psi. (These operation at low internal pressures or the design of any
values came from the API-ASME code restrictions in effect vessel under external pressure is controlled by the cumula-
in 1943). The operating weight including steel plate, tive compressive forces. The design of such vessels can be
attachments such as piping platforms, ladders, and operat- determined most rapidly by beginning the calculations with
ing liquid was estimated to be 620,000 lb. the cumulative compressive stresses rather than with the
The seismic force of 20% resulted in a horizontal force of tensile stresses.
124,000 lb. This force induced a moment of 9,600,000 ft-lb
on the column.
The circumferential- and longitudinal-pressure stresses Table 9.5. Summation of Thicknesses and Weights
resulting from internal pressure were computed by Brum- Required by the Four Theories (153)
merstedt (153) and combined with the dead weight and Per-
seismic stresses under the assumption that the radial stress Weight cent-
in the tower shell was zero. These stresses were combined of age
Shell of
by the four theories, and the results tabulated for compari- Bottom Next Next Top Plates Max
son. Tables 9.4 and 9.5 summarize the results. Theory 20 ft 20 ft 20 ft 100 ft (lb) Stress
The example tower design is such that the percentage Maximum-
difference in total weights as indicated in Table 9.5 is not stress l.½s in. lM in. Hs in. l}s in. 290,000 100.0
very great. This is due to the comparatively high design Maximum-
pressure of 200 psi. A similar comparative analysis made strain Hi in. l 1/i 0 in. U-6 in. l}-6 in. 285,000 98.2
of such a tower operating under a low pressure of under ·Maximum-
50 psi often results in a considerably greater variation. In
shear l½s in. 1% in. u;;; in. Us in. 300,000 103.5
Strain-
such a case the method of analysis becomes of greater energ-y 1½6 in. 171 0 in. l!!i'o in. Us in. 295,ooo 101.8

PROBLEMS

1. An insulated steel fractionating column located at Oakland California is 6 ft O in. in

inside diameter and 160 ft, 0 in. from tangent to tangent betwee:1 heads. The heads project
l_ ft, 6 in. beyo:1d the point of tangency. The skirt is 8 ft, O in. from the base to the shell junc-
tion at the pomt of tangency with the bottom head. The vessel is designed to operate at
100 lb per sq in. gage. It is constructed of SA 285 grade C steel (13,750 psi maximum allowable
tensile stress). The effective wind area of external attachments is estimated to be 10% of the

I
182 Design of Tall Vertical Vessels
area of the uninsulated column. The insulation is 3 in. thick and weighs 40 lb per cu ft. The
tray spacing is 18 in., and there are 102 trays with an estimated weight of 25 lb per sq ft of
column cross section. The top tray is 4 ft, 0 in. below the top tangent line. Calculate the
minium shell thickness at the bottom tangent line resulting from wind moment.
2. For the vessel in problem 1, calculate the maximum stress at the bottom tangent line
resultingfrom the seismic moment.
3. If the shell of the vessel in problem l is fabricated from 20 plates 96 in. wide, specify the
thickness for each course allowing a minimum of ½: 6 in. for con-osion.
4. Redesign the vessel in the example design for full vacuum operation.
5. Redesign the vessel in the example design for 160 lb per sq in. gage operating pressure.
6. Redesign the vessel in the example design for the same conditions but on the basis of the
maximum-shear theory.
7. Redesign the vessel in the example design for the same conditions but on the basis of the
maximum-strain theory.
8. Redesign the vessel in the example design for the same conditions but on the basis of the
maximum-strain-energy theory.
9. A fractionating tower is required to separate styrene from a dilute feed. Preliminary
calculations indicate that 70 trays will be required with the feed'entering on tray 32 (from the
bottom). The reboiler will be separate from the column. Ninety-five per cent recovery of
the styrene in the feed is desired. Annual production of styrene from the columns is to be
8000 tons.
Stream Composition, Weight Percentages
, Feed
Mol. Wt (saturated liquid) Bottoms
Styrene 104.14 37.0 99.7
Ethylhenzene 106.16 61. l 0.3
Toluene 92.13 1.1
Benzene 78.11 0.8

Temperatures Top of column 54-° C

Bottom of column 90°c
Pressures Top of column 30 mm Hg
Bottom of column 310 mm Hg
Reflux ratio, L/D = 7 (mol ratio)
The tower is self-sustaining (no guy wires) and is to have a 10-ft skirt extending from the top
of the foundation to the tangent line of the bottom dished head. The erected tower is to be
located in the Houston, Texas, area. The overhead condenser is to rest on the ground, and the
reflux is to be pumped back. The client specifies that the bubble caps are not to be larger than
5 in. but may be smaller if desired. The tower is to be designed for full-vacuum service.
A tray layout and tower design excluding skirt, foundation bolts, nozzles, and bubble-cap
details are required.
REFERENCES FOR PROBLEM 9
Bolles, W. L., "Optimum Bubble Cap Tray Design," Part I, Petroleum Processing, Vol. 11, No.
2 (1956); Part II, No. 3; Part III, No. 4; Part IV, No. 5.
Boundy, Ray, Styrene ACS Monograph No. 115, Reinhold Publishing Company, New York,
1952.
~ . .
Davies, J. A., "Bubble Trays-Design and Layout-Part I," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 29, No. 8
(1950); Part II, ibid., No. 9.
 CHAPTER

DESIGN OF SUPPORTS

FOR VERTICAL VESSELS

head, flush with the shell, or to the outside of the shell. If

Vertical vessels are normally supported by means of a the skirt is welded flush with the shell, the weight of the
suitable structure resting on a reinforced-concrete founda- vessel in the absence of wind and seismic loads places the
tion. This support structure between the vessel and the weld in compression. On the other hand, if the skirt is
foundation may consist of a cylindrical steel shell termed a welded to the outside of the vessel, the weld joint is in shear;
"skirt." An alternate design may involve the use of lugs therefore this method is not so satisfactory, but it is an easy
or brackets attached to the vessel and resting on columns or method of erection and is often used for small vessels.
beams. These more common designs for supporting vertical There will be no stress from internal or external pressure
vessels will be described. for the skirt, unlike for the shell of the vessel, hut the stresses
from dead weight and from the wind or seismic bending
10. l SKIRT SUPPORTS FOR VERTICAL VESSELS moments will be a maximum. The same procedure may be
l 0.1 Ski rt Thickness. Taj!__ vertical ..Y!lSS!'lls. are usually used for designing the skirt as for designing the shell, which
supported_ by skir_ts'.., Because cylindrical shells have all the was described in Chapter 9. Note: Subscript b refers to
metal area located at the maximum distance (for a given the base of the skirt.
diameter) from the neutral axis, the section modulus, z, is
maximum, and the induced stress minimum for the metal Wind-load stress = fwb (9.20)
involved. Thus the cylindrical skirt is an economical
design for a support for a tall vertical vessel. The skirt is
usually welded directly to the vessel. Because the skirt is (9.17)
not required to withstand the pressure in the vessel, the
sel~ction of material is not limited to the steels permitted by
the pressure-vessel codes, and structural steels with cor-
Seismic-load stress f 8 1; (9.75)
responding allowable stresses may be used with some
economy. The steels used in the design of flat-bottomed Dead-weight stress (9.6)
cylindrical storage tanks (see Chapter 3) are suitable for the
skirts of vertical vessels. For structural loads a factor of
safety of 3 1>~~,_?n the ulti!~ate tensile strength is usually Max permissible compressive stress !callow.
used, whereas a factor of safetyof 4 is used with pressure 1.5 X 10 6 _ r,-;- 1
= ---- V t 1/r; :;;i -:r y.p. (9.8-l)
Thus the allowable stress in the skirt i~ usu-ally r
33 1 -s % higher than that in the shell of a. pressure vessel
when the steels in each case have the same ultimate tensile Max tensile stress = fimax = <fwb orf,b) - !db (9.78)
strength.
The skirt may be welded directly to the bottom dished .i\Iax compressive stress = fcmax = (f,,.b or fsb) + !db (9.80)
183
184 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
and

Wind

Substituting gives:

But because of the bond, Ee = e.,

/s induced = nfc induced (10.2)

----d--------'< Table 10.1 gives the value of n as a function of the com-

(a)
(bJ
Fig. I 0.1. Sketch of loading of anchor bolts.
After the skirt and bearing plate have been designed, the
skirt design should be checked for the reaction of the bolting
chairs or ring. (See section IO.lg.)
10.1 b. Skirt-bearing-plate and Anchor-bolt Design.
The bottom of the skirt of the vessel must be securely
anchored to the concrete foundation by means of anchor
bolts embedded in the concrete to prevent overturning from
the bending moments induced by wind or seismic loads.
The concrete foundation is poured with adequate rein-
forcing steel to carry tensile loads (143, 154, 155). The
a.nchor bolts may be formed from steel rounds threaded at
one end and usually with a curved or hooked end embedded
in the concrete. The bolting material should be clean and
free of oil so that the cement in the concrete will bond to the
embedded surface of the steel.
When either a compressive or tensile load is applied to the
anchor Holts, the load is transferred from the steel through
the bond to the concrete. Surface irregularities, bends, and
hooks aid in transferring loads from steel to concrete. As
the steel and concrete are bonded, the resulting strain is the
same for both the steel and concrete at the bond. The
modulus of elasticity of steel, Ea, is about 30 X 10 6 psi
while that of concrete, Ee, varies from about 2 X 10 6 to
4 X 106 psi depending upon the mix employed. The ratio
of these moduli is:
pressive strength of the concrete, which in turn is a function
of the mix used for the concrete. ·
The bending moment and weight of the vertical vessel
result in a loading condition on the concrete foundation
somewhat similar to that in a reinforced-concrete beam.
Figure 10.1 is a sketch representing the loading condition of
the anchor bolts in the concrete foundation.
a
Figure 10.1, detail a is sketch showing the bearing plate
at the base of a skirt for a vertical vessel. In the calcula-
tions it is assumed that the bolt circle is in the center of the
bearing plate. Sometimes the bolt circle is made larger
than the mean diameter of the hearing plate but should be
taken equal to it for simplicity of calculation since the error
is small and is on the safe side. The wind load and the
dead-weight load of the vessel result in a tensile load on the
upwind anchor bolts and a compressive load on the down-
wind anchor bolts. If Jc is the compressive stress in the
concrete, the induced compressive stress in the. steel bolts
in the concrete is given by Eq. 10.2. Thus n/0 is the induced
compressive stress in the steel bolts on the downwind side,
and /. is the maximum tensile stress on the upwind side.
As the stress is directly proportional to the distance from
the neutral axis, a straight line may be drawn from / 8 to
nfc, as shown in detail b of Fig. IO.I. The neutral axis is
located a distance kd from the downwind side of the bearing
plate and a distance (d kd) from the upwind side.
By similar triangles, we obtain:
J. = nfc
(d - kd) kd
therefore
k = nfc I
(10.3)
nfc +Is
Table 10.l. Average Values of Properties of Three
Concrete Mixes

(IO.I)
Water Content Jc' n le
U.S. Gallons 28-day Ultimate 30 X 106 Allowable
per 94-lh Sack· Compressive Compressive
rewriting gives: of Cement Strength, psi Ee Strength, psi
7½ 2000 15 800
But 6¾ 2500 12 1000
6 3000 10 1200
5 3750 8 1400
 Skirt Supports for Vertical Vessels 185
where f 8 = maximum induced tensile stress in steel at where Ct is the term in the brackets and is a constant for
bolt-circle center line on upwind side, pounds a given value of k.
per square inch. To determine the distance li consider the element which
Jc = maximum induced compressive stress in con- is located a distance of r(cos fJ + cos o:) from the neutral
crete at bolt-circle center line on downwind side, axis. The moment of the force on this element times this
pounds per square inch lever arm is:
n=-
Ea dMt = dFt r(cos (J + cos o:)
Ec . 8
(cos (J + cos o:) ]
If the maximum induced tensile stress in the jolts, fs, and =f 8 i1r [ (
l+coso:
) r(cos (J + cos o:) d(J
the maximum induced compressive stress in the concrete,
Jc, at the center line of the bolt circle are known, k may be fsl1r [r(cos (J + cos o:) 2] d(J
determined by use of Eq. 10.3. (1 + cos o:)
Taylor, Thompson, and Smulski (156) have expressed
the area of bolting steel in terms of an equivalent shell of By integration,
steel of thickness t1 having the same total cross-sectional
area of steel as shown in Fig. 10.2. Mt = fal1r22 (r (cos (J + cos o:)2 dfJ

Referring to Fig. 10.2, we find that the location of the la c1 + cos a)

neutral axis may be defined in terms of angle o: (156). = 2fslir 2 [ (-ir - o:) cos 2 o: + ¾(sin o: cos o:) + ½(-ir - o:)]
. l+coso:
cos o: = d/ 2 - kd = 1 - 2k (10.4) (10.10)
d/2
Dividing Mt by Ft gives ti.
In the same figure consider an element of the bolting steel
measured by angle dfJ. The area of this element is given by:
11
= 2
[<-ir - o:) cos a+ i(sin o: cos a)+ ½(-ir -
(-ir - o:) cos a + sin a
a)] r
(10.5)
(10.11)
The distance of this element from the neutral axis is
(Note that li is a constant for a given value of k.)
r(cos (J + cos o:) RELATIONSHIPS FOR THE CoMPRESSION SmE. On the
The maximum distance from the neutral axis for such compression side a similar procedure is used. A differential
an element is: element of concrete and steel is considered having an area
r(l + cos o:) of:
(10.12)
The stress in the element, f 8 1 , is directly proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis, and if the maximum where l2 = concrete width (exclusive of bolting steel, t1)
stress is f 8, under the bearing plate, inches.
ls' = is:. (cos (J + cos o:) The distance of this element from the neutral axis is:
(10.6)
r (1 + cos o:) r(cos (J - cos a)
Multiplying the stress by the elemental area gives the
elemental force in tension, dFt, ·

dFt = J.lir (cos (J + cos o:) dfJ (10.7)

(1 + cos o:)

The summation of the elemental forces on the bolting steel

in tension can be represented by tensile force Ft located at
the center of tension and distance li from· the neutral axis.
Similarly the summation of the compressive forces on the
concrete in compression can be represented by a compressive
force F0 located at distance l2 from the neutral axis.
RELATIONSHIPS FOR THE TENSION SIDE. By integration
of Eq. 10.7 for the upper and lower halves on both sides of
the center line, we obtain:
I
Ft = fsi1r2 {,,. (cos+ cos a)
(J d(J ~ f"'dwf-,-ka--1
Ja (l+cosa) Eli~
= fsl1r [
1
2
+ cos a ((1r a) cos~ + sin a)] (10.8) I- zd=tFC

(10.9) Fig. 10.2. Plan view of loading on bolting steel and bearing plate.
186 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
Table 10.2. Values of Constants Ci, Cc, z, and j as a element times the lever arm is:
Function of k (156)
dM0 dFc r(cos O - cos a)
k c. Gt z j

= (t2 + nt1)r2fc (cos O - cos a)2 dO

0,050 0.600 3.008 0.490 0. 760 (1 - cos a)
0.100 0.852 2.887 0.480 0.766
0.150 1.049 2.772 0.469 0.771 By integration,
0.200 1.218 2.661 0.459 0.776
0.250 1.370 2.551 0.448 0.779 Mc = (l2 + nti)fcr22 {a (cos 8 - cos a)2 dB
0.300 1.510 2.442 0.438 0.781 Jo 1 - cos a
0.350 1.640 2.333 0.427 0.783
0.400 1.765 2.224 0.416 0.784 (t
2
+ nti)fcr 22 [cos 2 a - }(sin a cos a) + ½a]
0.450 1.884 2.113 0.404 0.785 1-cosa
0.500 2.000 2.000 0.393 0.786 (10.19)
0.550 2.113 1.884 0.381 0.785
0.600 2.224 1. 765 0.369 0.784 Dividing M~ by Fe gives l2.
2
, 12 = [a cos a :- ¾(sin a cos a) + ½a] (r) (l0. 20)
The maximum distance from the neutral axis for such Sin a a cos a
an element is: (Note that l2 is a constant for a given value of k.)
r(l - cos a)
. The total distance between the forces Ft and Fe is equal
to h + l2. This distance divided by d gives the dimension-
The stress Jc' in the element is directly proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis, and if the maximum less ratio, j.
induced stress is Jc,
j=
f., _ f. r(cos O - cos a)
(10.13) d
c - c r(l - cos a) = ½[(11" - a) cos2 a+ ½(1r a)-+ i sin a cos a]
The corresponding compressive (comp.) stress, i's(comp.),
(1r - a) cos a + sin a
· + ½[½a - ~in acos a+ acos a]
2
in the steel on the compression side (see Eq. 10.2) is: j (l0. 2l)
sma-acosa
, (cos O - cos a)
J s(comp.) = nJc (l - cos a ) (10.14) Referring to Fig. 10.2, we find that the distance from _the
neutral axis to the center line of the vessel is (d/2)(cos a)
The correspomfmg compressive forces in the element are and distance zd is equal to:
obtained by multiplying the elemental stresses by the ele-
mental areas; zd = l2 + 2d cos a (10.22)

dFc(conerete) = Jc· , dAc = Jci2r [cos

-- O - cos a]
- - - dO (10.15)
+ (.-
½a--- i- sin a +
. 1-cosa z= 1 [
-ir cos a .-a-cos
-- -a-cos..,[
- -a)]
Sill a· - a cos a
d.Fc(steel) = nJc' dAs = nJcl1r [cos () cos a] d(J (10.16) · (10.23)
1-cosa
The quantities Ct, Cc, j, and z are given in Table 10.2
The "total compressive force on the element is equal to as a function of k.
the sum of "the above two equations, or BOLTING AREA ANn BEARING-PLATE WIDTH. Taking a
summation of moments about Fe (see Fig. 10.2) we obtain:
d.Fc(wtal) = (l2 + nli)rJc [ cos () - cos a]
- - - - - d(J
1-cosa Mwind - Wawzd - FJd = 0
By integration, therefore
Mwind - WdwZd
Fe = (t2 + nl1)rJc2 {" cos () - cos a d(J (10.24)
Jo 1 - cos a jd
Substituting for Ft by Eq. 10.9 we obtain:
Fe = (l2 + nl1)rJc [ 2(sin a - a cos a)] (10.17)
1-cosa
(10.25)

where Cc = the term in the bracket and is a constant for a And As = 21rrli; therefore
given value of k.
To determine the distance l2 the same procedure is used A8 = 211" [Mwind - WdwZd] (10.26)
as for the tension side. The moment of the force on the GtfJd

Referring to Fig. 10.2 and taking a summation of vertical
forces, we obtain:
Substituting for Ft by Eq. 10.9 and Fe by Eq. 10.18, we
obtain:
fstirCt + Wdw - (tz + nli)rfcCc = 0
Solving for t 2, we obtain:
t = Wdw
2
+ (Ctf3 - Ccfcn)rl1
Ccfcr
The total width of the bearing plate will be ti
10.25 plus Eq. 10.28). Therefore
Width of bearing plate, la = l1 + l2
Nomographs for the solution of anchor-bolt problems by
the method of Taylor, Thompson, and Smulski have been
presented by Gartner (233). An alternate procedure has
been presented by Jorgensen (234).
DETERMINATION OF BEARING-PLATE THICKNESS. The
thickness of the bearing plate is determined by the com-
pression load"on the downwind side of the vertical vessel.
The minimum required width of the bearing plate was pre-
viously determined by use of Eq. 10.29. The maximum
compressive stress between the bearing plate and the con-
crete occurs at the outer periphery of the bearing plate.
The induced compressive stress at the bolt-circle center line
was determined by successive approximation in calculating
the required width of bearing plate (see Eq. 10.29). Equa-
tion 10.30 gives the relationship between the maximum
induced compressive stress at the outer periphery and the
corresponding stress at the bolt circle.
Skirt Supports for Vertical Vessels 187
Letting f(max) = J(allowable) and solving for [4 gives us:
l4 = l V3fc/f(allow.) (10.32a)
(10.27)
The thickness of the bearing plate, l4, as calculated by
Eq. 10.32a is usually rounded off to the next larger standard
thickness of plate.
BEARING PLATES WITH GussETS. If gussets are used to
stiffen the bearing plates, the loading condition on the sec-
tion of the plate between two gussets may be considered
to act similarly to that of a rectangular uniformly loaded
(10.28) plate with two opposite edges simply supported by the
gussets, the third edge joined to the shell, and the fourth
+ t 2 (Eq. and outer edge free. Timoshenko (107) has tabulated the
deflections and bending moments for this case as shown in
Table 10.3.
(10.29) Note in Table 10.3 that for the case where l/b = 0 (no
gussets or gusset spacing, b = oo) the bending moment
reduces to Eq. 10.31, and the thickness of the flange is
determined by Eq. 10.32. Also note that when l/b is equal
to or less than ½, the maximum bending moment occurs at
the junction with the shell because of cantilever action.
If l/b is greater than -!, the maximum bending moment
occurs at the middle of the free edge.
To determine the bearing-plate thickness from the bend-
ing moments, Eq. 10.33 may be used.
✓6Mcmax> (10.32b)
fallow.
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR BOLTING CALCULATIONS AND
SIZING OF BEARING PLATE. The location of the neutral
axis is determined by the ratio of induced stresses, as indi-
cated by Eq. 10.3. Thus the determination of minimum
bolting and minimum width of bearing plate requires suc-

fc(me.x induced) (Jc(bolt circle induced)) (

2kd +
2
kd
la) (10.30)
cessive-approximation calculations~ The value of k deter-
mines the constants Ct, Cc, j, and z, which in turn determine
the values of Fi and Fe and their locations.
Although the compressive stress varies from the maximum As a first approximation in the determination of k, fs may
given in Eq. 10.30 to a lesser value at the junction of the be taken as the maximum allowable stress in the bolting
skirt and bearing plate, the value at the bolt circle may be steel, but Jc should not be taken as the maximum allowable
used for simplicity of calculation in determining the required compressive stress in the concrete since the maximum com-
thickness of the bearing plate.
BEARING PLATES WITHOUT GussETS. A bearing plate
without gussets may be assumed to be a uniformly loaded Table 10.3. Maximum Bending Moments in a Bearing
cantilever beam with fc(max induced) the uniform load. The Plate with Gussets (107)
maximum bending moment for such a beam occurs at the (Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
junction of the skirt and bearing plate for unit circumfer-
ential length (b 1 in.) and is equal to: lib
M (xb/2)
"y=l
M (x
= b/2)
Yy=0

Mcmax> (for b = 1) (10.31) 0 0 -0.500fcl 2

½ 0. 0078fcb 2
-0. 428fcl2
where l = outer radius of bearing plate minus outer radius ½ 0.0293fcb 2 -0.319fcl 2
of skirt, inches
% 0. 0558fcb 2
-0. 227fcl 2
1 0. 0972fcb 2 - 0 .119fcl
2

The maximum stress in an elemental strip,of unit width % 0. 123J.b 2 -0 .124fcl2

is given by: 2 0 .131J.b 2 -0. 125fcl2
3 0 .133fcb 2 -0. 125fcl2
6Afcmax) 3fcl 2 oo O. 133fcb 2 - 0. 125J.l
2

f<max) = bl/ = ~ (for b = 1) b gusset spacing (x direction) inches.

l bearing-plate outside radius minus skirt outside
where t~ = bearing-plate thickness, inches radius (;v direction) inches.
188 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
Table 10.4. Bolt D·ata (157)
(Courtesy of Taylor Forge & Pipe Works)
:Minimum Maximum
Bolt Standard Thread 8-thread Series Bolt Spacing* Radial Edge Nut Fillet
Size No. of Root No. of Root Minimum Pre- Distance Distance Dimension Radius
d Threads Area Threads Area B, ferred R E (across flats) ,.
IL"
/2 13 0.126 No. 8 l¼" 3" 1 ½6" %" ½" >i II

%" 11 0.202 thread l½ 3 11/J 6 ¾ l!{ 6 1/i 6

¾" 10 0.302 series l¾ 3 l½ I:½:6 l¾ %
½" 9 0.419 below l" 2½6 3 l¾ 11/J 6 1>{6 %
l" 8 0.551 8 0.551 2¼ 3 1% 1½6 1% ½6
H8 11 7 0.693 8 0.728 2½ 3 l½ Ha 11:½:6 ½6
l1/."
/4 7 0.890 8 0.929 21 :½:s 3 l¾ l¼ 2 ¾6
1%'' 6 1.054 8 1.155 3½6 l½ 1% 2:½:s ¾6
l½" 6 1.294 8 1.405 3¼ 2 H2 2% %
l¾" 5}2 1.515 8 1.680 3½ ,,, 2% l¾ 2¾6 ¾'
l¾" 5 1. 744 8 1.980 3¾ 2¼ l¾ 2¾ %
l½" 5 2.049 8 2.304 4 2% l½ 21 1/i 6 ¾
2" 4½ 2.300 8 2.652 4¼ 2>2 2 3}s 1½6

2¼" 4½ 3.020 8 3.423 4¾ 2¾ 2>~ 3½ l ,¼ 6

2½" 4 3.715 8 4.292 5¼ 3½6 2% 3½ l:½:6
2¾" 4 4.618 8 5.259 5¾ 3% 2% 4¼ ½
3" 4 5.621 8 6.324 6¼ 3% 2½ 4% 1½6
* B. center-to-center distance between bolts, inches

pressive stress in the concrete is developed at the outer and compressive stresses in the steel and concrete based on
periphery of the bearing plate rather than at the center line this area and this width are next determined. An induced
of the bolt circle. tensile stress in the steel based upon the first calculation
Mter evaluating k by Eq. 10.3, the minimum area of of k may be determined by Eq. 10.34.
bolting steel required may be determined by Eq. 10.26
and the preceding relationships. This permits the selection As(min)
of the number and size of bolts having sufficient root area
Js(induced) = J•(firat eetime.te) A--- (10.34)
•(act.)
to equal or slightly exceed the minimum required bolting
area. Table 10.4, gives the necessary information for this .An induced maximum compressive stress in the concrete
selection. Usually the number of bolts selected is a mul- also based upon the first calculation of k may be determined
tiple of four to permit greater ease in bolt layout. by use of Eq. 10.30. These values of J. and Jc may be used
to obtain a more corfjft, value of k by Eq. 10.3. If the new
As ca.ct.> NAB ~ Aacmin) (10.33) value of k differs appreciably from that originally calculated,
where N = number of bolts a complete recalculation should be made using the constants
A B -- root area of bolt, square me • hes (Ta ble 10.3) • Cc, j, and z based upon the new value of k. Mter
rr . Ct, • con-
. _ .,...;...,:..... um ar
A s(rmn} f b It· teel • h (r-""s1stent values of J., Jc, and k have been determmed, the
ea o o mg s ' square me es .. b l . d . d b • I .d h blished
- ...........,...
(Eq. 10.26) ;i o ting. eSign an ea~g-p ate WI t are esta . .
A - actual area 0 f boltin 8 t l d •nch , The thickness of the beanng plate may then be established
s(aet.} - g ee use • square 1 es by use of Eq. 10.31. To complete the design of the skirt
The width of the bearing plate may be evaluated by use and bolting ring the compression ring or bolting "chairs"
of Eqs. 10.25, 10.28, and 10.29. should also he considered.
In the first trial the area of bolting steel is selected and 10.lc Example Calculation 10.1, Bearing-plate Design.
the width of the bearing plate determined by use of the A proposed fractionation column is 10 ft in diameter and
original evaluation of k. The values of the induced tensile 150 ft high and rests on a foundation of 3000-psi-strength
 Skirt Supports for Vertical Vessels 189
concrete. The proposed bearing plate under the skirt has The compressive load may he calculated by a summation
a 9 ft, 8 in. inside diameter and an outside diameter of of vertical forces using Eq. 10.27. ·
11 ft, 8 in. The bolt circle is 11 ft, 0 in. in diameter and
contains 24 steel bolts 2}~ in. in diameter (from Table 10.4, + W dw - Fe = 0
Ft
the area per bolt = 3.72 sq in). Assume that under oper- 600,000 + 598,000 = Fe = 1,198,000 lb
ating conditions the dead weight of the tower is 600,000 lb.
A high wind velocity develops a wind moment of 8,000,000 The induced stress in the concrete at the bolt circle, Jc,
ft-lb. A continuous compression ring is used. From based upon k = 0.333 may be evaluated by Eq. 10.18.
Table IO.I, n = E 8 /Ee = 10; fs(a.llow.) for the structural- Fe (t2 + nli)rlcC.;
steel skirt is 20,000 psi. Determine the maximum induced But
stress in tension in the bolts and the maximum induced t2 = ta - l1 = 12 - 0.215 = 11.785 in.
stress in compression in the bolts. Also determine the
maximum compression stress in the concrete at the outer- 1,198,000 [(11.785) + (10 X 0.215))(5.5)(12)(1.588)/c
most edge of the hearing plate on the downwind side and the le 818 psi
width and thickness of the bearing plate.
For first trial assume l, = 20,000. Rechecking k by Eq. 10.3 gives:
From Table 10.1, lccmax) = 1200. 1
k l = 0.317
t (11 ft, 8 in.) - (9 ft, 8 in.) . l 17,700 1 + 2.16
(prop011ed) = 2
= 12 ID. + (10)(818)

By Eq. 10.3, estimating lc(bolt circle) 1000, Rechecking constants and stresses gives the foil owing.
From Table 10.2 fork = 0.317,
k (approx.) = I = l = 0.333
Cc = 1.554
l + ls l 20,000
nlc + (10)(1000) Ct = 2.405

By rearranging Eq. 10.30 and solving for /e(bolt circle) we z = 0.434

obtain: j = 0.782
. _ 12 O [ (2)(0.333)(11)(12) ] Ft 8 X 10
6
105 (6)(0.434)(11) = 596 OOO
l c(bolt c,rele) - 0 (2) (0.333) (11)(12) + 12
-
(0.782)(11) I

88
= 1200 ( = 1055 psi J.8 596,000 17 450 .
88 + 12 ) = (0.215) (515) (12) (2.405) = • psi
To evaluate the induced stresses the constants are read Fe = 600,000 + 596,000 = 1,196,000 lb
from Table 10.2. For k 0.333
J. 1,196,000
835
•
Cc 1.588 e = (11.785 + 2.15)(5.5)(12)(1.554) psl
2.376 1 1
z 0.431
k -
1
- - - -
17,400
= - - -
1 + 2.08
0.324

j 0.782
+ (10) (835)
The tensile load may he calculated by Eq. 10.24. k 0.32, approximately, by interpolation

F _: Mwind - Wawzd 8 X 10 6 - 6 X 10 5 (0.431)(11) The rechecks of ls, le, and k are in sufficient agreement for
design purposes.
t - jd (0.782)(11)
To check maximum compressive stress in bolts and con-
8 X 106 - 2.85 X 106 = 598 000 lb crete, Eq. 10.2 is used.
8.6 ' Es
ls(comp.) = Ee le = lOlc 8350 psi
The induced stress in the steel ls based upon k = 0.333
may be evaluated by Eq. 10.9. By Eq. 10.30

lc(max induced) = <fc(bolt circle induced)) (

2kd +
kd
ta)
2

<24 H3 -72) = 0.215 in. 835 ((2)(0.32)(11)(12) + 12)

'11"(11)(12) (2) (0.32) (11) (12)
598,000 f,..(0.215)(5.5) (12) (2.376)
- -+-
= 83 ;)- (i7.5 12) = 96-.JPSl.
ls = 17,700 psi 7i.5
190 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
By Eq. 10.32b
Ski.rt t4 = V6(11,100;20,ooo) = 1.815.
%" gusset plate Therefore, use l¼-in. plate.
on either side
of anchor bolts
10.1 d Practical Considerations in Designing Bearing
Plates.
3"x3"x%"L ROLLED-ANGLE BEARING PLATE. If the vertical vessel
or larger is not very high and a skirt is used to support the vessel
rather than legs, lugs, or columns, a simple design may
suffice for the bearing plate. If the calculated thickness of
the bearing plate is ~i in. or less, a steel angle rolled to fit
Fig. 10.3. Rolled-angle bearing plate. the outside of the skirt may be lap welded as shown in Fig.
10.3.
S1NGLE·RING ·BEARING PLATE. lf the required bearing-
Determination of bearing-plate thickness by Eq. 10.32 is plate thickness is Hin. to¾ in., a design using a single-:dng
as follows: bearing plate may be employed, as shown in Fig. 10.4.
If the bearing-plate width is less than 5 in. and the thickness
l4 = l V (3Jc/fallowJ less than H in., the. rolled-angle design (Fig. 10.3) will
probably be more economical.
l = 11 ft, 8 in. - 10 ft, 0 in. = 10 in. CENTERED CHAIRS. If the required bearing-plate thick-
2 .
ness is ¾ in. or greater for the design shown in Fig. 10.4, a
bolting "chair" can be used to advantage. Figure 10.5
t4 = IO ✓(3 )( 965 ) = 3.81 in. (without gussets) shows a typical design for a centered anchor-bolt chair.
20,000
Although the number and size of bolts required should be
As this thickness is considered to be excessive, the bearing checked for each design, Table 10.5 gives some typical
plate will be stiffened with 24 gussets equally spaced and values of the maximum number of chairs usually inserted
straddling the bolts. in a vessel or skirt of a given diameter.
The gusset spacing, b, is In checking the bearing-plate thickness for a centered
chair the plate inside the stiffeners may be considered to
act as a concentrated loaded beam with fixed ends.
b = -ir(ll)(l 2) = 17.3 in. The concentrated load, P, is produced by the bolt and
24
is equal to maximum bolting stress times the bolting area,
0.53 or
b 17.3 (10.35)

Interpolating between lib = H and l/b 1) from Table where ]8 = maximum induced stress in bolting steel
10.3 gives: Ab = root area of anchor bolt, square inches (The
values of fa and Ab are those determined in an
Mmax = M11 = -0.26Jcl2 = (-0.26)(965)(100) earlier section.)
P = maximum bolt load, pounds
= -25,100 in-lb
The maximum bending moment in the bearing plate
By Eq. 10.32b inside the chair occurs at upwind dead cen~r and is located
t4 = v6(2s,100;20,ooo) = 2.1s in.

Further reduction in bearing-plate thickness could be

realized if the gusset spacing were decreased by using 48
gussets.
For 48 gussets, gusset spacing, bis:

b = 1r(ll)(I2) = 8 65 in
48 . .

l IO .
-=- = 1.255
b 8.65

Interpolating again from Table 10.3 gives:

Mmax = M 11 = -0.121Jcl 2
-11,700 in-lb Fig. l 0.4. Single ring beam, plate _with gussets.
 Skirt Supports for Vertical Vessels 191
Table 10.5. Maximum Number of Centered Chairs in
Various-sized Vessel Skirts
Skirt diameter, ft No. of Chairs
3 4
4 8
5 8
6 12
7 M
8 16
9 20
10 24

width of the plate. With this consideration the required

bearing-plate thickness inside the chair may be calculated
Plan View B-B by Eq. 10.37.

i4. = / 6Mmax (10.37)

B B
'\J {la - bha)fs.now.

¼' fillet weld where t 3 = bearing-plate width, inches

t4 = bearing-plate thickness, inches
bhd = bolt-hole diameter in bearing plate, inches
Ja11ow. = allowable stress, pounds per square inch
The bending moment in the bearing plate outside the
stiffeners (between chairs) may be controlling and can be
determined by use of Table 10.3. The thickness can be
determined by use of Eq. 10.32b. 1

EMPIRICAL DIMENSIONS FOR EXTERNAL CHAIRS. If the

number of bolts required exceeds the number given in
Table 10.5, external bolting chairs may be used, as shown
Section A-A
in Fig. 10.6. The proportions for the chair may be deter-
mined empirically by the relationships given in detail b of
Fig. 10.6. Note that the hole in the bearing plate is made

r
Same
as skirt
--:,

Washer (thickness equal

to bolt diameter)
l....A

Fig. 10.5.
Elevation

Centered anchor-bolt chair.

,L_ .f' Qo
Bolt size
t:;
Bolt size + 9•
+ ~~-~

at or near the bolt where the cross-sectional area is mini-

mum. The moment is given by Eq. 10.36.
Ih
size+%' min
Min= ~t
Bolt size
Pb Gusset plat
Mmax = (10.36)
8 Qo~·~~~~~j"I~w....,...
Bolt size + 1• .::jl l+-
where M max = maximum bending moment, inch-pounds
(a) (b)
b spacing inside chairs, inches (usually 8 in.)
The hole in the bearing plate reduces the effective beam Fig. 10.6. External bolting chair.
192 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels

where M 11 = maximum bending moment along radial axis,

inch-pounds ·,
M:x: = maximum bending moment along circum-
ferential axis, inch-pounds
P = :maximum bolt load on upwind side (see Eq.
10.35) pounds
µ. Poisson's ratio (0.30 for steel)
In = natural logarithm
a = radial distance from outside of skirt to bolt
circle, inches
l = radial distance from outside of skirt to outer
edge of compression plate, inches
b = gusset spacing, inches
e = radius, of action of concentrated load, inches
= one-half distance across flats of bolting nut,
!r1frk}}if;r}t'.:!:t:. 'Yi. 'Y2
inches
constants from Table 10.6
"
A comparison of Eqs. 10.38 and 10.39 using the constants
Fig. 10.7. Vessel skirt with external bolting chain. in Table 10.6 indicates that for b = unity, Mo: = M 11 , and
that for all cases in which (b/l) is greater than unity, My is
greater than·M:i: and My is therefore controlling.
After the determination of the size of the bolt and the
width of the hearing plate and after the selection of the
bolt-circle diameter and gusset spacing, the dimensions
larger than the hole in the top plate for ease in erection of
a,b,e, and l are fixed. The constants -y 1 and 'Y2 may be
the vessel. ·
evaluated by use of Table 10.6, and the maximum bending
CALCtJLATION OF COMPRESSION-PLATE TmcKNEss. The
moments in the radial and circumferential directions may
maximum load on the compression plate at the top of an
be computed by use of Eqs. 10.38 and 10.39.
external chair occurs on the upwind side of the vertical
For the case in which a is selected to be l/2 and My is
vessel where the reaction of the bolts produces a compression
controlling, Eq. 10.38 reduces to:
load. The compression plate may be considered to act as
a rectangular plate bounded by/the two gusset plates, the
skirt, and the outside of the plates. The bolt load may be (10.40)
considered to be a uniformly distributed load acting over a
circular area equal to the bolt area. The fact that the
compression plate is welded to the skirt and gusset plates To determine the maximum• stress in the compression
as indicated in Fig. 10.7 provides additional rigidity on ring a strip of unit width is considered. For this case,
these sides, which tends to compensate for the lack of sup-
port on the fourth side. As an approximation the plate
will be considered to act as a plate freely supported on four
sides. Timoshen.k.o (107) has developed the relationships
for a rectangular plate freely supported on four sides with a
concentrated load acting as a uniformly distributed load
over a circular area of radius e. In reference to the "Plan"
view of Fig. 10.6 with yin the radial direction and x in the Table 10.6. Constants for Moment Calculation in
circumferential direction, the maximum bending moments Compression Ring (107)
My and M:x: are given by Eqs. 10.38 and 10.39, respectively.
(Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
b/l 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 oo

-y 1 o.565 o.350 0.211 0.125 o·.013 o.042 o

'Y2 0.135 0.115 0.085 0.057 0.037 0.023 0
(10.38) Note: for a b/l less than 1.0 invert b/l and rotate axes 90°.
 Skirt Supports for Vertical Vessels 193
Or, if f., is assumed to be fallow. as the upper plate of the bolting ring. Such a continuous
ring is preferred when the spacing of external chairs becomes
ts = V (6M1;/fanowJ {10.41) so small that the compression plates approach a continuous
where ls = thickness of compression plate, inches · ring. As in the case of the compression plate the maximum
fallow. = allowable working stress, pounds per square inch load on a continuous compression ring occurs on the upwind
side of the vertical vessel where the reaction of the bolts
10. le Example Calculation 10.2, External-chair Design. produces a compression load on the ring. This load pro-
An external chair will be designed for a column 8 ft, 0 in. duces a bending stress in the compresson ring. As in the
in diameter having 12 bolts Hi in. in diameter with a cal- case of external chairs the vertical gusset plates transfer this
culated induced stress of 17,500 psi. The bolt-circle diam- compression load to the bearing plate.
eter is 8 ft, 6 in., and the outside diameter of the bearing In determining the thickness of the continuous compres-
plate is 9 ft, 0 in. The gusset height, h, is 12 in. sion ring the assumption is made that each section of the
By Fig. 10.6, / ring between gussets acts as a rectangular plate bounded by
the two gusset plates, the shell, and the outer ring. The
ls ~ (%)(1% m.) = 0.515 in. (Use %-in. plate.) bolt load will be considered to be a uniformly distributed
A = 9 in. + (IH in.) = l0H in. load acting over the area of the bolt.
Therefore the method used in determining the thickness
b = 8 in. + (IH in.) = 9}.i in. of the compression plates for external bolting chairs is
By Table 10.4, applicable. This method involves the use of Eq. 10.38,
10.39, or 10.40 and of Table 10.6 plus Eq. 10.41.
root area of bolt, Ab = 1.405 sq in. CALCULATION OF GUSSET-PLATE THICKNESS FOB COM-
PRESSION RINGS. If the gussets are evenly spaced alter-
The bolt load by Eq. 10.35 is: nately between bolts, the gusset plate may be considered to
P = fsAb = (17,500)(1.405) = .24,600 lb react as a vertical column. Normally the gusset is welded
to the shell, hut no credit is taken for the stiffening effect
By Fig. 10.6, produced by the shell. The moment of inertia of the gusset
a = (8 ft, 6 in.) - (8 ft, 0 in.) = in. about the axis having the least radius of gyration is given
2 . 3 in Appendix J, item 1 as:

lts 3
l = (9 ft, o in.) - (8 ft, o in.) = 6
in. I =- = ar 2 = lt 6r 2
2 12

From Table 10.4,

e nut dimension across flats = 2.375 = l.l8S in.

2 2

The compression-plate thickness is:

b = 9.5 = 1 58
l 6 .

Interpolating from Table 10.6 gives:

'Yl = 0.134
Substituting in Eq. 10.40 gives:

P [ (1
= 4ir + µ) In e:zr
2l + 1 - 'Yt ]
II '..:::-..._":::---r·--
M 11
1
-
= 24,600 [1.3 In ( (2)(6)) + 1 - 0.134] I
I
411' d.188 I ,

= +8200 in-lb
Substituting into Eq. 10.41 with fallow. = 17,500 psi gives:

(6)(8200) = 1.672
17,500
Therefore use 1%-in. plate for compression plate.
10.lf Continuous-compression-ring Thickness. Figure
10.8 shows a sketch of a continuous compression ring used Fig. 10.8. Skirt with conlinvous compression ring end strop.
194 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
or force, Q0 (see (Fig. 6.3) produced in shells with closures,
2 t62 and the calculation may be treated accordingly.
r = (10.42)
In Chapter 6 the following relationships were derived:
12
where a = area of cross section, square inches (6.75)
r = radius of gyration, inches
t 6 = gusset-plate thickness, inches
l = width of gusset, inches (6.76)
Equation 4.21 may be used to express the relationship
for steel columns in which the value of (h/r) is from 60 to In detail a of Fig. 10.6 y is the horizontal deflection of the
200. skirt corresponding to y 1 in Fig. 6.3 and varies with distance
18,000 above the compression ring in accordance with Eq. 6.65.
(4.21) Applying the boundary condition that the slope of the
deflection curve dy / dx is equal to zero at the top of the ring
where h height of gusset, inches where x = 0, we ·obtain:
Substituting Eq. 10.42 into this relationship gives. 1
0 =-
2/3 2 D1
- (2/3Mo + Qo) {10.48)
18,000
(10.43)
fallow. = 1 + (h2/1500t&2) Noting that y 1 of Fig. 6.3 is taken as equal to -yin Fig.
10.6, detail a, we obtain:
The allowable stress, Janow., in Eq. 10.43 must be:
1
Janow.
Bolt load P
(10.44) (y).:=O = 2/33D1 (/3Mo + Qo) (10.49)
2lt6 a
Solving Eqs. 10.48 and 10.49 for Mo and Q0 gives:
Substituting in Eq. 10.43 gives:
Qo 4/3 3D1y (10.50)
Bolt load 18,000
2/ts 1 + (h2/1500t6) (10.51)
or where
2
36 000lt 62 - (bolt load)to - h (bolt load) =0
' 1500 .
{, (6.86)
Solving for t6 gives:
D- Et3.
l6 bolt load [1 + VI + (96lh2/bolt load)] (10.45) l - 12(1 - µ. 2)
(6.15)
72,000l
Examfuation of Eq. 10.45 indicates that when the gusset By Eq. 6.84
height, h, is small, the second term under the radical may be w tE
disregarded. In this case Eq. 10.45 reduces to the rela- y = ,2
{10.52)
tionship for straight compression without column action or
where w load, pounds per linear inch
t _ bolt load t = skirt thickn_ess, inches
6 (10.46)
- 36,000l r = radius of curvature, inches
Equations 10.45 and 10.46 are based on the asumption Substituting Eqs. 6.15 and 10.52 into Eqs. 10.50 and
that the compression plate is sufficiently thick for the bolt into Eq. 10.51 gives:
load to be transferred to the gusset plates without intro-
duction of eccentric action. The stiffening resulting from /3 3t 2wr 2 w
the welding of the compression plates and gussets to the
Q0 = ( _ µ. 2)
3 1
= /3 (10.53)
shell introduces a margin of safety which justifies the above
assumption.
M '.'"" -fJ2t2wr2 -w
(10.54}
0 - 6(1 - µ.2) 21,2
If the gussets are not evenly spaced, an eccentric loading
will result in an induced bending moment. The thickness Taking a summation of moments about the junction of
of such gussets may he proportioned empirically, as in the the skirt with the bearing plate gives:
case of gussets for external chairs.
P(a) = Qohm
(10.47)
where Q0 is the force per linear inch on the skirt and is
10.1 g Reaction of External Bolting Chairs and Compres- assumed to act over an arc distance of m, or
sion Rings. The use of external bolting chairs or a compres-
sion ring results in a loading condition that produces a reac- Pa
Qo=- {10.55)
tion in the skirt. This reaction, R, is similar to the shear mh
 Skirt Supports for Vertical Vessels 195

Substituting Eq. 10.53 into 10.55, gives: This thickness can be reduced by increasing the gusset
height. Assuming a gusset height of 18 in. rather than 12
Pa{3 in. will reduce the skirt thickness to:
w=- (10.56)
mh
t = 0.607(½¾/" = 0.463 in. or H in.
Substituting Eq. 10.56 into Eq. 10.54 for w gives:
1O. li Thermal Stresses in the Skirt. For the case in
Mo=-'-_____;{33t2Par2
_ _ __ (10.57) which the vessel is operated at a temperature considerably
6(1 - µ 2 )mh different from atmospheric temperature, a thermal stress
For a strip of unit width under flexure may be induced in the skirt as a result of the temperature
gradient near the junction of the skirt and the vessel.
6Mo {3 3Par 2 TEMPERATURE GRADIENT IN SKIRT. To minimize the
fa.llow. ==. T = - (1 - µ2)mh
(10.58)
temperature gradient in the skirt, the skirt may be insulated
Substituting for (3 by Eq. 6.86 and solving for t gives: both inside and out. Skirts of vessels are insulated inside
and out for fire protection when manways are cut into the
t = [3(1 - µ2)]H [ Pa ]% r¼ skirt. The modulus of elasticity decreases rapidly with
(1 - µ 2 /" mhf increasing temperature above 600° F with resulting loss in
elastic stability. F. E. Wolosewick (160) has given an
For steel in which µ = 0.3, approximate equation for the skirts of vessels with 2 to
4H in. of insulation both inside and out.
t = 1. 76 ( Pa
mhf..uow.
)% r¼ (10.59)
Tz = (Tv - 50°) - 6.037x - 0.289x 2
where t = skirt
thickness required to resist reaction of + 0.009x 3
- 0.00007x 4 (10.60)
external chairs or compression ring, inches
Differentiating with respect to x gives:
r = radius of skirt, inches
m = 2A (see Fig. 10.6) or 2bs (2 bolt spacing)
P = maximum bolt load, pounds
d~
- = -6.037 - 0.578x + 0.027x 2
- 0.00028x a (10.61)
dx
a = radial distance from outside of skirt to bolt circle,
inches where T z = temperature of skirt at x distance below junc-
h = gusset height, inches tion of skirt and shell, degrees Fahrenheit
10.lh Example Calculation 10.3, Reaction of a Bolting Tv = temperature of fluid in vessel bottom, degrees
Ring. The tower described in Example Calculation 10.1 is
Fahrenheit
x = distance below junction of skirt and shell,
to be modified so that it has a bearing plate extending
6H in. out from the skirt with a bolt circle 3H in. outside the inches
skirt. Twenty-four bolts 2H in. in diameter are to be used
THERMAL F..xPANSION. As an insulated vessel is brought
with a continuous compression ring, and the gusset height
up to operating temperature, it will undergo thermal
is to be 12 in. Determine the required thickness of the
expansion. IC there is no restraint to this expansion, no
skirt to resist the reaction of the bolting ring. The maxi-
stress will be induced. The metal both in the skirt and in
mum induced stress in the bolts is 17,450 psi, and the maxi-
the shell at the junction will have the same temperature.
mum allowable stress in the skirt is 20,000 psi.
From the junction to the foundation a temperature gradient
a = 3!,i-in. will exist, which will tend to produce a varying thermal
expansion. At any given point in the skirt the radial
m = 21r0 26 ·5) = 33.2 in. thermal expansion, y, is proportional to the coefficient of
24 thermal expansion, a, the radius of the skirt, r, and the
fallow. = 20,000 psi temperature difference T 1 , or

h = 12 in. Y = ar(Tv - Tz) = arT 1 (10.62)

p = 17,450 X 3.72 sq in. per bolt
where y = radial thermal expansion, inches
r = 60 in. a = coefficient of thermal expansion inches per inch
per degree Fahrenheit
By Eq. 10.59 r = radius of skirt, inches
P % T 1 = (Tv - Tz) = temperature of vessel bottom
t = 1.76 a r¼
( mhfallow. ) minus skirt temperature, degrees Fahrenheit

Substituting gives: Differentiating Eq. 10.62 with respect to x, the distance

t = 1. 76 [ (17,450) (3.72)(3.25) ]% (60/' along the skirt from its junction with the vessel, gives:
(33.2)(12) (20,000)
d;y = ar dT 1
= 0.607 in. or% in. dx dx
-
196 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
but dT 1
= d(Tv dT x; therefore and
Qo (10.70)
-ar
-dT.,
- (10.63)
dx
A comparison of Eqs. 10.69 and 10.70 indicates that
STRESS FROM BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR. The
term dy / dx represent the slope of the skirt from the vertical /3Mo -Qo (10.71)
as a result of thermal deformation. This deflection can be
AXIAL THERMAL STRESS, fat, AT JUNCTION WITH SHELL.
compared to the deflection dyif dx for a cylindrical shell
(See Eq. 6.122.)
joined to a flat-plate closure, shown in Fig. 6.3. At the
junction, where x = 0,
lat=-
Moc I6Mto I -6a d(3 Di dT., I (10.72)
1
1 2
I . t
2 ~-
u;i;

(y)x=O = - {3 D (f3Mo
2 3 1
+ Qo) (6.75)
CIRCUMFERENTIAL THERMAL STRESS, fct, AT JUNCTION

(dy) = - 1- (2{3Mo + Qo) (6.76)

WITH SHELL. (See Eq. 6.125.)

dx X=O 2{J 2Di . let . I(3d((3M; + Qo) I+ Iµ6t~o I (10.73)

Substituting Eq. 10.62 into Eq. 6.75 and Eq. 10.63 into
Eq. 6.76 gives: But by Eq. 10.71 {JM 0 = -Qo; therefore

~ Iµ6t'P i
1
arT 1 = Yx=O = - - -
2fj 3 D1
(fJMo
.
+ Qo) !ct (10.74)

ar dTl
dx
= (dy)
dx x=O
= +
2{J D1
(2{JMo + Qo) SHEAR THERMAL STRESS,
(See Eq. 6.121.)
fst, AT JuNCTiON WITH SHELL.

Clearing fractions on the right side of these equations gives: Q l:a d/3 2 D 1 dT.,·
fst = ¾-t0 _ _;_____; (10.75)
2t dx
1
arT (2fj D1) 3
= -fJMo - Qo
10.1 i Example Calculation 10.4, Thermal Stresses.
ar dT 1
~ (2fj D1)
2
= 2fJMo + Qo (10.64) Consider a vessel having a diameter of 130 in. and a skirt
thickness of H in. insulated inside and out with the skirt
supporting a shell in which the ~ttom temperature is
700° F. Assume that the temperature distribution in the
Adding the two equations gives:
skirt is given by Eq. 10.60. Calculate the thermal stresses
arT 1(2fj 3D1) + ar!Tl (2fj 2D1) = fJMo at the junction.
a = 7.6 X 10-6 deg F
therefore
1 E 25.5 X 10 6 psi (from Fig. 8.6)
Mo = 2arfJD1 ( T'fJ + dT
dx ) (10.65)
µ 0.27
By Eq. 6.86
4,---==--

Substituting into Eq. 10.64 gives:

3(1 - 0.272) = 0.227 .
(65) 2(0.5) 2
1
ar!T (2fj 2D1) = 4arfj 2D1 ( T + d:1) +
1
{J Qo By Eq. 6.15
D1 = Eta = 25.5 X l~.5)3 = 28.7 X 104
therefore 12(1 - µ 2) 12(1 - 0.27 2)
(10.66)
The temperature gradient at the junction, x = 0, by
Eq. 10.61 is:
At the junction of the skirt and bottom dished head T' =
T., - T ,,, and T., T,,; therefore T' = 0. And, therefore, (d::,:) Z=O = 6.037
dT 1
Mo= adf3D1- (10.67) Axial thermal stress:
dx Substituting into Eq. 10.69 gives:
and
dT,,
Qo (10.68) M o = -a df3 D1 dx

or
= -(7.6 X 10-6)(130)(0.227)(28.7 X 10 4)(-6.037)
dT,,
M o = -ad{3 D1- (10.69)
dx = 388 in-lb per in.
 Lug Supports for Vertical Vessels 197
By Eq. 10.72 are set up on the windward side when the vessel is empty
because in this case the dead load is subtracted from the
6Mol 6(388) I = 9320 si wind load. Therefore the stresses on the l~ward side are
lat=
IT 1 (0.5)
2 p the determining factor for design of the supports. The
Circumferential thermal stress: maximum total compression load in P pounds in the most
By Eq. 10.70 remote column is (164):

P=4Pw(H-L)+~W (10.76)
Qo = a dP 2 D1 dT,, nDoc n
dx
= (7.6 X 10-6)(130)(0.227) 2 (28.7 X 10 4)(-6.037) where P w = total wind load on exposed surface, pounds
H = height of vessel above foundation, feet
= -88.2 lb per in. L = vessel clearance from foundation to vessel bot-
tom, feet
By Eq. 10.74
D1,c = diameter of anchor-bolt circle, feet
= Iµ6Mo
t2 I
1
n number of supports
Jct
[(0.27)(9320)] 2115 psi ~ W = weight of empty vessel plus weight of liquid
and other dead load, pounds
Shear thermal stress:
By Eq. 10.75 10.2a · Lugs with Horizontal Plates. Figure 10.9 shows a
sketch of a vessel supported on four lugs, each lug having
I SQ~ 3 -88.2 264
.6 psi• two horizontal-plate stiffeners. Such lugs are of essentially
Jet =v,: v --- =
0.5 the same design as that shown in Fig. 10.6 for external chairs,
and the same design proeedure may be used. This type
10.2 LUG SUPPORTS FOR VERTICAL VESSELS of lug rises to advantage the axial stiffness and strength of
The choice of the type of supports for a vertical pressure the cylindrical shell to absorb the bending stresses produced
vessel depends on the available floor space, the convenience by the concentrated loads of the supports. Both the top
of location of the vessel according to operating variables, and bottom plates should have continuous welds as the
the size of the vessel, the operating temperature and pres- maximum compressive and tensile stress occurs in these two
sure, and the materials of construction. plates, respectively. These welds and the intermittent
Brackets or lugs offer many advantages over other types welds of the vertical gussets to the shell carry the vertical
of supports. They are inexpensive, can absorb diametrical shear load. The load, P, on the column has a lever arm, a,
expansions by sliding over greased or bronze plates, are measured to the center line of the shell plate~ This moment
easily attached to the vessel by minimum amounts of
welding, and are easily leveled or shimmed in the field::'k
AB a result of the eccentricity of this type of support,
compressive, tensile, and shear stresses are induced in the ----- -------,\
wall of the vessel. The tensile and compressive forces cause I
!
!
indeterminate flexural stresses which must be combined I

with pressure stresses circumferentially and longitudinally.

The shear forces act in a direction parallel to the longitudinal Pw
axis of the vessel, and the shear stress induced by these
forces is relatively so small that they are often disregarded.
Lug supports are ideal for thick-walled vessels since the
thick wall has a considerable moment of inertia and is there-
fore capable of absorbing the flexural stresses due to the
eccentricity of the loads. In thin-walled vessels, however, H
this type of support is not convenient unless the proper
reinforcements are used or many lugs are welded to the
vessel.
If a vessel with lug supports is located out of doors the
wind load, as well as the dead-weight load should be con-
sidered in the calculation of P. However, as lug-supported
vessels are usually of much smaller height than skirt-sup-
ported vessels, the wind loads may be a minor consideration.
The wind load tends to overturn the vessel, particularly
when the vessel is empty. The weight of the vessel when
filled with liquid tends to stabilize it.
The highest compressive stresses in the supports occur on
the leeward side when the vessel is full because dead load Fig. 10.9. Sketch of vessel on four-lug supports with horizontal-plate
and wind load are additive. The highest tensile stresses stiffeners.
198 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
Front view Side view
Fig. 10.10. Sketch of lug in which only the vertical g1111ets are welded to
shell. (Courtesy of. Petroleum Reflner.)
is resist~d by the couple, Qoh, acting at the center lines of
the top and bottom horizontal stiffening plates. As in the
case of bolting loads on external chairs, discussed previously,
a reaction is established in the shell producing axial and cir-
cumferential bending stresses which should he considered.
The axial stress is defined by:
6Mo - {J 3Par 2
f axial = T = (l _ µ 2 )mh
where m = effective arc width, taken as equal to 2A.
This method of analysis is recognized as being approxi-
mate because it is based_/ upon an assumed effective arc
width and an assumed uniformly distributed moment over
this effective arc width. This method does not provide
for the calculation of the bending moments and stresses in
the circumferential direction between lug supports. IC
the horizontal plates are not used or if the bottom plate is
not welded to the shell, this method of analysis. is not·
applicable.
10.2b Lugs without Horizontal Plates. Wolosewick
(161) has considered the case of lugs fabricated of two
vertical gussets welded to the shell without horizontal
plates welded to the shell. This analysis is based upon the
stresses resulting from bending moments induced in a shell
ring section. No ,llowance is made for the axial stiffening
effect of the shell. J This method of analysis was developed
in the Boulder Canyon Project and was presented in a re-
port of the project, Bulletin No. 5, Penstock Analysis and
Stiffener Design (162).
Figure 10.10 shows a sketch of a lug without a top stiffen-
ing plate in which the two vertical gussets but not the bot-
tom plate are welded to the shell.
DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS. In Wolosewick's analysis of
a lug of the type shown in Fig. 10.10, the stiffening effect
of the heads of tlie vessel as well as the restraint of longi:
tudinal fibers.of the shell is ignored. Therefore the calcu-
lated stresses based on the assumed ring action of the shell
will be larger than the actual stresses induced by the loads;
this places this approximate analysis on the conservative
side.
The following assumptions are made in the development
of the bending-moment equations:
1. The stress in the ring is a linear function across the
thickness of the shell.
R 2. The modulus of elasticity in tension and the modulus
of elasticity in compression are the same.
3. Elementary circumferential fibers behave freely and
are not restrained by longitudinal fibers of the v~sseL (This
assumption may he modified by multiplying the stresses by
R
(1 - µ2)).
4. There is no warping of the vessel cross section, and a
section that is plane section before bending remains a plane
section after bending.-----.__,,
For a ring on which a set of loads symmetrically located
are acting, such as the one shown in Fig. 10.11, the only
,. unknown to he determined is the moment Mo acting on the
center line of the cut section.
Shear forces for this model of symmetrically arranged
forces are considered to act, as follows: The shear force at A
will he opposed by the shear force at B, which acts in the
opposite direction; and, therefore, the net shear force on the
ring above is zero since the magnitude of the shear force at
A is the same as that of the shear force at B. ·
Figure 10.12 is a diagram showing the angles involved
in the derivation of the relationships. The angle () is the
(10.58) angle between the y axis and R and is equal to one half the
angle hound~ by the two vertical gusset plates of a lug.
The angle </> is the angle from they axis to any point s.
The moment Mo is the internal moment in the shell at the
center line, and the moment Ms is the internal moment in
the shell at any point, ,, between axes.
The strain energy stored in a structural element resulting
from the action of bending moments is given by:
1
U=- -JM2 ds
. 2El
(9.39)
For small-angle relationships in reference to Fig. 10.12,
ds = r dq,
Therefore·
U=-
1 2EI 'f M2rdq, (10.77)
R R
Fig. 10.11. Loading eonditlon on shell ring resulting from action of four
Jugs (161). (Courtesy of Petroleum Reflner.)
 Lug Supports for Vertical Vessels 199
Table 10.7. Bending Moments for Four Uniformly In an analogous manner, the following generalized equa-
Spaced Double-Gusset Lugs with Various Angle tion can be obtained:
Spacing between Gussets (161)
M,/Rd
Mo = Rd[~ (cos()+ 0 sin 0) - sin 0 - ½cot!:] (10.85)
2 ,r 2 n

ef, =0 cp =0 ef, = 45° where n an even number of lug supports symmetrically

spaced
0 0.137 0.137 -0.071
5 0.091 0.095 -0.068 Using the above equations Wolosewick (161) has pre-
10 0.055 0.065 -0.060 sented: graphical solutions for the cases of two, four, and
15 0.027 0.045 -0.050 eight-lug supports; graphical solutions for the conditions
20 0.002 0.033 -0.033 of two and four uniform loads; equations for two, four, and
25 -0.018 0.030 -0.013 eight lugs with shell-reinforcing plates.
30 -0.033 0.035 +0.010 The value of the moments along the circumference can be
35 -0.043 0.048 0.038 determined from Eqs. 10.80, 10.81, and 10.82 if the value
40 -0.049 0.068 0.067 of Mo from Eq. 10.85 and the direct forces (represented by
45 -0.050 0.095 0.095 R in Fig. 10.12) are available. Table 10.7 gives values of
the dimensionless group (M8 / Ra) at <I> = 0, <I> = 6, and
ef, = 45° for various values of 0. (Note: at <I> = 0, M. =
,./Castigliano's first theorem states that the partial deriva- Mo).
tive of the total strain energy with respect to the load is As shown by Table 10.7, a decrease in 8 will increase M 8 •
equal to the momement of the load in the line of action of The reduction in moment by an increase in the angle 8
the load. In the case of couples the partial derivative with of the gussets is useful in design. If the stresses induced in
respect to the moment is equal to the rotation of the beam the vessel by a lug exceed the allowable value, the angle of
at the axis of the couple (30). spread of the gussets can be increased to reduce the stresses.

au
8Mo
__!_
El
J M8 aMs r def,
8Mo
(10.78)
EFFECTIVE WIDTH OF SHELL. In the development of the
bending-moment equations it is assumed that only a por-
tion of the shell withstands the flexural stresses caused by
Equation 10.78 represents the value of the slope of the the reaction between the lugs and the vessel. This assump-
ring at the center line, where Mo is acting and is equal to tion disregards the reinforcement effect of the remainder
zero since no rotations are possible. Therefore of the shell as well. as of the heads of the vessel. Thus the
computed bending moments for the shell are conservative.
(10.79) A rigorous determination of the effective width of shell
that resists the flexural stresses produced by the eccentric
From ef, = 0 to tf, = 0 loading imposed by the lugs requires a laborious mathe-
matical analysis. Wolosewick assumed that for this type
M. Mo+ Rr(l - cos ef,) (10.80) of loading the effective width of shell equals the width of
shell adjacent to the upper end of the hypothetical column
From ef, = 0 to tf, (1r/2 - 0)
M. Mo Rr(l cos q,) - Rr(sin q, - sin 0) (10.81}
From tf, (1r/2 0) to tf, = 1r/2
y
M8 = Mo+ Rr(l - cos¢) Rr(sin cp cos q,) (10.82) R

Therefore,

-4r [foe [Mo + Rr(l - cos ef,)] d<J>

El o
q
[Mo + Rr(l - cos it,) Rr(sin cp - sin 8)] dip

t'
+
1 ,, -
(1r/2)-0
[Mo + Rr(l cos <I>)

- Rr(sin cf> cos<!>)] d<J>] = 0 (10.83)

Formal integration of Eq. 10.83 gives:

Mo 2
Rd [ - (cos 8 + 0 sm. 8) sin8
- - - 21 cot-
'If'] (10.84)
7r 2 4 Fig. 10.12. One quadrant of a shell with four lugs as supports.
200 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
width of the base plate multiplied by the cosine of the angle
~ .
In reference to Fig. 10.10, the bending moment Pa is
resisted by a couple in the shell, R(%l), for each gusset or
for the case of two gussets as shown in Fig. 10.10.
R = 3Pa (10.88)
4l
DESIGN OF WELDED LuGs. If the two vertical gussets
shown in Fig. 10.10 are welded to the shell by four vertical
welds, the welds will be subjected to both a vertical shear
and tensile and compressive stresses produced by the bend-
Fig. I 0, 13. Lug with single vertical gusset (continuous weld all around). ing moment.
The vertical shear in the welds expressed in pounds per
linear inch will be equal to the vertical force P divided by
of the gusset plus 0.78 Yrl inches on each side, or the length of the welds, or
p
b= h + (2)(0.78) Vrl V = - (10.89)
4l
= h + 1.56 Yrl (10.86) The maximum tensile force produced in the welds
expressed in pounds per linear inch will exist in the lower-
where b = effective width of shell, inches
h = width of shell adjacent to hypothetical column of
most fiber of the vertical welds and will be equal to:
gusset, inches (See Fig. 10.10.) T _ Ml/2 _ 6Pa
(10.90)
r = mean radius of shell, inches - l 3/12 - 7
t = thickness of shell, inches The resultant combined force (shear plus tension) in the
J The effective width extends beyond the value given by welds is:
Eq. 10.86. Therefore, the value of the computed stress F = VV 2 + T 2 (10.91)
will be higher than the value of the actual localized stress,
The usual allowable stress for weld metal in shear is
and the design will be conservative. However, the value
13,600 psi (102). If 45° fillets are used, the weld will have
of the stress as computed is not exceedingly high, and the
a minimum cross-sectional area of 0.707w sq. in. per in. of
size of the designed lugs is practical.
weld length. Therefore Fallow. is:
COMPUTATION OF BENDING STRESSES IN SHELL. The
calculation of the bending stress in the shell follows once Fallow. = (13,600)(0.707)w = 96,000w lb per lin in .. (10.92)
the values of the moments are obtained. If the dimensions where w = width of one leg of fillet, inches
of the lugs are assumed, the value of b, the effective width
of shell, can be computed, and the stress calculated from A single vertical gusset plate with a horizontal base plate·
Eq. 2.10. and with a continuous weld all around is sometimes used as
M a lug, as shown in Fig. 10.13. In such a case the welds
f=- (2.10) are no longer symmetrical with respect to the neutral axis.
z
The location of the neutral axis (center of gravity or
or for a plate Z = (bt 2/6) centroid) and the moment of inertia of the welds about this
6M axis must be evaluated. This may be accomplished by
f = bt2 (10.87)
determining the distance, b, from the base to the neutral
where f = bending stress, pounds per square inch axis. The welds are treated as lines, and the summation of
M = bending moment, inch-pounds the moments (the length of the line times the distance from
t = thickness of shell, inches the centroid of the line to the reference axis) is divided by
b= effective width of shell, inches the total length of the lines, or (164)
h + 1.56 Yrl b = tl + l + 2dh
2
= (See Fig. 10.10.) (10.93)
2(t + l + 2d)
Several methods are used for the design of lugs for vertical
pressure vessels. The assumptions involved in any method The moment of inertia /, of the welds about the neutral
are diversified, and the procedure used often depends on the axis at the center of gravity, e.g., is given by:
judgment and experience of the design engineer. Ic.g. = ~[fy 2 dA + Ax 2] (10.94)
One method frequently used is to consider the gussets as
columns fixed by the bearing plate at one end and by the leg
..
= 2c3
12
+ 2c (~)2 +
2
2b3
12
+ 2b (~)2 + .!:_ +
2 12
tc2
wall at the other. The contact plane with the remainder
of the lug area adds additional restraint to the column. + 2d + 2 dg2 + ·(2d + t) + (2d + t)b2
Figure 10.10 illustrates the strip of the rib that is assumed 12 12
to resist the load. b3 + c3 t d
= 1.5 + + tc 2 + tb 2 + + 2d(g 2 + b 2
) (10.95)
The effective width, b, of the column is controlled by the 6 3

The shear force on the weld expressed in pounds per linear
inch is
V = W (10.96)
2+4d+2t
T~aximum tensile force on the weld (in pounds per
linear inch) produced by the bending moment occurs at the
bottom horizontal weld and is given by:
T =Mc= Pab
(10.97)
l le.g.
The resultant force is given by Eq. 10.91, and the allow-
able force by 10.92.
10.2c Column Supports and Column Bearing Plates.
COLUMN SUPPORTS FOR LuGs. If the column is attached
in such a manner that it can he considered as a column
under concentric axial load, the allowable fiber stress is
given by Eq. 4.18.
18,000
42
fe = 1 + (l2/18,000r2 ) ( , l)
where l unbraced length of column inches
r = least radius of gyration of column, inches
le = allowable compressive stress in column, pounds
per square inch
The maximum permissible l/r ratio is 120, and the maxi-
mum fiber stress = 15,000 lb per sq in.
The required cross-sectional area, A, of the column for
axial compression is, by Eq. 2.2:
(2.2)
where p = maximum compression load per column, pounds
le = allowable compression stress from Eq. 4.21 above
Usually the columns are attached to the vessel with a dis-
tance, a, between the center line of the column and the
center line of the shell, as shown in Figs. 10.9 and 10.10.
This produces an eccentric loading and an additional stress
in the column supports. This stress is given as:
Pa
fee= - (10.98)
z tributed within a rectangle, (2) a point load, (3) a moment
where Z = section modulus of column, inches3
The column supports may also be subjected to bending
as a result of a wind load. The moment produced by
the wind load was considered by Siemon (164) to be equal
to PL/2; this is comparable to considering the column
PROBLEMS
1. An external chair is to be designed for a column 6 ft, 0 in. in diameter with eight anchor
bolts I in. in diameter and with a calculated induced stress of 18,000 psi. The bolt-circle diam-
Lug Supports for Vertical Vessels 201
as a beam fixed at one end but guided at the other end with
a concentrated load at the guided end (30).
_ (Pw/n)l/2
Jbend. - Z (10.99)
where Pw = wind load on vessel. pounds
n = number of column supports
l = column height, inches
Z = column section modulus, cubic inches
When columns are subjected both to direct loads and to
bending produced by eccentric loads, the American Insti-
tute of Steel Construction specification (102) states that the
sum of the axial compressive stresses divided by the allow-
able column stress, plus the bending stress divided by the
allowable flexural stress shall not exceed unity, or
P/ A + (Pa/ Z) + (Pwl/2nZ) ~
1 (10.100)
le ft -
CouJ:MN BEARING PLATE. The procedure used for
designing hearing plates for column supports is similar to
that used for designing a bearing ring for skirts of vertical
towers discussed in the earlier part of this chapter The col-
umn load ie usually transferred to a concrete foundation.
The allowable compressive stress for concrete foundations
may be selected from Table 10.1. The maximum column
load, P, divided by the allowable compressive stress, le,
gives the minimum required area for the bearing plate.
The column is usually located in the center of the plate; and .
the base plate is usually proportioned to give approximately
equal overhang on all sides. If the load is assumed to he
uniformly distributed, a uniform load, fe, is applied to the
underside of the overhang of the plate. This overhang may
be considered to act as a uniformly loaded cantilever beam
which has a maximum bending moment of Uel2/2) (see Eq.
10.31) at the junction with the column. The required
thickness is given by Eq. 10.32 where l is the greatest over-
hang distance.
A comprehensive analysis of stresses from local loadings
in cylindrical pressure vessels was reported by Bijlaard
(163). The method of analysis involves the development
of loads and displacements into double Fourier series.
This method may he used for: (1) a load uniformly dis-
in the longitudinal direction uniformly distributed over a
short distance in the circumferential direction, and (4) a
moment in the circumferential direction uniformly dis~
trihuted over a short distance in the longitudinal direction.
For the tangential loading condition equations for displace-
ment, bending moment, and membrane forces are covered.
 202 Design of Supports for Vertical Vessels
eter is 6 ft, 6 in., and the outside diameter of the bearing plate is 7 ft, 0 in. The gusset height
is 8 in. Determine the required thickness of the compression ring.
2. The concrete foundation supporting the tower base shown in Figure 10.14 is a 2500-psi
28-day-ultimate-strength concrete. Assuming a 100-mph wind velocity, determine the required
size of anchor bolts if the allowable stress is 18,000 psi for the bolting steel.

s·-o·
OD
is• plate

:r

t is·
b
-
,1

Jf. . . . . . . .- 8' .l.1'-8·

diam

Tower height: 150 ft (from top of concrete slab to top of tower)

Uninsulated tower diameter, 8 ft, 0 In.
Insulation: 3 In.
Effedive projeded diameter for wind action, 10 ft
Estimated tower weight, empty == 175,000 lb
Number of troys = 85 ot 18-in. spacing (top vapor-disengaging zone •
3 ft)
Normol operating load == 30 lb per sq ft of floor troy area (includes shell
· and insulation)
Skirt height = 11 ft, 0 In. (from top of concrete slab to bottom tangent line)
The 24 gussets ore equally spaced.

Fig. TO. 14. Sketch of distillation-tower base for problems.

3. For the tower base shown in Fig. 10.14 and the conditions given in problem 2, determine
,, the required thickness, :z:, of the compression ring if the allowable stress in the ring is 18,000 psi.
4. If the concrete foundation supporting the tower base shown in Figure 10.14 is a 3000-psi
28-day-ultimate-strength concrete, the compression-ring thickness, :z:, is l½ in., the 24 bolts
are 2 in. in diameter (eight-thread series), and the maximum wind pressure is 30 lb per sq ft,
determine the stress in the skirt resulting from the interaction between the compression-ring
assembly and the skirt.
5. For the tower base shown in Fig. 10.14 and the conditions given in problem 4, determine
the maximum stress in the bearing plate.
6. If the tower described in problem 2 were located in seismic zone 3, determine the size of
bolts required to withstand the seismic loads, assuming the wind moment is not controlling.

J

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL VESSELS
WITH SADDLE SUPPORTS
The selection of the type of support for a pressure vessel
is d~pendent on several variables, such as: the size of the
vessel, its wall thickness, the floor space available, the ele-
vation of the vessel in relation to the ground or floor, the
materials of construction, and the operating temperature.
Horizontal cylindrical pressure vessels are commonly sup-
ported by saddle supports or cradles. If the underside of
the vessel is to be located only a short distance above the
grade line, steel saddles resting on the top of concrete piers
may be used. When vessels are elevated, a structural-steel
frame may be used to support the saddles or cradles. If
two equally spaced supports are used, the load resulting
from the weight of the vessel and its contents will be equally
divided even though one support may settle more than the
other. Since the loads may not be equally divided after
the supports settle if more than two supports are used,
the two-support system has an advantage over a system
employing a larger number of supports.
Figure 11.1 shows a group of horizontal butane- and
gasoline-storage tanks each 12 ft in diameter by 120 ft long
supported on two saddles.
Horizontal vessels when resting on saddle supports such
as shown in Fig. 11.2 behave as beams. An analysis of
the stresses induced in the shell by the supports was reported
by Zick (165) who developed equations for the stre~ses.
Zick's relationships contain empirical constants determmed
experimentally. By using this method of analysis the fol-
lowing stresses can be evaluated:
1. The maximum longitudinal stress.
2. The tangential shear stress.
3. The circumferential stress at the horn of the saddle.
4. The additional stress in the head used as a stiffener.
CHAPTER
The maximum unstiffened length of the vessel between the
heads, the ring compression in the shell over the sad~le, the
stresses on the ring stiffeners, and the total horizontal
force acting against the horns of the saddle may also be
determined.
In selecting the location of'.saddle supports it is preferable
to make dimension A less than dimension R in order to take
advantage of the stiffening effect of the head. Dimension
A is often selected so that A = 0.4R. Dimension A should
never exceed 20% of dimension L; otherwise the stresses
resulting from cantilever action will be excessive.
A cylindrical vessel with dished closures at the ends
may be treated as an equivalent cylinder having a length
equal to (L + ¾H) where L is the distance between the
tangent lines c,f the vessel and H is the depth of a dished
closure. This approximation assumes that the weight of
the head and the fluid contained in the head is equal to
two-thirds of the weight of a cylinder of length H and the
fluid contained in it. This approximation is valid for
hemispherical heads and elliptical dished heads and can be
demonstrated by use of Eq. 5.14 for an elliptical closure for a
100-in.-diameter vessel.
·
V = (0.000076)(100) 3 = 76 c':1 ft
The depth of dish, from Fig. 5.7, is ID/4 25 in. The
volume of a cylinder 100 in. in diameter and 25 in. deep
is 114 cu ft. The ratio of the volume of the head to the
volume of the cylinder is 76/114 or ½,
The weight of the fluid and the vessel may be considered
to be a uniform load equal to the total weight divided by tbe
equivalent length, or
2Q
(11.1)
w = L +!Ii
where w = uniform load, lb per fl
203
------------~---- -

204 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports

Fig. 11.1. Butane and gasoline horizontal storage tonks 12 ft in diameter by 120 ft long supported on two soddleL (Courtesy of C. F. Braun & Co.)

In the loaded condition the shell, over the distance L,
behaves as a uniformly loaded beam. The load of the heads
introduces a shear load at the junction of the heads and the
cylinder equal to %Hw. This load produces a vertical
couple acting at a distance of %H from the point of tan-
gency and a horizontal couple acting with a lever arm of
'' R/4 where R is the radius of the vessel in feet.
H L
C·--'/'/..-~ , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IC
11.1 LONGITUDINAL BENDING STRESSES
As in the case of an overhanging beam with two supports,
two maximum bending moments exist in the longitudinal
direction of the vessel. One maximum occurs over the
saddle supports, and the other maximum occurs in the center
of the vessel span. The shell acts as a beam over the two
supports under the uniform load of the vessel and its con-
tents, as shown in Fig. 11.3.
The maximum moment over the supports, M 9 , may be
determined by ·referring to Fig. 11.3 and by taking bending
moments about the center of reaction, Q, -over the distance

·-
-
H+A:

---------~ Vertical shear moment = i-Hw(A) counterclockwise

b C
"' .
Vertical couple = i-Hw(¾H) counterclockwise
_____ r t--- ....

Overhanging-shell moillent = wA ( 'i) counterclockwise·

Fig. 11.2. Sketch of horizontal vessel with two saddle supports.

Horizontal couple ".'" Rw ( i) clockwise

•A = distance from tangent line to saddle, feet .

Therefore
l = length of vessel, tangent to tangent, feet
H
Q
= depth of heod, feet
= total lood per saddle, pounds
M
9
= w [2HA + A2 _ (R H2)]
2
-
3 2 4
= total weight divided by two
R = radius of vessel, feet Substituting Eq. 11.1 for w, we obtain:
b = width of· sod die (or width of concrete for formed concrete-

r
sod dies, inches
= radius of vessel, inches Mq = QA [l - 1 1+ R22~LH2] (11.2)
f = shell thickne~•• inches - 1+iH
8 = total Included angle, degrees · 3L
 Lo,,ngitudinal Bending Stresses 205
The centroid of the shell included in angle 2.:1 is located a
r--,'
I
distance of r(sin .!l/.!l) from the z-:r: axis (where a is meas-
ured in radians).
I \
Therefore the moment of inertia of the arc of the shell
II I' about its own centroid (cent.) is:
l_,,/
= I:,; - Ad2
. loont.

I 2tr3 [ i + sin \cos a] _ (r s: a y 2rrl ( ; )

Loads and reactions
= .
tr 3 [ a + s:µi a cos a - 2 ~
sin
2
a] (11.4)
I
I
The section modulus, Z, for the side in tension at the
saddle is:
z=!= 3 2
r t.!l + sin .!l cos .!l - 2(sin a/!:,,.)
C r(sin .!l/.i) - r COS .i
or
Bending-moment diagram in ft-lb 2
z = r2t [a + sin a cos a - 2(sin .!l/.!l)] (11.5)
(sin .!l/a) - cos a
fig. 11.3, Cylindrical shell actir.:a as beam over supports, according
to Zick 11651. (Courtesy of American Welding Society.) The stress Ji at the saddle will b~ (from Eqs. 11.2 and
11.5):
M
The maximum bending moment at the center of the span !i=±-
z
is determined by taking the summation of the bending
moments about the saddle over the distance H + L/2. 1 _ _'.'.!
L
+ R2 -
2AL
H2]
In addition to the moments over the distance H + A is the
moment: l 4H
+ 3L
w (L - 2A)
2
(L - 4
2A) = w (L - 2A)
8
2

Taking a summation of these moments with due regard

for signs gives the moment Mc at the center of the span, or

M = w [ ----
(L - 2A) 2 2
- HA - -
A2 2
- ---
-R H2]
c 8 3 2 4

= QL [l + 2R2 ;2 H2 - 4A] (11.3) ~ - cos a)

r(sin.!l )]
4 i+!H L . sin 2 .!l
( a+sm.!lcos.!l-2-a-
3L
To determine the stress the moment of inertia of the shell or
must be evaluated. Above each saddle support circum-
ferential bending moments are produced which permit the ±--
3K1QL (11.6)
rr2t
unstiffened upper portion of the shell to !'.leform. This
deformation makes this portion of the shell ineffective as a
beam and reduces the effective cross section in the same y
manner as if a horizontal section were cut from the vessel
some distance above the saddle. The arc a measured from
both sides of the center line. of the ~ddle up to these
fictitious "cuts" defines the effective cross section of the
vessel, shown in Fig. 11.4.
By Eq. 9.15 the moment of inertia, I z, of the arc of the
shell in the lower two quadrants included by angle 2.:1 is:
A
('l
1r = 2tr 3 Jo sin 2 a da Section A-A

2tr 3 [~+sin a cos

2
.:l] Fig. 11.4. Sketch of effective orea of shell under beam action ( 165).
(Courtesy of American Welding Society.)
•

206 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports

Values of A/L when R =H
H/L = 0.10 -----,,,:;..---,,,,.:=----:,.-,:._--,,""--....,,..."---""7"'--~--:7""----::r---:,---;;,-"'---:7''----:;::,-'-
H/L = 0.05 ---"---,,..e.'-----r'-~--:>""'----;;-"'----;;,-"'---:7''---r-?"""--:7""----.::_--:;,,_----;;;,~
H/L=0

- - - - - - ; - - - ; - , 1.0
Ki and K 2
0.8 t--t---1-""-~t--+--t---i--7 --t---t----t----t----t---i 0.8

H/L=0
H/L= 0.05 ------'"-<----"-_..:,.,.,--_,.,,,--_,.,,__...,,,.___""<:---".,_._--"~-....--"s:-:-"""""-"""'""-"'::----'
H/L = 0.10-------'~__;;..,,----___:,,,,,,---~-_,_____,'s::"-__,..e---..:--"s:--"'s;:----",._--.......:s..,:--,--~-~

Values oJ AIL when R = 2H

fig. 11.5. Plot of longitudinal bending moment constants K1 and K2 (I 65}. (Courtesy of American Welding Society.)

-
where plotted for the condition of H = R when Ji governs, and

[4t (, _ t + ~~t)
K 2 for the condition of H = 0 when h. governs. These
approximations simplify the calculations and give conserva-
Ki = I - tive designs.
It should he noted that Eq. 11.9 was obtained by dividing
1 + 3£ the maximum bending moment by the corresponding section
modulus. The stress so obtained will he the maximum
1r (T cos A) )] (11.7)
axial stress in pounds per square inch in the shell due to
bending as a beam.· This maximum bending stress may be
(
( A + sin A cos A - 2 sin~ A) either tension or compression.
The tensile stress as obtained by Eq. 11.6 or 11.8 when
In a.similar fashion, using Eqs. 11.2 and 11.5, we find that combined with the axial stress due to internal pressure
the str~ss at the mid-span, h., will he: should not exceed the allowable tensile stress of the material
times the efficiency of the girth joints.
According to Zick (165) the compressive stress as deter-
mined by Eq. 11.6 or 11.8 when combined with axial pressure
stress should not exceed one half of the compression yield
point of the material or the value given by:
f eJlow. = XY (11.10)
or
where Y = 1 for !: ~ 60
(11.8) r

where y = 21,600 for!:_ 60

18,000 + (L/r) 2 r >
l + 2(R -112)
2

K2 = L
2
-
4A ] (11.9) X = (1,000,000 ;) ( 2 - i 100 ;) for; ;:ii 0.015
[ + 3L4H l L
X = 15,000 for! ~ 0.015
Values of Ki and K2 for different design proportions can r
he obtained from Fig. 11.5 (165). In Fig. 11.5, Ki is Equation 11.10 is applicable when t ~ % in. (166).
 Tangential Shear Stress 207
then

V- Q
(L - 2A - 0.7H)
L + 1.3H ~ Q
(L -L + H 2A - H)
(ll.ll)

Consider a section of shell of length dx, as shown in Fig.

11.7. From Eq. 2.10

J= My (2.10)
I
By Eq. 2.5
Fig. 11.6. Shear diagram For shell stiffened with ring (165) (Ca11r- = dM (~)
tesy of American Welding Society.)
df vl (11.12)
cl,: dx I I
I~ 1fr3l (see Eq. 9.16) (11.13)
It should be noted that the reduction in compression stress y = r cos cf, (11.14)
as a result of elastic instability is not a factor in a vessel
which is designed for pressure or in which l/r ~ 0.005. dA t dl = tr def, (11.15)
Consideration must be given to the stress due to bending dP = df dA (11.16)
moment before adding the stress due to internal or external
pressure. This is especially impor~t when the combined On section ABDC the moment. at AB is M, and at CD is
stress is less than the bending stress before internal or (M +dM). If the element W AO on the ring from cf, to
external pressure is applied. + cf, is isolated, flexural forces will exist on the ends, and
longitudinal shear forces on the radial planes at Wand 0,
11.2 TANGENTIAL SHEAR STRESS as shown in Fig. 11.8. 1

11.2a Shell Stiffened by Ring in Plane of Saddle. By a static balance of forces, shown in Fig. 11.8,
When the shell is held to a cylindrical shape, the tangential ~F:x = 0
shear stress varies as the sine of the central angle, cf,, meas- or
ured from the vertical. The maximum shear stress occurs at ~J dA + ~ df dA - ~J dA + 2u = 0
the equator. In this case the analytical solution is simple.
Let V = shear force as shown in Fig. 11.6. Then between where u is the total longitudinal shear force on the section W
supports and 0.
V = Q - w(A + H + m) Substituting Eq. 11.16 into the above equation and can-
celing terms, we have:
where w = 2Q/(L + ¼H) lb per ft, or
fdP fdjdA = -2o- (11.17)
V = Q - (3L :~H)/3 (A + H + m) Substituting Eqs. 11.12, 11.13, and 11.14 into Eq. 11.16
At the saddle, where m O, gives:

y =Q- 6Q (A+ H)
3L+4H
~= f f dP = +"' V cos cf, dcf,
-,t, 1fr
2V sin cf,
1fr
(ll.IB)

dx
M M dM
A I
C
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
y I
I
Fig. 11.7. Shear and moment dia• I
I
gram for shell stiffened by ring I
I
ll 65). (Courtesy of American
Welding Saciety,)

I
I
I
I
I
I I
J._L
D
208 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports
fdA+d/3/ 0.319. The value for K 3 is independent of 8, the angle of
contact with the support saddle.

~
For design purposes the value of fa should not exceed the
allowable tensile stress of the material times 0.8, or

'3/ (1
fa 0.8 X allowable tensile stress of material
11.2b Unstiffened Shell with Saddles Away from Head.
Fig. 11.8. Shear on side of element 5hown in Fig. 11.7. When the shell of the vessel is free to deform above the
saddle, the tangential shear stresses act on a 'reduced effec-
tive cross section, and the maximum stress occurs at the
where ll.P is the change in the longitudinal force on the por- horn of the saddle. Here the shears are proportional to
tion WAO per unit length of the ring. sin ¢ but act only on twice the arc given by (8/2) (f,/20)+
llP is balanced by the longitudinal shear on a unit length or 1r - a. This angle is the assumed position ·at which
of the radial sections W and 0. Substituting Eq. 11.18 maximum tangential shears occur on a shell which is free
into Eq. 11.17 gives: to deform above the saddle and beyond the influence of
the head. Zick reported (165) that this assumption ~as
2V sin q, verified very closely by strain-gauge experiments.
-2u = (2t){unit shear) ~

1rr Fig. 11.9 represents a section taken in the plane of the

or saddle for a shell with supports away from the head.
V sin qi If a portion of the shell is noneffective, as shown in Fig.
Unit shear = (11.19)
1rrt 11.4, the shear at is increased in the effective portion.
Since the summation of the vertical components must still
If a shearing stress occurs at a given point on a plane in a
equal the vertical load Q the shears will be increased in
stressed body, there must exist a shearing stress of equal
inverse. proportion to the integral of the function, or
magnitude at that point on a second plane at right angles to
the first plane (231).
Since the shear has the same intensity on adjacent edges fr sin 2 ¢ dq,
O't(unstiffened) _ =-Jo,--_ __
of the rectangular element, the unit shear on the ends of
the free body WAO at the points W and O also equals
<1t(stiffened) . - l,,. sin 2 cf, dq,
(V sin q,/1rrt), and its direction is normal to the radial
planes and is, therefore, tangent to the shell, or V sin qi
<it(unstiffened) = r1r-a
( + .Slllacosa
)
V sin ct,
(11.20)
The shear stressh will then be:
where <1t = transverse tangential shear per unit length of arc h = . Q sin ¢ [L - H - 2A]
The shear force <1t is tangent to the shell at all points and rt(1r - a sin a cos a) L H +
varies from zero at the top to a maximum at mid-point, and or
back to zero at the bottom. f4 = QK4 [L - H- 2A] (11.24)
The summation of the vertical components of the trans- rt L+ H
verse tangential shears on both sides of the stiffener gives Q. where
For this case the term V in Eq. 11.20 is replaced by Q K4 = sin </J {11.25)
:and the vertical component is r sin cf, times the shear. r-a+sinacosa
2
2 (,,. Q sin </Jr dip = 2Q [!!!. _sin qi cos "']" = Q
}o 1rr 1r 2 2 o
(11.21)
The tangential transverse shear stress at any point on a
section on both sides of the stiffener is:

f3 Vsin cf,
= ---- = -Q ' [L - 2A - H] . Sin !p Location of
-irrt -irrt L +H assumed point of
maximum shear
or
f3 = KaQ [L - 2A - H] (11.22)
rt L+H
· where
sin"'
Ka=-- (11.23)
1r
Fig. 11.9. location of ouumed point of maximum shear In unstiffened shell
For the maximum value offa, sin qi 1, and K3 = 1/r = (165). (Courtesy of American Welding Society.)
 /

Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle 209

For d;z:si, h ~ 0.8 X the allowable tensile stress of the
material.
The aximum shear stress occurs at the point of maxi-
mum shear, or where cf> = a,
K = sin a
4
1r - a + sin a cos a
Shell stiffened by head
Values of K4 are given in Fig. 11.10.
11.2c Shell Stiffened by Head. When the saddle sup-
ports are located near the head, the tangential shear stresses
i
are first carried from the saddle to the head. Then the
load is transferred back to the head side of the saddle by
~i
Shear diagram when
Section A-A

tangential shear stresses which act on an arc of angle larger saddle is near head
than the angle of contact of the saddle. Here the shears
vary as the sine of </>2, The angle </>2 varies from (1r - a) Fig. 11.11. Shear in shell stiffened by head (165}. (Courtesy of American
tor. Welding Society.)
Above angle a these shears lire directed downward and
vary as the sine of q, 1 from O to a. Below angle a they are
directed upward, on the head side of the saddle. This can The shear stress in the head is:
be represented as shown in Fig. 11.11.
In order to have static balance at the left of section A-A h = 2Q sin 4>2 [ a - sin a cos a ]
of Fig. 11.11, the downward forces must balance the upward 2li.(1rr) 1r a + sin a cos a
forces. or
I forces down 2 {"' Q sin2
) o 1rr
c/>1 r dcf>1
(11.27)

= 2Q [</>1 _ sin 4>1 cos </>1]"' Similarly,

1r 2 2 0

= Q (a - sin a cos a)
J6 = shear stress in shell = QK5 (11.28)
. rla
7r

I forces up =2
,1.
a
Q sin2 4> 2
1rr
[!o"'
J. sin
2
c/>2

,.. sin 2 4>2 dtJ,2

dtJ,2]
r dtJ,2
where
Kr, sintJ,2[
1r
a-sinacosa]
1r-a+sinacosa
(11.29)

"'
The maximum stress occurs at q,2 = a. Then
= 2 (" Q sin 2 </,2 [ a - sin _a cos a r] dq, 2
} a 1rr 1r - a + sm a cos a
Ko = sin a [ a - sin _a cos a ]
2Q [ a - sin a cos a ] 1r 1r-a+smacosa
=-; 1r-a+sinacosa
cf>2 l •
Values of K 0 as a function of (J are given in Fig. 11.10.
[ 2 - ~ sm
,i.
'1'2 cos
,i. ],..
'1'2 a
11.3 CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS AT HORN OF SADDLE
= Q (a sin a cos a) (11.26) The theoretical analysis leading to the determination of
1r
the circumferential stress at the horn of the saddle has not
been carried out successfully. The maximum stress occurs
170 at the point of maximum bending moment due to tangential

160 '\ \ shear. When a stiffening ring is used to restrain the shell
from deforming above the saddle, the mathematical analysis
.,, 150
" " ~
of the bending moment due to tangential shear can be solved.

" ''
The one-half arc of Fig. 11.12 is in equilibrium under the
1140
Cl> K5 I'-, K4 action of the forces shown. From symmetry the vertical
-c:, 130 shear is zero both at point A and at point C. At any point,

"' ,
.5 '-.,
<b 120 U, the shear <J't is:
....
!"-..,.. Q sin y;
110 <J't = ---
100 I r---.... i"'-..... ' i'-,... ....._ 1rr

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2. 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 per unit length of arc, or for a length of arc dl, is:
K 4 and K 5
<J't' Q sin I{; dl
Fig. 11.10. Values of K4 end K; as a function of saddle angle tJ. rr
210 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports
Roark has shown (see Reference 166, p. 147) that the
horizontal deflection of an element in a cmved be~m may be
expressed as follows:

Likewise, from symmetry about the vertical axis of the

shell, the horizontal movements of A and C .~re both zero,
or
O't = maximum shear on

L L
both sides of ring per Gravity C C
unit length of arc axis of arc
M~~dl = 0 or M.,,mdl 0
A A
But dl = rd</); therefore
C C
Q l
A
M,i,r dcJ, = 0 or l
A
M,i, dcJ, = O

Fig. 11.12. Forces acting on one•half arc of shell stiffened by ring In plane
of saddle (165), (Courtesy of American Welding Sbclety.) Likewise, m dl = r dcJ, (r cos cJ, - r cos fJ). Therefore

But dl = r di/;; therefore

LC

A
M.,,[r 2 dcj, (cos cJ, - cos {3)] = O

or
ut' sin i/;r dy, C C
rr
"\" M,t, cos cJ, dcJ, _ "\" M,i, dcJ, = 0
= Q sin y, dy, ~ cos fJ ~
'1f' A A

The x component of this shear = = (Q/r) sin if; ":I) C

cosy, dy,. The moment arm of with respect to N =
r cosy, - r cos cJ,. The ;y component of this shear "1J =
":I! But l
A
M"' dcJ, = O; therefore (11.31)

(Q/r) sin 2 y, di/;. The moment arm of <11J with respect to C

N = r sin cJ, - r sin if;. Therefore the moment of the tan-
gential shear about N is:
l
A
M ,i, cos <b dcj, =0 (11.32)

M., .,;,_' f dM lo"' gsin if! cos i/;(r cos if! - r cos cJ,) di/;
From a static balance the total moment is:
2:M = 0
,i, Q sin 2 if; ·
lo 0
..:..__ _;;_ (r sin cJ, - r sin y,) di/I
'1f'
M,i, = -P1r(l - cos cJ,) + MA
Or by integration + 21r
Qr (2 - 2 cos <b - cJ, sin cj,) (11.33)

M,, = ~ [1 - cos cJ, - ~ sin cJ,] (11.30) Substituting Eq. 11.33 into Eq. 11.31 and integrating
from O to fJ gives:
As stated before, from symmetry, the vertical shear is
zero at both A and C. There are, therefore, only three -Ptr(fJ - sin fJ) + fJMA = 2r
Qr [3 sin fJ - fJ cos fJ - 2fJ]
unknowns acting on the free body, Pt, MA, and Mc.
Timoshenko has shown (see Reference 29, Part II, p. 68) (11.34)
that for a thin curved beam the small angle of rotation, Substituting Eq. 11.33 into Eq. 11.32 and integrating
4 dcJ,. between two neighboring cross sections may be from O to fJ gives:
expressed as follows:
M,i,dl
-Ptr[sin fJ - ½fJ - ¼sin 2fJ] + MA sin fJ
EI = Qr [i sin 2/3 - ¼fJ cos 2/3 + fJ - 2 sin t3] (11.35)
2r
From symmetry about the vertical axis of the shell, the
rotations of A and C are both zero, or Simultaneous solution of Eqs. 11.34 and 11.35 gives:
C C
"\" M,i, dl = 0 or "\" M,i, dl = 0 Pt = _fl_ [3 sin 2 fJ -
2'1f'K
I sin 2fJ - {3 2 + ¼fJ 2 cos 2,8]
~ EI ~ · (11.36)
A A
 Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle 211
0.24--------....---.----r---,--,----,--.., times the radius of the shell or one half the length of the
vessel, whichever is smaller. Therefore, the use of the
0.20 ~---1---+----1--+-+---l--+-+r--l 0.10 value of the hypothetical moment M~ given by Eq. ll.40
~ 0.161----+--+--+---t--+--t--1-7<....f--, 0.08~
. will render calculated stresses in accord with actual stresses .
11.3b Shell Stiffened by Head. When the shell is
~
6 0.12 0.06
i stiffened by the head, the shear stresses are carried across
6
the saddle to the head, and then the load is transferred
J~ ~~ = back to the saddle, as previously shown. As in the case of
the unstiffened shell, the shears tend to concentrate near
0.04 0.02
the horn of the saddle. Since the stiff members are rela~
oi...i:::::1:::::::::.L.."""===L-----.1..-..1.---1._..1.---1 tively short, this transfer reduces the circumferential bend-
0 2040 60 80 140 160 ing moment still more; that is, the circumferential ~ending
Values of fJ in degrees moment is smaller in the shell stiffened by the head than in
the unstiffened shell. This effect is introduced when the
Fig. 11.13. Constants Kio and Ku as a function of angle /J. circumferential bending moment is defined as:

(11.41)

MA = Qr [sin! /3(1 - ¼cos /3 + ½/3 sin /3 - ¼/3 2) where K1 = K5 for values of AIR greater than 1. For
21rK values of AIR less than 0.5, K1 = H,K5.
- ¾/3 sin /3 + ¼/3 cos /3(2/3 + sin 2/3 For design purposes the following equations are recom-
- 5 sin /3 + {J cos 13)] (11.37)
mended:
Substituting Eqs. 11.36 and 11.37 into Eq. 11.33 gives:
h = - Q -
3
K 7Q if L ~ BR (11.42)
M4, = Qr [cos
2K1r
,t,(sin 2 2
/3 - i/3 sin 2/3 + ¼/3 cos 2/3) 4t(b + 1.56 Vrl) 2t 2

+ tt, sin ,t,(½/3 2 +¾sin 2/3 - sin 2 13) Q - I2K1QR if L < BR

h= (11.43)
+ ¼/3 cos /3(2{3 + sin 2{3) 4t(b + 1.56 -Vrt) u2
- sin /3(½/3 + ¼sin 2{3 + ¼r; cos 2/3)] (11.38)
where where J1 = maximum circumferential combined compressive
stress at the horn of the saddle
K = sin 2 {3 - ½{3 2 - ¼sin 2{3 (11.39) t vessel-shell thickness for unattached wear plate
It should be noted that K and the quantities in paren- t = combined thickness of shell and wear plate when
theses in Eqs. 11.36, 11.37, and 11.38 are functions of fJ and wear plate extends rllO inches above horn of
will have the same value for all values of q, for a given saddle saddle and saddle is located near head (AIR ~
support. 0.5). (Otherwise, t equals thickness of shell
Values of Pt!Q and M1.IQr computed by the use of Eqs. only).
11.36 and 11.37 are given by the diagrams of Fig. 11.13, b width of wear plate, inches
and values of M,t,IQr for various values of q, and /3 computed
by the use of Eq. 11.38 are given in Fig. 11.14.
As seen in Fig. 11.14 ( note that fJ 180 - ;) the maxi- 0.08 ..----.----r-----.----.---,------r--.........

mum moment occurs at ,t, fJ. Therefore

0.06 t----+---t-----t---+---11---+-
(11.40)
where M~ = maximum circumferential bending moment in 0.04 t - - - - - + - - - t - - - - t - - - + - - - t - - -
inch-pounds

Values of K 6 were determined from Fig. 11.14 and plotted

in Fig. 11.15. The use of K 6 in the design of shells with
ring stiffeners in the plane of the saddle is treated in section
11.6.
11.3a Unstiffened Shell. When the saddles are located
away from the head so that the shell is free to deform, the
shears tend to accumulate near the horn of the saddle so
that the actual maximum circumferential moment in the
shell is less than the value obtained for M from Eq. 11.40.
Zick reports (165) that this has been confirmed by strain- Value of <f;; in degrees
gauge measurements, which show that the effective length
on top of the saddle that resists the moment is about four Fig. 11.14. Variation of circumferential moment around shell.
212 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports
180 The total load due to the horizontal shears will be (see
170 \ \ Fig. 11.11): .

' \I\
a Q
160
\ \ lo - sin ¢1 cos ¢1r dcf,1
o 1rr
150
i\ -1" ~ cos a
"'
Cl)
I!! 140
tlO
"'
-.:,
130
"' ~ 1'.Ks
=: {[
a
Q sin ¢2 cos ¢2 [
1rr
a -
1r - a
sin
+ sm a cos a
] r dcf,2

a] [sin; ¢2 ]:}
.E
~
120
110
'""~ ~~
sin: ¢1]: _ [,,,.:: !nsi: : : :

= ~[ 1r - a ~n~na a cos a]
100
"' "' ' '
~,.

90 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.2
The maximum cross-sectional area of the disk will be 2rt,..
load
is= - x 1.5
area
Fig. 11.15. Values af K6 and Ku as a function of the saddle angle 8.
= g_ [(sin 2 a)/(1r - a+ sin a cos a)] LS
2 2rt,.
or
Zick suggests that for multiple supports one should use (11.44)
L equal to twice the length of the load carried by the saddle.
It L ~ 8R, use the first formula. where
Equation 11.42 takes into account the assumed value of 2
the effective length of shell that resists the bending moment, Ks = 3 [
'S'
sin a ] (11.45)
1r - a + sin a cos a
as outlined previously. It also takes into consideration
the fact that the change in shear distribution reduces the The value of Ks as a function of saddle angle 8 are given
direct load at the horns of the saddle. This reduced direct in Fig. 11.17.
load is assumed to be equal to Q/4 for shells without ring The st~ess /s is a tensile stress in the head and should be
stiffeners. Equation 11.42 also takes into account the fact combined with the stress induced by internal pressure.
that the effective length of the shell resisting this reduced
load is limited by that portion which is stiffened by the
contact saddle. The assumed value for this effective length 0.08
is 0. 72 Vrl on each side of the saddle plus the portion
directly above the saddle. fl= 100· (K1=0.071}
Values of K1 can be obtained from Fig. 11.16; they were 0.07
derived from Fig. 11.15 through use of the assumptions
listed above. ·• .. fl• 110· (K1•0.061}
For.design purposes Zick recommends: 0.06

fl= 120· (K1 =0.053)

b ~ 1.25 X allowable tensile stress of material
0:05
Note: when rings are placed in the plane of the saddle, a fl== 130• (K1 =0.045)
longitudinal bending stress occurs at the edge of the ring.
This local stress would be 1.8 times the design ring stress. 0.0~
= 140" (K1=0.037)
K1
fl• 150" (K1=0.032)
11.4 ADDITIONAL STRESS IN HEAD USED 0.03
AS STIFFENER fl - 160" (K1 • 0.026)
The stiffness of the head is often utilized by locating the fl• 170" (K7•0.022J
saddles near the heads. 0.02
0.018
In the derivation of Eq. 11.20 it was shown that shears 0.015
0.013
have both tangential and horizontal components, as illus- 0.011
trated in Fig. 11.8. When the saddle is close to the head, 0.0
0.009
the horizontal components will cause tension across the 0.008
0.0065
entire height of the head as if the head were a flat disk. J.0055
The following analysis is based on the assumption that 00 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
the head is a flat disk and that the maximum stress is Ratio of A/R
induced in the head by the horizontal components of the
tangential shears is 1.5 times the average. Fig. 11.16. Plot of circumferential bending moment constant K1,
 Design of Ring Stiffeners 213

170 on each side of the saddle plus the width of the wear plate,
if used.
160
150 Q ( I+cosa )
Jg = t(b + 1.56 Vrl,) 1r - a+ sin a cos a
I 140
J 130 (11.46)
C
;; 120
t(b + 1.56 Vrl)
where b = wear-plate width, inches
110
I+cosa
100 K9 = --- ----- (11.47)
1r a+sinacosa
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 The values of K9 as a function of saddle angle (J are given
K 8 andK9
in Fig. 11.17.
The stress Jg is especially important when concrete
Fig. 11.17. Values of K8 and Kt as a function of the saddle angle fJ.
saddles are used. It should also be checked for large-diam-
eter vessels. For design purposes Jg = 0.5 X compression
yield point of material.
The ring compression stress may he reduced by attaching
For design purposes the combined stress on the head a wear plate somewhat larger than the surface of the saddle
should be permitted to be 25 % greater than the allowable to the shell directly over the saddle. The thickness, t, may
tensile stress of the material. he taken as the combined thickness of the shell and the
For cases involving negative pressures the head stress wear plate in the formula for fg provided the width of the
is compressive and the combined stress equals ( +is - head plate equals (b + 1.56 -Vrl.).
stress). This stress can usually be disregarded. Note: when the wear-plate thickness is added to the shell
thickness as stated above, the thickness, t, in Eq. 11.42 can
11.5 WEAR PLATES-RING COMPRESSION IN SHELL
also be taken as the combined thickness of the shell and the
OVER SADDLE wear plate if the wear-plate width equals (b + 1.56 Vrl)
and if the plate extends r/10 inches above the horn of a
There are forces acting on the shell band directly over saddle near the head.
the saddle causing ring compression in the shell band. The
tangential shear forces act over the arc from a to 1r and are 11.6 DESIGN OF RING STIFFENERS
directed toward the center, 0, because the saddle reactions
In the case of thin-walled vessels or the case of saddles
are radial. Fig. 11.18 shows these reactions with the
located away from the head (AIR > ~~) the shell alone
assumption that there is frictionless contact between the
may not resist the circumferential bending moment. Ring
surfaces of the shell and the saddle. Taking moments
stiffeners are then attached to the shell to alleviate the load
about point O indicates that the ring compression at any
on the shell. The length, l, of the shell that will act with
point, A, is given by the summalion of the tangential shears
between a and ¢, or each stiffener can he assumed (162) to be equal to 0.78 -v'rl.
Fig. 11.19 shows two recommended types of internal ring

-1"' Q sin 4>2 (

1rr
a - sin _a cos a ) ,. dcpz
1r-a+s1nacosa
-1"' -1"'
a

Q sin f./,1r d¢i = Q sin ¢2 d</)2

a 11'1' "' (1r - a + sin a cos a)

- [ - - - -Q- - - - ] [ cos' ¢2 ]"'

1r a + sin a cos a a

=Q[ cos¢+cosa]
Qsincf>
1r-a+sinacosa r(11:-a+ sin a cos a)
9.( -cos<I>+ cos/I )
r r-B+sint,cos/1
This summation of shears will become a maximum when
ef> = r. The above expression will then become: M -2( r-i!+sini!cos/3
l+cos/j )
ax- r

I+ c_os a
load Q
1r - a+ sm a cos a
Fig. 11.18. Loads and reactions an saddles (165). ICourtesy of American
The width of shell that will resist this load will be 1.56 Vrl Welding S0dety.)
214 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports
Values of MA!Qr (equal to K 11 ) are plotted in Fig. 11.13
for several values of the angle /3.
The maximum circumferential bending moment occurs at
Composite section A-A the point at which ¢ = /3, as shown previously. Then by
Wear plate Eq. 11.40
Ma= KsQr
The value of Ks is plotted in Fig. 11.15 as a function of
the angle of contact of the saddle, 0.
Alternate composite
section A-A
The moment due to the tangential shear at any point is
gi-yen by Eq. 11.30, or
fig. 11.19. Example of internal stiffening rings.
M ., =-;
Qr(1-cosq,- <f, sm<p
• )
2

stiffeners, and Fig. 11.20 shows corresponding types of The moment· due to the tangential shear at the horn of.
external ring stiffeners. An inside ring stiffener is most the saddle will be:
desirable from the strength standpoint because the maxi- ,
mum stress is compression in the shell, which is reduced by (Mu)a = Qr (1 - cos /3 - ½/3 sin /3)
'Ir
the internal operating or test pressure.
An external ring stiffener is not very desirable from the or
appearance standpoint and is even less desirable from the (11.51)
strength standpoint because the maximum stress may be Table 11.1 gives values of K 12 for different values of (:J.
either compression in the outer flange or tension in the vessel Consider now the section of ring from the vertical to the
shell due to load Q. horn of the saddle (at which the circumferential bending
The value of load Pt on the top of the ring can be devel- moment is a maximum) under the action of the forces
oped: by a procedure identical to the one followed to obtain shown in Fig. 11.21.
Eq. 11.36. If the radius of the ring is taktm equal as tor, The load on the ring at the horn of the saddle can be
then determined h-y taking moments about the center, 0.

Pt = _!}_ [3 sin 2 (:J - f sin 2/3 - /3 2 + ¼/3 2 cos 2/3] (P, + Pp)r +Mp= MA+ (M.-)11
21rK or
(See Eq. 11.36.) I
or
Pp= - [MA+ (M.. ).p Mp] - Pt (11.52)
r
P, = K10Q (11.48) Substituting Eqs. 11.50, 11.51, 11.40, and 11.48 into
Eq. 11.52 gives:
where
Pp= (Kn+ K12 - Ks K1o)Q
or
K 10 =
21r
lK (3 sin /32
f sin 2/3 - /3 2
+ ¼/3 2
cos 2/3)
Pp= KuQ (11.53)
(11.49)
Table 11.1 gives values for K 13 for several :.values of fJ.
in which
The stress on the ring will he the sum of the stresses due
K = sin 2 (:J - ½/3 2 - ¼ sin 2/3 (11.39)
to the load Pp plus the stress due to the circumferential
Values of Pt!Q (equal to K 1 o) are plotted in Fig. 11.13
for several values of the angle /3.
Likewise, the circumferential bending moment at the top
will be:

MA = Qr [sin 2 fJ(l - ¼cos fJ + ½fJ sin /3 - ¼fJ 2)

21rK
- ¾/3 sin /3 + ¼/3 cos /3(2fJ + sin 2fJ 5 sin (:J + /3 cos fJ)] Composite section B-B
Wear plate

I
or
(11.50)

where
w::•:,:• 1--,~ ~z--l j::~:
1
Kn [sin 2 /3(1 - ¼cos (:J + ½fJ sin (:J - ¼(:J 2) Alternate composite section B-B
21rK
- ¾/3 sin /3 + ¼(:J cos (:J(2/3 + sin 2(:J · 5 sin (:J + (:J cos /3)] Fig. 11.20. Example af external stiffening rings.
 Zick's Nomograph 215

Table 11.1. Approximate Values of Constants for the where

Evaluation of Ring Stresses I + cos f1 .½ 2 R
K
14 = _____ .;;.._sin
_ _:_.,. , (11.57)
fJ 8 Kn K12 Kio Ka Kia 1r-/3+sinf1cosfJ
135 90 0.03 0.286 0.132 0.082 0.102
120 120 0.02 0.189 0.100 0.0528 0.056 According to Zick the effective section of the sadd.le resist-
105 150 0.012 0.119 0.078 0.0316 0.021 ing this horizontal force should he limited to a distance of
90 180 0.006 0.0684 0.057 0.017 0.0004
r/3 below the shell at the lowest point of the saddle. This
same restriction should also apply to the reinforcing steel
cross section in a concrete saddle. The average design
moment Mf;, or
- lio = _ K13Q + K6Qr
Ar - 1/c
(11.54)
stress should he limited to two thirds of the allowable tensile
stress of the saddle material.
For a saddle where O = 120°, fJ 120°, and

where Ar = cross-sectional area of the ring stiffener, square l + cos 120° - ½sin 120° 2
K14 = ---------=:__--=-=- o 204
(120/180) + sin 120° cos 120° = ·
inches 1r

! = section modulus of the ring

C
Similarly, for a saddle where O = 150°,

When n rings are used,* Ku= 0.260

fio = KuQ + KsQr (11.55) 11.8 ZICK'S NOMOGRAPH FOR AID IN THE DESIGN
nAr - (I/c)n
OF VESSEL SUPPORTS
When the ring is attached to the outside surface of the
As an aid in the design of supports for horizontal vessels
shell adjacent to the saddle or to the inside surface of the
Zick (165) has presented the nomograph shown in Fig. 11.22:
shell directly over the saddle, the maximum combined stress
which indicates the most economical locations and types of
is a compressive stress in the shell, ho being negative.
supports for vessels on two supports. The nomograph is
For design Zick recommends that the maximum combined
based on a liquid density of 42 lb per cu ft. If liquids of
compressive stress resulting from liquid load and pressure
different densities are involved or different materials of
should not exceed one half the compression yield point of
construction are to he used, a preliminary design may be
the material (165). The maximum combined tensile stress
obtained by use of the figure.
resulting from liquid load and pressure should not exceed
Large-diameter vessels constructed of thin-wall material
the allowable tensile stress of the material.
should he supported near the closures provided that the
11.7 DESIGN OF SADDLES shell can support the load between the saddles. The
closures must be stiff enough to transfer the load to the
The saddle must be capable of resisting the loads imposed
saddles. Thick-walled horizontal vessels are sometimes too
by the vessel. Fig. 11.18 indicates the radial-load condition
long to act as simple beams. According to Zick such vessels
acting on a saddle. To resist the horizontal components
should be supported where the maximum longitudinal bend-
of these radial loads, the saddle must be designed to prevent
ing stress in the shell at the saddles is about equal to the
separation of the horns of the saddle when the vessel is
maximum longitudinal bending stress at the mid-span.
carrying a full liquid load. Therefore, at the lowest point
The shell must be stiff enough to resist this bending and
of either a steel or concrete saddle a minimum cross-sectional
to transfer the load to the saddles. If the shell is unable
area must exist sufficient to resist the horizontal components
of the reactions. A summation of the horizontal compo-
nents on one half of the saddle is given by:
F = {" Q ( - cos <I> + cos {:J ) r sin (1r _ q,) dq,
}fl r 1r f1+sinf1cos/3 ·
= {" Q ( - cos q, cos {:J ) sin
}fl 1r-fJ+smf1cosl3
:+ t/> dtj>
.
=Q [-½ 2
sin t/> cos t/> cos
1r-fJ+sinf1cos/:1
fl] .
{;
=Q [l fJ
1r -
+ cos fJ ½sin fJ]
+ sin fJ cos /1
2

= K 1,1Q (11.56)
* ·when two circumferential stiffening rings per saddle are
attached to the shell (one on each side of a saddle) the minimum
spacing between the rings should be 1.56 yrl
inches, and the
maximum spacing, R feet. fig. 11.21. forces on ring stiffener.
216 Design of Horizontal Vessels with Saddle Supports

I
"' " \
\.
\
I I I
11=120·
I 0.09=¾ I I
I
"' "I""-. - 6 ,;,120·
- 8 ~120" j

·~~ II I
o.;f-;;;0.2 O;ifJii!0.123 /

'
'"' ' ,
'+"'-
I
'
/,,,V I
'\ I V r t=o.u
~--1>~ j
/2Add
~
8=150" , rings
...
7
at supports
.
'-.... ,J
~
I"-- --;,,,, ~
.........

~- '-
I"' ' \ yV..,~ !--"1
D-SR;;;A.;OJ6L
I ;.,'
Add riop II
V
/ L

I"-- r--....'-- V
./ 1 auppor1s

'"- " ... '\ ,,,✓ ,.:;;~l ...-- u, .. 1,,;0.24 /

~:'-..
~ ,""'- \ /,.... / o;;;f ;;;o.517 I/ ". -" V Cinl!GI be
suppolfld on

' ~Clleck hesd-plale J twoiles_

~
~
lhl,!"J!i---~ · ,/'[ V A
.,...-!:'.".;\,.\\II-- Addfin&Salsupports L -0.25

1½ 1% 1% 13' l 1' ¾ % ~
%_~01~ ....
Shell thickness, t, inches
% 3d ~~-......
r--...

nC ~
40 1'.

C1 'tu
50 ~I'-
~~"
'i-..
'
➔ ~L3~
J!! 60
"-
>4 70
.s::
"""" ,, r\.'\.

' ''"''"' "'" ~.

Basis of design .;;, 80

-
C
A-285 Grade C carbon steel -'!!
90
liquid wt = 42 lb per cu ft C
~ 100 a-
Example shown by arrows C '\
~ 110 '\_ ~I ' "-
~~~
R• 5'} Use 120" saddles -.......
L = 80' A = R/2 or less
t = t• Check head-plate thickness 120
130 '{-
'\,. !'\.
" " ~

Fig. 11.22.
140

Location and type of support for horizontal pressure vessels on two supports by L P. Zick (1651. (Courtesy of American Welding Society.)·
"
to provide the necessary stiffness, ring stiffeners should be To analyze the type of support to be employed for sup-
added near the saddles. porting the vessel, use is made of Fig. 11.22. By entering
the figure with a shell-thickness value of¾ in. (with allow-
11.9 EXAMPLE CALCULATION OF STRESSES
ance for corrosion) and with a tangent length of 68 ft, it is
Estimate the stresses induced by the supports in a vessel found that the resulting zone indicates that A/R ;;;; 0.5
designed for storing lube oil and having the following design with 9 equal to 120° and that the head-plate thickness should
data: be checked. For this vessel R = 5 ft; therefore A will be
taken as 2H ft U~ R) in order to take advantage of the
Lube--oil API gravity 16. 5
stiffening effect of the head.
Working pressure 75 psi
A sketch of the vessel with 120° saddle supports is shown
Design pressure 90 psi
in Fig. 11.23.
Design temperature 500° F
Following is the calculation of the weight of one head of
Material SA-285, Grade C
the vessel. From Fig. 5.12 the required blank diameter for
Allowable working stress 13,750 psi
a 120-in.-diameter elliptical dished head is about 152 in.
Joint efficiency 80 %
The weight of the plate is:
Corrosion allowance ½ in.
Shell diameter (ID) 10 ft
Shell thickness (including corrosion allow- 1r(l52) 2 (0. 75) (490)
3850 lb per head
an~ ¾~ (4)(1728)
Head thickness (including corrosion al-
lowance) ¾ in. The weight of two heads is 7700 lb.
Tangent length 68 ft The shell weight is:
Bearing-plate width, b 10 in.
Heads elliptical dished,
2:1 ratio 1r(l0) (68) (0. 75) (490) = 65 500 lb
employed 12 '
 Example Calculation of Stresses 217

The volume of one head is given by Eq. 5.14. From Fig. 11.10 and with fJ equal to 120°
V = 0.000076 Di3 K0 = 0.88
therefore
= 0.000076(120) 3
f = (204,000)(0.88) = 4780
si
= 131 cu ft per head 6
(60)(0.625) p
The total volume of the two heads is 262 cu ft.
The tangential shear stress in the shell is given by Eq.
The volume of the shell is:
11.28; and as tshell equals thead, the shear stress in the head
(10)2 equals the shear stress in the shell.
1r - - (68) = 5340 cu ft
4 .
f6 = QKs = 4780 psi
The total volume is: r(t3 - c)
262 + 5340 = 5600 cu ft Circumferential stress at horn of saddle:
Since the shell is stiffened by the head and since L > SR,
The density of the fluid is 59.7 lb per cu ft.
Eq. 11.42 gives the circumferential stress at the horn of
The total weight of the fluid (vessel full) = (59.7)(5600) the saddle.
= 334,000 lb h = _ Q 3K1Q
The weight of the vessel and its contents 4t(b + 1.56 Vri) - 2i2
= 334,000 + 65,500 + 7700 From Fig. 11.16, A/R 0.5, and fJ = 120°; therefore
= 407,200 lb
Therefore K1 = 0.013

Q (load per saddle) = 204,.000 lb For the condition in which no credit for t is taken for the
and wear-plate thickness,
H A 25
· = 0.0368 (7 = . -204,000
L L 68
(4)(0.625)[10 + 1.56 y' (60)(0.625)]
Maximum longitudinal bending stress: (3) (0.013) (204,000)
The saddles are located close to the heads of the vessel. (2) ( 0.625) 2
The maximum longitudinal bending stress exists at the
center of the span between the saddles and is given by = -4180 - 10,180 -14,360 psi
Eq. 11.8: The maximum permissible stress equals:
!2 = ±3K2QL 12,650 X 1.25 = 15,800 psi
1rr 2(t - c)
From Fig. 11.5 As the stress h is less than the allowable stress, it is not
necessary to take credit for the wear plate.
K2 = 0.82
therefore
f _ ± (3)(0.82)(204,000)(68)
2
- ,r(60) 2 (0.625)
"' plate
= ±4920 psi
r--------------
11'
l

Since t/r = 0.625/60 0.0104 > 0.005, the compression r1o•x½'xll'-O' plate
stress is not a factor in the design.
fP = longitudinal pressure stress

~
By Eq. 3.15 "'' plate
pd Tan~t 2'-6•
( 9 0)(l 2 0) = 5400 si line ~i---~A-_j---,------ 68'-0"
fp = 4E(t - c) (4) (0.80)(0.625) p
f2 +f p = 10,320 < 0.8fnllow. 11,000 psi
Tangential shear stress:
As the head serves to stiffen the shell, the tangential Section A-A
shear stress in the head is given by Eq. 11.27.

f· _
0
QK5
- r(th c) Fig. 11.23. Sketch of vessel in example cclculction.

-- -·---------------------------
218 Design of Horizontal Vessels wtth Saddle Supports
Additional slre$S in head used as sliffener: The maximum combined stress in the head equals:
The additional stress induced in the head when it is used
as a stiffener is given by Eq. 11.44.
2180 + 8650 10,830 psi
The maximum allowable stress in the head is:
fa= QKs
r(lh - c) (12,650)(1.25) = 15,800 psi
From Fig. 11.17 and with fJ equal to 120° Ring compre$sion in shell over saddle:
The stress in the shell hand directly over the saddle is
Ks= 0.40 given by Eq. 11.46. '
therefore
f
8
= (204,000)(0.40) = 2180 si Jg= QK9
(60)(0.625) p t(b + 1.56 Vrl)
For an elliptical dished head (K = 2.0) the maximum From Fig. 11.17 and with fJ equal to 120°
pressure stress may be taken as equal to the circumferential
hoop stress in the shell (see Chapter 7 and Eq. 7.57). From
/(9 =· 0.76
Eq. 7.57 Jg = (204,000)(0.76)
f _ p[Vd + 0.2(t - c)] • <0.625)[10 + 1.56 v(6o) (0.625)1
P - 2E(t - c) = 12,700 psi
By Eq. 7.56
The allowable stress equals the yield point divided by two.
V = ¼(2 +b 2
) = 1.0 According to reference 67 the yield point of SA-285, Grade C
Using a one-piece head, we find that E = 1.0. steel equals 30,000 psi. Therefore
f = 90((1)(120) + (0.2)(0.625)] = 8650 si 3
a IIowa ble stress = - 0,000
- = 15,000 psi'
P (2)(1) (0.625) p 2

PROBLEMS

I. Recalculate the stresses in the vessel described in the example calculation (see Fig. 11.23)
if the shell and head thickness is 1 ½. 6 in. rather than ¾ in.
2. In reference to Fig. 11.l, the horizontal storage tank is 12 ft, 0 in. in inside diameter x 120
ft, 0 in.Jong. The vessel is used to store butane at 100 psi and 400° F and has elliptical dished
heads. The heads and shell have a thickness of 1 ¾ 6 in. with a }i-in. corrosion allowance.
Assume the saddles are located 80 ft apart, (J equals 120°, wear-plate width equals 10 in., wear-
plate thickness equals ¾ in., and the wear-plate extends 6 in. above the horn of the saddle.
Assume the vessel is fabricated of ASTMA-285, Grade C steel with a joint efficiency of 80%,
and calculate the stresses in the shell and head for the case in which internal stiffeners are not
used.
3. Redesign the storage vessel described in problem 2 for gasoline storage at 50 psi and
400q Fusing internal stiffeners in the plane of the saddle (see Fig. 11.19), ASTMA-283, Grade C
steel, a joint efficiency of 80%, and no corrosion allowance.
4. Design the concrete saddles for the vessel described in problem 2, and specify the area of
reinforcing steel ifa 1:2½:3½ concrete mix is used (see Table IO.I).
 \
DESIGN OF FLANGES
~
variety of attachments and accessories are essential
to vessels. These items include flanges for closures, nozzles,
manholes, and handholes; and flanges for two-piece vessels.
Supports, platforms, and ladders are examples of other
typical accessories. Flanges may be used on the shell of a
vessel to permit disassembly and removal or cleaning of
internal parts. Flanges are also used for making connec-
tions for piping and for nozzle attachments of openings
larger than lH-in. nominal pipe size. Threaded-pipe con-
nections such as couplings and half couplings are used for
openings smaller than lH-in. pipe size. Figure 12.1 shows
a sectional view of an autoclave with a shell flange on the
vertical vessel and nozzle flanges on the discharge and feed
attachments.
12. l SELECTION OF STANDARD FLANGES
A great variety of types and sizes of "standard" flanges
are available for various pressure services. The flanges
designated as "American Standards Association (ASA)
Bl6.5-1953" are used for most steel pipe lines over lH-in.
nominal pipe size; therefore these flanges are extensively
used for nozzles and other attachments to vessels (187).
These flanges are normally forged from ASTM A-181 and
ASTM A-105 carbon steels. Forged-alloy-steel flanges are
also available. These flanges are called "companion
flanges" because they are ahnost always used in pairs.
Although they are usually manufactured from forged steel,
cast-iron companion flanges may be used for low-pressure
service. Forged-steel flanges are manufactured in the
following standard types for all pressure ratings:
219
CHAPTER
1. Welding-neck.
2. Slip-on.
3. Screwed.
4. Lap-joint.
5. Blind.
Other standard types such as reducing flanges, socket-
welding flanges, orifice flanges, and nonstandard flanges are
also available for certain ratings.
12.1 a Welding-neck Flanges. Figure 12.2 shows a
sectional view of one and lists the dimensions of several
standard 150-lh welding-neck flanges from % to 24-in.
nominal pipe size. Welding-neck flanges differ from other
types in that they have a long, tapered hub between the
flange ring and the weld joint. This hub provides a more
gradual transition from the flange-ring thickness to the
pipe-wall thickness, thereby decreasing the discontinuity
stresses and consequently increasing the strength of the
flange. This type of flange is preferred for extreme service
conditions such as: repeated bending from line expansion or
other forces, wide fluctuations in pressure or temperature,
high pressure, high temperature, and subzero temperature.
These flanges are recommended for the handling of costly,
flammable, or explosive fluids, where failure or leakage of a
flange joint might bring disastrous consequences.
12.lb Slip-on Flanges. Figure 12.3 shows a sketch of
a standard 150-lb slip-on flange and gives dimensions for
such flanges of H to 24-in. nominal pipe sizes. The slip-on
type of flange is widely used because of its greater ease of
alignment in welding assembly and because of its low initial
cost. The strength of this flange as calculated from internal-
pressure considerations is approximately two-thirds that of
a corresponding welding-neck type of flange. The use of
220 Design of Flanges

Adapter block with

l gage O to 1800 lb
1 rupture-disc
assembly for
ll50 lb at;300°F
l gas-inlet valve.

Thermometer well

Blowpipe

Electric strip heaters

Coit

Blaw-Knox Insulation
turbine agitators

Fig. 12.l. Sec.tional view of electrically heated stainless steel autoclave for service at 900 psi and 375° f (167). (Courtesy of Blaw•Knox Co.)

this type of flange should be limited to moderate services
where pressure fluctuations, temperature fluctuations, vibra-
tions, and shock are not expected to be severe. The
fatigue life of this flange is approximately one-third that
of a welding-neck flange.
12.lc lap-joint Flanges. Figure 12.4 shows a sectional
view of a steel lap-joint flange and lap-joint stub. Lap-
joint flanges are usually used with a lap-joint stub. The
combined cost of the two parts is about 30 % greater than
the cost of a welding-neck flange of the same size and rating.
These flanges have about the same ability to withstand
pressure without leaking as the slip-on flange, which is less
than that of the welding-neck flange. Also, these flanges
have the disadvantage of having only about 10% of the
fatigue life of welding-neck flanges. For these reasons,
these flanges should not be used for connections where
severe bending stresses exist. The principal advantage of
these flanges is that the bolt holes are easily aligned, and
this simplifies the erection of vessels of large diameter and
unusually stiff piping. These flanges are also useful in cases
where frequent dismantling for cleaning or inspection is
required, or where it is necessary to rotate the pipe by
swiveling the flange.
 \
12.1 d Screwed Flanges. Figure 12.5 shows a sectional
view of a screwed flange. This flange can be rapidly con-
nected to threaded pipe without welding. The threaded
connection is susceptible to leakage under almost any type
of cyclic operation. Applications which involve bending
or thermal cycles should not employ this type of flange.
These flanges may be used to advantage in extremely-high-
pressure service with alloy steel, which has the required
strength for the pressure service but which is not easily
welded.
12.1 e Blind Flanges. Figure 12.6 shows a sectional
view of a standard 150-lb blind flange and gives the dimen-
sions for such flanges of h' to 24-in nominal pipe size. These
flanges are used extensively to blank off pressure-vessel
openings such as handholes and inspection ports. They
Rating of Standard flanges 221
are also used to block off the ends of piping and valves.
In this application a valve followed by a blind flange is
frequently used at the end of a line to permit additions to
the line while it is "on stream." Blind flanges absorb high
bending stresses but do not have to absorb stresses caused
by thermal expansion or by the weight of the piping system.
12.2 RATING OF STANDARD FLANGES
Standard flanges are rated as 150, 300, 400, 600, 900,
1500, and 2500-lb flanges. These ratings correspond to
service pressures at specified service temperatures as given
in Table 12.1. For example, a 150-lb flange has a rating
of 150-psi service pressure at 500° F and a rating of 230 psi
at 100° F. A 2500-lb flange has a rating of 2500 psi at
800° F and a rating of 5000 psi at 100° F.

\
B L
E

R ¼,"
A
AMERICAN STANDARD-ASA Bl6E-1939 FORGED AND ROLLED STEEL-ASTM A 181
Outside Diameter Diameter Inside
Outside Thickness Diameter of of Hub Diameter of Drilling Template
Nominal Diameter of of Hub at Point Length Standard No. Diam. Approx.
Pipe of Flange, of through Wall Diam. Weight
Raised at of of
Flange Minimum Welding of Bolt Each,
Size Face Base Hub Pipe Holes Holes Bolts Circle Pounds
Inches A T R E K L B
½ 3½ ½s 1% 1176 0.84 l¼ 0.62 4 % ½ 2% 2
¾ 3¼ ½ 11H6 l½ 1.05 2Hs 0.82 4 % ½ 2¾ 2
1 4_!,4 %6 2 117'i'.6 1.32 21/is 1.05 4 % ½ 3½ 2
l¼ 4% % 2½ 27'l'.s 1.66 2¾ 1.38 4 % ½ 3½ 3
l½ 5 1H6 2½ 2%6 1.90 2½s 1.61 4 % ½ 3¼ 4
2 6 ¾ 3% 3H6 2.38 2½ 2.07 4 ¾ % 4¾ 6
2½ 7 ½ 4½ 3~16 2.88 2¾ 2.47 4 ¾ % 5½ 8
3 1½ 1%6 5 4¼ 3.50 2¾ 3.07 4 ¾ % 6 10
3½ 8½ 1%6 5½ 41;'16 4.00 211/i6 3.55 8 ¾ % 7 12
4 9 1%6 6;16 57'l'.s 4.50 3 4.03 8 ¾ % 1½ 15
5 10 1716 7%s 6½6 5.56 3% 5.05 8 ¼ ¾ 8½ 19
6 11 1 8,½ 7%s 6.63 3½ 6.07 8 ¼ (}½
¾ 24
8 13,½ Us 10% 9 1 71'.6 8.63 4 7.98 8 ¼ ¾ 11¾ 39
10 16 11/i6 12¾ 12 10.75 4 10.02 12 1
12 15 12.75 12.00
¼ 14_!,4 52
19 l¼ 14% 4½ 12 1 ¼ 17 80
14 21 1% 16~4'. 15¾ 14.00 5 13.25 12 l,!,s 1 18¾ 102
16 23_!~ 11/is 18.½ 18 16.00 5 15.25 16 l.!-s 1 2H;f 127
18 25 1%s 21 19¼ 18.00 57~ 17.25 16 l}~ Hs 22¾ 140
20 27½ 11~16 23 22 20.00 5 1 Hs 19.25 20 l¼ Ha 25 170
24 32 l¼ 27¼ _26½ 24.00 6 23.25 20 1% l¼ 29H 260
Fig. 12.2. Standard 150-lb steel welding-neck flanges (168). (Courtesy of Taylor Forge ond Pipe Works.I
..
222 Design of Flanges
width equal to the width of the raised face whereas flat
metal gaskets may be used having a width equal to that
used with the large tongue-and-groove type of face.
The male-and-female facings have the advantage of con-
fining the gaskets thereby minimizing the possibility of
blowout of the gaskets. They have the disadvantage that
the two mating flanges are not identical. For this reason
AMERICAN STANDARD-ASA B!6E-1939 FORGED AND ROLLED STEErr-ASTM A 181
Out- these flanges are not as widely used on pipe-line connections
Out- Thick- Side Diam- as are the raised-face flanges. They are used extensively
side ness Diam- eter
Nomi- Diam- of eter of Diam• Drilling Template Approx on heat exchangers, and sometimes for manholes and as end
nal eter Flange, of Hub Length eter No. Diam. Diam. Weight. flanges. Male-and:.female facings have another disadvan-
Pipe of Mini- Raised at through of of or of Bolt Each,
_Si_'ze
__ Flang~-•_m=um _ _F.,,,a_ce_B-case,--_H,,.u_b_B...,o,,...re_ Holes Holes Bolts Circle Pounds tage compared to tongue-and-groove flanges in that they
Inches A T R E L B offer no protection against forcing the gasket into the vessel.
H 3}S '½o 1% H1s % 0.88 4 ;11 ~i 2% 2
,, 3}1! }~ 1 1 ½o IJ,i ~i, 1.09 4 % ~¼ 2;, 2 The male-and-female facings are standardized with a
1 4,i ,io 2 Jl§io '½• 1.38 4 %
,,
),i
),~
3}1\
3),'.l
2 ½ 6 -in ...deep reeess on the female face and a ~:;i;-in.-high
I¾ 4;11 ~li 2~4 2')io 1 ~1• I. 72 · 4 3
l¼ 5 1 ½o 2¼ 2,10 ~II 1.97 4 3 raised face on the male part. The gasket surfaces are
'" J,i 3¼
usually smooth finished as the outer diameter of the female
6 ¾ 3% 3½o 1 2.44 4 ~, ¾4;;1 5 .,
7 Ji Hi 3%• m 2.94 4 ¾ ,, W1 7 face serves to locate and retain the gasket. The width of
7½
8½
9
1 He
1,1e
1 ,ie
5
SH,
6'H•
4}i l')io
4 1 ~1. !};I
s;1. Hio
3.56
4.06
4.56
4
8
8
~,
¾
¾
,s
;i, 6
%?;~
7
8
11
13
the face is so large in the case of large male-and-female
gasket-contact surfaces that full-face metal gaskets cannot
5 10 1;1. 1,1. 6~16 Hio 5.66 8 % 8H1 15
6 11 1 8}S 7'1• 1%o 6.72 8 ¾ w, 19
8 13¼ l¾ l0;i, 9'½• Hi 8.72 8 ~, 1m 30
10 16 Hi& 12¾ 12 11 Ho 10.88 12 ¼ 14¾ 43
12 19 1¼ 15 14~!! 2~16 12.88 12 ¼ 17 64

14 21 Hs I6H 15¾ 2~( 14.19 12 I¾ 1 18~( 86

16 23}i l'.H& 18}i 18 2~~ 16.19 16 Hs 1 21),;I 93
18 25 1 ,1o 21 19¼ 2'H• 18.19 16 l),( I¾ 23¾ 120
20 -27½ 1 1 ½e 23 22 2Hi 20.19 20 n, 1¾ 26 166
24 32 l¼ 27H 26"6 3}( 24.19 20 Hs lH 29½ 210

Fig. 12.3. Standard 150-lb forged slip-on Aanges (168). (Courtesy of Fig. 12.5. Sectional view af a screwed flange.
Taylor forge and Pipe Work$.)

AMBRICAN STANDAJ\D-ASA BI6s-l939

FonGED AND RoLLED STEBt.-ASTM A 181
Out-
Out- Thick.- side
Diam- or eter .....,..,--~P..,n,..,·11,..in~g~T-•,--m~p_la_te___ ApproL
fig. 12.4. Sectional view of steel lop-ioint flange and lap-joint stub, Nominal eter Flange, No.
or
or Diam. Diam.
of of Bolt
Weight
Each,
Pipe ' of Mini- Raised
Size Flange mum Face Holes Holes Bolts Circle Pounds
Inches A T R
4, 2
4, 2
12.3 STANDARD FLANGE FACINGS 4, 2
4, 3
Standard flanges are available with a variety of machined 4 3

faces, as shown in Fig. .12. 7 (corresponding dimensions are 6 ¾ 3% .4 4¾ 4

given in Table 12.2). 7 J.i 4¼ 4 SH 7
7½ l;fe 5 4 6 9
Steel flanges with a raised face are extensively used 8½ 1;.£6 5½ 8 7 13
9 ·~6 6¾e 8 7J,.~ 17
because of the simplicity of the design and because they
have been proved adequate for average service conditions. 5 10 1;.£6 7!¼'e 8 8).) 20
6 11 l 8½ 8 9½ 26
For severe service involving high pressure, high temperature, 8 13½ I¼ 10% 8 11¾ 45
thermal shock, or cyclic operations, this type of flange facing 10 16 1½6 12¾ 12 14¼ 70
12 19 l¼ 15 12 17 110
may not be satisfactory. Flanges with ratings of 150 and
300 lb have a ½ 6 -in.-high raised face, and flanges having 14
16
21
23½
1,,U.16 16¼
18½
12
16
18¾
21¼
311
170
higher ratings have H-in.-high raised faces. The raised 18 25 1~6 21 16 22¾ 209
face is machined with spiral or concentric grooves approxi- 20 27½ 1 1 ¾6 23 20 25 272
24 32 l¾ 21¼ 20 29½ 411
mately },~ 4 in. deep with about H 2 -in. spacing. The edges
of these grooves serve to deform and hold the gasket. fig. 12.6. Standard 150-lb blind flange (168). (Courtesy of Taylor
Flat-ring composition gaskets normally are used having a Forge and Pipe Works.)
 \
Nonstandard Flanges 223

Table 12.1. Pressure Ratings for are below the flange face, the gasket-contact faces are pro-
Carbon-steel Flanges (168) tected from damage. The main disadvantage of this type
With Standard Facings (Other than Ring Joints) of facing is the high cost of manufacturing it; this is the
for Water, Steam, and Oil Service most expensive gasket face.
Primary Service-
pl.'e88ure Ratings 12.4 NONSTANDARD FLANGES
(lb per sq in.) 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500
Nonstandard flanges are available in sizes from 26 in.
Maximum Hydro- to 96 in. These flanges are fabricated by rolling a hot
static-shell-test
Pressures* annular blank, as shown in Fig. 12.8. Nonstandard flanges
(lb per sq in.) 350 900 1200 1800 2700 4500 7500
are available in a variety of ratings. Typical ratings for
Service flanges supplied by one manufacturer are 50, 125, and 250
Temperatures Maximum Nonshock Service-pressure
Fluid (deg F) Ra tings (lb per sq in.) psi. Figure 12.9 shows a sectional view of a large-diameter
100 230 600 800 1200 1800 3000 5000 welding-neck flange rated at 50 psi (at 100° F service tem-
150 220 590 785 ll80 1770 2950 4!H5
200 210 580 770 ll60 1740 2900 4830 perature) and, gives the dimensions for such flanges.
250 200 570 760 1140 1710 2850 4750
300 190 560 740 1120 1680 2800 4660
350 180 550 725 1095 1645 2740 4565
400 170 540 710 1075 1615 2690 4475
Water, 450 160 525 700 1050 1580 2630 4380
Steam,
or Oil 500 150t 500 665 1000 1500 2500 4165
550 140 475 630 950 1420 2370 3950
600
650
130
120
no
445
415
590
550
890
830
1330
1240
760 1140
2220
2070
1900
3700
3450
3160
r-R~
~
700 380 500
750 100 340 450 680 1020 1700 2830
800 92 300t 400t 600t 900t 1500t 2500t
850 82 245 330 490 740 1230 2050
Oil 70 210 280 420 630 1050 1750 Raised face Lap joint
{ 900
Only 950 55 165 220 330 495 825 1375
1000 40 ·. 120 160 240 360 600 1000
* Temperature of test water shall not exceed 125° F.
t Primary service-pressure ratings.

~
be used because of the excessive tightening loads required
to seat the gasket.
The tongue-and-groove type of gasket face has advantages
large male and female Small male and female
and disadvantages similar to those of the male-and-female
type of gasket face. The presence of retaining metal on
either side of the gasket gives protection against deforming
soft gaskets into the interior of the vessel; this is an advan-
tage over the male-and-female type of face. Also, the
gasket is less subject to erosive or corrosive contact with the
fluid in the vessel. In service the tongue is more likely to
he damaged than the groove; therefore the tongue should he
placed on the part that can he most easily removed from
the vessel. This type of facing is standardized for both
small and large flanges. The small area of the tongue-and-
groove surface provides the minimum area _that it is advis- Large tongue and groove Small tongue and groove
able to use with flat gaskets. Therefore, this type of facing
provides the minimum bolting load for compressing a flat
gasket.
One advantage of the ring-joint type of facing is that it
offers the greatest protection under severe service conditions
or with the use of hazardous fluids. This type of flange is
widely used in petroleum, petrochemical, and high-pressure
service. Close tolerances and high standards of machining
are required, and as a result, this type of flange is seldom
used in nominal sizes larger than 36 in. Another advantage
lies in the fact that the internal pressure acts on the ring to Ring-type joint
increase the sealing force on the joint.' The fact that
mating flanges are identical reduces the problems of stocking Fig. 12.7. American Standard flange facings (168). (Courtesy af Taylor
and of assembly. Also, because the gasket-contact surfaces Forge and Pipe Works.)
224 Design of Flanges
Table 12.2. American Standard Flange Facings (168)
For 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500-lb Flanges
Outside Diameter3
Raised
Face, Height
Lap Inside Inside Raised Face,
Joint, Diame- Outside Diameter3 Diame- Large and
Large ter of Large ter or Raised Small Male
Male, Large Female Large Face, and Tongue,
Nominal and and and and 150 and 400, 600, Depth of
Pipe Large Small Small Small Large Small Small Small 300-lb 900, 1500, Groove
Size, Tongue 5 Male 4 • 5 Tongue 5 Tongue 3 • 5 Groove• Female'-& Groove 5 Grtmve 3 • 5 Stand- and 2500-lb or
Inches R s T u w X y z ards 1 Standards2 Female
½ I% 2%2 1% I l½e 2%2 l½e 1½6 7l6 ¼ ¾e
¾ 11½6 1½6 1 1½6 Hfe l¾ I l¾ l¼ 716 ¼ ¾6
I 2 Hfe I½ l½ 2½6 l),,i; 1 1½e 1½6 ½s ¼ ¾e
I¼ 2H l½ 2¼ I½ 2½e l½e 2½e ll¾e ½s ¼ ¾.e
I½ 21/s l¾ 2½ 2½ 21%e, 111/ie 2½e 2½e ½a ¼ ¾6
2 3% 2¼ 3¼ 2½ 3 1 715 2½e 3,16 2 1¾6 7l6 ¼ 1/ie
2½ 4),s 21½6 3¾ 3% 41/ie 2¾ 3 1¾6 3½e ½e ¼ ¾e
3 5 3½s 4% 4¼ 5½e 3% 41 ½ 6 4¾6 ½a ¼ :½6
3½ 5½ 3 11/is 5½ 4¾ 5½s 3½ 5¾e 41½6 7l6 ¼ ¾e
4 6¾e 4½6 51½6 5¾e 6¼ 4% 5¾ 5½ ½a ¼ ¾e
5 7½6 5% 6 1¾6 6¾6 7% 5½6 6½ 6¼ ½s ¼ ¾e
6 8½ 6% 8 7½ 8½e 6½s 8½6 1½6 716 ¼ ¾e
8 10% 8% 10 9% 10 1½6 8½e l0½o 9½e 7l6 ¼ 1/is
IO 12¾ IO½ 12 11¼ 121¾e I0½e 12½.6 ll¾e ½s ¼ 1/ie
12 15 12½ 14¼ 13½ 15½e 12½ 6 14½s 13½ 6 ½e ¼ 1/ie
14 16¼ 13¾ 15½ 14¾ 16¾ 6 · 13 1 :½:s 15½e 141 ½e 7l6 ¼ ¾e
16 18½ 15¾ 17% 16¾ l8½e 15 1¾6 17 1½6 161½6 716 ¼ ¾s
18 21 17¾ 20½ 19¼ 21715 171 ¾ 6 20¾ 6 19¾6 716 ¼ ¾6
20 23 19¾ 22 21 23716 19 1 ¾6 22~16 20 1 ~{6 7l6 ¼ :½6
24 27¼ 23¾ 26¼ 25¼ 27½a 23 1¾e 26½6 25¾6 ½o ¼ ¾e
1 Regular facing for 150 and 300-lb steel flanged fittings and flange standards is a ½ -in. raised face included in the minimum
6
flange thickness. A ½6 -in. raised face is also permitted on the 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500-lb flange standards, but it must
be added to the minimum flange thickness.
2 Regular facing for 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500-lb flange standards is a ¼-in. raised face not included in minimum-flange-

thickness dimensions.
3 A tolerance of plus or minus 0.016 in. (¼ in.) is allowed on the inside and outside diameters of all facings.
4
' Care should be taken in the use of joints of these dimensions (they apply particularly on lines where the joint is made
on the end of pipe) to insure that pipe used is thick enough to permit sufficient bearing surface to prevent crushing 'the gasket.
Threaded companion flanges are furnished with plain face and are threaded with American Standard Locknut Thread.
5 Gaskets for .male-female and tongue-groove joints shall cover the bottom of the recess with minimum clearances taking

nto account the tolerances prescribed in note 3.

gasket to cause the gasket to flow and seal the surface

12.5 GASKETS AND THEIR SELECTION
Leakproof ·metal-to-metal surfaces in which gaskets are
not used are difficult to fabricate even by use of very accur-
ate machined surfaces. Irregularities in clearances of only
a few millionths of an inch will permit the escape of a fluid
under pressure. The function of a gasket is to interpose
a semiplastic material betweeh the flange facings, which
material through deformation under load seals the minute
surface irregularities to prevent leakage of the fluid. The
amount of flow of the gasket material that is required to
produce a tight seal is dependent upon the roughness of the
surface. The amount of force that must be applied to the
irregularities is known as the "yield" or "seating" force.
This force is usually expressed as a unit stress in pounds· per
square inch and is independent of the pressure in the vessel.
Thus, this yield stress represents the minimum load that
m.ust be applied to the gasket to seat it even though very
low pressures are used in the vessel. Usually the gasket is
seated by tightening the bolt load on the flanges prior to
the application of the internal pressure in the vessel.
Upon the application of the internal pressure in the vessel,
an end force tends to separate the flanges and to decrease the
unit stress on the gasket. Figure 12.10 shows the three
major forces acting on the gasket.

Leakage will occur under pressure if the hydrostatic end
force is sufficiently great that the difference between it and
the bolt-load force reduces the gasket load below a critical
value. Also, it may be possible with too low a contact
pressure on the gasket for the gasket to be blown out by
the internal pressure. The ratio of the gasket stress, when
the vessel is under pressure, to the internal pressure is
tenned the "gasket factor." The gasket factor is a property
of the gasket material and the construction and is independ-
ent of the internal pressure over a wide range of pressures.
In selecting the proper gasket for an existing closure, one of
the first steps should involve the determination of the total
amount of force necessary to make the gasket yield and to
maintain a tight seal under operating conditions.
Figure 12.11 shows sectional views of some common types
of gaskets and lists the gasket factor, m, and the minimum
design seating stress, y, for each type of gasket (11). Figure
12.11 also indicates the recommended facings for the various
types of gaskets. The effective width of the gasket, b, for
various types of facings is shown in Fig. 12.12 (ll).
Flat-ring gaskets are widely used wherever service condi-
tions permit because of the ease with which they may be
cut from flat sheets and installed. They are commonly
fabricated from such materials as rubber, paper, cloth,
,,.- asbestos, plast.ics, copper, lead, aluminum, nickel, monel,
and soft iron. The gaskets are usually made in thicknesses
of from .J,f,i. to H in. Paper, cloth, and rubber gaskets are
not recommended for use above 250° F. Asbestos-com-
position gaskets may be used up to 650° For slightly higher,
and ferrous and nickel-alloy metal gaskets may be used up
to the maximum temperature rating of the flanges.
Laminated gaskets are fabricated with a metal jacket and
a soft filler, usually of asbestos. Such gaskets can be used
up to temperatures of about 750° F to 850° F and require
less bolt load to seat and keep tight than solid-metal flat-
ring gaskets.
Serrated metal gaskets are fabricated of solid metal and
have concentric grooves machined into the faces. This
greatly reduces the contact area on initial tightening,
thereby reducing the bolt load. As the gasket is deformed,
Fig. 12.8. Rolling of a large flange (168).
Gaskets and Their Selection 225
the contact surface area increases. Serrated gaskets are
useful where soft gaskets or laminated gaskets are unsatis-
factory and the bolt load is excessive with a flat-ring metal
gasket. Smooth-finished flange faces should be used with
serrated gaskets.
Corrugated gaskets with asbestos filling are similar to
laminated gaskets except that the surface is rigid with con-
centric rings as in the case of serrated gaskets. Corrugated
gaskets require less seating force than laminated or serrated
gaskets and are extensively used in low-pressure liquid and
gas service. Corrugated metal gaskets without asbestos
may be used to higher temperatures than those with asbestos
filling and are extensively used in sealing water, steam, gas,
oil, and acid and other chemicals.
Two standard types of ring-joint gaskets are available for
high-pressure service. One type has an oval cross section,
and the other has an octagonal cross section. These rings
are fabricated of solid metal, usually soft iron, soft steel,
monel, 4-6% chrome, and stainless steels. The alloy-steel
rings should be heat treated to soften them. For low-
temperature service plastic rings may he used for corr95ion
resistance and as'\means of electrically insulating the flange
joint..
There is a considerable possible choice of gasket material
in many applications. The decision as to which gasket
material is to be selected is often based upon the·required
gasket width. If the gasket is ::nade too narrow, the unit
pressure on it may be excessive. If the gasket is made too
wide, the bolt load will be unnecessarily increased. A rela-
tionship for making a preliminary estimate of the propor-
tions of the gasket may be derived as follows:
(Gasket seating force) - (Hydrostatic pressure force)
(Residual gasket force)
The residual gasket force can not he less than that required
to prevent leakage of the internal fluid under operating
pressure. Therefore
'.'.': (d,, 2 - d,.2)pm (12.1)
4,
(Courtesy of Taylor Forge and Pipe Works.)
-
226 Design of Flonges
E
K

R ½l
A
FORGED AND ROLLED STEEL ASTM A 181
50 Lb Pressure at 100° F-Welding-neck Type
Outside Outside
Diameter Thickness Diameter Compressed- Length Diameter Drilling Template Approx.
of of of Raised Asbestos- Taper-Hub through of No. Diam. Weight
Size Flange Flange Face Gasket Diameters Hub Bore of of Bolt Each,
Inches A T R Size E K L B Holes Holes Circle Pounds
26 31½ l¼ 28% 27¾ x28% 21½ 26½ 3 26 32 1 29% 98
28 33½ l¼ 30% 29¾ X 30% 29½ 28}'2 3 28 36 1 31% 105
30 35~'2 l¼ 32% 31¾ x32% 31½ 30½ 3 30 36 1 33% 112
32 38¼ l¼ 35 33½ X 35 33% 32% 3¼ 32 36 l½ 36½ 140'

34 40¼ l¼ 37 35½ x37 35% 34% 3¼ 34 40 l½ 38½ 149

36 42¼ l¼ 39 37½ X 39 37% 36%. 3¼ 36 40 l½ 40½ 157
42 49 l¼ 45½ 44½ x45½ 43¾ 42¾ 3½ 42 48 l¼ 46¾ 209
48 55 l¼ 51½ 50½ X 5l}f 49¾ 48¾ 3¾ 48 52 l¼ 52¾ 241

54 61¼ 1% 51¾ 56¼ X 56

51¾ 54Ys 4 54 64 l¼ 59 312
60 61¾ 1% 63¾ 62¼63¾ 62
X 60½ 4% 60 72 l¼ 65 398
66 74 lYs 10Js 68¾ X 70½ 68 67 4Ys 66 72 1% 71½ 556
72 80 2¼ 16½ 74% X 76½ 74 73 5¾ 72 80 1% 11½ 705
50 Lb Pressure at 100° F-Slip-on Type
26 33 l¼ 30 29½ X 30 28½ 28 2¾ 26 1 715 32 1 31 122
28. 35 l¼ 32 31½ X 32 30½ 30 2¾ 28 1 716 36 1 33 140
30 37 l¼ 34 33½ X 34 32½ 32 2¾ 30 1.715 36 1 35 148
32 39½ l¼ 36¼ 35½ x36¼ 34% 34½ 2½ 32 1 ;½5 40 l½ 37% 171

34 41½ l¼ 38¼ 37½ x38¼ 36% 36½ 2½ 34 1 :½s 40 l½ 39% 181

36 43½ l¼ 40¼ 39½ X 40¼ 38% 38½ 2½ 36 1 ½6 44 Hs 41% 191
42 50 l¼ 46½ 45¼ x46½ 44¾ 44¼ 2¾ 42 1 ½6 48 l¼ 47¾ 234
48 56 l¼ 52½ 51½ X 52½ 50¾ 50¼ 2¼ 48 1 ½s 56 Hi 53¾ 269
54 62J2 1% 5~ 57½ 59
X 57¼ 56½ 3½ 5571s 68 l¼ 60¼ 335
60 68~2 1% 65 63½ 65
X 63~( 62½ 3% 61~'.16 72 l¼ 66¼ 451
66 75½ l¾ 71% 69½ X 71% 69½ 68¾ 4 67½6 72 1% 73 591
72 81½ 2 77% 75½ X 77% 75½ 14¾ 4½ 73'1'.6 80 1% 79 728

Fig. 12.9. Nonstandard large-diameter flanges (168). (Courtesy of Taylor forge and Pipe Works.)

where y ~ yield stress, pounds per square inch
(see Fig. 12.11)
m = gasket factor (see Fig. 12.11)
p = internal pressure, pounds per square inch
d,, = outside diameter of gasket, inches
<4 = inside diameter of gasket, inches
In Eq. 12.1 it is assumed that the hydrostatic force extends
to the outer diameter, d,,, of the gasket and that all the
hydrostatic force is utilized in relieving the gasket load that
existed prior to application of the internal pressure. These
assumptions disregard elastic deformation of the bolts,
gasket, and flanges, but the relationship is a useful one for
the initial proportioning of the gasket. For convenience
Eq. 12.1 may be rewritten as follows:
<Io I y - pm (12.2)
~= '\J y - p(m + 1)
In the case where it is desirable. to retain the gasket
material selected and to decrease the gasket width, a gasket
seating stress greater than y may be used with certain
reservations. If the seating stress greatly exceeds y, the
gasket may be crushed, or a ductile, unrestrained gasket
may be squeezed out between the flange faces. In general
the use of seating stresses exceeding y should be limited to
solid-metal gaskets in tongue-and-groove joints.
 \

Design of Special Flanges 227

12.6 OPTIMUM SELECTION OF BOLTS FOR
SPECIAL FLANGES
The maximum bolt load will he the greater of the two fol-
lowing forces: the force required to seat the gasket and the
force required to withstand the internal pressure and main-
tain the gasket-factor pressure (mp) at the same time.
After the greater of these two forces has been determined,
the required bolting area of bolting steel may he determined
by dividing the maximum force by the allowable bolting
stress. A number of combinations are possible in providing
. the required bolting area. In general a larger number of
smaller-sized bolts will provide the same bolting area as a
lesser number of larger-sized bolts. The minimum bolt
spacing based on wrench clearances limits the number of
bolts that can be placed in a given bolt circle. The maxi-
mum bolt spacing is limited by the permissible deflection
that would exist between flanges. If this deflection is
excessive, the gasket joint will leak. Taylor Forge recom-
mends (188) the following empirical relationship for maxi-
mum bJlt spacing:

6l
Ba(max) = 2d + - - - (12.3) Fig, 12.1 O. The three major forces acting on a gasket (1691.
m + 0.5
where Ba(max) = maximum bolt spacing for a tight joint,
inches Example of selection of optimum size and number of bolts:
d = bolt diameter, inches Given:
t = flange thickness, inches Inside diameter, B = 32 in.
m = gasket factor (see Fig. 12.11)
Hub thickness, Y1 = ll in. (see Fig. 12.14)
Before the bolting calculations can be completed, the Allowable bolt stress = 20,000 psi
diameter of the vessel, B, and the value of g 1 (hub thickness)
must be known. Maximum bolt load = 456,000 lb
The wrench clearances limit the minimum bolt distance
from the hub. In general it is desirable to use a minimum- The minimum bolting area, As(min) is given by:
diameter bolt circle and an even number of bolts, preferably W 446,000 •
a multiple of four. The minimum diameter of a bolt circle A B(min) = - - = - - - = 22.3 sq Ill.
fallow. 20,000
may be determined by setting up a table in which the nwn-
ber of bolts required, the root area, the preferred bolt spac- Root area, B. preferred, and radial distance, R, are
ing, B., and the radial spacing, R, are tabulated as functions obtained from Table 12.3.
of bolt size (see Table 10.4 for root area, B 8 , and R). The Inspection of Table 12.3 indicates that the minimum bolt
minimum bolt-circle diameter will be either the diameter nec- circle will result from the use of 32 bolts 1% in. in diameter.
essary to satisfy the radial clearances fd = B + 2(g 1 + R)J The size of the bolt circle is 37H in.
or the diameter necessary to satisfy the bolt-spacing require-
ment [d = (NB.hr)], whichever is greater. The optimum 12.7 DESIGN OF SPECIAL FLANGES
design is usually obtained when these two yontrolling diam- Process vessels are often of such large size that standard
eters are approximately equal. The following example pipe flanges are not available in the sizes required. In such
demonstrates the procedure recommended. cases special flanges must be designed. Large-size flanges
may be rolled from an annular ring (see Fig. 12.8) or may
be rolled from bar stock and welded. If a slip-on flange
without a huh is to he used, the ring for the flange may be
Table 12.3. Selection of Optimum Bolt Size flame cut from flat steel plate.
The earliest method of designing flanges was the so-called
Min
Bolt Root No. of Actual NB. "locomotive method" of Risteen (170). Crocker and
Size Area Bolts No. (N) B, R 7B+2(g1+R) Stanford (171) developed a method of flange design in
which the flange was considered to behave as a beam.
¾ 0.302 73.7 76 3 l¼ 72.5 36¾
% 0 -119 53 3 56 3 l¾ .53.4 37 Den Hartog (172) compared the "locomotive" and Crocker
1 0.551 10.-1 4,1 3 1% 42.0 37¾ Stanford methods by vector analysis and showed them to
Us 0.728 30.6 32 3 H~ 30.5 37½ be the same although the derivations were different.
Hi 0.929 24.0 24 3 l¾ 22.9 38 Waters and Taylor (171) developed a method of analysis
 r
-/ ----------------
r
i 228 Design of Flanges
L
Gasket Factors {m) for Operating Conditions and l\Iinimum Design Sen ting Stress (y)
Nole: This table gives a list of many commonly used gasket materials und conlnct facings with sug-
gested design values of m and y that have generally proYed satisfactory in actual service when using Refer to
effective gasket seating ,vidth, b, given in Fig. 12.12. Fig. 12.12
Min
Gasket design
Sketches and Facing Use
Gasket material factor, seating
notes limitations col.
m stress,
y ·\

Rubber without fabric or a high percentage of asbestos fiber:

Below 75, Shore Durometer 0.50 0
f·-'::-:<ec,,a t
75 or higher, Shore Durometer LOO 200 Use 1, 4, 6
only
Asbestos with a suitable hinder for the operating con- :l-s
ditions
thick 2.00
½'. 6 thick 2,.75
½ 2 thick 3.50
1600
3700.
6500 - t
,
Rubber with cotton-fabric insertion 1.25 400 lf,i7:l·m t
3-ply 2.25 2200 Emfk'I }
Rubber with asbestos-fabric insertion, with or without 2-ply 2900 &a.g None
wire reinforcement
2.50 ►
1-ply 2.75 3700 &ii•z~B i-

Vegetable fiber 1.75 1100 I I ~ 1, 4, 6

Ca1·bon 2.50 2900

Spiral-wound metal, asbestos filled
Stainless 3.00 4500 tm:J
II
Serrated steel Asbestos filled/ 2.75 . 3700 l!l!l!MIIC3'
Soft aluminum 2.50 2900
Corrugated metal, asbestos inserted
Soft copper or brass 2.75 3700 ~
or Use la
Iron or soft steel 3.00 4500 only
Corrugated metal, jacketed, asbestos
filled :Monel or 4-6% chrome 3.25 5500 ~
Stainless steels 3.~0 6500
Soft aluminum 2.75 3700
Soft copper or brass 3.00 4500
Corrugated metal Iron or soft steel 3.25 5500
Monel or 4-6% chrome 3.50 6500 1\/VV\t
Stainless steels 3.75 7600
Soft aluminum 3.25 5500
Soft copper or brass 3.50 6500 lil:St11! i
Iron or soft steel 3.75 7600 !~J,.B :; Use la, 2•
Flat metal, jacketed, asbestos filled 3.50 8000 only
Monel ctl!l~!i t
4-6% chrome 3.75 9000
3.75 9000 E1ll }
Stainless steels
Soft aluminum 3.25 5500
Grooved iron or soft steel with or without
Soft copper or brass 3.50 6500 11111 It Use 1, 2, 3
metal jacket Iron or soft steel 3.75 7600 only
Monel or 4-6 % chrome 4.00 8800 Clf:tEl
Stainless steels 4.25 10100
4.00 8800
.
Soft aluminum
Soft copper or brass 4.75 13000
Solid flat metal Iron or soft steel 5.50 18000 None
Monel or 4-6% chrome b.00 21800
Stainless steels 6.50 26000 I
Iron or soft steel 5.50 18000
Ring joint Monel or 4-6 % chrome.
Stainless steels
6.00
6.50
21800
26000 ~ Use 8 only

* The surface of a gasket having a lap should be against the smooth surface of the facing and not against the nubbin.
Fig.12.11. Gasket materials and contoct fadngs. (Extrocted from the 1956 edition of the ASMf Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels,
with permission of the publisher, the Americon Society of Mechonical Engineers [11 ].I
 Design of Special Flanges 229
combining the theory for a beam on an elastic foundation
with the theory for a flat plate which made possible the
calculation of the stresses in the radial, tangential, and axial
directions. The Taylor-Waters method was extended by
Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams (173, 174). Loose ring flange lo0'5e hubbed flange Screwed flange
This method of flange design has been the basis of the
ASME-code (11) procedures for flange design. A com-
parison of the theoretical stresses with stresses determined
from strain measurements has been reported (175) for
flanged joints of vessels and piping in low-pressure service.

Rlwtecl flange Flllllon Fusion

lap-welded lap-welded
Facing Sketch · Basi~Gaaket SeatinK Width, b, ringflanse hubbed flanse
Exaggerated Colum11.l i.;01umn 11

'~'''e
la
(''---"" 2
N N
2
,,,,,m,\
~ W+ T; (W+ Nmax)
lb
W' W+T,(W+Nmax)
ll . 4, 2 ' 4,
, •• ,,,,,,;J;,,
Forged Fusion Fusion
2 ~ w,ID~~-
-r--~ W+N w+SN
--8-
integral flange thru-welded
ring flange
butt-welded
hubbed flange
,,,,~,,,, ~
Fig. 12.13. Various types of flanges subject to the method of analysis of
Waters, et al. (Extraded from Transadians of the ASME with permission
,,..
3 •~
,.,;.JL..
;
w«t%}~~{~
~ W; (N m,n
2 4
. ) w;N;c: min) of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers [174].)
-~~
,t, w.u:,,-~"'''''

5
''"M''"' 3N
8
-7N
16
The following sections describe a method of flange design
based upon the procedures developed.by Waters, Rossheim,
' ' ' ' " ' " ( ( <<<
~
Wesstrom, and Williams. The method is general and
'"'tiv:~'''"' applies to circular flanges of bolted joints under pressure
6 ..... ,~,- ... and free to deflect under the action of the bolt load. This
includes all types of flange facing in which the gasket or
~
contacting flange surfaces are entirely within the bolt circle
~
7 ~
-N
4
3N
8
and excludes all types in which there is any contact outside
the bolt circle. Various types of flanges to which this
~
method applies are shown in Fig. 12.13.
·»>1;''j»»
IE...
8
w
. ~

b = bo
8

Effective Gasket Seating Width, b

when bo ~ .!,i"
w, _r-·11
b = -v';;;:
- h
wen b,>¾ 11
2 r 2 (radius)
Location of Gasket-load Reaction

Note: The gasket factors

listed only apply to flanged
joints in which the gasket
is contained entirely within
the inner edges of the bolt j_ .------1
holes. lilo

The design values and other details given are suggested only and are not
T
::i;
I,,
1JWi
· r1 (radius)
mandatory.
Shell Hub Ring
Fig. 12.12. Effective gasket width and location of gasket load reaction.
(Extracted from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Preuure Vessel Fig. 12.14. Analysis of forces and moments in a tapered hub flang.e.
Code, Unfired Preswre Vessels, with permission of the publisher, the Ameri- (Extracted from Traosaclioos of the ASME with permission of the publisher,
can Society of Mechanical Engineers (11 ].) the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, [17 4].)
230 Design of Flanges
The bending moment is given by Eq. 6.16.

(6.16)

where Dis given by Eq. 6.15.

Fig. 12.15. Type-I loading of tapered hub flange (173). The shear is given by Eq. 6.17.

Q = D d3y (6.17)
dx 3
The assumptions made in the derivation are:
The load is given by Eq. 6.18.
1. Creep and plastic yielding do not occur.
2. The bolt load has been determined. d4y
3. The lever arm of the bolt load has been computed. w=D-·4 (6.18)
dx
4. The effect of the external moment applied to the flange,
equal to the product of the bolt load and the lever arm, is Successively differentiating Eq. 12.4 gives:
independent of the location of the bolt-loading circle and
of the forces balancing the bolt load.
,, dy = {Jr!"'fc1(sin fJx
dx
+ cos /Jx) + c2(cos {Jx - sin /Jx)]
The tapered hub flange is analyzed by dividing the ilange
into three parts, as shown in Fig. 12.14, and considering (12.5)
d2 .
each part as an independent unit. The loading is assumed
to consist of: (1) a moment acting on the ring, so distributed J= 2{3 2r!"'[c1 cos {Jx - c2 sin J3x]
that it may be replaced by an equivalent couple produced
by the force W1 at the inside diameter and outside diameter d'"y
of the ring, as shown in Fig. 12.15; (2) internal hydrostatic dx 3
pressure acting radially on the base of the flange and axially
through an assumed closure, as shown in Fig. 12.16. The
effects of each loading on the ilange are analyzed independ-
ently and are assumed to be linearly related in such a way Therefore M, Q, and w are:
that the complete solution may be obtained by superposi-
tion, as shown in Fig. 12.17. M = Et 3{J 2r!"'lc1 cos fJ;- C2 sin {Jx)
12.7a Analysis of a Shell Connected to a Flange. A (12.6)
6(1 - µ. 2)
shell connected to a flange is considered to act as a beam on
an elastic foundation. The deflection equation for this Q = Et 3B3rJJz[c 1 (sin /Jx - cos J3x) + c2(sin J3x + cos fJ:.c)]
condition is given by Eq. 6.69, which may be written as 6(1 - µ. 2)
follows: (12.7)
y = rJJz(ci sin fJx +c
2 cos fJx) (12.4) Et 3{J 4r!"'[c 1 sin fJx + c2 cos fJx]
w (12.8)
Equation 12.4 has the opposite sign on the exponent fJx 3(1 - µ. 2)
from that of Eq. 6.69 because of a difference in sign conven-
In Eq. 12.8, fJ 4 is given by Eq. 6.86.
tion used by Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams
(173, 174). In Eq. 6.69 the distance x was taken as positive 2
fJ~ = 12(1 - µ. )
(6.86)
away from the junction along the shell whereas Waters et al. d2ta2
take x as positive in the direction of the ring. The deflec-
tion y is taken as positive in the radial direction outward Substituting Eqs. 12.4 and 6.86 into Eq. 12.8 in terms of
in Eq. 12.4 whereas in Eq. 6.69 y was taken as positive in the shell radius, r8 , gives:
the radial direction inward. The constant fJ has the same
value as it had in Eq. 6.86. The constants c1 and c2 may
(12.9)
be evaluated by considering two of the boundary conditions
at the junction.

Fig. 12.16. Typesll loading of tapered hub Range (173). Fig. 12.17. Combined loading of tapered hub Range (173).
 Design of Special Flanges 231

To evaluate the constants c1 and c2 the boundary condi- (Q+dQ>(r+dr)dlJ

tions at the junction of the shell with the hub are applied.
•
At 'I: = 0 (by Eq. 12.4)
(12.10) IL--d8v-- (Mr+d.Mr)(r+dr)d/J
r--i----t---;~\---.l
.
Or I
µ.'")]
Ct -
_
Mo
[6(1 -
Ela/32 (12.11)
I
The above equations for the shell cannot be solved until
the corresponding relationships have been developed for fig. 12.18. Shear and moments on an element of ring (173).
the ring and the hub.
12.7b Analysis of the Ring of a Flange. A relationship
giving the shape of the deflection curve of a flat plate having of Fig. 6.2 with Fig. 12.18 indicates that these relationships
radial symmetry in terms of the shear, Q, and the flexural must be written in the following forms:
rigidity, D, is given by Eq. 6.38 with z as the axial direction
instead of y. Mr = D (d2z2 + !± dz) (12.19)
dr r dr
![; ! (r :)] = % (6.38)
(12.20)
or for Q 0 (see Reference 107, p. 63)

r ! [; ! (r !) ] = 0
(12.21).

Substituting Eqs. 12.16 and 12.17 into Eqs. 12.19 and

Differentiating with respect tor gives:
12.20 gives:
(12.12)
Mr = D [ 2c.(l + µ,) 1n r + (3 + µ,)co + 2(1 + µ)c6
By dividing Eq. 12.12 by r and rearranging it, we can
write it as: - (1 - µ,) ~] (12.22)

d2
( dr 2
+ ! !!.) (!!:. + 1 !!.) z = 0 (12.13) Mt D [ 2c.(l + µ,) In r + (1 + 3µ.)c 0 + 2(1 + µ)c6
r dr dr2 r dr
Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams (173, 174) + (1 µ) ::] (12.23)
have shown that Eq. 12.12, derived for the specific case of
Q = 0, can also be derived for the general case of Q r= 0. Differentiating Eq. 12.22 with respect to r gives:
(See Appendix A of References 173.)
By four successive integrations of Eq. 12.12, we obtain: dMr
dr
= D [2c5(lr+ µ.) + 2(1 -,.a µ.)c 3 ] (12.24)
= cr cr + (2co - c) r + c In r + c
2
2 2
z In r 3 4 (12.14) Substituting Eqs. 12.22, 12.23, and 12.24 into Eq. 12.21
4 8 8
gives:
c (2c 0 2c) •
Letting - = c., a n d - - - - = c6 , we obtam: (12.25)
4 8 .
z c.,r 2 In r + c5r 2 + Ca In r + C4 (12.15) But
By successive differentiation we obtain:
Q = (total load) W = - W
circumference 2?1"r
dz
dr 2c.,r 1n r + (c + 2ct1)r + cf
5 (12.16) therefore
W1
C5 = 811"D (12.26)
(12.17)
where W1 = equivalent bolt load or total force applied at
the outside diameter of the ring, and (oppo-
3
dz = ~~ + 2ca (12.18) sitely) at the inside diameter of the ring, which
dr3 r
multiplied by the radial breadth of the ring
The moment and shear relationships for a circular flat equals the total moment loading on the ring,
plate are given by Eq. 6.28, 6.29 and 6.36. A comparison pounds

---------------
232 Design of Flanges
t (Q + dQ)rdef, The constant c 4 is obtained from Eq. 12.15 by noting
that z = 0 at r = r1, and therefore ·
~ h + dMh)rdef,

ts=1~g+dg Tdx~rdx
~
r-
_L_L-===-=1_1

Qrdef,
dx~ 'rd¢,-{
Substituting the values of c3, c5, and C6 given by Eqs.
12.30, 12.26, and 12.29, respectively, into Eqs. 12.22 and
12.23 for the case r = r 1 gives:

Fig. 12.19. Segment of a tapered hub (173).

Q = shear on a unit sector of hub, at any point, pounds per Inch. Sub·
scripts O and l same as for Mi..
T = Hoop tension, pounds per linear inch of axial hub length.
(12.31)
Mn = moment on a unit sector af hub, at any point, inch pounds per inch.
Subscripts O and l refer to this moment c:it the small and lc:irge ends
of the hub, respectively.

In reference to Fig. 12.18, where the angle 8 is the slope

of the middle surface at the inner edge of the ring, the deflec-
tion, slope, and moment at any point may be expressed
in terms of 8, the loading, the ring dimensions, and the
elastic constants. For a small angle of rotation 12.7c Analysis of the Hub of a Flange. In the analysis
of the hub the assumption is made that the stresses and
(12.27) deformations are the same as those for a beam with a varying
section and on an elastic foundation. In this case the beam
Substitution of Eqs. 12.26 and 12.16 into Eq. 12.27 gives: is represented by a longitudinal strip of the hub of unit
width. The up.it dimesion is taken at the inner surface
where r = r1.
8 (12.28)
Consider a segment of a transverse section of the hub like
the one in Fig. 12.19.
Solving for ce gives: 'A summation of the forces in the radial plane must equal
zero for equilibrium to exist; therefore
-W1 C3 8
cs = - - (2 In r 1 + I) - - + -2r1 (12.29)
16rD 2r1 2
or
Examination of Fig. 12.14 indicates that the moment on (12.33)
the ring at r2 is equal to zero. Substituting Eq. 12.26 for
c5 and Eq. 12.29 for cs in Eq. 12.22 for the condition of Force T dx y
r = r2 gives:
-- = - = hoop stress= E- (see Eq. 6.82)
Area g dx r1

W1 [2(1 + µ.) therefore

Mr = 0 = -8'11"D In r2 + (3 + µ.)] + 2(1. - µ. )
s
(12.34)
- Wi (2 In r1
[ IfurD
+ 1) - ~2 + .!!...) -
2r1 2r1
(1 - µ.) (!.!)
. rl· Taking a summation of moments. in the radial plane gives:
Regrouping gives: (Mh + dM1&.)(r1) def> - M1&.(r1) dq, + Qr1(dx) dq, ·= 0
Q = -dMh (12.35)
dx
For a beam of infinite breadth (see Eq. 6.16)
Egs d2y
(6.16)
Mh = 12(1 - µ.)2 dx2

Differentiating Eq. 6.16 once and substituting Eq. 12.35,

differentiating again and substituting Eq. 12.34 gives:

where K = ~ .!_ ( a d2y) + 12(1 - µ.2)gy =0 (12.36)

r1 dx 2 g dx 2 r1 2
 Design of Special Flanges 233
Equation 12.36 can be written in dimensionless form. The moments at either end and the shear at the shell
end are given by:
2
d [ (1
dj2 + aj) 3 d2w]
dj2 + 1/t(l + aj)w = O (12.37) Ego 3r1Ao
(12.41)
12(1 - µ 2)h 2

where j = ~ = dimensionless axial distance along hub

l\,J = Ego 3(1 + a) 3r1A1 (12.42)
h h1 12(1 - µ'l)h 2

a
(g1 - Yo)
= taper factor for hub = - -- Er1go 3(3aAo + Bo)
Qo = (12.43)
Yo 12(1 - µ. 2)h 3
w = dimensionless radial displacement of hub or shell
• y
or in terms of the hub modulus, 1/t, by:
at any pomt, -
2
r1 M,. = Egoh Ao (12.41a)
12(1 - µ. 2)h 4 0
r11/t
¥' = hub modulus = ·
r1 2Yo 2
go = shell thickness, inches
M,. = (1 + a) 3Egoh 2 A1 (12.42a)
l r1yt
g1 = maximum hub thickness, inches
g = intermediate hub thickness, inches
Qo =
Egoh(3aAo + Bo) (12.43a)
h = hub length, inches

Equation 12.37 may be solved in one of three ways: (1)
by an exact solution of the differential equation, with g as a
variable, which will give a solution in terms of Bessel func-
tions; (2) by writing the total energy of the system as a
function of the deflections and minimizing the total energy;
(3) by writing the strain energy as a function of the loads
and determining the deflection at any point. Waters,
Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams (173) using the strain-
energy method derived an approximate solution.
In the strain-energy method three parameters, a1, a2,
and a 3, are selected and so related that if a 1 is used alone, a
first approximation is obtained with all boundary conditions
satisfied. Similarly, if a 1 and a 2 are used together, or a1,
a2 , and aa are used together, second and third approxima-
tions, respectively, are obtained with all boundary condi-
tions satisfied. There are four boundary conditions to be
satisfied; therefore the solution involves a fourth-order
equation.
The four boundary conditions for the hub that are to be
specified are:
1. The radial displacement at the large end.
2. The moment at the large end.
3. The moment at the small end.
4. The shear at the small end.
Waters et al. (173) have shown that w can be written as
a polynomial in powers of j with a1, a2, and a 3, and Ao, Ai,
and Bo appearing in the coefficients as follows:
W = (1 - j)a1 + U- ¾j4 + -li6)a2 + U4 - ¾i5 + ¼i6)aa
- (-f.Ij - ½P + 1\j4)Ao - (hj - 1\j4)A1
- (1\j ¼P + 1\j4)Bo (12.44)
The known boundary condition is applied to Eq. 12.44.
If j = 1, we obtain: w = 0. This satisfies this condition.
Also, if Eq. 12.44 is differentiated and j = 0 and j = 1 are
substituted, the three boundary conditions given by Eqs.
12.38, 12.39, and 12.40 are satisfied. The parametersa2 and
a3 represent successive approximations and may be dropped
without affecting the validity of Eq. 12.44 with regard to
boundary conditions.
In solving Eq. 12.44 use was made of the total energy of
the hub, that is, the sum of the energy of bending, U1 ;
the energy of stretching, U2 ; the external energy of rotation,
U3 ; and the external energy of translation, U4• The sum
of these energies after deformation, UtotaJ = U 1 U2 Ua + +
+ U4, must be a minimum at equilibrium or (dUtots.1)/(da11,)
= 0. This condition approximately satisfies Eq. 12.37.
This step permits a solution of Eq. 12.37 in terms of three
unknown constants of integration, the fourth being zero
(w 1 = 0). Three equations result.

Here only the first boundary condition is known (zero)

cna1 + c12a2 + cnaa = c14Ao + caA1 + cl6Bo
and the rest are unknown. c21a1 + c22a2 + c23a3 = c24Ao + c2sA1 + c2aBo
Let
" c31a1 + ca2a2 + caaaa C34Ao + c3;,41 + caaBo

Ao = d2 w]
define the curvature factor at the small (l . )
2 38
Waters et al. (173) have tabulated the solutions for the con-
stants in the above equations and have presented curves for
dj2 o end of the hub when x = 0 andj = 0
the determination of a1, a2, and a 3 in tenns of Ao, A 1,
A = d2w] define the curvature factor at the large (l . )
2 39
and B0 •
1 · ,Yith the boundary conditions fixed, the values for a1, a2 ,
dj2 1 end of the hub when x = h andj = 1
and a 3 may now be computed, and the quantities Ao, .4 1,
Bo
__ d 3 w] define the shear factor at the small end
(12.40) and Bo determined. These determinations in turn pe1mit
dj 3 0 of the hub when x = 0 and j 0 the determination of the deflection, slope, and moment of
234 Design of Flanges
any point of the hub. If the hub is free at the small end An expression for Qi may be obtained by integrating Eq.
(loose flange) Ao Bo = 0. 12.34:
12.7d Relationships for the Hub, Shell, and Ring When
Combined. The relationships for each part of the flange Qi = 2E !ah gy dx + Qo = -Eg h !al w dj + Qo 0
-
(shell, ring, and hub) have been developed independently r1 o r1 o
with undetermined boundary conditions. With the parts
assembled, the adjacent parts have common boundary Qo is given by Eq. 12.43a. Therefore
conditions, and in addition certain conditions are known at
the free boundaries.
According to the theory used in developing the hub rela-
Q1 = Egoh
-
r1
[la o
1
(1 + aj)w
., dj 3aAoY'+ Bo]

tionships, two of the constants of integration disappear for

the shell condition of constant thickness, and Eq. 12.4 may Substituting Eq. 12.44 for w and integrating with sub•
be solved with: stitution of the limits as indicated gives:

(See Eq. 12.37 for definitions.) (12.45) Q1 Egoh

=-r
-
1
[(l- 2
+ a)
- a1 +
6
(1 Ila) (1
- + -
4 84
a2 + - + -a)
70
. aa
105

As stated above, the displacements, slopes, moments, and

7 a
- ( 120 + 36 +
3a)
f Ao - a) ( 1
40 + 70 Ai

(1 1)
shears are identical on either side of the shell-hub interface,
and four equations exist by which c1, c2 , Ao, and Bo may be - - + -a + - Bo (12.52)
expressed in terms of A 1 • With these relationships the
· 60 y;
120
slope 8, the moment Mh 1, and the shear Qi at the large end There now exist four equations, 12.31, 12.50, 12.51, and
of the hub can be expressed in terms of Ai. For the sheJl- 12.52, containing the four unknowns 8, Mr 1, Ai, and Qi.
and-hub junction, from Eq. 12.44 and its derivatives: at The solution of these four equations is the key to the design
x = 0 and j = 0, the deflection is:
of the flange. Inspection of Eq. 12.52 for Q1 and Eq.
(12.46) 12.50 for 8 indicates that both Q1 and 8 are defined in terms
of known dimensions, the loading factors Ao, Bo, and Ai,
the slope is: and the parameters a1, a 2 , and a 3• The loading factors
and the parameters can be expressed-in.terms of a and 1/1.
dy]
dx x=O
= (- Bo -
12
a1 + a2 - -i\-Ao - -h-A1) ~h Therefore, if Eq. 12.52 and 12.50 are divided by A 1 and
substitutions are made for parameters, the loading factors
= /j(C1 + C2) (12.47) are obtained.

the shearis:

(12.54)
the moment is:
The two factors F and V of Eqs. 12.53 and 12.54 are
(12.49) functions solely of a and y,,. By definition
2 4
The parameters a1, a2, and a 3 and constants cs, cs, Ao,
t/t = 12(1 - µ )h
and Bo can all be expressed in terms of A 1 at the junction of
r1 ga2
2

the hub and ring. On either side of this junction the slopes therefore·
and moments are equal, respectively, and the displacement
is assumed to be negligible. The ring acts on the hub, (12.55)
producing a moment Mh 1, with the additional moment of
- ½Qit resulting from the shear Q1. Therefore the deflec-
tion and the moment with respect to the intersection of the Therefore F and V of Eq. 12.53 and 12.54 may be plotted
inner surface of the ring and its midpoint are: with the group 2h/VJiio as a parameter. Also, F and V
are functions of a, by definition a = (g 1 - go)/go, which is
Slope = 8 = ( -a1 - ia2 - ¼aa +¼Ao a function of gi/go. Figure 12·.20 shows plots of F and V
r1 as functions of the groups indicated above.
l
+ .A1 + nBo)
l
h (12.50)
The next step in the solution is the determination of the
value of A1 and the evaluation of the three remaining vari-
ables by substitution. To derive the expression for A 1,
Eqs. 12.51 and 12.31 are divided by A 1, and Mr/A1 is
eliminated from the resulting equations. Substituting for
 Design of Special Flanges 235

0.81---~---l..--l-~~-.,..::+,.?>..,,P,,..d-::,..i,=-if--t--t--"''r'--1-.1:::--t--t-
F

0.5 ...__...__...___,..._......_..._......__,..___________.___..__.._...__........._._...,_.............._ _.......,_.....____.......__...._..................

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5. 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
111 /go

Fig. 12.20. Values off and V for integral flanges (188). (Courtesy of Taylor Forge ond Pipe Works.)
236 Design of flanges

D and ✓ if; • respective

their . equivalents,
• ( Et
3 This equation may be rewritten in the following dimen-
3(1 - µ. 2) 12 1 - µ 2
) sionless form:
2h •
an d _ r;;-' gives:
v Bgo
Also
X
Y = Yo + h (g1 - Yo) go(l + aj) (12.63)

From Eqs. 12.62, 6.16, and 12.63:

(12.56)
2
Egor1 (l .) d w
l + !/go F + (1 + µ.)(K 2
- l)(t/g 0)
8
V !h 2(1 - µ.2)h2 + aJ dj2
(12.64)

VBfio
.
( 1 + µ. K 2 +
1 µ
1) VB/go
To obtain the maximum stress, set dJ,Jdj equal to 0.
Therefore
This equation may be written as:
2
(1 + CX'J). -d8w
djs
+ a -ddj2w = 0 (12.65)
{12.57)
By substituting the second and third derivatives of Eq.
12.44 into Eq. 12.65, a fourth-degree equation is obtained.
where (12.58)
taAj4 +(A+ -!a:B)j3 + (B + iaC)j2
l + (C + 2a:D)j + (D + a:E) = 0 (12.66)

X = !_
T
(1 + VBfio
l/go F) + ~
VBfio U
(t/go)s
(12.59)
where A = 96 Ai
a:3

3K2 (1 + 2 l + µ In K) -3 B = 90 a2
A1
- 108 as
. A1
where T= 1-µ. (12.60)
1r(K - 1) (1 + 1l + K 2) C = -60 ~ + 24 aa - 2 Ao +2- 2 Bo
- µ. Ai A3 Ai Ai

U=
3K 2 (1 +2l
I-µ
In K) - 3
(12.61)
1r(l +µ.)(K 2 - l)(K _;_· 1)
Here again all the constants can be evaluated in terms of
The above equations are too cumbersome for use in Ai, which is in turn a function of the hub quantities a: and
design. Therefore they were reduced by Waters, Rossheim, ip. The roots of Eq. 12.66, therefore, represent values of j
W esstrom, and Williams to those for the three critical or X at which the axial stress reaches a maximum in the
stresses (173). hub. The corresponding maximum stress could be evalu-
A study of the stress distribution shows that for the ated by substituting the roots into Eq. 12.64; obviously
tapered hub flange (Fig. 12.14) the critical stresses are: roots outside of the region O j s s
l are meaningless and
(1) the radial and hoop stresses at the inside diameter of the should be disregarded. From the above operation it is
ring and (2) the axial hub stress at the outer surface of the found that the maximum axial stress usually occurs either
hub and at the large end of the hub for a hub with little at one end of the hub or at the other. ·
taper or at the small end of the hub for a hub with a large In solving Eq. 12.42 for Mh 1, Eq. 12.57 may be substituted
taper. In the second case the critical stress may be dis- for A1 to give:
placed into the shell for a very rigid hub. MX
12.7e locating the Critical Section in the Hub. For a (12.67)
6
hub whose section modulus is variable,
Therefore the axial hub stress, fh 1, at the inner surface of
(12.62) the large end is given by

from Eq. 6.16 (12.68)

d2y Mh(l - µ. 2) The maximum axial stress, Jn at the outer surface of the
dx 2 = EI huh or shell can be related to the corresponding stress,
 Design of Special Flanges 237

10:====1~==+==:t==:::t==:t=~~=:::==~=:==t:=t:=:::::=:=:::=:::=:::::=::::::::=::::;;;:,:;;z~z:::;;:;:t;;.:'.'.l=:;~:;~::;~::J;z:::
91-----ie-----+--+----+--+--+--+-e----l--+--+--+--!--+-+-+--+-+--+-.f--,,c+-,;C-1-,<-+,o<-+,"-+--,<C4--,,-,i<----,h/<-I
81-----le-----+--+----+--+--+--+-1--+--+--+-+-!--+-+-+--+-ir+-A--r+-,;C-f.+-+,o<-+,<--+--,<+-,,4--~hl<-I

7 l----lf---+--+---+--+--+--+.......l--l--+-+-+-f-+-+-+,,"H'!--7"+,;<,-,,f!-l,'-¥-+'---+,,<-+>-'!-,f-1--1

6t----1--+--1---t--t---1--+-,1--1--1--
r l----ll---+--+----+--+--+--+-1--+-~?
5 r-----l--+---t---t---t--1--+--t--t

2.5

1.5 5

F' 1 (minimum)
F' = 1 for hubs of uniform thickness (g i/ go = 1)
F' = 1 for loose hubbed flanges

/h 1, at the inner surface by the factor f', or Similarly, the maximum tangential stress at the inside
diameter of the ring is determined from Eq. 12.57, 12.53,
(12.69) 12.31, and 12.32, giving:

MY
fr= - - Zfn (12.72)
!Hor--'-"'-=""- (whichever is greater) (12.70) [2
where/'
/,,.1 fh 1
where X = X in Eq. 12.59
In the case where/' = 1, the maximum stress is f H and is M = Min Eq. 12.58
located at the junction of huh and ring. Values of/' were F = F in Fig. 12.20
determined by Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams
(173) and are shown in Fig. 12.21 as functions of the hub
quantities (h/h 0 ) and (gi/go).
1 [3
Y = - - - (1 - µ)
K - I 1r
6
+ 1r- (1 + µ) - K- In K ]
K2 - 1
2

The maximum radial stress occurs at the inside diameter (12.73)

of the ring. The moment Mr 1 is determined by substitution
of Eqs. 12.57 and 12.53 into Eq. 12.51. The extreme fiber (12.74)
stress is calculated from the moment Mr 1 and is added to the
238 Design of Flanges
100
90
r-.,
80
70 """""""'~
60
~
50
'~
40

30 ""'' " " ,, ' ~~

~
~
20

"' " " ~

'
~
~
I'- ... ~,
10
9
8 ' '\,.
'-'-
'-"
y
7
"""'~I'-.. '" '
6

5 " '{ "''" ~ ....

""
4

3
...
I'-
' ' ~,I'--.

2 ~ -"'
"- .
T
----' ' ~ ~ ~ i--..

1
1.02 1.03 1.04 1.06 1.08 uo 1.20
K=A
B f::::::: r--- 4.00 5.00
1.30 1.40 1.60 l.80 2.00 3.00

Fig. 12.22. Values af T, U, Y, and Z whenµ= 0.3 (188). (Courtesy of Taylor Forge and Pipe Works.)
+ 8.55246 log 1o Kl - 1
K2(1
T = ---------
(1.04720 + 1.9448K:i(K - 1)
K 2(1
u = ---------
+ 8.55246 log10 Kl - 1
1.36136(K2 - 1 (K - 11
2
Y.., l [o.66845 - 5.71690 K logio K]
K- 1 K2 1
K2
Z=--
1 +
K2 - 1
Poissan's ratio assumed = 0.3

flange composed of a ring, a tapered huh, and a shell of set of F and V values must be used. These values, denoted
uniform thickness extending indefinitely beyond the huh. as FL and VL, are shown in Fig. 12.23. Strain measure-
These relationships can he modified for special cases, such ments on huhs of loose flanges have indicated that the
as the case of loose flanges. maximum bending stress always occurs at the large end
The ring and huh of a loose flange (see Fig. 12.13) are of the huh. Therefore J' = LO for loose flanges.
independent of the shell and are not subject to internal The critical-stress equations for loose flanges (based on
FL and VL) are:
hydrostatic pressure.
The curvature factor, A 0, and the shear .factor, Bo (see XM
fH = - 2
(12.75)
Eqs. 12.38 and 12.40) are both equal to zero, and a different U1
 Design of Special Flanges 239

. (1 + l.33F t/go .\ By substituting Eq. 12.81 and the relationships M =

Mo/Band e = F/ho into Eqs. 12.69, 12.71, and 12.72, and
JR = XM t2
v1ifiJ (12.76) into Eqs. 12.75 and 12.76 for the loose flange, the following
equations giving the desired stresses are obtained.
MY For integral-type flanges and all hubbed flanges:
h = - ZJR (12.77)
Longitudinal huh stress, f H = f~o (12.82)
For the extreme case of a loose flange without a hub, the Lui B
stress equations become:
(¼te + l)Mo
fH = 0 (12.78) Radial flange stress, JR - - 2- - (12.83)
Lt B
fR = 0 (12.79)
Tangential flange stress, h = Y~o - Zfa (12.84)
h=MY tB
(12.80)
For ring flanges of the loose type:
12.7g Flange-Stress Equations Used in the Pressure-
vessel Code. In the flange equations previously devel- YMo
h = t2B (12.85)
oped, the quantity X or its reciprocal, L, may be expressed
in terms of other factors. (See Eq. 12.59.) This may be
fR = 0 (12.86)
performed by noting that ho= vii;,
and by letting the
term d equal (U/V)hog 0 2 and the term e equal F/h 0 • By fH = 0 (12.87)
combining these factors the quantity L may be defined as
the reciprocal of X, or Typical flanges permitted by the ASME code (11) are
shown in Fig. 12.24.
L = .!_ = te + l +~ (12.81) Table 12.4 lists the nomenclature for Fig. 12.24 and the
X T d code equations for flange design.

20,--.,.......,.......,.....,.....,,....,.-,--,-,....,.."'""'T--,--,--r-,.-,-..-._,..-,,,--,.---, I
0.10
100
-
- --
80
0.12
60
-~
--- -
40 0.14
30

-
0.16
20

--
0.18
0-20

-
=-
10
8
6 0.25
FL :36 a:E-l-+--t-H=l=l*FA=rg::- 4 0.30
I
-
0.25
Vi.
3
2
- 0,35
,_r---
- ---
0.30,--
0.35
1
--- ~-~
---
0.40
OAS
:--
0.40
,- r-
---- - r-- ---..... -
--- --..::::::::r----:::--
0.8
2 0.45'-- ....
:-,,.. ,.!!_.§!)
0.6 '

-
- --
0.50 r-- I
~ ~ ::--..
- ~- , -
i--
15 0 60
' 1-l-t--W-I--I-U-H~+-WW-l-~l-+-Hr:'0.70
''::r-7
0.4
0.3
, .... F::::::
- 0,60

------ ---=m=
r-
'r-,.. r-- i--
0.2

-
0.80
0.90- i--. :--
1 ~
0.9 !'-----... 1.00- ;-....
0.1
0.8 0.08 " '...... ...
0.7 ~-- _
2~
0.06 h k
•o=.../iJi; 'r-. ............... r-- .... I
0.6 i--
h
ho --
0.5 l--+--..--..--.....+-+-+-,f-++--+--+--+--1-+-f-+-+-,f-+---<~ -----~- 0.04
0.03
~ ...... 1,?() -
-.......:::,,.._

~
0.4 .__.,__...._...._......_........_.._..,__........___.__.__.___.___,__._..._.........__.___,___. 0.02 ~

1.0 1.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 1.5 3.0 4.0 5.0

Fig. 12.23. FL, V L, values for loose flanges (1881. (Courtesy of Taylor Forge and Pipe Works.)
240 Design of Flanges
Loose-type flanges
Loadings and dimensions not shown ore the same as in sketch 2.

C
Ko
1'1--~--+--HD
B
To be taken at midpoint of Riveted or screwed flange
contact between flange and lap, wilh or willlout hub. f 01 hub tapers s• or
independent of gasket location. less, use g 0 = Ki-
(1) (2) (3) (4)

Integral-type flanges

(6a)

Slope
l:3(maz) .,
2D
4...,,..-~g:jH ,i_=-..HD
J
1.5K0 (min) g,
(6b)
o l:3(mu)
2
(5) Where hub slope adjacent 0.25g0 but not less than ¼in., the minimum
to flange exceeds I :3, for either leg. This weld may be machined to
use detail 6a or 6b. a comer radius as permitted in sketcb 5,
(6) in which case K 1 = Ko·
(7)
Optional-type flanges
These may be calculated as either loose-or intesral-type.
loadings and dimensions not shown 11e the same as in 2 for loose-type flanges or i• 7 tor integral-type.

i.=c.
~,....~""-_~_""__.~"'-c-.,,.-,,...-..,...l..
t 0 (min)
t,. + Jc• (max)j 0.7 t 0 (min) but not less
than¼ in. Full penetration and backchip.
(8) (8a) (Bb) (9)

Fig. 12.24. Types of flanges permitted by the ASME Cade. (Extraded from the 1956 edition of the ASME Bailer and Preuure Vessel Code, Unfired Pre11ure
Venels, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers [11 ].I

Code rules for designing flanges: given by:

Bolt loads: Hp= 21nrGmp (12.90)
Two bolt loads exist: that developed by tightening up the Therefore
bolts, Wm2, and that which exists under the operating con-
ditions, Wml• The bolt load for the tightening-up condi- Wml (12.91)
tion must exert sufficient force, Hu, on the gasket to cause Bolt areas:
yielding of the gasket in order to produce a tight joint. If the operating temperature is sufficiently high to reduce
This load is equal to the effective area of the gasket times the allowable stress of the bolting steel in comparison with
the gasket yield stress, or the allowable stress at room temperature, different bolt-
irig areas will be required for the two conditions. For the
Wm2 =Hu= 7rbGy (12.88) operating condition the minimum bolting area is given by:
The bolt load under the operating condition consists of _ Wmi
A ml --- (12.92)
the force necessary to resist the internal pressure and to fo
keep the gasket tight during operation. The internal pres-
sure produces an end force, H, given by: For the bolting-up condition (no internal pressure)

H . 11'4 a2p (12.89) (12.93)

The force required to keep the gasket from leaking, Hp, is Note: see Chapter 13 for allowable stresses.

Table 12.4. Nomenclature
From the 1956 ASME Unfired-Pressure-Vessel Code
with Permission of the American Society ·
of Mechanical Engineers
(See Fig. 12.24)
A = outside diameter of flange or, where slotted holes
are used with swing bolts, diameter to bottom of
slots, inches.
Ab = actual total cross-sectional area of bolts at root of
thread or section of least diameter under stress,
square inches.
Am = total required cross-sectional area of bolts, taken
as the greater of Am1 and A,..2, square inches.
Ami = total required cross-sectional area of bolts at root
of thread or section of least diameter under stress
for operating pr working conditions, square inches.
A,,. 2 = total required cross-sectional area of bolts at root
of thread or section of least diameter under stress
for atmospheric-temperature conditions without
internal pressure, square inches.
B = inside diameter of flange, inches. When B is less
than 20gi, it will be optional for the designer to
substitute B 1 for B in the formula for longitudinal
hub stress, IH•
B1 = B + U1 for loose-type hubbed flanges and for
integral-type flanges when I is less than 1.
B1 = B + go for integral-type flanges when I is equal to
or greater than I.
b effective gasket or joint-contact-surface seating
width, inches (see Figs. 12.11 and 12.12).
2b = effective gasket or joint-contact-surface pressure
width, inches.
bo = basic gasket seating width, inches (see Figs. 12.11
and 12.12).
C bolt-circle diameter, inches (see Fig. 12.24).
d = factor:
for integral-type flanges d = ~ hof]o 2
u
for loose-type flanges d = V L hof]o 2
e = factor:
for integral-type flanges e
for loose-type flanges e
F factor for integral-type flanges; obtain from Fig.
12.20.
FL = factor for loose-type flanges; obtain from Fig. 12.23.
f' = hub stress-correction factor (for integral flanges);
obtain from Fig. 12.21. For values below chart
usef' = 1.
G = diameter at location of gasket-load reaction.
Except as noted in sketch 1 of Fig. 12.2:t, G is
defined as follows (see Fig. 12.12):
When bo ~ ¾ in., G = mean diameter of gasket
contact face, inches.
When bo > .J,:;i; in., G = outside diameter of
gasket contact face minus 2b, inches.
Uo = thickness of hub at small end, inches.
U1 = thickness of hub at back of flange, inches.
H = total hydrostatic end force, pounds, 0.785G 2p.
HD = hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange =
0.785B 2p.
Design of Special Flanges 241
H0 = difference between flange-design bolt load and total
hydrostatic end force, pounds, = W H.
HF = total joint-contact-surface compression load,
pounds.
HT difference between total hydrostatic end force and
hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange,
pounds,= H - HD.
H = total joint-contact-surface seating load, pounds.
h = hub length, inches.
hD = radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which
HD acts.
h0 radial distance from gasket-load reaction to bolt
circle, inches, = (C - G)/2.
ho = factor = yBg 0, inches.
hT = radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which
HT acts.
K = ratio of outside diameter of flange to inside diameter
of flange = A/B.
L te + 1 + ~-
T d
MD = component of moment due to HD, inch-pounds,
HDhD.
M0 component of moment due to H 0 , inch-pounds,
= Haha.
Mo = total moment acting upon the flange, inch-pounds.
Mr = component of moment due to HT, inch-pounds =
HThT.
M,,, = moment under bolting-up conditions, inch-pounds
= Wha.
Mm~x = maximum moment, greater of Mo or MalFo!IFA,
inch-pounds.
m = gasket factor; obtain from Fig. 12.ll.
N = possible contact width of gasket, inches (see Fig.
12.12).
p = maximum allowable working pressure, pounds per
square inch.
R = radial distance from bolt circle to point of inter-
section of hub and back of flange, inches (integral
and hubbed flanges) (see Table 10.4).
la = maximum allowable bolt stress at atmospheric
temperature, pounds per square inch.
lo = maximum allowable bolt stress at operating tem-
perature, pounds per square inch.
fl = maximum.allowable design stress for flange material
or nozzle neck, pounds per square inch.
IH = longitudinal stress in huh, pounds per square inch.
fa = radial stress in flange, pounds per square inch.
/T tangential stress in flange, pounds per square inch.
T = factor involving K; obtain from Fig. 12.22.
l = flange thickness, inches.
U = factor involving K; obtain from Fig. 12.22.
V = factor for integral-type flanges; obtain from Fig.
12.20.
V L = factor for loose-type flanges; obtain from Fig. 12.23.
W flange-design bolt load, pounds.
Wm 1 = required bolt load for maximum operating or work-
ing conditions, pounds (see Eq. 12.91).
Wmz = required initial bolt load at atmospheric-temper-
ature conditions without internal pressure, pounds
(see Eq. 12.88).
Y = factor involving K; obtain from Fig. 12.22.
y gasket or joint-contact-surface unit seating load,
pounds per square inch (see Fig. 12.11).
Z = factor involving K; obtain from Fig. 12.22.
242 Design of Flanges
The procedure for determining the actual bolt size was responding to these types are designed as integral flanges
presented in section 12.6. The actual bolt area provided if any of the following values are exceeded:
usually exceeds the minimum required bolt area because an
integral number, usually a multiple of four, is used. The Yo> i in.
excess bolting area may result in overstressing of the flange
in the bolting-up operation. To provide a margin of safety
!!_ > 300
Yo
against such overstressing, the code specifies that the design
load, W, for the bolting-up condition he based on the average p > 300 psi
of the minimum and the actual bolting areas, or '
Operating temperature> 700" F

W= (Am~Ab)fa (12.94) If the operating conditions and proportions are such that
none of the above limits are exceeded, flanges corresponding
For the operating condition to sketches 8 through 9 of Fig. 12.24 may be designed as
loose-type flanges. In this case the minimum flange thick-
W Wm1 (See Eq. 12.91.) (12.95) ness may he calculated by use of Eq. 12.85 rewritten in
the following form:
Flange moments:
The various axial forces on the flange produce bending ; t = V(YMnu1.:,)/(JB) (12.85)
moments. The summation of moments is taken about the
bolting axis. For flanges classified as the integral type, To illustrate the design procedure, a ring-type flange
the total moment must be at least equal to the sum of the with a plain face for a heat<-exchanger shell will be designed
moments acting upon the flange, or: to the following specifications:
· Flange Loads X Lever Arms = Moments Design pressure = 150 psi
Design temperature = 300° F
HD = 0.785B 2p hD = R + Yl Flange material = ASTM A-201, grade B
2
Bolting steel = ASTM A-193, grade B-7
(12.96) Gasket material = asbestos composition
hp= R + Y1 + ho Shell outside diameter = 31 in. = B
2
Shell thickness = ¾ in.
Shell inside diameter = 30}~ iii.
Allowable stress of flange
C-G material = 15,000
hG = -- Mo= Ho X ho Allowable stress of bolting
2
(12.98) material = 20,000
Flange type See sketch 8 of Fig. 12.24..
and total moment, Mo= MD+ MT+ MG (12.99)
Calculation of gasket width--by Eq. 12.2:
In the case ofloose-type flanges in which the flange bears
directly on the gasket., the force HD is considered to act on do / y - pm
the inside diameter of the flange and on the gasket load at di = "\J y - p(m +
1)
the center line of the gasket face. The lever arms for the
moments are: Assuming a gasket thickness of ½' 6 in., from Fig. 12.11 we
find: ' .
C-B
hD=-- (12.100) y = 3700
2
m = 2.15
ho=G-G (12.101) therefore
2
hp= hD + ho do = /3700 - (150)(2.75) = l.0 l
2
(12.102) <4 "\J3700 - (150)(3.75)
2
The lever arms given in Eqs. 12.100, 12.101, and 12.102 Assume that <4 of the gasket equals 32¾ in.; then
apply_to the flanges shown in sketches 2, 3, and 4 of Fig. do = (1.021)(32.75) = 33.5 in.
12.24 and also to those in sketches 8 through 9 when these
flanges are calculated as loose-type flanges. In the case Minimumgasket w1"dt h = (33.5
- ---32.75)
-- = 3
of the lap-joint flange of sketch 1 of Fig. 12.24, the lever 2 8
arm hD is given by Eq. 12.100, and lever arms ho and hT are
Therefore, use a H-in. gasket width.
identical and are given by Eq. 12.101. '
12.7h Design Procedure for Ring Flanges (Loose Type).
The mean gasket diameter G = 32.75 + 0.5 = 33.25 in.
Calculation of bolt loads:
Ring flanges are widely used because of their simplicity and
Load to seat gasket--by Eq. 12.88:
their ease of fabrication. Some typical ring flanges are
shown in sketches 7 through 9 of Fig. 12.24. Flanges cor- Wm2 = H11 = lnrGy
 Design of Special Flanges 243
From Fig. 12.12, Moment computations:
For bolting-up condition (no internal pressure):
n 0.5 .
b0 = - = - = 0.25 m. The design load is given by Eq. 12.94.
2 2
b = bo if bo < 0.25 in. W = ½(Ab + Am)fa
Therefore = ½(7.6 + 8.45)(20,000)
b = 0.25
= 160,500 lb.
Substituting, we obtain:
The corresponding lever arm is given by Eq. 12.101:
Hy= 0.25(1r)(33.25)(3700)
= 93,600 lb ha= ½(C - G)

Load to keep joint tight under operation-by Eq. 12.90: = ½(35 - 32.25)
Hp= 2mrGmp = 1.375 in.
= 2(0.25)('11")(33.25)(2.75)(150) The flange moment is as follows (see Table 12.4):

= 21,600 lb Flange moment, Ma = Wha

Load from internal pressure-by Eq. 12.89: = (160,500) (1.375)

= 220,500 in-lb
H = 11"G2 p = '11"(33.25)2 (150)
4 4 For operating condition (W = Wmi-see Eq. 12.95):
For Hv see Eq. 12.96.
= 130,500 lb
Hv = 0.785B 2p
Total operating load-by Eq. 12.91:
= (0. 785) (31) 2 (150)
Wmi = H + Hp = 130,500 + 21,600 = 152,100 lb
= 113,000 lb
Wmi is greater than Wm2•
The controlling load is 152,100 lb. The lever arm, hv (from Eq. 12.100) is:
Calculation of minimum bolting area, Ami, as given by
Eq. 12.92:
C-B
hv=--
2
Ami = Wmi = 152,100 lb = 7_6 sq. in.
lb 20,000 psi 135 - 31
2
Calculation of optimum bolt size (see Table 10.4):
Min Actual = 2.0 in.
Bolt Root No.of No.of NB,
Size Area Bolts Bolts* R B, E ... ID + 2(1.415go + R)t The moment, Mv (from Eq. 12.96) is:
¾ 0.202 37.6 40 '½• 3 ¾ 38.2 34.0
¾ 0.302 25.2 28 H-11 3 '¾• 26.8 34.3 Mv = Hv X hv
¾ 0.419 18.15
* Use multiples of 4.
20 l¼ 3 '½• 19.1 34.6

t Allow (l/0.707)go = l.415qo for weld. = (113,000) (2.0)

From the above table the minimum bolt circle is 34.3 in. = 226,000 in-lb
when you are using ¾-in. bolts. For simplicity in dimen-
Ha by Eq. 12.98 is:
sioning specify 28 bolts of ¾-in. diameter on a 35-in. bolt
circle. Ha= W- H
Bolt-circle diameter, C = 35 in.
= 160,500 - 130,500 = 30,000 lb
Calculation of flange outside diameter:
The corresponding lever arm by Eq. 12.101 is:
Flange OD = bolt-circle diameter+ 2E
ha = C - G = 35 - 32.25 = 1 375 in
= 35 + 2(-H) = 36¾ = A 2 2 . .
Check of gasket width: The moment by Eq. 12.98 is:
Ab actual = (28) (0.302) = 8.45 sq. in. Ma= Ha X ha
• .
M 1mmum gask et w1"dth = Ab actual fallow. = 30,000 X 1.375 = 41,200 in-lb
2)'11'G
HT by Eq. 12.97 is:
(8.45) (20,000)
=------- HT= H- Hv
(2) (3700) ('11") (33.25)
= 0.219 in. (compared with ½in. specified) = 130,500 - 113,000 = 17,500 lb
244 Design of Flanges

The corresponding lever arm by Eq. 12.102 is: If g 1 as calculated by Eq. 12.103 is less than go, the cal-
culation indicates that a tapered hub flange is not required,
hr= hn + ha 2.0 +2 1.375 = l 69 .
. m. and 91 can he made equal to Yo with h equal to the minimum
2 required for welding. If g1 as calculated by Eq. 12.103 is
The moment is given by Eq. 12.97. greater than g0 , a value for h may be determined from Fig.
12.21 by letting the factor f' of Fig. 12.21 equal 1.0. With
Mr= Hr X hT these values of g1 and h the stresses in the flange and hub
= 17,500 X 1.69 = 29,600 in-lb may be calculated for a selected flange thickness, t.
ALLOWABLE STRESSES. Equations 12.82, through 12.84
The summation of moment for the operating condition, give the induced stresses in integral-type and all hubbed-
Mo, by Eq. 12.99 is: type flanges. For purposes of design it is important that
these individual stresses do not exceed the corresponding
Mo Mn+ M&+MT allowable stress. In selecting the allowable stress the
= 226,000 + 41,200 + 29,600 moment distribution between the huh and the flange should
be considered.· In this case a small amount of yielding of
= 296,800 in-lb the weaker of these two parts will shift part of the moment
to the stronger part. If any yielding is to occur, .it is
Therefore the operating moment is controlling; and preferable that the yielding take place in the huh rather than
in the flange, which has a machined gasket face and which
Mmax = 296,800 in-lb
might leak under limited deformation. For this reason it
Calculation of flange thickness by Eq. 12.85: has been recommended that a higher allowable stress be
used in the hub than in the flange, and it is customary to
t = V(YMmax)/(JB} use one and one-half times the allowable tensile stress of
the material as the permissible longitudinal hub stress.
K=-=-
A 36-t However, if this overstressing of the huh is permitted, ·an
B 30¼ allowance must also be made in the ring for absorbing any
load shifted to the ring from the huh. This may be accom-
= 1.211 plished by limiting the averages of the induced stresses, the
average of JH + f Rand the average of JH + fr, to not more
From Fig. 12.22 with K equal to 1.211, than the allowable stress in tension. For example, if !a.now.
Y = 10.25 for the flange is 15,000 psi, then the maximum induced huh
Therefore stress is permitted to be 22,500 psi. If fn induced
is 22,500 psi, then neither h nor JR can exceed 7500 psi.
(10.25)(296,800) = V6.55 = 2.56 in. However, if the induced stress JH is less than 22,500 psi,
t= then both JR and h may exceed 7500 psi as long as the
(15,000)(31)
average offn + f R or of hr + h does not exceed 15,000 psi.
Therefore specify 2¾-in. plate. These limitations may be summarized . as follows.
This flange design corresponds to TEMA (176) class C, The maximum induced longitudinal hub stress* is:
150 lb, 31-in.-size flange.
12.7i Design Procedure for Integral Flanges. For pro- hr ~ l.5fa.now. (12.104)
portioning of the huh in order to comply with the ASME
code (11), integral hubbed flanges should have a huh taper The maximum induced radial flange stress* is:
equal to or less than 1 : 3 unless a double-taper hub slope is
(12.105)
used. If a double taper is used, the hub slope adjacent to
the weld must be equal to or less than 1 :3 for a minimum
length equal to 1.5 go measured from the center of the weld. The maximum induced tangential flange stress* is:
Also, a single taper huh may be used with a slope greater
(12.106)
than 1: 3 if a straight section is used which also has a mini-
mum length of l.5go.
In proportioning the huh as a first trial. the huh thickness, * Provided that
gi, may he taken as equal to two times g0 for values of go
up to 1.5 in. and 1.5 times go for values exceeding 1.5 in. fa+ h :s;1,
- a.llow. (12.107)
2
The flange loads, lever arms, and bending moments can then
be evaluated, and the constants K, T, Z, Y, and U deter-
and
mined. Taylor Forge (188) suggests that at this stage of
the calculation a value of g1 he calculated from the following
equation. (12.108)

01 = 0.7 VMo/JB (12.103) ''

The steps involved in designing an integral flange are
where f = allowable stress, pounds per square inch more tedious than those involved in designing a ring flange
 Design of Special Flanges 245

Design Conditions Gasket and Bolting Calculations

Asbestos
~--·-
Operating pressure, p 400 psi Gasket details composition From N 1.00
Operating temp. 750 OF. 33" ID x 35" OD x ½o" thick Figs. 12.11 b 0.353
Atmospheric temp. 100 oF. Facing details Tongue face and 12.12 y 3700.
Flange material A-105 grade I 33" ID x 35" OD x %" high m 2.75
Bolting material A-193 grade B7 Hu= lnrGy = 139,500.
Corrosion allowance 0 Hp = 21nrGmp = 82,800.
psi H = G21rp = 363,000. Hp+H 82,800 + 363,000 = 445,800.
Allowable Oper. temp. lo 20,000
4
bolt
stress Hv H +H
Atm. temp. J,. 20,000 psi A,,, the greater of .fa or 1> A = 22.3
Allowable Oper. temp. fFo 12,950 psi An= 23.3
flange
stress Atm. temp. fFA 15,000 psi W = + An)/,. =
0.5(A,,. 456,000
Wm1 = H'1} + H = 445,800
All dimensions are shown An Xfa
Gasket width
in the corroded condition
check
Nmin = 2y1rG = 0.590

Flange Loads (Operating Condition) Lever Arms Flange Moments (Operating Condition)

Hn = 'Ir-B
4
2
p = 322,000. hn= R + 0.5g 1 = 2.125 Mn= Hn X hn = 684,000.

Ha= W.,.1 - H = Hp= 82,800. ha = 0.5(C - G) = 1. 750 Ma= Ha X ha 145,000.

HT= H - Hn = 41,000. hr = O.S(R + Y1 + ha = 2.250 MT HT X hT = 92,200.
Mo = Mn + Ma + MT = 921,200.
Flange Load (Bolting-up Condition) Lever Arm Flange Moment (Bolting-up Condition)
Ha= W= 456,000. ha = 0.5(C - G) = 1. 75 M,. = He X ha= 798,000.
(Equivalent to checking for M 0 at
allowable flange stress of !FA and M = j\,fmas =
Mmu = the greater of Mo or Ma X ~FO = 921,200
separately for Ma at allowable
28,800.
FA B
flange stress of fF A)

If bolt spacing exceeds _2d + l, apply correction factor. CF = ✓Bolt Spacing = M = Mmu X C.F. =
. • 2d +t B
Shape C_onstants
r-•o"'ls"
K = A/B = 1.24 ho=-v'Bio = 4 ..00
11(" T= 1.82 h/ho = 0.75
f t--lf1 -

3• ./ I From Z= 4.72 From F= 0.760

·v
I,= E • 116"
I R = lls" B=32" Fig. 12.22 Y= 9.15 Fig. 12.20 V 0.135

+-I
t = 21s·
~

I
w

'---nn
~HD
. [11/{Jo

d =
=
u

uV ho(]o 2 =
10.05

74.50
From
Fig. 12.21 J=
2.50 e = F/ho =
1.00
0.190

l ' jHr
C• 37Js•
t(assumed) 2.50
1.475
"'._J Ha a le+ 1
~-1,T {3 %te+ I 1.634
32 Ili•<;oolb- I+-- no G'!' 34"
'Y a/T 0.810
A= 39'11"
5 = laid 0.210
Allowable Stress Calculation X = 'Y + 5 1.020
1.5fFo LongiLudinal hub stress, J11 f'M. Xr1,~ 18,100.
ho Radial flang-e stress, JR = {3M; Xt 2 i,380.
fn> Tan?tential flang-e stress, fr = (JI}· l 2) - Zf, 7,300.
J,..o Greater of 0.5(Ju + .fH) or 0.5(fu + .fr) 12.700.

Fig. 12.25. Cakulation sheet with exomple calculation for integral flanges (188). (Courtesy of Taylor Forge ond Pipe Works.I
246 Design of Flanges

Design Conditions Gasket and Bolling Calculalions

Operating pressure, p psi Gasket details N
"F. From b
Operating temp. Figs. 12.11
Atmospheric temp, "F. Facing details and 12.12 :v
Flange material m
Bolting material Hv = lnrGy =
Corrosion allowance H,, = 2/nrGmp =

Allowable Oper. temp. J,, psi H = GZirp

,t .
= H;,+H=
bplt
H H +H
stress Atm. temp. la psi A,,. = the greater of !a11 or 'P Jb =

Allowable Oper. temp. fpo psi AB=

flange
stress Atm. temp. fr-A psi W = 0.5(Am + AB)Satm
=Hp+ H =
I
W,t,1
All dimensions are shown
in the corroded condition Gasket w'idth N . = Ay X fa=
check mu, 2y-irG

Flange Loads (Operating Condition) Lever Arms Flange Moments (Operating Condition)
11"
HD= -B 2p =
4
hD =R+ 0.5g1 = M» ?" HD X hD =
Ho= Wm1 - H = Hp ha= 0.5(C - G) = Ma= Ha X ha =
HT= H-HD·= hT = 0.5(R + g1 + ha) = MT= HT X hT
Mo = MD + Ma + Mr =

Flange Load (Bolting-up Condition) Lever Arm Flange Moment. (Bolting-up Condition)
Ha= W= ha = 0.5(C - G) = Ma= Ha X ha=
(Equivalent to checking for Ma at allowable -
·Mmnlt = t he greater of Mo or Ma X ho TFA flange stress of ho and separately for Ma at M = M,,.n, =
· . allowable flange stress of h11.) B

If bolt spacing exceeds 2d + t, apply correction factor. C .F . = ~Bolt2dSpacing = M=

Mrnnx X C.F.
=
+l B
Shape Constants
~ t-t-iro=
J{ A/B = ho= yBgo =

h•
t B•
B•
.// '--81 •

B• From Z=
Fig. 12.22 Y=
T h/ho
From
Fiit. 12.20
=
F=
v-

~ w V U= From
Fig. 12.21 J=

.
, 1-t-- i--ho
=-tHo gi/go
u ho{Jo2 =
e = F/ho =
d =
I C•

I
• JI<; fHr
t(assumed)
a=te+I
fJ = %te + 1
!Jbolts
I. -l:-1aa"'" I

A•
G• 'Y = a/T
o = t3/d
Allowable Stress Calculation X=y+o
1.5ho ·Longitudinal huh stress, /H = fM/Xg 12
!Fo Radial flange stress, ht = fJM/Xt 2
ho Tangential flange stress, fT = (MY/t 2 ) - Zfr
!Fo +
Greater of 0.5(fa JR) or 0.5(Jy + h)

fig. 12.26. Blank calculation sheet for integral-type flanges (188). (Courtesy of Taylor Forge and Pipe Works.) .
 Design of Special Flanges 247

Design Conditions Gasket and Bolting Calculations

Operating pressure, p psi Gasket details N
oF. From b
Operating temp.
Figs. 12.11
Atmospheric temp. oF. Facing details and 12.12 y
Flange material m
Bolting material HGy = lnrGy =
Corrosion allowance- HGp = 2lnrGmp =
c21rp
Allowable Oper. temp. lb psi H=-=
4
HGp + J1 =
bolt
stress Hy Hp+ 11
Atm. temp. la psi Am = the greater of fa or lb =
Allowable Oper. temp. !Fo psi An=
flange
stress Atm. temp. fFA psi W = 0.S(Am + An)fa =
Wmi =Hp+ H =
All dimensions are shown
in the corroded condition Gasket width N. = As Xfa =
min
check 2y7rG
Flange Loads (Oper. Condition) Lever Arms Flange Moments (Oper. Condition)
7r
HD= -B 2p = hD = R +Yi= MD= HD X hD =
4
HG = W ml - H = HGp = hG = 0.5(C - G) = MG= HG X hG =
HT= H- HD= hr = 0.S(R +Y1 + hG) = MT= Hr X hr =
M 0 = MD + MG + MT =
Flange Load (Bolting-up Condition) Lever Arm Flange Moment (Bolting-up Condition)
HG= W= hG = 0.5(C - G) = M = HG X hG =
(Equivalent to checking for Mo at allow-
Mmax = the greater of M 0 or Ma X ~FO able flange stress ofJFA and separately for M = Mm,x =
FA Ma at allowable flange stress offFA) B

If bolt spacing exceeds 2d + t, apply correction factor. C F _ = ✓Bolt Spacing = M=

Mmax X C.F.
=
. • 2d + t B
Shape Constants
C:Ho J{ = A/B = ho=~ =
t fr
•t--rE•
•1= T= h/ho =
B= Z= T FL=
➔ ~R=

w
·1 From
Fig. 12.22 Y=
From
Fig. 12.23 I V L =
A U·= e =FL/ho=
ho u
d = - hogo 2 =
•• i
gi/go =
VL
I I
C=

t(assumed)

Allowable
--b~··t .tHT
A=

Stress calculation
G=
a=te+I
{3 =%le+ 1
'Y = a/T
o = t 3/d
A=-y+o
1.5fFo Longitudinal hub stress, Ju = M/;\.g 1 2
!Fo Radial flange stress, f n = {3M/;\.l 2
!Fo Tangential flange stress, fr = MY/t 2 - Zfr
!Fo Greater of 0.5(fo + Ju) or 0.5(fil + fr)

Fig. 12.27. Blank calculation sheet for loose-type flanges (188). (Courtesy of Taylor Forge and Pipe Works.)
248 Design of Flanges
(loose type) previously illustrated. Considerable time may
he saved by using a work sheet of the type developed by
Taylor Forge Company (188). Such a work sheet with an
example calculation is illustrated in Fig. 12.25. Figures
12.26 .and 12.27 illustrate blank calculation sheets for
welding-neck flange designs and lap-joint flange designs,
respectively.
It should he noted that the determination of the :final
thickness, l, normally requires calculation by successive
approximation. For estimating the initial thickness Taylor
Forge suggests the use of the following equation (188):
i = 0.72 V(M 0 Y) / '(B''
:,allow. ) (12.109)
Equation 12.109 does not give a precise determination of
the thickness. If the hub stress is excessive, adjustment
can be made by increasing the hub thickness, g1, by the
quantity Vfll/1.5f,.uow.• If the flange is overstressed, the
thickness may be increased by the factor ,VJR!fa11ow. or
-VJT/fa.11ow. (188).

PROBLEMS

1. Figure 12.28 shows the partial design of a pressure vessel. Determine the maximum
operating pressure for the vessel based upon the shell dimensions and material (see Chapter 13
for allowable stresses and code equations). For this pressure select a suitable gasket material
and determine the optimum number and size of the bolts assuming a hub thickness, g1, equal •
to 3 in. The service temperature is 400° F.

Bolt circle
40• diam.

SA-105
Grade B

SA-212
Grade B
ti -2·

-,-....,__,__ 2* knuckle
radius
Floor

Fig. 12.28. Pressure vessel for problems 1, 2, and 3,

2. For the same vessel described in problem 1, design a suitable flange of the integral-hub
type.
3. For the vessel described in problem 1, design a ring-plate flange without a hub.
4. Calculate the highest service pressure which can be used at 300° F for a 24-in., 150-psi
welding-neck flange fabricated of SA-105, Grade II steel (see Fig. 12.2). The gasket is of
asbestos composition ½ 6 in. thick and covers the full width of the raised face. The bolts are
of SA-19-B7, eight-thread series (see Table 10.4).
 CHAPTER

DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSELS

TO CODE SPECIFICATIONS

VI arious codes governing the procedures for the design,

fabrication, inspection, testing, and operation of pressure
Many boiler explosions occurred during this period both
in the United States and in Europe, causing public concern.
The Joint Committee of the Councils of the City of Phila-
delphia reported in 1817 on the subject of steam boiler
vessels have been developed, partly as a safety measure.
explosions in boats and recommended the passing of a state
These procedures furnish standards by which any state can
law requiring testing the strength of boilers, the proper use
be assured of the safety of pressure vessels installed within
of safety valves, and monthly inspections. A very dis-
its boundaries. The specifications in these codes were
astrous boiler explosion occurred in London in 1815, and
originally based upon the specifications developed for steam
the cause of this disaster was investigated by a committee
boilers. The code used for unfired pressure vessels is sec-
of the British House of Commons. This committee con-
tion VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
cluded that improper construction or improper material and
1956 (11). Many states require that pressure vessels be
designed and fabricated according to these code specifica- an excessive though gradual pressure rise caused the explo-
sion. The committee recommended that hemispherical or
~io?s. Although all states do not have such regulations,
It 1s usually necessary that pressure-vessel equipment be ~egmental heads be used for cylindrical boilers, that wrought
iron be used as a material of construction, and that two
designed to a specified code in order to obtain insurance on
safety valves be used.
the plant in which the vessel is to be used. The National
Bu:eau of Casualty Underwriters publishes a Synopsis of
In 1830 the Franklin Institute appointed a committee
to investigate the cause of boiler explosions. As a result of
Boiler and Pressure Laws, Rules, and Regulations for the
the efforts of this committee, a government grant was pro-
various states and provinces and for selected cities in the
vided in 1831 for conducting experiments to test many of
United States and Canada (227). Regardless of the method
the causes of, and preventives of, the explosion of steam
of design, pressure vessels within the limits of the ASME
boilers. The nature of these experiments and the conclu-
code specifications are usually checked against these speci-
sions drawn from them are described by Greene (177).
fications. Before discussing the code it is of interest to
As a result of the Franklin Institute studies two acts
briefly review the antecedents of the code and its develop-
were passed by Congress. The first act, passed in 1833,
ment. A. M. Greene, Jr. has published an extensive history
provided for the inspection of hulls and boilers. The
of the ASME boiler code (177-184).
second act, termed the "Steamboat Act ofl852," established
steamboat inspection service under the Secretary of the
13.1 ANTECEDENTS OF THE ASME CODE
Treasury. This act contained the original rules and regu-
Although steam devices were used to some extent prior lations pertaining to the design and construction of boilers
to 1800, the pressures involved were low. Significant steam and provided for evaluation of the cause of boiler failures.
pressures were not used until the development of the Watt The act was amended a number of times.
steam engine in the early part of the nineteenth century. The American Boiler i\lanufactmers · _\ssociation was
249
250 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Spe::itlcations
organized in 1889. This group established a committee
for the preparation of uniform specifications and laws to be
based on the best American boiler-shop practice. The
committee presented a report to the association in 1898
which covered such items as the specification of materials,
riveting, factors of safety, specifications for bumped and
dished heads, flanging, and the hydrostatic pressure test.
The first company for insurance against loss by boiler
explosions was organized in 1855 in Great Britain. A num-
ber of additional insuring associations were organized in
Britain and Continental Europe during the next decade.
The first such company to be organized in the United States
was the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance
Company, founded in 1866. This company trained inspec-
tors and established procedures; it has continued the writing
of insurance on boilers and the practice of inspection until
the present time.
At the beginning of the twentieth century about 350,
to 400 boiler explosions were occurring yearly in the
United States with a tremendous loss of life and property.
Although inspection and licensing of firemen and boiler
tenders were customary practice and although rules for
boiler construction had been formulated by government and
by insurance agencies, there was as yet no legal boiler code
in any state in the Union. The first such code was passed
in Massachusetts in 1907 and was known as the "Massa-
chusetts Rules." These rules specified a factor of safety
of 4~~. a minimum tensile strength of 55,000 psi for steel
and 45,000 psi for wrought iron, and in addition contained
many specifications covering nozzles, heads, safety valves,
and so on. In 1911 the state of Ohio adopted a set of
boiler rules similar to the Massachusetts rules. Although
these rules for boilers represented an important step, con-
siderable differences existed between the various specifica-
tions in the Massachusetts rules and those in the Ohio rules.
There existed a need for a uniform code acceptable to all
states.
13.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASME CODE
In 1911 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
established a committee to formulate standard specifications
for the construction of steam boilers and other pressure
vessels. This committee reviewed the Massachusetts and
Ohio ·rules and conducted an extensive survey among
superintendents of inspection departments, engineers,
fabricators, and boiler operators. A number of preliminary
reports were issued and revised. A final draft was prepared
in 1914 (178) and was approved as a code and copyrighted
in 1915.
The introduction to the code stated that public hearings
on the code should be held every two years. The first 'of
these hearings was held in December of 1916. A large
representation of manufacturers, builders, designers, and
users was present as a result of the issuance of 1500 invita-
tions. Most of the discussions were concerned with the
code requirements dealing with boiler construction.
In 1916 it was recognized that there was a need for a
safety code for unfired pressure vessels (181), but because
the revisions for the 1918 code were well under way, no
attempt was made to include a separate section for unfired
pressure vessels at that time.
In 1918 a revised edition of the ASME code was issued.
This edition contained a number of new sections and there-
fore constituted an expansion of the code. In 1924 the
code was revised with the addition of a new section, VIII,
which represented a new code for unfired pressure vessels.
In the late twenties a considerable development of weld-
ing techniques occurred. The code committees attempted
to develop rules for safe welded vessels but could not agree
on the rul~s required to produce reliable structures. The
final approval of fusion welding of the shells and parts of
pressure vessels occurred during the period 1928 to 1931
(182). Also during this period the rules for the design of
dished heads were revised.
The first rules for the fusion welding of pressure vessels
were revised in the 1932 edition of the code. Also, revisions
were made in section VIII, for unfired pressure vessels.
13.3 THE API-ASME CODE
In 1931 a joint API-ASME Committee on Unfired Pres-
sure Vessels was appointed to prepare a code for safe prac-
tice in the design, construction, inspection, and repair of
un1ired pressure vessels for petroleum liquids and gases.
The API-ASME code was first published in September,
1934, and was revised in 1936, 1938, 1943, and 1951. The
early API-ASME code was considerably more lenient than
section VIII of the then-existing ASME code. This
resulted in the reduction of fabrication costs for vessels
designed to the joint code. In recent years the ASME code
has been "broadened and improved so that it more com-
pletely covers the petroleum industry's pressure vessel needs
and is in some respects more advanced" (186). In May,
1956, the API-ASME code was officially discontinued, the
discontinuation to become effective December 31, 1956,
(186) and was supplanted by the 1956 edition of section
VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code {11).
13.-4 SCOPE OF SECTION VIII OF THE ASME CODE
On April 26, 1956, the revised section VIII ot the 1956
edition of the ASME code for unfired pressure vessels was
approved by the council of the ASME. Pressure vessels
designed and constructed in accordance with these specifica-
tions may be marked with the code symbol. Vessels built
after January 1, 1957, in accordance with the 1949 edition
and earlier editions of the code are not to be marked with
the code symbol.
This code is intended to cover the design and construction
practices for unfired pressure vessels operating at pressures
of up to 3000 psi. In general vessels which do not exceed
5 cu ft in volume and 250 psi in design pressure or which
do not exceed l½ cu ft in volume for any design pressure
may be exempted from inspection, provided that they
comply in all other respects with the requirements of the
code. The jurisdiction of the code with regard to external
piping of the vessel is limited to: the first circumferential
joint in welded-end connections; the face of the first flange
in bolted-flange connections; and the first threaded joint
in threaded-pipe connections.
The code does not cover all details of design and construe-
 Table 13.1. Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for Carbon and Low-alloy Steels, Pounds per
Square Inch (11)
From the 1956 ASME Unfired-Pressure-Vessel Code with Permission of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Material Spec
and Speci- p. Min For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding Deg F
&cation Nominal Num- Ten- -20tc
Numb~r Grade Composition her sile Notes 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 llOO ll50 1200
Plate Steels
Carbon Steels
SA-7 l 60,000 (1)(3) 12,650
SA-30 Flange l 55,000 13,750 13,250 12,050 10,200 8350
SA-30 Firebox A 1 55,000 (4) 13,750 13,250 12,050 10,200 8350 6500
SA-30 Firebox B 1 48,000 (4) 12,000 11,650 10,700 9300 7900 6500
SA-113 C l 48,000 (1)(3) 11,050
SA-129 A 1 40,000 10,000
SA-129 B I 44,000 11,000
SA-129 C 1 42,000 10,500
SA-201 A C-Si 1 55,000 13,750 13,250 12,050 10,200 8350 6500 4500 2500
SA-201 B C-Si 1 60,000 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500 4500 2500
SA-212 A C-Si 1 65,000 16,250 15,500 13,850 11,400 8950 6500 4500 2500
SA-212 B C-Si 1 70,000 17,500 16,600 14,750 12,000 9250 6500 4500 2500
SA-283 A l 45,000 (1)(3) 10,350
SA-283 B l 50,000 (1)(3) 11,500
SA-283 C 1 55,000 (1) (3) 12,650
SA-283 D l 60,000 (1) (3) 12,650
SA-285 A 1 45,000 (2)(4) 11,250 11,000 10,250 9000 7750 6500
SA-285 B 1 50,000 (2)(4) 12,500 12,100 11,150 9600 8050 6500
SA-285 C 1 55,000 (2) (4) 13,750 13,250 12,050 10,200 8350 6500
SA-299 C-Mn-Si 3 75,000 18,750 17,700 15,650 12,600 9550 6500 4500 2500
SA-300 (13)
Low-alloy Steels
SA-202 A Cr-Mn-Si 4 75,000 18,750 17,700 15,650 12,600 9550 6500 4500 2500
SA-202 B Cr-Mn-Si 4 85,000 21,250 19,800 17,700 12,800 9900 6500 4500 2500
SA-203 A,D 2½ and 3½ Ni 4 65,000 16,250 15,500 13,850 11,400 8950 6500 4500 2500
SA-203 B,E 2½ and 3½ Ni 4 70,000 17,500 16,600 14,750 12,000 9250 6500 4500 2500
SA-203 C 2½ Ni 4 75,000 18,750 17,700 15,650 12,600 9550 6500 4500 2500
SA-204 A C-½Mo 3 65,000 16,250 16,250 16,250 15,650 14,400 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-204 B C-,½Mo 3 70,000 17,500 17,500 17,500 16,900 15,000 12,750 1.0,000 6250
SA-204 Ci C-½Mo 3 75,000 18,750 18,750 18,750 18,000 15,900 13,000 10,000 6250
SA-225 A Mn-V1 3 70,000 (12) 17,500 · 17,500 17,500
SA-225 B Mn-V 3 75,000 (12) 18,750 18,750 18,750
SA-301 A ½ Cr-½ Mo 3 65,000 16,250 16,250 16,250 15,650 14,400 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-301 B 1 Cr-½ Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,750 14,200 13,100 11,000 7500 5000 2800 1550 1000
SA-302 A Mn-½ Mo 3 75,000 18,750 18,750 18,750 18,000 15,900 13,000 10,000 6250
SA-302 B Mn-½ Mo 3 80,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 19,100 16,800 13,250 10,000 6250
SA-353 9 Ni 10 90,000 (17) 22,500
SA-357 5Cr-½ Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 11,500 10,000 7300 5200 3300 2200 1500
Pipes and Tubes
Seaml""8 Carbon Steels
SA-53 A 1 48,000 (4)(6) 12,000 II,650 10,700 9300 7900 6500
SA-53 B 1 60,000 (4)(6) 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500
SA-83 A 1 (4)(6) II,750 ll,450 10,550 9200 7850 6500
SA-106 A 1 48,000 12,000 ll,650 10,700 9300 7900 6500 4500 2500
SA-106 B l 60,000 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500 4500 2500
SA-192 1 11,750 11,450 10,550 9200 7850 6500 4500 2500
SA-210 l 60,000 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500 4500 2500
SA-333 C 1 55,000 (4)(6) 13,750
SA-334 C 1 55,000 (4)(6) 13,750
Seamless Low-alloy Steels
SA-209 Tl C-½Mo 3 55,000 13,750 13,750 13,750 13,450 13,150 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-209 Tla C-HMo 3 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,750 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-209 Tlb C-½Mo 3 53,000 13,250 13,250 13,250 13,000 12,750 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-213 T3 Ui Cr-0,7 Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5500 4000 2500 1200
SA-213 TS 5Cr-½ Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 11,500 10,000 7300 5200 3300 2200 1500
SA-213 T7 7 Cr-:l-, Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,500 11,500 9500 7000 5000 3500 2500 1800 1200
SA-213 T9 9 Cr-1 Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,500 12,000 10,800 8500 5500 3300 2200 1500
SA-213 TU l¾ Cr-½ Mo-Si 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5500 4000 2500 1200
SA-213 Tl2 l Cr-½ Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,750 14,200 13,100 11,000 7500 5000 2800 1550 1000
SA-213 T5b 5 Cr-:l-i Mo-Si 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 10,900 9000 5500 3500 2500 1800 1200
SA-213 T3b 2 Cr-H Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,700 14,000 12,500 10,000 6200 4200 2750 1750 1200
SA-213 T5c 5 Cr-_!.f Mo-Ti 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 11,500 10,000 7300 4800 2800 1800 1200
SA-213 Tl7 1 Cr-V 4 60,000 (5) 15,000
SA-213 T21 3 Cr-0.9 Mo 5 60,000 15,000 14,800 14,500 13,900 13,200 12,000 9000 7000 5500 4000 2700 1500
SA-213 T22 2¾ Cr-1 Mo 5 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5800 4200 3000 2000
SA-333 3 3½ Ni 9 65,000 16,250
SA-333 5 5 Ni 9 65,000 16,250
SA-334 3 3½ Ni 9 65,000 16,250
SA-334 5 5Ni 9 65,000 16,250
SA-335 Pl C-_!.i Mo 3 55,000 13,750 13,750 13,750 13,450 13,150 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-335 P2 ½Cr-H Mo 3 55,000 13,750 13,750 13,750 13,450 13,150 12,500 10,000 6250 ...
SA-335 P3 I¾ Cr-0.7 Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5500 4000 2590 1200
SA-335 P3b 2 Cr-% Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,700 14,000 12,500 10,000 6200 4200 2750 1750 1200
SA-335 PS 5Cr-½ Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 11,500 10,000 7300 5200 3300 2200 1500
SA-335 P5b 5 Cr-½ Mo-Si 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 10,900 9000 5500 3500 2500 1800 1200
SA-335 P5c 5 Cr-½ Mo-Ti 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 11,500 10,000 7300 4800 2800 1800 1200
or Cb
SA-335 PU B~ Cr-½ Mo-Si 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5500 4000 2500 1200
SA-335 Pl2 l Cr-H Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,750 14,200 13,100 11,000 7500 5000 2800 1550 1000
SA-335 PIS I½ Si-H Mo 3 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,750 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-335 P7 7Cr-H Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,500 11,500 9500 7000 5000 3500 2500 1800 1200
SA-335 P9 9 Cr-1 Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,500 12,000 10,800 8500 5500 3300 2200 1500
SA-335 P21 3 Cr-0.9 Mo 5 60,000 15,000 14,800 H,500 13,900 13,200 12,000 9000 7000 5500 4000 2700 1500
251
-
Table 13.l. (Continued)
From the 1956 ASME Unfired-Pressure-Vessel Code with Permission ol" the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Material Spec
and Speci- P- Min For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding Deg F
ficat.ion Nominal Num- Ten- -20to
Number Grade Composition her sile Notes 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
SA-335 P22 2¼ Cr-l Mo 5 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5800 4200 3000 2000
SA-369 FPl C-½Mo 3 55,000 13,750 13,750 13,750 13,450 13,150 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-369 FP2 ½ Cr-!>i Mo 3 55,000 13,750 13,750 13,750 13,450 13,150 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-369 FP3b 2Cr-½ Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,700 14,000 12,500 10,000 6200 4200 2750 1750 1200
SA-369 FPll l¼ Cr-½ Mo-Si 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5500 4000 2500 1200
SA-369 FP12 l Cr-½ Mo 4 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,750 14,200 13,100 11,000 7500 5000 2800 1550 1000
SA-369 FP21 3 Cr-1 Mo 5 60,000 15,000 14,800 14,500 13,900 13,200 12,000 9000 7000 5500 4000 2700 1500
SA-369 FP22 23,i Cr-1 Mo 5 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 780'0 5800 4200 3000 2000
SA-369 FPS 5Cr-½ Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 11,500 10,000 7300 5200 3300 2200 1500
SA-369 FP7 7 Cr-½ Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,500 11,500 9500 7000 5000 3500 2500 1800 1200
SA 369 FP9 9 Cr-1 Mo 5 60,000 (14) 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,500 12,000 10,800 8500 5500 3300 2200 1500
Forgings
Carbon Steels
SA-105 I 1 . 60,000 (4) 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500 4500 2500
SA-105 II l 70,000 (4) 17,500 16,600 14,750 12,000 9250 6500 4500 2500
SA-181 I I 60,000 (4) 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500 4500 2500
SA-181 II 1 70,000 (4) 17,500 16,609 14,750 12,000 9250 6500 4500 2500
SA-266 I 1 60,000 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500 4500 2500
SA-266 II I 70,000 17,500 16,600 14,750 12,000 9250 6500 4500 2500
SA-266 III 75,000 18,750 17,700 15,650 12,600 9550 6500 4500 2500
SA-350 LFl 1 60,000 15,000
Low-alloy Steels
SA-182 Fl C-½Mo 3 70,000 17,500
17,500 17,500 16,900 15,000 12,750 10,000 6250
SA-182 Fl2 1 Cr-½ Mo 4 70,000 (14) 16,150 15,500 14,850 14,200 13,100 11,000 7500 5000 2800 1550 1000
SA-182 F5 5 Cr-½ Mo 5 90,000 (14) 17,500 16,000 14,500 13,000 11,500 10,000 7300 5200 3300 2200 1500
SA-182 FU I.¼ Cr-½ Mo 4 70,000 (14) 16,150 15,500 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5500 4000 2500 1200
SA-182 F9 9 Cr-1 Mo 5 100,000 (14) . 21,200 20,000 17,700 15,400 13,100 10,800 8500 5500 3300 2200 1500
SA-182 F22 2¾ Cr-1 Mo 5 70,000 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,500 16,000 14,000 11,000 7800 5800 4200 3000 2000
SA-336 Fl C-½Mo 3 70,000 17,500 17,500 17,500 16,900 15,000 12,750 10,000 6250
SA-336 F2 1 Cr-½ Mo 4 70,000 (14) 16,150 15,500 14,850 14,200 13,100 11,000 7500 5000 2800 1550 1000
SA-336 F5a 5 Cr-½ Mo 5 80,000 (14) 16,500 15,500 14,500 13,000 11,500 10,000 7300 5200 3300 2200 1500
SA-336 F22 2¾ Cr-1 Mo 5 80,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 18,000 16,000 14,000 11,000 7800 5800 4200 3000 2000
SA-350 LFS 3½ Ni 9 70,000 17,500
Castings
Carbon Steels
SA-95 70,000 (7)(18) 17,500 16,600 14,750 12,000 9250 6500 4500 2500
SA-216 WCA l 60,000 (7) 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 8650 6500 4500 2500
SA-216 WCB l 70,000 (7) 17,500 16,600 14,750 12,000 9250 6500 4500 2500
SA-352 LCB 65,000 (7)(16) 16,250
Low-alloy Steel&
SA-217 WCI C-½Mo 3 65,000 (7) (8) 16,250 16,250 16,250 15,650 14,400 12,500 10,000 6250
SA-217 WC4 Ni-Cr-½ Mo 4 70,000 (7) (8) 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,000 15,800 14,000 10,000 6250
SA-217 WCS Ni-Cr-I Mo 4 70,000 (7)(8) 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,000 15,800 14,000 11,000 7800 5500 4000
SA-217 WC6 l¾Cr-½ Mo 4 70,000 (7)(8) 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,000 15,800 14,000 11,000 7800 5500 4000
SA-217 WC9 2¾ Cr-1 Mo 5 70,000 (7)(8) 17,500 17,500 17,500 17,000 15,800 14,000 11,000 7800 5800 4200 3000 2000
SA-217 cs SCr-½ Mo 5 90,000 (7) (8) 22,500 21,600 20,400 19,000 17,000 13,600 10,000 7300 5200 3300 2200 1500
..SA~217 Cl2 9Cr-1 Mo 5 90,000 (7)(8) 22,500 22,000 21,000 19,400 17,300 15,000 11,750 8500 5500 3300 2200 1500
SA-352 LCl 3 65,000 (7) (16) 16,250
SA-352 LC2 4 65,000 (7)(16) 16,250
SA-352 LC3 9 65,000 (7) (16) lti,250
Bolting
Carbon Steels
SA-261 BO 100,000 (9)(10) 16,250 14,950 12,500 10,000 6900
SA-307 B 55,000 (II)
SA-325 (9)(10) 18,750 17,200 15,650
Low-alloy Steel&
SA-193 BS SCr-½ Mo (9) (10) 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 17,250 13,750 10,300 7300 4800 2750
SA-193 B7 1 Cr-0.2 Mo (9)(10) 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 16,250 12,500 8500 4500
SA-193 B7a 1 Cr--0.6 Mo (9) (10) 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 17,250 13,750 10,300 7300 4800 2750
SA-193 Bl4 I C.-0.3 Mo-V (9) (10) 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 18,750 16,650 14,250 11,000 6250 2750.
SA-193 Bl6 1 Cr-½ Mo-V (9)(10) 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 18,750 16,650 14.250 11,000 6250 2750
SA-320 L7,L9, (9) (15)
LIO, L43
SA-354 BB (9)(10) 18,750 17,200 15,650
SA-354 BC (9)(10) 20,000 18,400 16,750
SA-354 BD (9)(10) 20,000 18,400 16,750
Bars
Carbon St.eela
SA-306 50 1 50,000 12,500
SA-306 55 l 55,000 13,750
SA-306 60 l 60,000 15,000
From the 1956 ASME~Unfired-Pressure-Veuel Code with Permiuion of the Amerioa.n Society of Mechanical Engineers
Notu: The stress values in this table may be interpolated to determine values.for intermediate temperatures.
All . . _ values In shear are 0.80 times the values in the above table.
All stress values in bearing are 1.60 times the values in the above table.
(1) See section 13.5, first paragraph.
(2) Flange quality in this specification not permitted over 850" F.
(3) Theae stress values are one fourth the specified minimum tensile strength multiplied by a quality factor of 0.92, except for SA-283, Grade D, and SA-7.
(4) For service temperatures above 850° F it is. recommended that killed steels containing not less than 0.10 % resid11al silicon be used. Killed st.eela which
have been deoxidbed with large amounts of aluminum and rimmed steels may have creep and stress-rupture properties in the temperature range above 850° F
which are somewhat lesa than those on which the values in the above table are based.
(5) Between temperatures of 650 and 1000" F, inoluaive, the stress values for specifi.eation SA-201, Grade B, may be used until high-temperature test data
become available.
(6) Only killed steel (silicon) shall be used above 900" F.
252
 Welded-Joint Efficiencies 253
Table 13.1. (Continued)
(7) To these stress values a qualit}' factor shall be applied, as specified in the code.
(8) These stress values appl}' to normalized and drawn material onl}'.
(9) These stress values are established Crom a consideration or strength only and will be satisfactory for average service. For bolted joints, where freedom
from leakage over a long period of time without retightening is required, lower stress values ma}' he necessary, determined from the relative Oexibility of the
flange and bolts and corresponding relaxation properties.
(10) Between temperatures of -20 and 400" F, stress values equal to the lower of the following will be permitted, 20 % of the specified tensile strength, or
25 % of the specified -yield strength.
(11) Not permitted above 450° F; allowable stress value, 7000 psi.
(12) Between temperatures of 750 and 1000° F, incluaive, the stress values for specification SA-212, Grade B, ma}' he ueed until high-temperature test data
become available.
(13) The stress values to ·be used for temperatures below -20° F when steels are made to eonform with specification SA-300 shall he those that are given
in the column for -20 to 650° F.
(14) Maximum allowable stress values for temperatures below 700° F are given in the following table:
For Metal Temperatures For Metal Temperatures
Not Exceeding Deg F Not Exceeding Deg F
Specification P- -20 to Specification P- -20 to
Number Grade Number 400 500 600 650 Number Grade Number 400 500 600 650
SA-213 TS 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-357 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700
SA-213 T7 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-369 FPS 5 15,000 14.,500 14,000 13,700
SA-213 T9 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-369 FP7 s 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700
SA-213 TSb 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-369 FP9 s 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700
SA-213 T5c 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-335 P7 s 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700
SA-335 PS 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-335 P9 s 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700
SA-335 PSb 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-182 Fl2 4 17,500 17,500 17,500 16,800
SA-335 P5c 5 15,000 14,500 14,000 13,700 SA-182 F5a 5 22,500 21,600 20,100 19,000
SA-336 F2 4, 17,500 17,500 17,500 16,800 · SA-182 Fll 4 17,500 17,500 17,500 16,800
SA-336 FS 5 20,000 19,200 18,000 17,300 SA-182 F9 5 25,000 24,000 22,700 22,000
(15) For temperatures below 4000 F, stress values equal to 20 % of the specified minimum tensile strength will be permitted.
(16) See par. UCS-67(d) of Reference 11.
(17) See special ruling in regard to welding with electrodes havill8' a tensile strength 1088 than the base met.al
(18) This material not suitable for welding.

tion but does list a number of mandatory requirements and
a number of nonmandatory suggestions for practice in
design. It is expected that the designer and the fabricators
will use accepted engineering practices and good judgment
when dealing with those parts of the vessel not covered by
code specifications.
13.5 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
Plain-carbon- and low-alloy-steel plates are usually used
where service conditions permit because of the lesser costs
and greater availability of these steels. Such steels may be
fabricated by fusion welding and oxygen cutting if the car-
bon content does not exceed 0.35 %- Vessels may be fabri-
cated of plate steels meeting the specifications of SA-7,
SA-113, Grade C, and SA-283, Grades A, B, C, and D pro-
vided that (1) the vessel does not contain lethal liquids or
gases, (2) the operating temperature is between -20 and
650° F, (3) the plate thickness does not exceed% in., (4)
the steel is manufactured by the electric furnace or open-
hearth furnace, and (5) the material is not used for unfired
steam boilers.
The allowable stresses for these and other plate steels
together with those for steels used for pipes, forgings,
castings, and boltings are given in Table 13.1.
One of the most widely used steels for general purposes in
the construction of pressure vessels is SA-283, Grade C.
This steel has good ductility and forms, welds, and machines
easily. It is also one of the most economical steels suitable
for pressure vessels. However, its use is limited to vessels
with plate thicknesses not exceeding % in. For vessels
having shells of a greater thickness, SA-285, Grade C is
most widely used in moderate-pressure applications. In
the case of high pressures or large-diameter vessels a higher-
strength steel may be used to advantage to reduce the wall
thickness. SA-212, Grade B is well suited for such applica-
tions and requires a shell thickness of only 79% of that
required by SA-285, Grade C. This steel also is easily
fabricated but is more expensive than the other steels.
The SA-283 steels cannot be used in applications with
temperatures over 650° F; the SA-285 steels cannot be used
for services with temperatures exceeding 900° F; and the
SA-212 steels cannot be used at temperatures over 1000° F.
However, both the SA-285 and the SA-212 steels have very
low allowable stresses at the higher temperatures. There-
fore, for temperatures between 650 and 1000° F, steel
SA-204, which contains 0.4 to 0.6 % molybdenum, is satis-
factory and has good creep qualities. For low-temperature
service ( -50 to - 150° F) a nickel steel such as SA-203 may
be used. The allowable stress for this steel is not specified
for temperatures below -20° F. Normally, the fabricator
must run impact tests to determine the applicability of the
steel and its freedom from brittle fracture for low-temper-
ature service.
13.6 WELDED-JOINT EFFICIENCIES
The use of a welded joint may result in a reduction in
the strength of the part at or near the weld. This may be
the result of metallurgical discontinuities and residual
stresses. The code rules make allowance for these factors
by specifying joint efficiencies for various types of welds
with and without stress relief and radiographing. The
designer is permitted some option in the selection of the
kind of welded joint to be used and in whether or not the
vessel and its parts must be stress relieved and whether or
not the welded joints must be radiographed. The general
thickness limitations for various types of joints are given
in Table 13.2. Additional thickness limitations for various
types of steels are given in the previous section, entitled
Material Specifications.
All vessel shells having a thickness greuter than lici in.
25-4 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Specifications
Table 13.2. Maximum Allowable Efficiencies for Radiographic examination is required for double-welded
Arc- and Gas-welded Joints (11) butt joints if the plate thickness is greater than 1 !i in. If
the plate thickness is greater than 1 in., complete radio-
From the 1956 ASI\'IE Unfired-Pressure-Vessel Code
with Permission of the American Society of graphing of each welded joint is required if the vessel is
:Mechanical Engineers fabricated of SA-202, SA-203, SA-212, SA-225, SA-294,
Maxi- SA-299, SA-301, or SA-302. Vessels of all thicknesses that
Basic mum are fabricated of SA-353, SA-357, or SA-387 must be radio-
Joint Ther- Joint
Effl- mally Effl- graphed. Also, vessels constructed of high-alloy steels such
ciency, Stress ciency, as type 405 welded with straight chromium electrodes and
Type per Radio- Re- per
of Joint Limitations cent graphed lieved cent types 410 and 430 welded with any electrodes must be
Double-welded None No No 80 radiographed in all thicknesses except when the carbon
butt joint
Single-welded Longitudinal joints not 80 No Yes 85 content does not exceed 0.08 %, the plate thickness does not
butt joint over I¼ in. thick. No Yes No 90 exceed 1% in., and austenitic welds are used.
with backing thickness limitation on Y1111 Yes 95
strip circumferential joints.
Single-welded Circumferential joints 70 No No 70 13.7 DESIGN .OF CYLINDRICAL SHELLS UNDER
butt joint only, not over ~ll in. No Yes 75 INTERNAL ·PRESSURE
without back- thick.
ing strip The equations for determining the thickness of cylindrical
Double Cull-fillet Longitudinal joints not 65 No No 65 ...
lap joint over ¾ in. thick. Cir- No Yes 70 shells of vessels under internal pressure are based upon a
cumCerential joints not
over % in. thick. modified membrane-theory equation. The development of
Single Cull-fillet Circumferential joints 60 No No 60 this equation is described in the following chapter (see
lap joint with only, not over ~8 in. No Yes 65
plug welds thick; attachment or Eq. 14.34). The modification empirically shifts the thin-
heads not over 24 in. . wall equation (see Eq. 3.14) to approximate the "Lame"
in outside diameter to
shells not over % in. equation for thick-walled vessels (see Fig. 14.5). The equa-
thick. tion may be written in either of the following forms:
Single full-fillet Only for attachment or 50 No No 50
lap joint with- heads convex t.o pres- No Yes 55
out plug welds sure to shells not over pri pro
¾ in. thick, and for l = = (13.1)
attachment or heads JE - 0.6p JE + 0.4p
concave to pressure not or
over 24 in. in outside
diameter to shells not JEl JEl
over ¼ in. thick. p= (13.2)
. ri + 0.6i ro - 0.4l
where l = minimum required thickness of the shell exclu-
or greater than (d + 50)/120 (where d = inside diameter sive of corrosion allowance, inches
or 20 in., whichever is greater) must be thermally stress p = design pressure, or maximum allowable working
relieved. Vessels of any thickness fabricated from the pressure, pounds per square inch
following low-alloy steels must be stress relieved; SA-301, E = welded-joint efficiency (see Table 13.2)
Grade B; SA-302; SA-217, Grades. WC4 and WC5; SA-357; f = maximum allowable stress, pounds per square
SA-387, Grades B, C, D, and E; and chrome-molybdenum inch (see Table 13.1 or Appendix D).
steel having a chrome content greater than 0.7%. Also, ri = inside radius of the shell, inches
vessels having a shell thickness greater than 0.58 in. must ro = outside radius of the shell, inches
be thermally stress relieved if they are fabricated of the If the thickness of the shell exceeds 50 % of the inside
following steels: SA-202, SA-203, SA-204, SA-225, SA-299, radius, or when the pressure exceeds 0.385JE, the Lame equa-
SA-301, Grade A, SA-387, Grade A, and any steel having a tion should be used to calculate the vessel-shell thickness
specified molybdenum content of 0.4 to 0.65 % and a chrome (see Chapter 14). The following forms of the Lame equa-
content not greater than 0.7%. Also, steels greater than tion are given by the code (11).
1. in. in thickness must be stress relieved if they meet the With the pressure p known,
specifications of the following: SA-212, SA-105, Grade II,
SA-181, Grade II, SA-266, Grade II, SA-95, and SA-216,
Grade WCB.
l = ri(Zl 2 - 1) = ro ( Z½
~
- 1) (13.3)
If high-alloy steels are used, stress relieving .is not required where
in the case of austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steels. z =JE +P (13.4)
The increase in joint efficiency may be used if these steels JE-p
are heat treated at over 900° F. If the vessels are con-
When l is known,
structed. of ferritic chromium stainless steels, stress relieving
is required in all vessel thicknesses except in the case of
type 405 welded with electrodes, a process producing the
P =JE (zZ-1)
--
+1
(13.5)
austenitic weld. The code gives the temperatures and
where
describes the procedures to be used in thermal stress reliev-
ing. Allowable stresses as specified by the code for high-
alloy steels are given in Appendix D.
Z = (~)2
ro
= (~)2 = (~)2
r, ro - l
(13.6)

13.8 DESIGN OF CYCLINDRICAL SHELLS UNDER
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
The design of cylindrical vessels under external pressure
is based upon consideration of the elastic stability of the
shell, as described in Chapter 8. The calculation is made
by successive approximation by using the following equa-
tion (see Eq. 8.33):
B in details C, D, F, and G of Fig. 13.2, the moment of inertia
(13.7)
P = dolt
where p = allowable working pressure, pounds per square
inch
do = external diameter of shell, inches
t = minimum thickness of shell exclusive of corrosion
allowance, inches
B = factor from Fig. 8.8 for carbon steel (see Appen-
dix I for charts for other steels and alloys)
Considerable reduction in vessel-shell thickness is often
obtained by the use of stiffening rings, in which case Eq. 13.7
may be modified as follows (see Eq. 8.39):
B = pdo
t + (A,/L)
where A 8 = cross-sectional area of the stiffening ring,
square inches
L = design length of a vessel section, as shown in
Fig. 13.1
The required moment of inertia of the stiffening ring may
be calculated by use of Eq. 13.9 (see Eq. 8.38).
Fig. 13.1. Design length of vessel section l for Eq. 13.8. (Extracted from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pressure
Vusels, with permission of the publisher, lhe American Society of Mechanical Engineers [11].)
Design of Cylindrical Shells Under External Pressure 255
(t + 1
2
d0 L
Is = ---'-----'-
8
) A
(13.9)
14
where A = the factor given in Fig. 8.8
Stiffening rings should extend completely around the
circumference of the vessel. If it is necessary to include
joints between the ends of sections of such rings, as shown
of the ring must be maintained bv the addition of metal.
The internal stiffening ring may be replaced in part by
the external stiffener, as shown in detail H, so that the
m~ment of inertia of the ring is maintained. In designing
such stiffeners the moment of inertia of each section is taken
about its own neutral axis. Gaps in the stiffening ring such
as those shown in details A and E should not exceed the
permissible length of arc given in Fig. 13.3 unless the addi-
tional reinforcement shown in detail H is provided. Some
exceptions to this limitation are permitted by the code if
the arcs of the stiffening rings are staggered 180°.
Stiffening rings are attached to the shell by either con-
tinuous or intermittent welding. In the case where inter-
mittent welding is used on each side of the stiffening ring,
the total length of weld should be at least equal to one-half
(13.8) of the outside circumference of the vessel for external rings,
and at least equal to one-third of the circumference for
internal rings. Intermittent welds may be spaced a maxi-
mum distance of 8t in. apart.
Any out-of-roundness of the shells of vessels subjected to
external pressure reduces the strength of the vessel. This
problem was discussed in section 8. 7 of Chapter 8. The
maximum permissible deviation, e, from a circular form
permitted by the code for vessels under external pressure is
given by Fig. 13.4.
256 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Speciflcations
is found to be 0.138do, The chord length for the template
is twice this value, or 2(0.138)(169.3) = 46.7 in. There-
fore, in a chord length of 46.7 in. the maximum plus or
minus deviation from circular form must not exceed 0.65 in.
13.9 DESIGN OF PIPES AND TUBES UNDER
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
When tubes or pipes are subjected to external pressure,
an increase in allowable pressure is permitted over that
E determined for shells by use of Fig. 8.8 (which is based
length ol any gap in \ upon elastic-stability considerations). Figure 13.5, from
unsupported shell not ~
lo eiceed length of arc the 1956 code, gives the allowable design pressure for pipes
shown in Ag. 13.3 or tubes subjected to external pressure as a function of the
allowable stress of the material of construction and the
ratio of l/ d0• When corrosion or erosion is expected, addi-
tional metal must he supplied. If the pipe or tubes are
threaded, additional metal equal to (0.8/n) inches, where n .
is the number of threads per inch, must be provided.
13.10 FORMED CLOSURES UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
The most common types of closures for vessels under
internal pressure are the elliptical dished head (ellipsoidal
Support
head) with a major-to-minor-axis ratio equal to 2.0: LO and
the torispherical head in which the knuckle radius is equal
This section shall have moment to 6 % or more of the inside crown radius (ASME standard
ol lntrtia iequired for ring
H K dished head).
13. l Oa Elliptical Dished Heads. In the case of the
Fig. 13.2. Variovs arrangements af stiffening rings far unfired cylindrical two-to-one elliptical dished head the following relationships
ve11els subjected to external pressure. (Extracted from the 1956 edition apply (see Eqs. 7.56 and 7.57):
of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Venel Code, Unfired l'reuure Vessel,, with
permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers t= pd
[11 ].)
(13.10)
2/E - 0.2p

2/Et
(13.11)
In ·determining the maximum out-of-roundness, e, a p = d + 0.2t
segmental circular template is used having the inside or the
outside radius specified by the design (depending upon where d = inside diameter of the head skirt
whether the measurements are made inside or outside). For elliptical dished heads which have a major-to-minor-
The length of the chord of the template should equal twice axis ratio other than 2.0: 1.0, Eq. 7.56 is used with Eq. 7.57
the maximum permissible unsupported arc length as deter- for determining the shell thickness.
mined by Fig. 13.3. In the case of vessels with butt joints, Ex:AMPLE·DESIGN CALCULATIONS. The thickness exclu-
the value oft used in Fig. 13.4 is the nominal plate thickness sive of corrosion allowance for a seamless elliptical dished
less the corrosion allowance. If longitudinal lap joints are head is to be determined for a vessel having an inside
used, t is equal to the nominal plate ·thickness, and the diameter of 40 in. which is to be operated at an internal
permissible deviation is equal to (t + e). pressure of 200 psi. The inside depth of dish fa to be 9 in.
Ex:AMPLE CALCULATION. The vessel considered in sec-
and the allowable stress is 13,750 psi. The joint efficiency,
tion 8.4 of Chapter 8 will be used to illustrate the method of E, is equal to LO for seamless heads.
determining the permissible out-of-roundness of cylindrical In reference to Eq. 7.56
shells. The shell is 14 ft in diameter and 1 ½ 6 in. thick.
The difference between the maximum diameter and the V = ¼(2 + k2) = ½[2 + (¥?]
minimum diameter cannot exceed 1 % of the nominal
diameter, or 0.01 X (14 ft X 12) = 1.68 in. = 1.15

do
By Eq. 7.57
208.5
l t= p dV = 200(40)(1.15)
2/E - 0.2p ~(13,750) - 0.2(200)
L = 1.49
do = 0.33 in.
From Fig. 13.4, e = 0.80l = 0.80(1 Yi 6 ) 0.65 in. From 13.lOb Torispherkal Dished Heads. For torispherical
Fig. 13.3, the maximum permissible unsupported arc length dished heads in which the knuckle radius is 6 % of the inside
 formed Closures under Internal Pressure 257
800 .----.--..---r--.-.........,....,-,-__,..,..,......,....,.......__,....,.._,.---rr-r--r-,--T""TT""""'!-,--,---.,...,..-...-.....
700t---+---'--f-+-+-,j<-j-!-+--l-l-l--l+l---+1---l-/.+--l-.4--+-+-+--lf-i-,-+-+-f--F-+-----,I----I
600---
500
4001----'""4---➔

.:::.
~ 3001'----+---+--•

i° 250
.i- 200t-c----+--+-+->'+--l--l-+-ll--
.!,!
:5
•I• 150 t--+---+:;r+-+-!t~-+--+-i<--t-+-lf--Tf--+-

1 .!!!
"O
,u

I
30t---+--,,f'--
25..__...._.'---'_
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.50.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 15 20 25
Length between heads or stiffening rings + outside diameter, L/d0

Fig. 13.3. Maximum arc of shell left unsupported because of gap in stiffening ring of cyllndrlcal shell under ext.emal preuure. {Extracted from the 1956
edltian af the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
[11].)

800
700
600
500
400
~
-c0 300
::i'
,u
250
C
-"' 200
-.s..
.!,!
.s:::.
150
Cl)
E
"' 100
'o 90
Cl)
"O
80
ii:, 70
0 60
50
40

30
25
0.10 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 25
Lengths between heads or stiffening rings + outside diameter, L/cl.0

Fig. 13.4. Maximum deviation from a circular form, e, for vessels under external pressure. {Extracted from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessell Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers [11 J.J
258 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Speciflcations
10,000 ,------,---,---~-..----r--,---,---,--.---.-....-....-.--.--r-,-,.....,....,..,.-,-,
9,000 l------+----+---+----+--+--+-----+--+--+--+---1'--1--1--1~
8,000 1-----+---l----l--+--+--l--+---1--+----+-l--l--l--l-
7,ooo 1------i----1------1----l--+---1-----1---1---1--1---lf.--1--1---l~
6,000 1------+----+---+--+-+--+-----+--+--+--+------''--l-::,-F-ir-
5,ooo 1 - - - - - - - + - - - - + - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - + - 1 - - - - - - + - - - + - - + - -

1,000 1------l----,,~l----,~-1---7"'---+--~-4---,,,,4---V
·- 900 1-----+-.,;L--+--c~-+--+..""'--+---+-~-+---:;r""---17"''-+-...,,,,.""-l--1~""'+~'1--+--hi,<:+-I
~ 8001-----7"f------,,..f"---+-~=+--+-n::_---l~:...+-:~f---,,,!£--+::---+,.-F-~:+-~:i-++I
aef
"'
700 l----:...._-1---.,G--!---IC.--l--...4--1---"'-+-------.."'CC+--~-l-.
600 ----.4------h;&--1--_,.,,,.1---+-1"'--""1---""--1----"'
~
Q.

.ii
~ 4001----.,,C...+--~l---..i....<:;.._"'-"---+----,L.£:..---,:;;_..J..;,<;..J..

200

150

30=.....::;..c_~:-::-c=~:=:i=:--...J...--:-..l-.---L~-:--__J-_L__JL-...1_..L...L_.L_L..L...J_L.L.J....L..LJ
1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 10,000 20,000
Design stress,. psi

Fig. 13.5. Chart for determining wall thickness of tubes under external pressure. (Extracted from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Preffilre Veoel
Code, Unfired Pressure Ves..,/s, with permission of the publisher, the American Soc:iely of Mechanical Engineers [t 1].)

crown radius, the following relationships hold (see Eqs. 7.76 stress is 13,750 and the joint efficiency is 1.0. Determine
and 7.77): the thickness exclusive of corrosion allowance.
t = 0.885prc By Eq. 7.76
(13.12)
JE O.lp
or
W
1
= T(3 +v - -;--;-
rc/r1) = 1
1:(3 + 3.16]
JEt = 1.54
p=--'---- (13.13)
0.885rc + 0.lt By Eq. 7.77
where rc inside spherical or crown radius, inches
For torispherical dished heads having greater than 6%
t= prcW = 200(40)(1.54)
knuckle radii, Eqs. 7.76 and 7.77 are used. 2JE - 0.2P 2(13,750) - 0.2(200)
EXAMPLE-DESIGN CALCULATIONS. A vessel having an = 0.45 in.
inside diameter of 40 in. with a seamless torispherical dished
head having a radius of dish of 40 in. and a knuckle radius 13.1 Oc Hemispherical Dished Heads. When the thick-
of 4 in. is to be operated at 200 psi pressure. The allowable ness of a hemispherical head does not exceed 0.356rc, where
 Formed Closures undes Internal Pressure 259
re is the inside spherical radius, or when p does not exceed In reference to Table 13.3
0.665JE, Eq. 7.88 applies. For thick hemispherical heads 50
exceeding these limits, the following formulas apply (11): f!_ = - 0 0045
JE 13,750(0.80) - .

t. = ri(Y}i - 1) = ro ( Y¼Yl-i -1) (13.14) A= 26.5°

where As (a = 30°) exceeds a A of 26.5°, a compression ring is

required. By Eq. 13.16
y = 2(JE + p)
2JE-p A = 0.0045 [ (200)2t577)] [1 26.5]
or 30

p = 2JE (.!'.:.._!) (13.15) = 1.52 sq in.

Y+l
13.lOe Toriconical Closures. Conical closures or coni-
where cal shell sections in which half the apex angle, a is greater
y = (ri r,+ t) = (___:!_)
3

ro - t
3
than 30° must he connected to the shell by means of a torus
ring section at the junction to reduce junction stresses.
Also, a toriconical head may he used when the angle a is
13. lOd Conical Dished Closures. For conical closures
less than 30° hut greater than A (see Table 13.3) in order
or conical shell sections in which half the apex angle, a (see
to avoid the use of compression rings. The minimum
Fig. 6.8) is not greater than 30°, Eq. 6.154 is used. The
knuckle radius must he equal to the greater of either 6 %
discontinuity stresses at the junction of the conical closure
of the outside diameter of the head skirt or three times the
with the shell, described in Chapter 6, may cause excessive
knuckle thickness. The required thickness of the knuckle
deformation. This may he prevented by the addition of a
is determined by use of modified forms of Eqs. 7.76 and 7.77
compression ring at the junction. When a exceeds A,
determined from Table 13.3, conical heads without a knuckle with L substituted for re where
will require a compression ring at the section where the L = di
cone joins the shell. (13.17)
2 cos a
and
Table 13.3. Value of A for Conical Closures (11)
d1 inside diameter of the conical portion of the toriconical
.J!.. 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 head at the point of tangency with the knuckle, meas-
JE
A, deg 13 18 22 25 28 31 ured perpendicular to the axis of the cone, inches (see
Fig. 13.6)
The required cross-sectional area of the compression ring The thickness of the cone is determined by use of Eq.
in square inches is given by (11): 6.154, in which d1 is substituted for d.
A = f!_
JE
(d tan a) (l _A
2

8
deg)
a deg
(13.16)
EXAMPLE-DESIGN CALCULATION. It is desired to use a
toriconical closure having a knuckle radius of 20 in. for the
vessel in the previous section in order to avoid the use of a
where A = critical value from Table 13.3 compression ring. Determine the thickness of the knuckle
and the cone.
When the thickness of the head or the shell exceeds the
required thickness, exclusive of corrosion allowance, for the
design pressure, credit may he taken for the excess thick-
ness. The area included in a distance of eight plate thick-
nesses on each side of the joint times the excess thickness
may he credited towards the required compression-ring
area, A.
EXAMPLE-DESIGN CALCULATION. A vessel having an
inside diameter of 200 in. is to operate under an internal
pressure of 50 psi. A conical closure is to be used with an
t
apex angle of 30°. The material has an allowable stress of
13,750 psi and a joint efficiency of 80%.
By Eq. 6.154

t=--_..:_pd _ __
2 cos a(JE - 0.6p)
= 50(200)
2(0.866)(13,750 X 0.80 - 0.6 X 50)
= 0.526 in. Fig. 13.6. Toriconical closure (11).
260 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Specifications

r- Preferab1y 2t min

Loose-flange type Integral-flange type

(c>
~A------,--,...
¼(A+lll---~""'i
Upper limiting
segment .

t
\
Shown as
welded.
Smooth weld
both sides.
Ring
gasket
shown
------~C------+-'~
(d)

fig. 13.7. Spherically dished-steel-plate covers with bolting flanges, (E:dracted from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired
Pressure Vessels, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (11].}

The inside diameter of the cone, di, at the point of design pressure and ~ joint efficiency of 1.0 is used. The
tangency to the knuckle is: minimum thickness as determined by the above method
must he compared with the thickness computed for the
di = 200 - 2(20)(1 - 0.866) 194.64 in.
same closure by means of the procedure for external pressure
The thickness of the knuckle is determined by means of vessels given in Chapter 8, section 8.8 or 8.11 as the case
Eqs. 7. 76 and 7. 77 modified by use of L in place of rc where L may he.
is given by Eq. 13.17. Hemispherical and conical closures are designed in accord- ·
ance with the procedures outlined in Chapter 8.
L = 194.64 = 112 in.
2(0.866) 13.12 SPHERICAL DISHED COVERS

By Eq. 7.76 A torispherical dished closure or a spherical dished flat

plate may he combined with a bolting ring to produce a
W = ¼(3 + ~) = ¼(3 + Vll2/20) = 1.34 dished cover, as shown in Fig. 13.7.
CovEBS WITH PRESSUBE ON THE CoNCAVE SmE. The
By Eq. 7.77 thickness of the covers shown in detail a of Fig. 13.7 is
t = 50(112)(1.34) = 0 342 in
determined by the method used for torispherical covers.
(knuckle) 2(13,750)(0.8) - 0.2(50) · · The thickness of the spherical dished covers shown in
details b, c, and d of Fig. 13. 7 is determined by use of the
The thickness of the cone by Eq. 6.154 with d1 substituted membrane equation for spherical shells under internal pres-
ford is: sure with an empirical factor of % to allow for the dis-
continuities at the junction with the ring. The minimum
t = (50)(194.64) = 0.512 in. thickness of the dished covers in details b, c, and d of
2(0.866)((13,750)(0.8) - {0.6)(50)] Fig. 13.7 is given by {11):
13.11 FORMED CLOSURES UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
t = 5pL {13.18)
In designing elliptical or tori.spherical dished heads for 6f
external pressure (pressure on the convex side) the thick-
where p internal design pressure, pounds per square inch
ness must he at least equal to that computed by use of
L = radius of crown, inches
Eq. 7.57 for elliptical closures and Eq. 7. 77 for torispherical
closures'. In using either of these equations the pressure on
f = allowable stress
the concave side is taken as equal to 1.67 times the external If the bolting rings are within the range of the American

Standards (ASA) Bl6.5-1953, the flange dimensions and
facing details should conform to these standards. Bolting
rings larger than these standards allow and corresponding
to detail a of Fig. 13.7 are designed as ring-plate flanges,
as described in Chapter 12. If the bolting ring corresponds
to that shown in detail b of Fig. 13. 7, the following equa-
tions may be used to determine the flange thickness (11).
For a ring gasket, the flange thickness is:
Nozzles, Openings, and Reinforcements 261
COVERS WITH PRESSURE ON THE CONVEX SmE. Spherical
dished covers may be used with the pressure on the convex
side. The dimensions of the cover and the ring are deter-
mined by using the same procedure as was used in the case
of pressure on the concave side. However, the thickness
of the cover plate must be checked for elastic instability by
using the procedures for the design of closures under
external pressure given in Chapter 8.

t - ✓Mo [ A+ B ] (13.19) 13.13 FLAT-PLATE CLOSURES

- J B(A - B)
For a full-face gasket, the flange thickness is: Flat plates are often used as closures or as cover plates
for the openings in vessels. Blind flanges may be used for
t = 0 _6 ✓!!_ [B(A + B)(C - B)] (13.20) this purpose and should conform to ASA-Bl6.5-1953. For
f A -B unstayed flat heads, blind flanges, and cover plates, such as
those shown in Fig. 13.8, the minimum thickness may be
where A = outside diameter of bolting ring, inches
B inside diameter of bolting ring, inches determined by a modification ofEq. 6.55a with the constant
of ;½'. 6 in this equation replaced by a constant of C, given
C = diameter of bolt circle, inches
in Appendix H, to give:
Mo = total moment as determined in Chapter 12 for
ring-plate flanges
(13.27)
f = allowable stress, pounds per square inch
p = internal pressure, pounds per square inch where t = minimum thickness of plate, inches
If the cover plate corresponds to detail c of Fig. 13.7, the C = constant from Appendix H
following equations may be used to determine the flange p = design pressure, pounds per square inch
thickness (11). J = maximum allowable stress
For a ring gasket, the flange thickness is:
13.U NOZZLES, OPENINGS, AND REINFORCEMENTS
t = Q[1 + ✓l + :~~~] (13.21) Nozzles and openings are necessary components of pres-
sure vessels for the process industries. Openings in a
For a full-face gasket, the flange thickness is: cylindrical shell, conical section, or closure may produce
stress concentrations adjacent to the opening and weaken
t = Q[l + ✓l + 3(C ~B)B] (13.22) that portion of the vessel. In order to minimize such stress
concentrations, it is preferable that the openings be circular
in shape. As a second choice the openings may be made
where (13.23) elliptical, or as a third choice they may be made obround.
An obround opening has two parallel sides and two semi-
circular ends. Openings of other shapes are permissible
If the bolting ring corresponds to detail d of Fig. 13. 7, if the vessel is tested hydrostatically.
the following relationship applies for determining the flange If the opening in a closure of a cylindrical vessel exceeds
thickness (11): one half the inside diameter of the shell, the opening and
closure should be fabricated by one of the methods in
Flange thickness, t = F[l + Vl + (J/F 2
)] (13.24) Fig. 13.9.
pB V4L 2 - B 2 In reference to Fig. 13.9, the design of the opening includ-
where F= - - - - - - (13.25) ing the knuckle radii and the angle a must meet the require-
8/(A - B)
men ts for conical or toriconical closures given in section
J Mo) [<A+ B)] (13.26)
13.10.
( JB (A - B) If the opening is less than one half the inside diameter of
the shell, the opening may correspond to one of the designs
In Eq. 13.26, Mo is calculated as before except that a shown in Fig. 13.10.
moment equal to Hrhr must be added or subtracted, as the Openings in shells and closures other than those of the
case may be, from the moment HDhD where
type shown in Fig. 13.9 may require reinforcement. Small
Hr radial component of membrane load in spherical sizes of openings welded or brazed to a vessel do not require
segment HD cot B1, pounds reinforcement. The particular sizes not requiring reinforce-
hr = lever arm of force Hr about centroid of flange ring, ment are: 3-in. nominal pipe size in a shell or closure with
inches a thickness of % in. or less, and 2-in. nominal pipe size
HD = axial component of membrane load in spherical in a shell or closure with a thickness greater than % in.
segment, pounds Threaded, studded, or expanded connections having a
hD lever arm of force HD about centroid of flange nominal pipe size of 2 in. or less also do not require
ring, inches reinforcement.
262 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Specifications

C=0.162
C•0.162 C=0.30
(IIJ (C)

Projection
beyond weld
is optional
Bevel optional

45° max

C=0.25 C=0.50
(dJ (ej en

Min It =I or t,,
d whichever is
greater
·-1
c = o.ao + 1.40 Who C•0.30+ lAOWho C•0.50
Htl Htl
fgj (hJ (i)

ring

C•0.75 C=O.ao C=0.30

(jJ (kJ (I)

30" min
45• max

C=0.30 C=0.50
(m) (n)

Fig. 13.8. Some acceptable types of flat heads and coven. (Extraded from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pressure
Vessels, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers [11].)
 Nozzles, Openings, and Reinforcements 263
A 12-in., extra-heavy, lap-joint stub-end nozzle, con-
forming to specification SA-105, Grade I, is attached by
welding to a vessel that has an inside diameter of 60 in.
and a shell thickness of ¾ in. The material of the shell
and reinforcement plate conforms to specification SA-201,
Grade B. The vessel operates at 250 psi and 700° F.
There is no allowance for corrosion, and the vessel is not
stress-relieved. Check the adequacy of the reinforcement
plate and the attachment welds shown in Fig. 13.11.

Wall thicknesses required:

250 X 30
Shell 4- = 14,350 X 1.0 - 0.6 X 250 = 0·528 in.
250 X 6
Nozzle lrn =
141350
X LO _ 0_6 X 250 = 0.106 in.

Size of weld required:

r0 == 0.12R0 minimum Inner fillet weld = 1.41 X 0.7 X 0.375 0.375 in.
Reinforcement-plate
fillet weld = 1.41 X 0.5 X 0.375 = 0.264 in.
The weld sizes used are satisfactory.
Area of reinforcement required: _
A = 11. 75 X 0.528 = 6.20 sq in.
Area of reinforcement provided:
Fig. 13,9. large head openings--reverse-curve and conical shell-reducer Ai = 11.75(0.75 - 0.528) 2.61
sections. (Extracted from lhe 1956 edition of lhe ASME Soi/er and Preuure
Vessel Code, Unfired Preuure Vessels, with permission of the publisher, the A2 = 2 X 1.625(0.50 - 0.106) = 1.29
American Society of Mechanical Engineers [11].)
Aa = 2 X ½({/«-) 2 + (i) 2] = 0.24
13.14a Reinforcement for Openings in Shells and Area provided by A1 to A 3 4.14 sq in.
Formed Closures. In the case of a shell opening requiring Area required in A 4 = 6.20 - 4.14 = 2.06 sq in,
reinforcement in a vessel under internal pressure, the metal Use A 4 = 2 X 3.0 X 0.375 = 2.25 sq in.
removed in the axial plane of the shell must be replaced Total area provided = 6.39 sq in.
by the metal of reinforcement. The required reinforcing
area for an opening in a vessel under internal pressure is Load lo be carried by welds:
given by Eq. 13.28. If the vessel is under external pres- W = {6.20 - 2.61)14,350 = 51,500 lb
sure, only 50 % of the area specified by Eq. 13.28 is required.
Unit stresses:
a= d X t (13.28)
Shear in fillet weld = 0.46 X 14,350 = 6600 psi
where a = cross-sectional area of reinforcement, square
inches Tension in groove weld = 0.70 X 14,350 = 10,050 psi
d = diameter of opening (in corroded condition), Shear in nozzle wall = 0.70 X 14,350 10,050 psi
inches
t = thickness of shell, inches Strength of connection elements:

In addition to providing the area of reinforcement, ade- A, inner fillet weld = 1.57 X 12.75 X 0.375
quate welds must be provided to attach the metal of rein- X 6600 = 49,500 lb
forcement, and the induced stresses must be evaluated. B, nozzle neck in shear = 1.57 X 12.25 X 0.50
The following example from the code illustrates the pro- X 10,050 = 96,600 lb
cedure {11).
EXAMPLE OF ANALYSIS OF REINFORCING AREA FOR OPEN- C, groove weld in tension = 1.57 X 12.75 X 0.75
ING IN SHELL. The following example is quoted from the X 10,050 = 150,700 lb
1956 edition of the ASME code for unfired pressure vessels D, outer fillet weld 1.57 X 18.75 X 0.312
(11). This example illustrates the recommended procedure X 6600 = 60,600 lb
for calculating the required reinforcement for an opening
in a shell. These elements provide sufficient strength so that there
264 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Specifications
Backingslrip. if used, may be removed after welding--.......,

(a)

t,. t,, t,, t,.

(d) (e-1)
11 +12= ll,Hmin
t 1 or t 2 not less than ¼tm., or !('

t,.

Typical flush-type nozzles

(g) (h} (k)

I
,,,._....--,,- Weld to shell

(m) (n)

Fig. 13-10. Some acceptable types of welded nozzles for vessels. (Extr1:11:ted from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and PreRUre Vessel Code, Unfired
 Nozzles, Openings, and Reinforcements 265

(o)

(p)

(q-2)

t.,, •0.7tmin

(r) (8) (t)

. - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - Either method of attachment is satisfact

t1

t2 t. z::t2 \ _/
t1 + t2= l¼trmn
t 1 or t 2 not less than !it..., or i.•
(ii-2)* (u-1) (u-2}* (w-1) (w-2}*

• For 3• pipe size and smaller, see exemptions

t,.but
not less
than i.•

Section 1-1
(:y} (z)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - T y p i c a l tube connections
(When used for other than square, round, or oval headers, round off corners)

Pressure Vessels, with permission of the publisher, the Americ:an Society of Mec:hanic:al Engineers [11].)
266 Design of Pressure Vessels to Code Specifications
v,i-.---m,·---.Y,
D ----12¾"-----a-ii--
'>Hln!------13½'---t:~
rtts~"'tr."'.°~r:~.,.,~~(s!i:.~
fig. 13.11. Example of reinforced opening. (Extracted from the 1956
edition of the ASMf Boiler and Preswre Veuel Code, Unfired Pressure
Veuels, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers [11].)
is no need of specifying a minimum width of fusion between
the groove weld and the reinforcement plate.
Possible paths of failure are (1) through B and D with
a design strength of 157,200 lb, (2) through A and C with a
design strength of 200,200 lb, (3) through C and D with
a design strength of 211,300 lb. All of these paths are
stronger than the required strength of 51,500 lb.
The design strength of the outer fillet weld attaching
the reinforcement plate to the shell is 60,600 lb, or greater
than the reinforcement plate strength of 2.25 X 14,350 =
32,300 lb.
In the case of an opening which is located entirely within
the spherical portion of a torispherical dished head, the
thickness to be used in Eq. 13.28 is calculated by Eq. 7.77
with a joint efficiency of 1.00 and a shape factor of 1.00.
If an opening requiring reinforcement is located in a
conical closure or section, the thickness to be used in
Eq. 13.28 is that required for a seamless cone having a
diameter, d, measured where the nozzle axis pierces the
inside wall of the cone.
13.14b Reinforcement for Openings in Flat-plate Clo-
sures. Openings in flat-plate closures in which the size of
the opening does not exceed one half of the head diameter
or the shorter span, as indicated in Fig. 13.8, require one
half the reinforcing area specified by Eq. 13.28. If the
opening exceeds one half the head diameter or the shorter
span, the flat-plate closure should be designed as a flange
(see Chapter 12).
13.1-4c Limits of Reinforcement. In general the limits of
reinforcement measured normal to the vessel wall should
not exceed the lesser of the following:
2½(tn - c) + thickness of added reinforcement
exclusive of weld metal
where ta = shell or head thickness, inches
tn = thickness of nozzle wall, inches
c = corrosion allowance, inches
Credit may be taken for any excess thickness present in
the shell or nozzle over that required on the basis of the
design pressure and corrosion allowance. The area avail-
able for credit is the larger of the following:
a = (Et t,)d (13.31)
a = 2(Et - t.)(t + ln) (13.32)
where a = available area contributing to reinforcement,
square inches
d = diameter of opening (in corroded condition),
inches
E = joint efficiency
1.0 if opening does not pass through welded joint
Credit may also be taken for the cross-sectional area of
the attachment welds. The required cross-sectional area
of the reinforcing plate may be determined by subtracting
the area credited from excess shell and/or nozzle thickness
and the area credited from the attachment welds from the
'total required area as determined by Eq. 13.28. In case
of multiple openings or threaded connections the code
should he consulted.
13.15 PRESSURE TESTING OF CODE VESSELS
All pressure vessels designed to code specifications except
those exempted because of small size must be tested either
hydrostatically, pneumatically, or by means of the "proof-
test" (11).
In the case of the hydrostatic test the vessel must be sub-
jected to a hydrostatic test pressure at least equal to one
and a half times the maximum allowltble pressure at the
test temperature. Following the application of the test
pressure, all joints and connections must be inspected with
the vessel under a pressure not less than two thirds of the
test pressure. Although water is normally used in this
test, any nonhazardous liquid may be used below its boiling
temperature.
If the vessels are designed so that they can not safely be
filled with water (as in the case of tall vertical towers
designed to handle vapors), pneumatic testing may be used.
The pneumatic test pressure should be at least one and
a half times the maximum allowable pressure at the test
temperature. In conducting the pneumatic test the pres-
sure in the vessel should be gradually increased to not more
than one half the test pressure. Thereafter the pressure
should he raised in increments of one tenth of the test
pressure until the test pressure is reached. Following this
the pressure should be reduced to the maximum allowable
pressure and held there for a sufficient length of time to
(13.29) permit inspection of the vessel.
The "proof test" can be used to establish the allowable
working pressure in vessels that have parts in which the
(13.30) stresses can not be computed with satisfactory accuracy.
In one procedure of this test all areas of probable high
stress-concentration are painted with a wash of lime or
another brittle coating. The pressure is raised and the
vessel is inspected for signs of yielding indicated by flaking
or strain lines in the wash. The vessel is rated at the test
temperature at one half the test pressure at which yielding
is first observed.
Strain gage measurements may be used in nondestructive
testing. In this case the pressure is increased in increments
 Pressure Testing of Code Vessels 267
of one tenth the test pressure, each increment followed by relationship:
relaxation of the pressure, until a permanent strain of 0.2%
is reached. The vessel rating at the test temperature is fop
Pop= Patm 1 (13.33)
equal to one half the pressure producing this permanent Jatm
strain. A modification of the strain-gage-measurement where Pop = maximum operating pressure at operating
procedure known as the displacement-measurement pro- temperature
cedure is also permitted by the code. This method involves fop = allowable working stress at operating temper-
the use of measuring gages at diametrically opposed refer- ature
ence points in a symmetrical structure. fatm = allowable working stress at atmospheric tem-
In another version of the proof test a sample vessel is perature (test temperature)
tested to destruction and identical vessels are rated at the
test temperature at one fifth the pressure at which the This chapter represents only a condensation of selected
tested vessel failed. sections of the code. The code should be consulted for
The maximum operating (op.) pressure for a vessel at an more detailed information on the design of pressure vessels
elevated temperature is determined by the following according to code specifications (11).

PROBLEMS

1. A horizontal storage vessel 16 ft, 0 in. in inside diameter and 32 ft, 0 in. from tangent line
to tangent line is required to process petroleum hydrocarbons at 200 psi and 200° F. Elliptical
dished closures and single-welded butt joints with backing strip are to be used without radio-
graphing or thermal stress relieving. Corrosion allowance is ½ 6 in. Determine the total
weight of the vessel shell and closures exclusive of attachments if the steel used is (1) SA-283,
Grade C, (2) SA-285, Grade C, (3) SA-212, Grade B. Do all designs meet code specifications?
2. Estimate the total cost of each of the vessels in problem 1 if four courses are used for the
shell.
3. Design a vertical vessel 15 ft, 0 in. in outside diameter and 24 ft, 0 in. long from the point
of tangency at the upper torispherical dished head to the junction with the 60°-apex-angle
conical closure at the bottom to operate at full vacuum (1) without stiffeners, (2) with stiffeners.
The material is to be SA-285, Grade C with a joint efficiency equal to 0.8.
4. Design a spherical dished cover as shown in detail d of Fig. 13. 7 for a vessel in which
dimension Bis equal to 24H in. that is to operate at 150 psi and 500° F. The gasket is H 6 -in.-
thick asbestos composition and has an inside diameter of 24¾ in. and an outside diameter of
25½ in. The bolt-circle diameter, C, is equal to 26% in., and 24 bolts % in. in diameter are
to be used. The ste!;ll used meets SA-285, Grade C specifications.
5. Determine the thickness of a flat cover plate such as the one shown in detail g of Fig. 13.8
which might be used as a substitute for the dished cover described in problem 4, using the
same dimensions and specifications for gasket, bolts, and materials.
6. Specify the reinforcement required for the case of SA-285, Grade C steel if a circular
manway fabricated of 18-in. nominal-size pipe, schedule 20, is used in the top of the vessel
described in problem 1. The manway does not intersect a weld seam in the shell.

HIGH-PRESSURE MONOBLOC VESSELS
T h e application of high pressure to the chemical process
industries opened a new field to the design engineer. This
relatively new technique originated about 1913 with the
industrial synthesis of ammonia from its elements and with
the Burton process for the cracking of oil. Numerous
applications have been made since then, and the range of
pressures used today extends up to about 50,000 psi. Early
investigators quickly realized that the factor limiting attain-
able pressures was the mechanical properties of the materials
used. As a result the behavior of construction materials
under these working conditions became the object of an
extensive study. Rapid progress has been made, and the
information obtained, as well as the new methods of con-
struction, constitutes what is usually called high-pressure
technique.
Vessels under high-pressure service may fail as a result of
various types of rupture depending upon the material of
construction, method of fabrication, and operating con-
ditions. A simple type of construction consists of a single
thick-walled cylinder with suitable end closures, which is
termed monobloc construction. Such a vessel may be
fabricated without residual stresses or may be deliberately
prestressed. Some advantages of prestressing are the
lowering of the maximum stress level under operating
conditions and the reduction of required wall thickness.
Several criteria for the failure of nonprestressed monobloc
vessels are presented and are compared both theoretically
and with rupture data; this is followed by a discussion of
the behavior of such vessels at elevated temperatures. The
advantages of prestressing and methods of design using
autofrettage are then considered.
268
CHAPTER
Designing high-pressure equipment presents many factors
and conditions to be taken into consideration. To mention
only a few, the following may be listed:
1. Dimensions-diameters, length, and so on, and their
limitations.
2. Operating conditions-pressure and temperature.
3. Temperature gradients in the walls.
4. Methods of transferring heat.
5. Corrosive nature of reactants and products.
6. Type of operation-batch or continuous.
7. Number and size of openings and closures in vessels.
8. Vertical or horizontal installations.
9. Available materials, their physical properties and
cost.
10. Types of construction, that is, forged, welded, cast.
Among these the operating conditions are the most impor-
tant since almost all the other factors are dependent vari-
ables of the working pressure and temperature. A treat-
ment of the pressure-stress relationships in the material is
presented here, exclusive of temperature-stress relationships.
14.1 THEORIES OF ELASTIC FAILURE
Elastic failure of a given material may he considered to
occur when the elastic limit of the material is reached.
Beyond this limit the specimen is permanently deformed or
ruptured. Of the various theories developed to account
for elastic failure, four are of special interest.
According to Lame and Clapeyron (189), it was sufficient
to find the greatest principal stresses in order to determine
when the elastic limit was reached. Saint-Venant (148)
considered that the elastic limit was reached when the
 Lame Theory of Stress Analysis for Thick-walled Cylinders 269
sum of the downward forces is equal to (p 0 1rd}/4) +
fa(1r/4)(d0 2 - di). Then, by a summation of forces, the
following relation must hold:

P,"1rd;2 = Po1rdo
2
+~ ~ (d 2 _ d·2)
4 4 Ja 4 ° •
and
f, = Pi(1rd; 2/4) - Po(1rdo 2/4)
a (1r/4)(do2 - cJ;2)
or
2 2
Pici; - Podo
fa = do2 - cJ;2 (14.1)

In this analysis uniform distribution of the axial stress on

the cylinder cross section has been assumed. The axial
Fig. 14.1. Stresses in a thick-walled vessel under internal pressure.
stress is then a function of the geometry of the cylinder and
the applied pressures. For any given condition the axial
stress is constant.
maximum strain attained a certain magnitude. Coulomb
14.2b Determination of the Tangential and Radial
and Tresca (190) maintained that the elastic limit was
Stresses. Consider a cross section of the cylinder in a
reached when the shear stress attained a certain value.
direction perpendicular to the l axis, as shown in Fig. 14.2.
Perry and Duguet considered that shear stress together
with friction determined when the elastic limit was reached.
The radii r and (r +
dr) indicate the projection of a thin-
walled cylinder of thickness dr in the r-t plane.
In other words, according to the four theories failures will
Figure 14.2 illustrates a small element of this cylinder
occur when:
and the applied stresses under static equilibrium conditions.
1. The maximum principal stress equals the stress at the Considering the element shown in Fig. 14.2 to behave
elastic limit under simple tension. as a thin-walled shell, we find that the following summation
2. The maximum strain equals the strain at the elastic of forces can be made about the diametrical plan~:
limit under simple tension.
3. The maximum shear stress reaches a critical value.
fr(2rl) - Ur + dfr)2(r + dr)l = 2ft drl (14.2a)
4. The strain energy per unit volume reaches a critical Eliminating 2l and rearranging gives:
value.
- fr dr - r dfr - dr dfr = ft dr
14.2 LAME THEORY OF STRESS ANALYSIS FOR Dividing through by dr gives:
THICK-WALLED CYLINDERS
dfr
Consider a thick-walled cylinder with closed ends sub- ft = - fr - r dr - dfr
mitted to an internal and an external pressure, respectively
denoted by Pi and p 0 , with inside and outside diameters Disregarding the small quantity dfr gives:
of di and d,,. Stresses are induced in the cylinder wall to
oppose the pressure effects. Stresses, like forces, possess a dfr
ft= -fr - r dr (14.2b)
magnitude or intensity, a direction, and an orientation, and
may be resolved into three components, each component As the differential thickness is reduced indefinitely, the
perpendicular to the other two components. These com- limit is reached:
ponents are the stress projections on the reference axes.
The axes used are those illustrated in Fig. 14.1. The three dfr d ( )
ft = - fr - r dr = - dr f rr (14.3)
stress components are also indicated on the same figure.
They are:
la, the axial stress
fr, the radial stress
ft, the hoop or tangential stress

14.2a Determination of the Axial Stress. The force ex-

erted by the internal pressure in the axial direction is given
by the quantity (p,"'Trd.;2)/4. This force is opposed by action cir.
of the external pressure and also by an axial stress set in the
cylinder wall. Visualizing forces acting on one half of
the cylinder, we find that static equilibrium requires that the
sum of the forces in the upward direction must equal the t,
sum of the forces in the downward direction. For the upper
half of the cylinder the upward force is (p,"1rd;2)/4, and the Fig. 14.2. Relations for a circumferential element of a thick-walled vessel.
270 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
According to the theory of elasticity, for one directional By Eq. 14.5 with substitution for fr and with solving for f 1,
strain where the stress is below the yield point, Eqs. 6.la
b
and 6.lh apply. Therefore ft= -
r2
+a (14.7)

ea -- !::.
E Since tangential stresses under the influence of internal
pressure are positive, Eq. 14.7 gives the tangential stress
where fa = stress in axial direction, pounds per square inch with proper sign. To evaluate the constants a and b, the
ea = strain in axial direction, inches per inch boundary conditions of the shell are applied; these are:
E = modulus of elasticity, pounds per square inch
at r = ro, p = Po = fr.
With positive internal pressure, the stress in the axial
direction, fa, and the stress in the tangential direction will at r = ri, P = Pi = Jr;
he tensile stresses whereas the stress in the radial direction, Substituting in Eq. 14.6b for r = r0 and for r = r,.
fr, will he a compressive stress. respectively, gives:
By Eqs. 9.87 through 9.89, for three-dimensional strain
with proper regard for signs (axial'and tangential stress in (14.8)
tension, radial stress in compression) following relationship
is obtained:
(14.9)
1
Eo.3 = E [/a - µ,(ft - fr)] (14.4)
or Subtracting Eq. 14.8 from Eq. 14.9 gives:
EEas = las b b
Pi- Po= - - - 2
For a given material stressed within the elastic limit r? ro
under a given internal pressure, the quantities Ea 3 ,Ja, and E b = ro 2r?(pi - Po)
are all constants, or I ro2 ri2
or
(14.5) b = d/d;,2(pi - Po) (14.l0a)
4(do2 - d;,2)
where a is a constant.
Substituting for ft by means of Eq. 14.3 gives: For the usual condition, in which p 0 = 0,
d/d;,2
dfr (14.l0b)
-2fr - r - 2a b = 4(d,,2 - d/i) Pi
dr
Substituting Eq. 14.IOa into Eq. 14.8 and solving for a
Rearranging gives:
gives:
dfr
--=--
-2<4
fr+ a r
Integrating gives: therefore

In (fr+ a) = -In r2 + C1
where C1 is a constant of integration. By expanding, Eq. 14.1 is obtained as follows:
Taking the antilogarithms where antilogarithm C 1 =b
gives: a = Piri 2 - Pol'o
2 2
Pi-d. - Podo 2 (14.lla)
b ro2 - r? = d,,2 - r1,;,2 = fa
Jr +a ~ For the case where Po = 0,
or
b p;d;,2
fr=--a
r2
(14.6a) a d,, 2 _ d;, 2 = la (14.llb)

where b and a are constants Substituting the constants into Eqs. 14.6b and 14.7 gives:
If the convention of positive values for tensile stresses 2
~ _ + b _ Pid;. - Podo + d;. d,, [ Pi - Po ] (14.12)
2 2 2
and negative values for compressive stresses is adopted, the
equation for fr becomes (radial stresses are compressive
Jt - a ~ - d,,2 _ r1,;,2 -;p- d,,2 _ r1,;,2
under the influence of internal pressure): 2 2 2
_ b _ Pid;, - PA d;, d,, 2 [ Pt - Po ]
J,, - a - ~ - d,,2 _ r1,;,2 - -;p- d,,2 _ r1,;,2 (14.13)
b
J,,=a--
,2
(14.6b)
The mathematical stress relationships given above were
 Lame Theory of Stress Analysis for Thick-walled Cylinders 271
I The constant bis given by Eq. 14.l0h.
I\
I \
I b= d,, 2d,_'l·pi
I \ 4(d,,2 - ~2)
I \ \
,. I \ ,. \
I \ ro \ Substituting gives:
--r---\-- do= 23rt in.
1 '
--+---~"'', _ ~ 12 in.
a..J . ,...._ .....
I --
f,
-- therefore
Pi = 20,000 psi
b = 975,800
(b)
The constant a is given by Eq. 14.llh.
2
Fig. 14.3. Tangential stress distribution in thick-walled cylinders. Pi~
a
d,,2 - di2
Substituting gives:
originally stated by Lame (189), and the results are applica- Pi = 20,000 psi
ble within the elastic region. . From the expressions obtained
for the axial, radial, and tangential stresses, it is seen that ~ = 12 in.
for given conditions fa is constant andf, and fr are inversely d0 = 231¼ in.
proportional to the square of the radius. It is then possible therefore
to give a graphical illustration of the stress distribution a= 7106
within the cylinder wall.
Therefore, Lame's equation for the tangential stress yari-
14.2c Stress Distribution in a Cylindrical Shell. ations in the wall of this vessel becomes:
TANGENTIAL STRESS D1sTRIBUTION. To obtain a graphi- ft = 975,800 + 7106
cal presentation of the variation of the tangential stress ,.2
with the radius, the limits of Eq. 14.7 may he considered.
As ,. approaches zero, the tangential stress approaches plus The tangential stresses at various points in the shell are:
infinity; and as r approaches infinity, the tangential stress f1(r=6in.) = 34,212 psi (inside surface)
approaches a, as indicated in detail a of Fig. 14.3.
Detail b of Fig. 14.3 is a representation of the tangential ft(r - 7.5 in.) = 24,454 psi
stress variations in the wall of a thick-walled ,vessel. As
the internal pressure is usually greater than the external
ft(r=9Jf 6 in.) = 18,666 psi
pressure, the tangential stress is positive and has a maxi- ft(r= 11.719 in.) = 14,212 psi (outer surface)
mum value at the inside surface of the cylinder.
RADIAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION. To obtain a graphical Ii is apparent that in this vessel the hoop stress at the
presentation of the variation of the radial stress with the outer surface is only 41.5 % of the maximum stress which
radius, the limits of Eq. 14.6h may he considered. As r exists at the inner surface.
approaches zero, fr approaches minus infinity; and fr is
equal to zero where r = ~ . as indicated in detail a of
Fig. 14.4, for the general case where p 0 F 0. If p~ = 0,
then r0 = ~ - See detail b of Fig. 14.4.
Examination of Fig. 14.4 indicates that ·the radial stress ,r,;;;
is compressive and has a maximum value at the inside I
surface of the cylinder. I
14.2d Example Calculation 14.1, Based upon Lame ,. I
I ,.
Theory. A thick-walled alloy-steel vessel of monohloc con- I
struction having an inside diameter of 12 in. and an outside
diameter of 23½ 6 in. is subjected to an internal pressure
of 20,000 psi. The tangential and radial stress variations
in the wall are desired.
The Lame relationship for tangential stresses in a thick-
walled vessel is given by Eq. U.7: f,.(-) f,.(-)
(a.) (b)

Fig. 14.4. Radial stress distribution in thick-walled cylinders.

272 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
The Lame relationship for the radial stresses in a thick- Therefore, for d = do,
walled vessel is given by Eq. 14.6b.
b
fr= a - 2
r and ford= di

This relationship for the vessel under consideration

Pi(K2 + 1)
K2 - 1
reduces to:
Therefore

[K l]
975,800 2

= f y.p._ = Pi K2 +
fr= 7106 (14.14a)
r2 ft(max) _ I

The radial stresses at various points in the shell are: Equation 14.14a gives the stress at failure according to
this theory. For design purposes a factor of safety, A, may
fr(r=6in.) = -20,000 psi be introduced so that the induced stress will be less than
fr(r=7.5 in.) = -10,240 psi the elastic limit,' f y.p., of the material in question. For·
design purposes Eq. 14.14a would be written:
fr(r=O½e in.) = -4450 psi
fr(r= 11.710 in.) 0 psi fy.p. A.pi[~:~~] (14.14h)

14.3 CRITERIA FOR SHELL FAILURE BASED ON THEORY where >. = factor of safety·
OF ELASTICITY
Equation 14.14b may be solved for K to give:
14.3a Maximum-principal-stress According Theory.
to the maximwn-principal-stress theory, failure is con- K = /(fy.p./Api) +1 (14.14c)
sidered to occur when any one of the three principal stresses, \J (fy.p./Api) - 1
fa, ft, or fr, reaches the stress equal to the elastic limit taken
Equation 14.14a is the so-called maximum-principal-
as the yield point (fy.r,.) of the material.
stress equation and is also known as the Lame equation.
By Eq. 14.1
It may be noted that Poisson's ratio does not appear in this
J.a = a = [p;d;.a.,2 -
2
- Podo
d.;_2
2
] equation. In many cases it has been..found that the equa-
tions resulting from the application of the maximum-strain
and maximum-strain-energy theories are in much better
By Eq. 14.12 agreement with the experimental results than the so-called
b Lame equation. These equatioru contain Poisson's ratio,
a+-
r2 and many authors have come to the conclusion that the
Lame equation is not theoretically correct because it does
By Eq. 14.13 not include this ratio. On the contrary, it has been clearly
.r = _ !!_ ;,,, Pid. 2 - Podo
2
_ d,,2d,;,2 [ Pi - Po·] shown that this equation follows from a rigorous mathe-
Jr a r2 a.,2 _ d.;_2 d2 a.,2 _ d;.2 matical stress analysis in which the lateral contraction, of
which Poisson's ratio is a measure, has been taken into
A comparison of the above three equations indicates account.
thatf1 is the largest and therefore is the limiting factor to be 14.3b Maximum-sh~ar-stress Theory. This second cri-
taken into consideration for design. At failure the following terion postulates that failure should occur when the maxi-
equali~y is assumed to hold: mum shear stress equals the shear stress set up in the
material at the elastic limit (taken as the yield point, fy.p.).
ft(max) = f y.p. Disregarding the effect of the axial stress, fa, we find that
the radial and tangential stresses form a two-dimensional
Inspection of Eq. 14.12 shows that the maximum value
system. Knowing that the maximum shear stress is equal
of ft is obtained at the inside wall, that is, where d = d;. and
to the algebraic difference between the stresses considered,
p0• = 0 gage (atmospheric pressure).
we find that the corresponding maximum shear stress is
Rewriting Eq. 14.12 for Po = 0 gives:
given by Eq. 9.85.
fs(max) = i(ft - fr)mAX = ify.p,
The shear stress at radius r is:
Let
do fsr = iUt - fr)r
-=K
d;. Substituting for ft by Eq. 14.7 and for fr by Eq. 14.6b
then gives:
2
Pi
ft=K2-1 ( <4 )
1+d2
 Criteria for Shell Failure Based on Theory of Elasticity 273
therefore again with the proper regard for sign convention, gives:
b
fsr = -r2 (14.15)

Substituting for b by Eq. 14.l0b for the case in which the therefore
external pressure is zero, and noting that f 8 is a maximum
when r = d;/2, we find by Eq. 9.85 that (14.18)

da 2Pi 1
(14.16) Examination of Eq. 14.18 indicates that the strain is
fs(max) = d,, 2 _ d,; 2 = 7I/y.p.
maximum when r is equal to d,;/2. Therefore
Let
Et2(max) = ~ [ a(l - µ) + (1 + µ) :~]
then Substituting for a by Eq. 14.llb and for b by Eq. 14.lOb
21(2 gives:
f y.p. = K 2 _ l Pi = 2/s(max) (14.17a)

The term f s(max) in Eq. 14.17a is the induced shear stress

that exists at failure in accordance with this theory and is To satisfy the criterion that failure occurs when Et,cmax>

numerically equal to one half of the tensile stress in simple equals the strain at the elastic limit we let
tension at the elastic limit. This theory may be used for
design if a factor of safety, X, is included. therefore
Therefore, for design purposes Eq. 14.17a may be written
as:
2K 2 Substituting for d0 /di = K gives:
f y.p. -- K 2 - 1 Xp·' (14.17b)
ft2(max) = f y.p. = Pi [
(l - µ)+ (1
K2 _ l
+ µ)K 2 ]
(14.20a)
In discussing the strength of cylinders under high pres-
sure, Manning (237) states: "Overstrain of a cylindrical Equation 14.20a states the conditions at which failure is
wall occurs when the maximum shear stress reaches a assumed to occur according to this theory. For design
value l/V3 times the tensile upper yield stress. . . . The purposes a safety factor, X, is introduced into this equation
most satisfactory basis of design is arranging for the maxi- for proportioning the vessel. Thus, for design purposes
mum shear stress . . . to equal (when raised if required by Eq. 14.20a can be written as:
an appropriate safety factor) the tensile yield stress
= ~ [ (1 - µ) + (1 + µ)K
2
divided by V3." Equation 14.16 may be modified f y.p.
]
(14.20b)
X K2 - 1
(equated to fy.p./V3 instead offy.p./2) to give:
fy.p. XK 2 Equation 14.20b may be solved for K to give:
(14.17c)
V3 = K2 - 1 Pi
K = ✓(fy.p./Xpi) + (1 - µ) (14.20c)
For purposes of design Eq. 14.17c may be solved for K {fy.p./Xpi) - (1 + µ)
as follows:
14.3d Maximum-strain-energy Theory. Strain energy
K - ✓ fy.p. (14.17d)
refers to the mechanical energy absorbed by a body stressed
within the elastic range. According to this fourth criterion,
- fy.p. - APi V3 the strain energy accumulated in the material when it is
Equations 14.17c and 14.17d are based on the shear-strain- stressed to its elastic limit is the determining factor for
energy hypothesis (237). rupture. In Chapter 2, section 2.4a, the strain energy
14.3c Maximum-strain Theory. In this third case, was shown to be equal to the work done on the material
rupture is considered to occur whenever the strain set up (see Eq. 2.26). The work done in a one-dimensional
in the material reaches the strain at the elastic limit. In stress system is given by:
the discussion of the maximum-principal-stress theory it
was shown that the tangential stress, ft, was the maximum (2.26)
or limiting stress. Consequently, within the elastic range,
Et is the limiting strain to consider in design.
For a two-dimensional stress system it has been shown
By Eq. 6.4 that the strain in either direction is the algebraic sum of the
two components, as given by Eq. 6.4.

(6.4)
Substituting for ft by Eq. 14.7 and for fr by Eq. 14.6b,
-
274 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
Substituting (1/E)[f:c - µfy] for U:cl E) in Eq. 2.26 gives: criterion, we let
Utr(max) (14.28)
U:c ~ ff.,, 2 - µfxf11] (14.21)
2
It then follows that
Likewise, for the y direction,

(14.22) (14.29)

therefore

or _ .. /2(1 - µ)di 4 + 2(1 + µ)d,, 4

fy.p. - P, '\J (d,,2 _ d?)2
(14.23)
Letting do/di = K, substituting µ = 0.25 for steel, and
multiplying the numerator and denominator by 2 gives:
In an analogous manner it can be shown that the strain
energy for a three-dimensional system is given by: V6 + 10K4 (14.30a)
f y.p. = Pi 2(K2 - 1)
Uxyz = ;E lf:.: 2
+ f y2 + f,.2 µ(f'llf,. + fxf11 + fzfx)]
Equation 14.30a gives the conditions at which failure is
(14.24) assumed to occur by the maximum-strain-energy theory.
This last expression has been called the strain-energy For design purposes a factor of safety, X, is included to
function. proportion a vessel. Equation 14.30a can then be written
If Eq. 14.23 is applied to the two-dimensional stress as:
system formed by ft and fr in the case of the cylinder wall,
Jy.p.
_ Xpi V6 + 10K4 (14.30b)
the strain energy is given by: - 2(K 2 - 1)

Utr = 2~ [Jt2 +fr 2 - 2µ,JtfrJ (14.25) U.3e Comparison of the Four Theories of Failure with
Experimental-test Results. Newitt (191) reported a num~
By making the substitutions for ft and fr, Utr may be her of experimental tests on mild steel in which the elastic
expressed as a function of the radius of the cylinder, sign strain of a cylinder under pressure was measured and
convention being used, plotted as a function of internal pressure. He found that
the strain was proportional to the pressure until the elastic
limit was reached. This procedure gave values of stress,
strain, and internal pressure at the elastic limit. These
tests were made on a number of vessels having different K
ratios (from K = 1:35 to K = 3:65). The experimental
value of p/fy.p. was then compared with the values pre-
Carrying out the algebraic operations and simplifying, dicted by the four different theories. Table 14.1 sum-
we obtain: marizes the results obtained with mild steel.

U,r = i[ a
2
+~ µ (a
2
- ~)]

Table 14.1. Results of Tests on Mild-steel

= ~ [ (1 µ)a2 + (1 + µ) ~] Cylinders (191)
Stre88 at Calculated Values of p//y.p.
Ratio of Yield in Yield Experi- According to
The strain energy is a function of the fourth power of the External Simple Pressure mental Max- Max- Max- Max-
radius and has its maximum value at the inside wall where to Inter- Tension in Cylin- Value prin.- prin.- shear- strain-
nal Di- (Jy.p.), der (p), or atres11 strain lltre88 energy
r = "'/2. Therefore ameter lb/sq in. lb/sq in. p//y.p. Theory Theory Theory Theory
2 l 35 35,300 9,700 0.275 0.291 0.295 0.225 0.262
1 [ (1 2
U1r(max) =E - µ)a + (1 + µ) 16b
"'4 ] l 53
1 58
35,300
35,300
12,000
12,500
0.340
0.354
0.402
0.430
0.393
0.415
0.287
0.300
0.344,
0.363
l 58 35,300 12,500 0.354 0.430 0.415 0.300 0.363
1 74, 35,300 U,700 0.416 0.506 0.475 0.336 0.411
By making the substitutions for the constants a and b by 1 77 35,300 14,400 0.407 0.515 0.483 0.340 0.417
Eqs. 14.llb and 14.l0b, the expression becomes: l 79 35,300 15,400 0.436 0.525 0.490 0.344 0.422
1 79 35,300 15,200 0.430 0.525 0.490 0.344, 0.422
2 4 2 4 l 79 35,300 15,400 0.436 0.525 0.490 0.344 0.422
35,300 14,600
µ) (d,,2Pi_ do"'2)2 ]
l 79 0.413 0.525 0.490 0.34.4. 0.422
Utr(max) = E1 [ (1 - µ) Pi "'
(d,,2 _ "'2)2 + (1 + l
l
86
97
34,000
34,000
13,600
14,100
0.400
0.415
0.554
0.590
0.511
0.539
0.356
0.372
0.449
0.460

u - p,2 [ (1 - µ)"'4 + (1 + µ)d,, 4] (14.27)

tr; i: 36,860
36,860
18,090
18,090
0.4.90
0.490
0.655
0.655
0.583
0.583
0.395
0.395
0.494
0.494
lr(max) - E (d,,2 _ "'2)2 2
2
45
66
36,860
36,860
18,740
20,150
0.508
0.546
0. 713
0.752
0.625
0.649
0.416
0.429
0.522
0.539
2 88 36,860 20,300 0.550 0.784 0.672 0.439 0.553
The strain energy of the material at the elastic limit is 3 OS 36,860 20,200 0.547 0.806 0.684 0.446 0.562
3 26 36,860 21,700 0.588 0.827 0.697 0.452 0.571
given by (fy.p. 2/2E) (see Eq. 2.26). To satisfy the fourth S 65 36,860 21,800 0.591 0.860 0. 718 0.467 0.583
 Criteria for Shell Failure Based on Theory of Elasticity 275
· Table 14.2. Results of Tests on High-tensile-steel Cylinders (192)
Tensile p/fy.p. Calculated According to
Elastic Max- Max- Max- Max~
Limit Yield Pressure in prin.- prin.- shear- strain-
(/y.p.), Cylinder (p), stress strain stress energy
Class of Steel K tons/sq in. tons/sq in. p/fy.,,. Theory Theory Theory Theory
Nickel steel 2.15 28.08 11.48 0.409 0,644 0.577 0.392 0~488
Nickel steel 2.15 28.94 11.50 0.397 0.644 0.577 0.392 0.488
Nickel steel 2.50 21.31 9.00 0.422 0.724 0.631 0.420 0.527
Nickel steel 2.50 28.80 12.10 0.420 0.724 0.631 0.420 0.527
Nickel-chromium steel 2.00 29.57 11.93 0.404 0.600 0.546 0.375 0.466
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel 2.00 37.62 14.10 0.374 0.600 0.546 0.375 0.466
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel 2.00 33.44 12.68 0.379 0.600 0.546 0.375 0.466
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel 2.00 32.45 12.10 0.373 0.600 0.546 0.375 0.466

A comparison of the experimental values of p/Jy.r,. and the Lame equation becomes:
the theoretical predictions shows that the closest agreement
between theory and experimental value was obtained with
(K 2 + 1) (See Eq. 14.14.)
ft= Pi (K 2 _ l)
the strain-energy equation.
Similar tests were also made on a variety of high-tensile- The ratio of ft!Pi may he conveniently plotted against K
steel cylinders by Macrae (192). The results of these tests as shown by Maccary and Fey (194) and as indicated in
are given in Table 14.2. Fig. 14.5. The determination of shell thickness using the
A comparison of the experimental values of p/fy.r,. and Lame equation involves calculation by successive approxi-
those predicted by the various theories shows that in the mation. The same calculation using the membrane equa-
case of high-tensile steels the best agreement is obtained tion is more convenient, being a direct calculation, but is
by use of the maximum-shear-stress equation. This might limited in its application to vessels in which t/d;, is equal
have been anticipated because these materials have shear to or less than 0.10.
strengths which are quite low in comparison with their The range of the membrane equation has been extended
tensile strengths. by the empirical modification of adding the constant 0.6
Cook and Robertson (193) reported similar information This new equation is known as the ASME modified mem-
on cast-iron cylinders. However, in their study the pres- brane equation and is in much closer agreement with the
sure was increased until the cylinders ruptured because Lame equation. At a t/ d;, value of 0.25 the ASME modified
cast iron does not have a well-defined yield point. Results membrane equation agrees with the Lame equation within
of these tests are given in Table 14.3. 1 % (194). The ASME modified membrane equation is:
In Table 14.3 only the comparison between the experi-
mental value of p/J and that predicted by the maximum- ft 1
-=--+0.6 (14.33)
principal-stress theory is given. The fact that the agree- Pi K- 1
ment is good indicates that this material follows this theory.
U.Jf Comparison of the Lame Theory with the Mem- or if welded-joint efficiency and corrosion allowance are
brane Theory. The membrane equation for hoop stress is included (11), it is:
given in by Eq. 3.14 as:
t= pr +c (14.34)
ftE - 0.6p
t=pd=pr
2ft ft 14.39 Graphical Comparisons of the Various Theories.
A graphical comparison of the membrane theory, the ASME
Rewriting in terms of Ji with t = (ro - ri) gives;
modified membrane theory, the p1facipal-stress them·y, the

(14.31)
Table 14.3. Results of Tests on Cast-iron
where r0 outside radius of shell, inches Cylinders (193)
r; = inside radius of shell, inches Ex:ter- Inter- Calou-
nal nal Tensile Bursting lated
If the ratio of r0 /ri equals K, then Eq. 14.31 indicates Diam- Diam- Strength Pressure Bursting Calcu-
eter. eter, (/), (p), Pressure, Observed lated
Ghat the hoop stress determined by the membrane equation in. in. K lb/sq in. lb/sq in. lb/sq in. p// p//
becomes: 1.133 0.873 1.30 18,600 5,060 4,760 0.272 0.256
1.420 0.923 1.54 24,500 9,520 9,950 0.388 0.406
1 1.390 0.755 1.83 23,550 13,000 12,710 0.552 0.540
(14.32) 1.710 0.922 1.85 26,900 14,550 14,800 0.540 0.550
Pi (K - 1) 1.561 0.793 1.97 24,200 15,100 14,300 0.623 0.590
1.475 0.750 1.97 24,750 16,460 14,600 0.665 0.590
1.516 0.635 2.40 26,700 19,250 18.800 0.720 0.704
md Eq. 14.14 indicates that the hoop stress determined by 1.870 0.630 2.96 21,700 1,,410 17,300 0.802 0. 796
276 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
40
30

20
\
\
10 \"
\\
8
7 "-
._,Cl. 6
\\
II \ f\.
5
~
VI

~ ~ 4 r\"- fig. 14.5. A comparison of the

- VI

E a
VI
Q)
3 ""'-... Laml-tangential stress with mem-
brane-theory tangential stress (194).
::I-
E"'
~>< E
ro.l!! 2
"" 0 '--- -........, /
ASME modified
membrane formula
(K:_ 1 + 0,6)
Lame
equation
(K2+1) ~
(Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Publishing

""--- ... ~ 2
.,I K-1
Co.I
:::E-=

1
Membrane formula
(K_:1) -
v-- r---_ -------- ---- '---- --
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
~

- -- --
0.4
0.3
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
K = Outside diameter
Inside diameter

maximum-shear-stress theory, the maximum-strain theory, Maximum-shear-stress Theory:

and the maximum-strain-energy theory is shown in Fig. 14.6. By Eq. 14.17d
14.3h Example Calculation 14.2, Comparing the Four
Theories of Failure. A vessel is to be designed to with-
stand an internal pressure of 20,000 psi. An internal
diameter of 12 in. is specified, and a steel having a yield
point of 70,000 psi has been selected. Calculate the wall ✓ 70,000
thickness required by the various theories with a factor of = 70,000 - 1.5 X 20,000 X 1.732
safety of X = 1.5.
Maximum-principal-stress Theory: = 1.97
By Eq. 14.14c do = (1.97)(12) = 23.6 in.
K = ✓(Jy.p.(>-P1.) + 1 therefore
(/y.p./Xpi) - 1 t = 5.8 in.
= /(70,000/1.5 X 20,000) + 1 Using Fig. 14.6 for Xpi//y.p. = 0.428 and reading from the
"'\J (70,000/1.5 X 20,000) - 1 maximum-shear-stress curve (/amax = /y.p./V3), we obtain:
therefore d.;
K 1.58 = 2.0
t
do = (1.58)(12) = 19 in. therefore
therefore 12
t = = 6.0 in.
t = 3.5 in. 2.0
" Using Fig. 14.6 for Xp/f (1.5 X 20,000)/70,000 = 0.428 Maximum-strain Theory:
and reading from the principal-stress curve, we obtain: By Eq. 14.20c
d.;
- = 3.4
t K
therefore_
12
t = ..!!... = = 3.53 in.
3.4 3.4
 Criteria for Shell Failure Based on Theory of Elasticity 277
therefore 12
t=- = 4.14
K= 1.69 2.9
d,, = (1.69)(12) = 20.3 in.
therefore Maximum-strain-energy Theory:
t = 4.15 in. By Eq. 14.30b

Referring to Fig. 14.6 for >..pi/fy.p. = 0.428, we obtain:

APi V6 + 10K 2
cl. = 2.9' f y.p. = 2(K 2 - 1)

1.00
r--- I'\ \
0.95 -r---...._
0.90
I\ \
0.85
0.80
r-,....

~ftl'\ \
\1
0.75
r-
-- ................
.""' \ 2 \
0.70
I'-. 3'\\ \ 1

0.65 ' ,4 '\\

0.60 ~- ~ \ ~ \
-- "' ,\, \
-r- .....
0.55
~ ..... ~ \ \
r-- r-
t \
i-.... i'\ \
0.50 '
0.45
r--
-- "' "' ~ ;?,_
" ' \ \
0.40
I"-.... ""~ ~\ \
"\
0.35 "\K\ \ \
\ ,\
f\ ~ \
1
>.p
T
Fig. 14.6. Comparison of vori•
ous theories for shell design. 0.30 \
I\ ~ ~ \
1

\ \~
0.25

~~ \
0.20
~ ~\ ~\
~~\
~
\'
0.15
1 Thin-wall equation
2 ASME modified equation
3 Maximum-principal-stress equation (Lame)
4 Maximum-strain equation(µ= 0.25)

~
5 Maximum-strain-energy equation
6 Maximum-shear-stress
equation (18 max = /y.p. /..,/3) \
7 Maximum-shear-stress
equation ({, mu = fy.p. /2)
0.10 I I I I I I I I 1 1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
d;
t-c
 278 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
Table 14.4. Stress Conditions at Onset of is obtained. The pressure measured at the beginning of
Overstrain (237) permanent set can be compared with that predicted by the
various theories, and the most appropriate equation selected.
P, :Max Tangential Stress Max Shear Stress
K (psi) (psi) (psi) In the case of the example calculations presented above a
1.168 7,560 49,280 28,670 steel with a tensile yield point of 70,000 psi was specified.
1.167 7,820 51,070 29,610 This would be classified as a high-strength tensile steel and
1.500 15,680 40,760 28,220 would be expected to fail by shear as indicated by Macrae
2.000 21,950 36,470 29,280 (192) (also see Table 14.2). Manning (237) ,concludes that
3.000 26,620 33,350 29,970 steels with high tensile strength would be expected to fail
4.000 28,220 32,000 30,000 by shear. Table 14.4 lists the maximum shear stress and
the maximum tensile stress at which overstrain was observed
to occur for vessels of various K ratios fabricated of high-
Substituting with Pi = 20,000 psi and again using tensile-strength steel.
/v.p, =
70,000, we obtain: Table 14.4 shows that onset of overstrain occurred when
the maximum shear stress reached a mean value of 29,300 psi
70,000 = V6 + 10K4 = 2 _33 ( ± about 3 %), whereas the maximum tensile stress varies
1.5 X 20,000 2(K 2 - 1) widely. Furthermore, Manning states that judging on 'the
criterion of onset of overstrain when the shear stress equals
6 + 10K4 = (4.66) 2(K2 - 1) 2
the tensile yield stress divided by V3, one would predict
6 + IOK 4 = 21.7K4 - 43.4K 2 + 21.7 onset of overstrain when the shear stress reached 30,200 psi,
0 = ll.7K4 - 43.4K 2 = 15.7 which is less than 2% % higher than the mean experimental
value.
ll.7x 2 - 43.4x + 15.7 0 In the case of a vessel of monobloc construction the term
K 2/{K 2 - 1) in Eq. 14.17c approaches unity at high values
-b ±
Q;=-------
Vb2 - 4ac 43.4 ± 33.9 of K, and the maximum internal pressure, p;., becomes
2a (2)(11.7) equal to fy.p./>.. V3 as a limiting condition. For the
previous problem, in which fy.p. was 70,000, this limiting
For a maximum value z = 3.3; therefore pressure would he 27,000 psi. This is a serious restriction
K = ~ = 1.82 but may be circumvented by other procedures such as
prestressing and multilayer conijtruction.
do = {12)(1.82) 21.8 in.
14.4 CRITERIA FOR SHELL FAILURE BASED ON THE
l = 4.9 in. THEORY OF PLASTICITY ·
From Fig. 14.6, reading from the maximum-strain-energy The theory of the plastic behavior of materials is in
curve at >..p/Jy.p. ;;;, 0.428, we find that general beyond the scope of this text. A number of excel-
lent texts are available on this subject (195-200). How-
. di . ever, some of the relationships developed from the theory
- = 2.4
. t of plasticity appear to explain the yield and bursting charac-
teristics of thick-walled cylinders better than any of the ·
12 '
t =- = 5.0 in. relationships based upon the theory of elasticity. There-
2.4 fore, a limited discussion on the plastic failure of vessels is
Discussion: considered appropriate.
The required thicknesses of the vessel shell under con- On subjecting a thick-walled vessel to increasing internal
sideration according to the equations for the four theories pressure, stresses are induced in the shell which are maxi-
are as follows: · mum at the bore, as predicted by the various criteria for .
failure based upon the theory of elasticity. Contrary to
Theory Thickness (in.) what might be expected, failure of a shell of ductile metal
Maximum-shear 5.8 usually does not begin at the fibers along the bore but at
Maximum-strain-energy 4.9 the fibers along the outside surface of the shell {217). On
Maximum-strain 4.15 stressing beyond the yield point, most metals pass through
Ma:ximwn.:J)rincipal-stress 3.5 a region of plastic flow in which elongation progresses with-
out an increase in resisting stress. This condition is first
It is obvious that the various theories give widely different reached in the inner part of the cylinder. However, the
/ answers for the required thickness. Experimental results strain of the inner zone is limited by the outer zone, which
have agreed with one theory when work was being done is not strained beyond the yield point; thus the inner fibers
with one material and with another theory when work ·was are incapable of rupture. The inner fibers of an over-
being done with another material. When working with a stressed vessel often show evidence of slip where failure
new material, it is important to make a preliminary test began hut halted because of the restraint offered by the
with a vessel constructed of the material. The experimental outer fibers. The inner fibers therefore are prevented from
vessel may be hydrostatically tested until a permanent set failing, provided that the outer fibers offer sufficient
 Criteria for Shell Failure Based on the Theory of Plasticity 279
restraint. There is no such protection of the outer fibers
(14.37)
by the inner fibers.
Manning has discussed the rupture of thick-walled cylin-
ders of ductile metal (2C3). The pressure necessary for the Substituting for ft in Eq. 14.37 by Eq. 14.36 gives:
yield point for the metal fibers in the bore to be reached is
known as the "elastic-breakdown" pressure. At this pres- dfr = 21y.p. dr (14.38)
sure the maximum fiber stress is the tangential stress at V3 r
the inner surface. The radial stress also has its maximum Integration of Eq. 14.38 gives:
value at the bore, and this stress is equal to the internal
21 r
pressure. As the pressure is raised, the region of plastic p=...:!.!.:.E:Jn-2
flow, termed "overstrain," moves radially outward and V3 r, (14.39)

causes the tangential stress to decrease in the inner layers

and to increase rapidly in the outer layers. Progressive where p internal pressure required to stress the outer
increase in pressure moves the elastic-plastic interface surface to the yield point, pounds per square
radially outward until the interface reaches the outer radius inch
fy.p. = yield point of the shell material in single tension,
and no elastic zone remains. In this situation the maxi-
mum hoop stress is at the outside surface. Manning has pounds per square inch
r0 = outside radius of the vessel
reported (203) that for the beginning of overstrain for a
vessel in which the outside diameter to inside diameter r, = inside radius of the vessel
ratio was 2 : 1 and the pressure was 12,750 psi, the tangential Equation 14.39 was derived for an ideal plastic solid,
stress at the inner radius was 21,000 psi, ahd at the outer that is, a material that has a stress-strain diagram iUus-
radius 8000 psi. For the same vessel with 100 % overstrain trated by the "idealized" curve of Fig. 2.11. For this
(plastic-elastic interface at r0 ) at a pressure of 27,620 psi, ideal condition the yield strength and tensile strength (t.s.)
the tangential stress at the bore was 16,000 psi, and at the have the same value; therefore, the bursting strength would
outer surface 34,000 psi. Thus it is apparent that the be that predicted by either Eq. 14.39 or Eq. 14.40.
tangential-stress distribution is totally different in the 100 %
plastic state than in the completely elastic state. On the p = 2ft.s. In~ (14.40)
other hand, the radial-stress patterns have similar shapes V3 ri
for the completely elastic and completely plastic states.
When failure occurs in the shell of a ductile metal as whereft.e. = ultimate tensile strength, pounds per square
inch
the result of progressive increase in stress, it usually follows
the path of a continuous helix 1rom the outer surface
inward, as shown in Fig. 14.7.
Prager and Hodge (195) have defined the internal pres-
sure in a cylindrical vessel that is required to place the
elastic-plastic interface on the outside surface of the vessel.
This is the pressure required to place all of the vessel wall
beyond the yield point. In deriving this relationship it is
necessary to establish the condition under which plastic
flow is initiated. A widely used yield criterion is that of
Von Mises (205). This criterion can be expressed by the
following relationship:

f y.p. = fs.y. V3 (14.35)

where f y.p. = yield-point stress of the material in simple
tension, pounds per square incp
fs.y. = yield limit in simple shear, pounds per square
inch
It was shown previously, by Eq. 9.85, that the maximum
shear stress in a three-component system is:
ft -fr
-- =
Js(max) (9.85)
2

Combining the above relationships with Eq. 14.35 gives:

(14.36)
By making allowance for sign convention with the com-
pressive stress,J,., negative, the Eq. 14.2b may be written as:
Fig. 14.7. Typical failure as a result of overstraining of thick-walled cylin•
der of ductile metol. (Courtesy of J. H. Faupel [201 ].) {Extracted from
Transaction, of the ASME with permission of the publisher, the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers,)
I

280 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels

80.----,-----,----,.----,---.----....-1--,---...,....------.--....---.------...-....

.-•B. No. 9
701-----+---t----+---+---b---..e::::...+--+---+--+---l---+----l-----l---l
I L---->< __.,....V-
I..---""" --
'ig_
'o
v~,...,....,,.--
601----+---!---,.,""_,,,,.=-+..,,,,-"'-'--==-l------+---4---~----+---+---L----1----l-----l-----1

l--L---
i _ _ - i - • B. No. 3
• _l--- B. No. 10
"' 50 ✓ ·"" . - - - - - - - - - - -->< --- I
1::, •'b.s. ",./ I ~
~------ i---
i----
_i----
--- ____ 1,x I
_g /
1" ~-=- I ~ ~--1----
I
B. No. 11

i:=: / / . t>-_/~----
; 40 ,,. / 0.$. I __... _...-- - - - -x c-a

.~ ( 70 ~ ---- ---- ----

!! ~? OS L----.:'----·

E.B. I { =
E.B. Elastic breakdown at bore
30 O.S. = Overstrain through the wall
E.B.
10 _ 20 E.B.----1---E.B.

10
-- B. = Bursting (x = bursting for experimental curve)
Calculated
---- Experimental
0 I
0 o"---;;;..o,____oL--~-'-o-'--------------------------'---'
j...4000.,,,.j.e.2000+1 External hoop strain, microin./in.

Fig. 14.8, Pressure-versus-strain curves far thick-walled cylinders under internal pressure (215). (Extracted fram Transadions of the ASME with permission
of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.)
Treatment ond Properties of Cylinders
Properties In Transverse Direction at Bore of Cylinder
Yield Strength, Elonga• Reduc-
psi Ultimate, tion in tion in
Cylinder Wall 0.01 % 0.2% Strength, 1 in,, area,
No. Material and Treatment Ratio offset offset psi per cent per cent
Quenched-and-tempered
3 and quenched SAE 3320 2.74 74,300 79,500 105,400 24 50
9 AMealed SAE 1035 2.75 39,950 38,600 73,100 25 32
10 Annealed SAE 3320 2.75 58,100 68,500 112,600 20 -41
11 Annealed Cr-Ni-Ma-V 2.75 -45,100 45,300 83,300 25 37

In the actual case for ordinary metals the ultimate tensile
strength is appreciably higher than the yield strength, and
the stress at bursting will lie between the yield and ultimate
strengths. Faupel (201) has proposed that Eqs. 14.39 and
14.40 be modified as follows:
basis (201). The vessels were tested at temperatures from
ambient to 660° F. Figure 14.8 shows some of the data
reported by Faupel and Furbeck (215) on elastic-breakdown
pressures and observed and calculated bursting pressures.
Table 14.5 presents selected test results of Faupel (201)

P = Jy.p. (2ft.9:. ln
ft.s. V3
:!!) + (1 - fyJ,.) (2fy.p.
r; V3
In:£)
ft.s. ri
(14.41)
and of Crossland and Bones (202) and includes a comparison
of five theoretical methods of predicting bursting pressure,
and the observed data. ·
Equation 14.41 reduce.s to:
P = 2fy.p.
V3
[1n ~] [2 _ fy.p.]
r.; ft.a.
(14.42) 1
P = f t.s. (K2 - 1)
x2 + l
(K - 1)
Equations 14.41 and 14.42 proportionally weight the
stress values to their ratios; thus, when the ratio fy.p./ft.s. is
I
p = 2ft.s. (K + l)
equal to 0.25, Eq. 14.39 contributes 75 % and Eq. 14.40 lnK
contributes 25% to the bursting pressure (201). Faupel P = 2ft.s.
reported the tests on the rupture of nearly 100 thick-walled
p = 2fY·J?: (In K) (2 - fy.p.)
cylinders fabricated from a variety of high-strength steels
and !!bowed that Eq. 14.42 was reliable within ±15% for v3 Ju.
predicting the observed rupture pressure on a 90%-certainty 6 Manning method (see below and section 14.11)

A comparison of the observed rupture pressures in
Table 14.5 with those obtained by the five methods of pre-
dicting the rupture pressure from theory shows that the
best agreement is obtained in the case of Faupel's data
with either the Faupel or the Manning method. The
Faupel method makes use of Eq. 14.42, and the Manning
method makes use of torsion-test data. The Manning
method involves the graphical integration of the stress-
strain curve in a torsion test and cannot be expressed in a
single equation (see section 14.11) (203). In the absence
of torsion-test data Eq. 14.42 is recommended for the pre-
diction of the bursting strength or thick-walled cylinders.
14.5 MONOBLOC VESSELS AT
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
When pressure vessels are used at elevated temperatures
with induced stresses within the creep range, the phenome-
non of creep must be taken into consideration. A discussion
of creep and the use of stress-rupture curves was presented
in Chapter 2, section 2.5.
Thick-walled vessels for high-pressure service have steep
stress gradients. These stress gradients change under the
influence of creep at elevated temperatures. This redis-
tribution of the stress gradients under the influence of creep
is known as "stress leveling." The vessel geometry and
the creep- and rupture-strength properties of the material
of construction influence the degree or redistribution or
stress under the action or creep. The life or the vessel
Monobloc Vessels at Elevated Temperatures 281
prior to rupture is dependent upon the time-stress history
of the vessel.
Voorhees, Sliepcevich, and Freeman (204) have presented
a procedure for calculating the time of rupture Crom creep
and stress-rupture data normally available to a designer.
Prior to the work of Voorhees the design of thick-walled
vessels at high pressures and elevated temperatures was
usually based upon the maximum principal stress and an
allowable stress determined from creep and stress-rupture
test data. This is the current method recommended by
the ASME code (11) for vessels operating at pressures up
to 3000 psi.
14.5a Equivalent Stress (Shear-stress Invariant).
Voorhees' analysis assumes that the creep-rupture life of a
vessel under complex stressing is controlled by an equivalent
stress, J, termed the "shear-stress invariant." This average
stress is also known as the octahedral shear stress, the
effective stress, the intensity of stress, and the quadratic
invariant. The theory for the biaxial-stress condition was
developed by Von Mises (205), and this theory was further
developed to apply to the triaxial-stress condition inde-
pendently by Hencky (206, 207, 208) and by Huber (209).
A derivation of the relationship between the equivalent
stress,], and the three principal stresses, Ji, h,, and fa where
Ji > '2 >fa was given by Eichinger (210). The relation-
ship between these stresses is:

Table 14.5. Bursting Pressure of Cylinders (201)

Calculated Pb (psi)
A B C D E
Mean-
Faupel Observed Lame 1 Dev. diameter= Dev. Classical3 Dev. Faupel 4 Dev. Manning 6 Dev.
Test No. R psi Pb (psi) Method (%) Method (%) Method (%) Method (%) Method (%)
7 2.49 90,480 79,000 65,300 -17 77,500 2 95,000 +20 85,700 +9 85,000 +s
13 2.43 68,350 57,000 48,500 -15 57,000 0 70,500 +24 54,000 -5 59,500 +4
14 2.44 91,550 83,000 65,000 -22 77,000 -7 94,500 +14 84,700 +2 89,000 +7
30 2.75 89,700 63,000 68,700 +9 81,000 +29 115,000 +83 67,400 +7 70,000 +n
40 2.76 80,100 55,000 61,500 +12 75,000 +36 106,500 +94 63,000 +15 69,000 +25
41 2.75 74,900 67,500 57,300 -15 74,200 +10 96,000 +42 66,500 -2 70,000 +4
42 2.74 104,650 98,500 79,750 -19 97,500 -10 131,000 +43 111,300 +13 105,000 +7
44 1. 75 105,650 59,000 53,600 -9 57,500 -3 68,300 +16 63,000 +1 64,500 +9
45 2.75 137,850 143,000 105,500 -26 128,500 -10 178,000 +24 158,500 +11 150,000 +5
46 3.69 105,500 168,000 91,200 -45 121,000 -28 160,000 -5 152,000 -10 191,000 +14
47 4.71 106,700 192,500 97,600 -49 138,500 -28 191,000 -1 184,000 -4 157,000 -18
Crossland
and
Bones (202)
Test No. F G H J K
1 1.57 66,000 31,000 27,800 -10 29,300 -6 34,400 +11 25,800 -17 29,000 -6
2 1.33 66,000 18,640 18,200 -2 18,700 0 21,700 +16 16,300 -13 18,000 0
3 1.99 66,000 44,600 39,400 -12 43,700 -2 52,500 +18 39,400 -12 43,500 -2
4 2.29 66,000 54,000 45,000 -17 52,000 -4 63,200 +11 47,400 -12 53,000 -2
5 2.66 66,000 60,100 49,500 -18 60,000 0 74,600 +24 56,000 -7 62,000 +3
6 1.78 66,000 38,400 34,200 -11 37,000 -4 44,000 +1s 32,700 -15 38,000 -1
7 2.90 66,000 65,300 52,000 -20 64,500 -1 81,000 +24 60,600 -7 67,000 +3
8 1.88 66,000 40,200 36,800 -8 40,400 0 48,200 +20 36,000 -10 41,000 +2
9 2.48 66,000 57,400 47,500 -17 56,100 -2 69,500 +21 52,000 -9 57,000 -1
10 3.18 66,000 70,000 54,000 -23 68,700 -2 88,500 +26 66,100 -6 72,000 +3
11 2.13 66,000 47,800 42,000 -12 47,700 0 57,800 +17 43,200 -10 47,000 -2
12 3.60 66,000 76,000 56,500 -26 74,500 -2 93,200 +23 73.000 --1 78,000 +3
13 3.72 66,000 79,000 57,000 -28 76,000 -4 100,400 +27 74,800 -5 81,000 +3
282 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
For a cylindrical pressure vessel under internal pressure
the maximum principal stress, Ji, is equal to ft as given by
Eq. 14.7. The intermediate principal stress, ]2, is equal to
fa as given by Eq. 14.llh. The minimum of the three
principal stresses, fa, will he the radial stress, Jr, as given
by Eq. 14.6b. By comparing these equations it may be
observed that Ja is equal to the arithmetic average of ft and
fr, or fa = Ur+ ft)/2. Substituting into Eq. 14.43 gives:
J2 = ½[(J, -fa) 2 + Ut -fr) 2 + (fa -fr) 2}
but
fa= fr+ ft
2 fractions can not reasonably he expected to hold true if
therefore
J= vs Ut - !a) (14.44)
At the inside surface of a thick-walled vessel
Jcr=r,) = V3 (a + -; - a) = V3
ri
b2
ri
Substituting for b by Eq. 14.l0b gives:
2 of the adjacent inner shell gave a satisfactory coverage of
lcr-r,)
• 1
V 3 (do2do_Pi~2) (14.45)
Or in terms of the outside diameter, d0 , and thickness, t,
V3 (d,,/l) 2Pi
lcr-r,) = 4(do/t) _
4 (14.46)
Voorhees analyzed the experimental data obtained on
notched-bar samples tested at elevated temperatures (211,
214) and on pressure vessels tested at elevated temperatures
and high pressures (204, 211). He concluded that the
equivalent stress, J (shear-stress invariant) was more useful
in correlating these experimental data than the maximum
principal stress or the maximum shear stress. Voorhees
also reviewed the work of other investigators in this field
and concluded that these studies also indicated the useful-
ness of the equivalent stress (211).
14.5b Effect of Creep in High-pressure Vessels. The
initial stress distribution at the time of first application of
load may he determined by means of Lame's analysis.
Under the influence of elevated temperature and high-
pressure stress gradients the shell material creeps causing a
redistribution of the stresses, as mentioned previously.
The most rapid stress redistribution will occur in the region
of greatest stress. This region is located near the inner
surface of the shell, and the maximum principal stress is the
tangential stress, J,. For a given material, given dimen-
sions, and given operating conditions, a vessel at elevated
temperature will have a definite life prior to rupture termed
the "rupture life." Creep-rate curves and stress-rupture
curves for various materials of construction are available
for design purposes. Typical examples of such curves are
shown in Fig. 2.15 and Fig. 2.16, respectively.
The rupture life of a vessel at elevated temperatures is
dependent upon the history of the stress conditions and
creep phenomena. Thus, if a vessel is held at a given
temperature under a high stress, it will have a shorter life
than if it is held at the same stress level at a lower temper-
ature. Voorhees verified Robinson's theory (212) that the
fraction of the total vessel life dissipated at any stress is
equal to the ratio:
Actual Time at Given Stress Level )
Rupture Life at That Stress in a Conventional
(
Constant-load Test
To test the validity of this relationship Voorhees raised
and lowered the stress levels on 18 conventi~nal unnotched
bars. On averaging the results for the 18 tests, he found
that the additions of the fractions of rupture life checked
with the experimental observations within 1 % (204).
Voorhees points out that this rule of addibility of rupture-life
appreciable structural alterations occur.
To analyze the effects of stress leveling in the shell of a
thick-walled vessel, Voorhees arbitrarily subdivided. the
cross section of the shell into a number of concentric rings
or shells in such a way that the conditions at the centroid
of a particular ring were representative of that ring. His
study indicated that a subdivision into a minimum of six
concentric shells each with twice the circular cross section
the total range of stresses across the wall. In applying
this analysis the procedure consists of replacing the con-
tinuous change in stress pattern with an equivalent series
of time intervals over each of which the creep rate and
stress in a given ring may he considered nearly constant.
The fraction of rupture life expended during each interval
is calculated for each ring; and .when the accumulative
fraction for any ring reaches unity, rupture should occur
at that location, and failure of the entire vessel is imminent.
1'.5c Stress Redistribution by Creep Relaxation.
Consider two adjacent rings in the shell of a thick-walled
vessel with the inner ring having a principal stress of ]2 and
a creep rate of C2 and the outer ring having a principal
stress of Ji and a creep of C1• If ]2 > Ji, then C2 > C1
with both rings at the same temperature. After some creep
has occurred, the plastic strain in the inner ring will exceed
the plastic strain in the outer ring, hut as both rings are .
joined by the fibers of the material, this difference in plastic
strain must he absorbed by elastic strains in each of the
two rings. These elfistic strains result in an increase in the
stress in the outer ring and a decrease in the stress in the
inner ring. On the basis of the assumption of plastic
incompressibility the changes in principal stress are equal
to 2G times the corresponding principal elastic strains. A
similar relationship holds for the elastic changes involving
the equivalent stress and strain (204). The relationship
between the modulus of elasticity, E, Poisson's ratio,µ., and
the factor 2G is as follows (29):
E
2G = - - (14.47)
1 + p.
where E = modulus of elasticity in tension, pounds per
square inch
G = modulus of elasticity in shear, pounds
· I
square inch
p. = Poisson's ratio at operating temperature
= 0.32 for most high-strength steels at 1000-
13000 F
 Monobloc Vessels at Elevated Temperatures 283
/

In the case of plain carbon steels and alloys with high
creep rates, the effect of stress redistribution by creep is a
stress equalization in a short period of time with 1 % creep
or less. This is followed by a progressive thinning of the
shell, an increase in the stress, and a reduction of the
rupture life of the vessel. Steels with slow creep rates
behave differently. In this case the creep rate at the
operating condition may not be rapid enough to produce
stress equalization before an appreciable fraction of the
rupture life of the vessel is consumed. Thus, the steels
with low creep rates may be used at higher temperatures
and greater pressures, and the phenomenon of stress equali-
zation may not occur.
14.Sd Example Calculation 14.3, Illustration of the
Voorhees Method. To illustrate this procedure, a vessel
operating at 1050° F and 5500-psi internal pressure will be
considered. The vessel is fabricated of annealed carbon
steel having a modulus of elasticity of 24,000,000 psi at
1050° F. The vessel has an outside diameter of 12 in. and
an inside diameter of 6 in. Creep-rate data for this steel
are given in Fig. 14.9, and the stress-rupture curve is given
in Fig. 14.10 (211).
For purposes of calculation the cross section of the shell
is arbitrarily divided into six rings each having an area
equal to twice the area of the adjacent inner ring. Thus
the area ratios will be 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32; and the inner-
most ring will contain H 3 of the total area, the second
ring ~'6 3 , and so on. Table 14.6 presents a summary of
the preliminary calculations for these six rings.
In reference to Table 14.6, the six ring divisions are
numbered from the outside diameter inwards, as indicated
in column 1. Column 2 gives the fraction of the total
cross-sectional area contained in each ring. Column 3
gives the ratio of the centroid radius of each ring to the
outside radius of the vessel. Columns 4, 5, 6, and 7 give
the ratios of various calculated stresses to the internal
pressure that exists at the centroid of each ring (and also
at the inner and outer surfaces). The tangential stress, ft,
in column 4 was calculated by use of Eq. 14.12. The
axial stress, fa, in column 5 was calculated by use of Eq.
14.1; and the radial stress, fr, in column 6, by Eq. 14.13.
The equivalent stress (shear-stress invariant), J, of column 7
was determined by use of Eq. 14.43.
The next step in the calculation involves the determi-
nation of the "rate of redistribution of the initial stress
gradients," given in Table 14.7, as controlled by creep
relaxation. Data on creep rate versus stress at 1050° F for
the annealed carbon steel under consideration are required
in this step. Such data are given in Fig. 14.9.
In reference to Fig. 14.9, the dashed line is taken as the
average of the test data. The creep rates corresponding to
the values of stress J, used for column 7 of Table 14.6, are
taken from the dashed line of Fig. 14.9 and tabulated in
Table 14.7.
The differential strain rate at each interface between suc-
cessive pairs of rings is determined by subtraction. This is
illustrated for the innermost three shells as follows:
Shell No. Effective Creep Rate
6 0.040
5 -0.025
6- 5 0.015 differential rate
5 0.025
4 -0.011
5-4 0.014 differential rate
For a short time interval the creep rate may be con-
sidered constant, and the creep-rate differential may be
converted to a stress change by multiplying the differential
creep rate by the assumed time interval and by the shear
modulus of elasticity. In the case of the interaction
between rings number six and five and between rings num-
ber five and four, the stress changes are 546 psi and 509 psi,
respectively, calculated as follows.
For rings 5 and 6,
1
. in. ] (0.002 hr) (24 X 10 6 psi) ( -- ) = 546 psi
[ 0.015 (m.)(hr)
1.32

20

-~ 10
-- --- - - --- --~~;;:::.
i·
- i--
..-rr-a- ~.:::- ;::.-~ t::=-
---:... ---~-
I-· -

It,
'-

i
er
8
__ ...
_i.----- .....
J)...- -----
,_- -~.--::=:- - •
§
....
::i'
f
tn 4
6

---- -
...:i--
"

Code
" --
% of life expired
0 to 1
3
0 -- 10 to 45 (minimum rate period)
• ---- 80
2 I I I I I I
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Creep rate, in./in./hr

Fig. 14.9. Creep rate versus stress al l 050° F. for annealed carbon steel (204). (Courtesy of the American Chemical Society.)

-------- ------
284 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
70

-- -
0
0
50
P-- h Cr-Mo-V steel at 1100° F
-
~ r---_
30

Annealed carbon steel at 900° F ,

I I I I

I I II -
f-0.-. t-- .._
-- ~ ~ e d carbon steel at 1050° F ~
r-----~
-- -
I..
Cl
Sampling
""" Code direction
Longitudinal
Specimen
diameter
0.160
---- -

-- -.
5 I- ◊ Longitudinal 0.350
I-
•
0
Longitudinal
Tangential
0.505
0.160
"" Radial
t t
0.160
' ' .
1 10 100 1000
Rupture life, hr

Fig, 14.10. Streu versus rupture life for three conditions (204). (Courtesy of the American Chemical Society.)

For rings 4 and 5, lent stress at the end 0.002 hours of 11,570 +
182 - 339
= 11,413 psi.
[ 0.014 (in~(hr)] (0.002 hr) (24 X 10 psi)
6
C.~ 2
) = 509 psi The fraction of the rupture life ~x:pended in each ring
during the time interval of 0.002 hours may be determined
The calculated results are summarized in Table 14.8. by use of the rupture-life data shown in Fig. 14.10.
The stress interaction results in the relaxation of the For ring number 6 the rupture life of the vessel at the
stress in the inner shell and a transfer of the stress to the initial stress of 12,430 psi at 1050° F is estimated from
adjacent outer shell. The transfer of stress is distributed Fig. 14.10 to be 12 hours. The reduction in stress caused
inversely as the respective areas are distributed. As the by creep during 0.002 hours has increased the life of the
outer shell of a pair has twice the area of the inner adjacent vessel to 13 hours. Using an average life of 12H hours, we
shell because of the selection of the area sequence, the inner find that the fraction of the life used up during the interval
shell will receive two thirds of the total stress change. of 0.002 hours is equal to (0.002/12H)(l00%) = 0.016%,
By following the procedure illustrated in Table 14.8, the The calculation sequence is repeated, starting with the
stress changes for all six rings are determined, and the net stress distribution existing at the end ·of the first time
change for each ring is established. After the initial time interval. The fraction of the rupture life consumed in this
interval of 0.002 hours under load, creep will reduce the second interval is theri determined. When the summation
equivalent stress in ring number 6 to 12,430 - 364 = 12,066 of the life fractions equals unity, failure is imminent and
psi. In ring number 5 the net change results in an equiva- the total of the accumulated time intervals gives the antici-
pated rupture life.
As successive creep occurs with relaxation of the higher
Table 14.6. stresses, the stress variations across the wall tend to level
Position and Stress Pattern at Centroids
out with a decrease in creep rate. Consequently, longer
of Each of Six Rings in Vessel with OD = 21D (204)
time intervals may be used in each successive calculation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In the above example the stresses are essentially uniform
Fraction of r/r 0
across the wall with a value of 6000 psi at the end of
Shell Total Cross (at cen- 1.5 hours. This corresponds to an expenditure of about
No. Section troid) ft!p !alP f,/p ]/p only 0.8 % of the rupture life of ring number 6. The reduc-
ID 1.67 0.33 -1.00 2.30 tion of the maximum stress from 12,430 psi to 5800 psi
6 ¼s 0.506 1.64 0.33 -0.97 2.26
0.523 appears to increase the rupture life of the vessel from
5 %s 1.55 0.33 -0.88 2 .. 10
4 0.555 1.41 12 hours to about 840 hours, as indicated by Fig. 14.10.
¾a 0.33 -0.74 1.86
3 ¾s 0.617 1.21 0.33 -0.54 L52 However, the continuation of creep tends to increase the
2 1%s 0.723 0.97 0.33 -0.30 1.10 stress level and accelerate the creep rate, and this shortens
1 8%3 0.900 0.74 0.33 -0.08 0.71 the life of the vessel.
OD 0.67 0.33 0.00 0.58 The stress rise is proportional to the rate of change of the

ratio of the diameter to the wall thickness. In the absence
of localized bulging the stress rise at the end ~f a period of
creep will equal the initial stress at the beginning of the
period times the ratio:
1 + Creep Strain during the Interval)
( 1 - Creep Strain during the Interval
The creep rate at a stress of 6000 psi is 0.00048 in. per in.
per hr (see Fig. 14.9). A period of 8.5 hours at this con-
dition would result in a total creep of (8.5 hr)(0.00048) =
0.0041 in. per in. Therefore, at the end of a total elapsed
time of 10 hours the uniform equivalent stress should be:
1.0041)
6000 psi ( _ = 6045 psi
0 9959
Although the stress rise is only 45 psi, it results in a
decrease in the rupture life of the shell from 840 to 780 hours.
The first 1.5 hours consume 0.8 %, and the next 8.5 hours
1.5 % of the rupture life of ring number 6. A continuation
of these calculations show that the rupture life of the vessel
would he reached after 300 hours if no local deformation
or out-of-roundness developed. However, small irregu-
larities in geometry are augmented by creep, and this
shortens the rupture life of the vessel. Voorhees states
that an experimental vessel with similar loading failed after
55 hours (204).
14.6 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In the case of plain carbon steels and alloys with high
creep rates the amount of creep required to cause incipient
failure as a result of out-of-roundness, eccentricity, or
extraneous stresses is very small. After stress equalization
occurs, the vessel continues to deform plastically, and any
irregularity or out-of-roundness is accentuated; thus insta-
bility is produced, followed by rupture. Voorhees, Sliep-
cevich, and Freeman (204} recommend that for the case
of plain carbon steels and alloys with high creep rates,
the selected design stress be equal to 0.8 times the value
of the stress producing a 2 % creep during the anticipated
life of the vessel. As the initial stress is rapidly equalized,
the mean integrated stress will he reached in short time
and may he calculated by formal integration rather than
by the stepwise procedure previously described. This
integration is:
[:• 21rrJ dr
]avg (14.48)
,r(r,,2 - ri 2)
Table 14.7. Initial Conditions for an
Annealed-carbon-steel Vessel at 5500 psi (204}
Effective Creep
Shell No. j, psi Rate, in./in./hr
6 12,430 0.040
5 11,570 0.025
4 10,240 0.011
3 8,340 0.0027
2 6,050 0.005
1 3,910 0.0008
Prestressed Monobloc Vessels 285
Table 14.8. Stress Changes Resulting from Creep (211)
Total Stress Stress Change in
Shell No. Interaction, psi Each Ring, psi
6 546 - % (546) = -364
5 +½ (546) = +182
5 509 - % (509) = -339
4 +½ (509) = +170
But by Eqs. 14.44, 14.7, and 14.llh,
- r.; r 2r.2
]= V.) (ft - fa) = V3 P ( 2° i ) 2
ro - ri 2 r
Substituting the above equation into Eq. 14.47 for Jgives:
- 2 V3 pro2r,.21r• dr
]avg - (ro 2 - r,: 2) 2 r, r
= 2 V3 p( /°'i
ro - r,:
2)2 ln :2.
r,
(14.49}
Equation 14.49 may be set equal to 0.8 of the stress
giving 2 % creep during the anticipated life, and the pro-
portions of the vessel determined. This proposed design
procedure is not recognized by the code but should be
satisfactory for most of the more ductile high-temperature
alloys which show a marked degree of strengthening in a
notched-bar rupture test.
In the case of alloys for high-temperature service having
high creep strength, the design should be based on stress-
rupture data rather than creep rate. The recommended
stress for such a design is 0.8 of the stress for rupture in the
anticipated service life of the vessel (204). In order for
this design criterion to be used, the operating conditions of
temperature and pressure must be carefully controlled, and
reliable data on the alloy employed must be available.
Normally the maximum equivalent stress, ], will be the
initial equivalent stress at the inner radius, r,;.
For ideal conditions the shell material at the inner wall
should have a high creep rate in order to quickly relax the
high initial stresses. On the other hand, a low creep rate
is desirable at the outer surface in order to restrain the
shell of the vessel from thinning and to maintain stability.
These two criteria are incompatible for a single material,
but both can be realized if two shell constructions are
used (204). The inner shell material should be chosen to
have moderate creep strength and to be capable of with-
standing extended creep without rupture. The material
for the outer shell should have a low creep rate and a high
c.reep strength. Such a design may be used with loose fits
since the inner shell will creep until contact is made with
the outer shell.
14.7 PRESTRESSED MONOBLOC VESSELS
14.7a The Advantage of Prestressing. The advantage
of prestressing a vessel is either the reduction of the maxi-
mum stress existing under operating conditions or the
reduction of the required shell thickness ,vhen a specified
maximum allowable design stress is used. Regardless of
the theory employed to calculate the maximum stress in the
286 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
Thus, employing the maximum-principal-stress theory,
in which the maximum stress is determined by Lame
analysis, and employing a given maximum allowable stress,
one finds that the use of an ideal-prestressed vessel instead
of a nonprestressed vessel will result in a reduction in shell
thickness of (K + l)/(K2 + 1). To calculate this reduc-

w
tion in required thickness the design pressure and _maximum

~
allowable working stress must be known. E,quation 14.14b
can be rearranged to solve for K.

l 2
(a}
Fig. 14.11. Streu distributions In shells under load.
wall of a thick-walled vessel, a nonuniform stress distribu-
tion under pressure will be found to exist in a monobloc ,
vessel that has not been prestressed. The principle of
prestressing is to induce a permanent residual compressive
stress existing under zero pressure at the point in the shell
where the maximum tensile stress is induced under pressure.
14.7b Ideal Stress Distribution. The ideal stress dis-
tribution in a prestressed shell was discussed by Maccary
and Fey (194) and was shown to depend upon the theory
being used for design. When the maximum-principal-stress
theory is the theory used, Fig. 14.11, detail a, shows the
stress distribution under load for a nonprestressed shell
whereas detail b shows the stress distribution under load
for an ideal prestressed shell.
In reference to detail b, by summation of forces
5 6
K V(Jauow. + p)/(Jauow. - p) (14.54)
(b) The concept of ideal prestressing is useful for realizing
the possibilities of prestressing. However, the ideal-
prestress condition can only be approximated by the method
of autofrettage -of monobloc vessels.
14.8 THERMAL PRESTRESSING
The work of Voorhees (211) on the creep of vessels sub-
jected simultaneously to high-temperature- and high-
pressure-service conditions suggests the use of creep to
thermally prestressa thick-walled vessel. Voorhees reports
thata creep of 1 % is sufficient to produce stress equalization
under the operating pressure. If a vessel has the pressure
on it raised to the operating pressure and then is heated
slowly and uniformly until a 1 % strain from creep has
resulted, the stress distribution across the vessel wall should
become nearly uniform, approaching the ideal-prestressed
condition shown in detail b of Fig. 14.11. If the pressure is
released and the vessel cooled with sufficient rapidity to
prevent additional creep, residual stresses will result in the
shell. Upon placing the vessel in service at the same pres-

l F = 2Piril = 2 1r:• J drl sure as that used in prestressing but at a temperature below
that producing creep, the ideal-prestressed condition will be
or approached for the loaded condition. Although this
Piri = t• f dr = Uavg n.p.s.)(in.p.s.) = area 1-2-3-4 (14.50)
method of prestressing appears to be very promising for
monobloc vessels, there is no known report of the use of
where n.p.s. = nonprestressed this method. The most widely used method of prestressing
monobloc vessels is that of "autofrettage."
favg n.p.s. (14.51) 14.9 AUTOFRETTAGE PRESTRESSING

K2 +1 (14.14b)
The process of "autofrettage" is the oldest method of
fallow. n.p.s. = Pi K2 _ I prestressing monobloc cylinders. Toward the end of the
nineteenth century some monobloc cylinders for gun barrels
In reference to detail b, by use of the same maximum were prestressed by a special casting technique using a
stress (p.s. stands for prestressed) chilled core, but this process has not been used in modern

fallow. p.e. = !avg p.a. = Pi (1: ~ D practice. The word "autofrettage" comes from the French
language, and a literal translation is "self-hooping" from
the similarity of prestressing by means of shrink fitting
Also, by summation of forces successive shells to the prestressing of barrels by hooping.
Piri = (Javgp. 8 .)(tp.8 .) = area 5-6-7-8 (14.52) The process consists simply of stressing all, or more usually,
Equating Eq. 14.50 to Eq. 14.52 (for the same pressure part, of the monobloc shell beyond the yield point by means
and inside diameter) gives: of hydrostatic pressure. This produces a greater unit strain
in the inner portion of the shell than in the outer portion.
Pi (1: ~ !) lp.s. = Pi (K ~ i) tn.p.s.
On release of the overstressing pressure the difference in unit
elongation results in a residual compressive stress in the
Shell thickness, prestressed lp.s. inner and a residual tensile stress in the outer portion of the
=-- shell. Usually the permanent set as measured on the inside
Shell thickness, nonprestressed ln.p.s.
diameter is limited to between 2.5 and 6.0%. Although it
2
K
= ( K2 + 1
- 1) (
K - I
1 )
= K2
K ++ 11 (14.53)
might appear that the maximum strengthening be produced
by overstressing the entire shell beyond the elastic limit,

this is not the case. It is usually desirable to limit the
overstressing to keep an outer layer of the shell within the
elastic region. However, Manning (203) suggests that
there are advantages to 100 % overstrain and states that
"it is doubtful whether they (other workers) have obtained
the fullest possible advantage from the peculiar redistribu-
tion of stress which overstrain brings about."
U.9a Stress Relationships for Autofrettage Pressure.
The theory of the autofrettage process has been studied by
a nwnber of investigators. One of the original investi-
gators was Macrae (192). His work was later reviewed by
Newitt (191). Other reviews and discussions of the subject
have been presented by Hill (197), Comings (218), Prager
Autofrettage Prestressing 287
where p* = autofrettage pressure that will place the elastic-
plastic interface at ri, pounds per square inch
p .. = autofrettage pressure that will place the elastic-
plastic interface at r0 , pounds per square inch
The elastic-plastic interface located at radius re divides
the shell into two zones, a plastic zone and an elastic zone.
Separate relationships must be used for determining the
autofrettage-pressure stresses for each zone.
For the plastic zone, where ri Sr s re,
fr = -fa.y. ( 1 (14.58)

+ ror
-¾ + 2 In re-r)
and Hodge (195), Faupel (201, 216), and Faupel and Fur- 2

beck (215). Hill considers the autofrettaging of spherical

shells as well as cylindrical shells. Faupel and Furbeck
ft = fas. (1 (14.59)

report experimental data on autofrettaged vessels tested to

(14.60)
bursting and compare the theory with experimental results.
The procedure used in the analysis of autofrettaged shells
consists of the following: where fr = autofrettage radial stress, pounds per square
inch
1. The determination of the autofrettage pressure which ft = autofrettage tangential stress, pounds per square
will locate the elastic-plastic interface at the desired position inch
in the wall of a vessel having a specified inside and outside fa ·= autofrettage longitudinal stress, pounds per
diameter. square inch
2. The determination of the autofrettage-pressure stresses.
3. The determination of the changes in pressure stresses For the elastic zone, where re sr S r0 ,
resulting from the unloading process.
4. The combination of residual stresses with operating-
pressure stresses by the method of superposition.
fr = p" ( 1 - r;:) (14.61)

5. The calculation of elastic breakdown and bursting

pressures. ft= p" (1 + ~:) I
(14.62)

The derivation of the relationships used in the procedure la= p" (14.63)
outlined above is presented by Prager and Hodge (195) and
will be only summarized here. p,, = f,~r2
Prager and Hodge (195) have shown that integration of ro2
Eq. 14.38 leads to a relationship for the autofrettage pres-
sure required to locate the elastic-plastic interface at a 14.9b Changes in Stresses as a Result of Unloading t~e
radial distance of re (between ri and r0 ), or Autofrettage Pressure.
VESSELS WITH UNLOADING STRESSES WITHIN THE ELAst1c
REGION. Prager and Hodge (195) have shown that the
(14.55) method of computing the changes in stresses resulting from
unloading the autofrettage pressure will depend upon
where fs.y. = yield limit in simple shear, pounds per square whether or not the unloading stresses exceed the compr~s-
inch (see Eq. 14.35) sive yield strength of the material. Vessels will h~ve
re = radial distance of elastic-plastic interface, unloading stresses within the elastic region if
inches
1'i = inside radius of shell, inches (14.64)
r0 = outside radius of shell, inches
p = autofrettage pressure, pounds per square inch and
p* s ilp < p** (14.65)
The two limits p* and p** of Eq. 14.55 are reached when
orif
K > 2.22
re = ri or when re r0 , respectively.
and
ilp S 2p* (U.66)
(14.56)
where ilp = the unloading pressure, pounds per square in.ch
For vessels satisfying the above conditions, the follow~ng
p ** = -Js.y,
9~ In -ro (14.57)
ri relationships give the changes in autcfrettage-pressµre
288 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
stresses for both the elastic and plastic regions: Also,

( r/·)
(14.81)
!:,.fr = -Ap' 1
r2
(14.67)
where Ut) = residual tangential stress, pounds per square
inch
!:,.ft - t::,.p' ( 1 + ~:) (14.68) ft = ft from Eqs. 14.59 _and 14.62
Aft = ti.ft from Eq. 14.68 or from Eqs. 14.75 and
ti.fa= -t.p' (14.69) 14.78
And
t.p' = t.p ( 2r/'· 2)
ro - ri
(14.70) (14.82)
where Ua) = residual axial stress, pounds per square.inch
where t.p (p1 - P2) fa = la from Eqs. 14.60 and 14.63
p1 = autofrettage pressure, pounds per square inch
ti.fa= ti.fa from Eq. 14.69 or from Eqs. 14.76 and
p2 = unloading pressure, pounds per square inch
14.79
(normally zero)
VESSELS WITH UNLOADING STRESSES BEYOND THE ELASTIC
14.9c Combined Stresses under Operating Pressure.
REGION. Vessels will have unloading stresses beyond the ,
The combined stresses under operating pressure are deter-
compressive yield strength if mined by the method of superposition. Lame's equations
for fr, ft, and fa (Eqs.14.6b, 14.7, and 14.1, respectively) are
K = (:£)ri > 2.22 (14.71)
combined with the appropriate residual stresses of Eqs.
14.80, 14.81, and 14.82. ·
and The unit radial strain in both the elastic and plastic
2p* 5 t.p < p** (14.72) regions under autofrettage pressure is given by:

For the conditions above, Eq. 14.55 must be modified as (14.83)

follows to give the elastic-plastic interface after unloading:

( r-rl·..L - r·)
2 E
t.p = 2fs.y. 1 - 2 In ...: (14.73) where G = - - - (See Eq. 14.47.)
r; . ·2(1 + µ)
and
where r; = radial distance of elastic-plastic interface, inches E = modulus -of elasticity of material, pounds per
The changes in autofrettage-pressure stresses upon square inch
unloading for the plastic zone are: µ Poisson's ratio
r, 5 r 5 r; Upon unloading of the autofrettage pressure a change in
unit radial strain, ti.Er, occurs.
Afr = 2f .y. (18 !_.)
- ~/:2 - 2 In
r; ro
(14.74) For conditions satisfying Eqs. 14.64, 14.65, and 14.66

ti.ft = -2fe.y. (1 + ri: + 2 ln !_.)

t.p' ro 2
(14.75) AEr= - - - (14.84)
ro r; 2Gr2

t.f = -2fe.y. (r;: + 2 ln !_.)

where t.p' is given by Eq. 14.70.
a (14.76)
r r; 0
For conditions satisfying Eqs. 14.71, 14.72, and 14.73
For the elastic zone,
ti.E,- =- f,s.y.rJ·2
r; 5 r 5 ro (14.85)
Gr 2
ti.fr = -2fa.y. ro r,: (1 - 7

r
":) (14.77) 14.9d Example Calculation 14.4, Determination of Opti-
mum Autofrettage Pressure. An autofrettage vessel is to
2
be designed to contain a fluid at 20,000 psi internal pressure.
= -2f•.y. r;2
-·2 ( 1 + r
0
t.f, 2
ro r
) (14.78)
An internal diameter of 12 in. is specified. A high-strength j
ti.fa = -2f•. y. c::) (14.79)
steel having a 70,000-psi yield point is to be used.

thickness, according to the maximum-principal-stress theory, ,.:

·_;i•·•

Using a factor of safety, X equal to 2.0, the required shell ~

The residual autofrettage stresses are determined as is 5.5 in. (for a similar vessel shell). Therefore, K = do/d. ;:
follows: = 1.916. The shell thickness for the ideal-prestressed con- · ;£
(14.80) dition is, by Eq. 14.53: tj
where Ur) = residual radial stress, pounds per square inch fp.s. = K + 1 = 2.916 = 0_623
fr = fr from Eqs. 14.58 and 14.61 tn.p.s. K2
+1 4.67 11
ti.fr = ti.fr from Eq. 14.67 or from Eqs. 14.74 and therefore
14.77 fp.s. = (5.5)(0.623) = 3.43 in.
 Autofrettage Prestressing 289
As the ideal-prestressed condition cannot be obtained by For the plastic region:
autofrettage, an intermediate Yalue between the ideal- By Eq. 14.58

(1 - ~=
prestressed and the nonprestressed Yalue will be selected.
Determine the autofrettage pressure which will giye the fr = -f,s.y. ro 2
minimum combined hoop stress if a shell thickness of
4½ in. is used. therefore
Solution: 81
Data: fr= -40,300 ( l - - - 2 ln ~)
II0.3
ri = 6.0 in.
For r = 6, 7, 8, and 9 in.,fr -43,500, -31,000, -19,400,
r0 = 10.5 in. and -10,700 psi, respectiYely.
f y.p. = 70,000 psi By Eq. 14.59
By Eq. 14.35

= fy.p.
ft f11.y. (1 +re:+ 2
ro
In.:.)
re
J,11.y. V3 therefore
therefore ft = 40,300 (1 + _!I:_ + 2 In :)
70,000 11.03 9
J 8 .y. = 1. 40,300 psi
732 For r = 6, 7, 8, and 9 in.,J, = +37,400, +49,800, +61,100,
and +69,000 psi, respectiYely.
To determine the optimum autofrettage pressure a num- By Eq. 14.60
ber of Yalues of re must be selected, and the corresponding
stresses eYaluated.
The upper and lower limits of the autofrettage pressure
are determined by Eqs. 14.56 and 14.57. therefore
The lower limit is:
Ja = 40 300 ( ~ + 2 In ~)
(l - r>r·2)
' II0.3 9
p* = fs.y.
For r = 6, 7, 8, and 9 in.,fa = -3,030, +9,300, +20,900,
and +29,700 psi, respectiye}y.
= 40,300 (1 - ~ ) For the elastic region:
II0.3
By Eq. 14.63
= 27,150 psi
· ,, = fs.y.rc 2 = (40,300)(81) = 29 700 •
The upper limit is: p ro 2 II0.3 ' psi

By Eq. 14.61

1 5
(2)(40,300) In :
therefore
= 45,200 psi 3
fr = 29,700 ( 1 - llr~· )
The stresses for re = 6, 1, 8, 9, and 10.5 in. will be deter-
mined. Only the calculations for re = 9 in. will be pre- For r = 9, 9¾, and 10½ in., Jr -10,750, -4760, and
sented here. 0 psi, respectiYely.
The autofrettage pressure required to locate the elastic- By Eq. 14.62
plastic interface at re 9 in. is determined by Eq. 14.55.

therefore
3
81
= 40,300 ( 1 - II0. 3 2 ln t) ft = 29,700 (1 + II0. )
r2

= 43,500 psi For r = 9, 9¾, and 10½ in., f 1 = +69,000, +64,000, and
+59,400 psi, respectiyely.
Under autofrettage pressure the radial, tangential, and By Eq. 14.63
longitudinal stresses for re = 9 in. are as follows. fa p" = +29,700 psi
290 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
80 For r = 6, 7, 8, 9, 9¾, and lOH in., !:..fr = 43,700, 26,500,
15,400, 7640, 2390, and O psi, respectively.
70
J.....--""' r----.. t"- Substituting into Eq. 14.68 gives:
I/ r-....
60

50
I/
V ft Mt= -t:,.p' (1 + ;22)
/
V therefore
40 V
110.3),
!:,.ft= -21,200 ( 1 + 7 .·
1,...--"" fa
/
V For r = 6, 7, 8, 9, 9¾, and lOH in., f:i.ft = -86,000,
/ -69,000, -58,000', -50,000, -48,000, and -42,400 psi,
V respectively.
/ f,. Substituting into Eq. 14.69 gives:
I/ i..---
,.,,. 1....----" · f:i.fa = -f:i.p' = -21,200 psi
-10
~
-20
V Calculation of residual stresses:
V Substituting the above values into Eqs. 14.81, 14.82, and
-30 I/ 14.83 gives the following residual stresses (for re = 9 in.):
V
-40 V / r fr ft la
6 0 -48,600 -24,230
-50 7 -4500 19,200 ...:.11,900
6 7 8 9 10 11
r (inches) 8 -4000 +3,000 -300
9 -3060 +19,000 +8,500
Fig. 14.12. Induced stresses under autofrettage pressure, 43,500 psi. 9¾ -2370 +18,200 +8,500
10}~ 0 +11,000 +8,500

Figure 14.12 is a plot of the induced autofrettage-pressure Figure 14.13 graphically presents the above residual
stresses for the case in which re = 9 in. stresses.
Determination of changes in autofrettage-pressure stresses Figure 14.14 shows the residual hoop (tangential) stresses
resulting from unloading: resulting from unloading the autofrettage pressure. The
Check of unloading conditions:

K = :£
ri
= 10.5

Comparing this value with Eq. 14.64 indicates that

6
1.75 20

15
I/
J - - ft
.
Eqs. 14.67, 14.68, and 14.69 are applicable. First, Eq. 14.70 10
f,.
must be evaluated. ·
5
I /
//
!:,.p = Pl - P2
0
I"'-. r-... v _i.-- - f,.

/i
P2 =0
therefore
V
/
I
I
t:,.p = autofrettage pressure
I
= 43,500 psi (for re = 9 in.) V
and -25 I
t:,.p' = 43,500 (uo.:6_ 36) -30 II
I
-35
= 21,200 psi
Substituting into Eq. 14.67 gives:
-40 I
-45 I
!:,.Jr = -t:,.p' ( 1 - )2) -50
I

11
6 7 8 9 10
therefore r (inches)
!:,.Jr 11.3)
-21,200 ( 1 - 7
Fig. 14.13. Residual stresses for r c = 9 in.
 Results from Experimental Studies of Autofrf :. ,_, i
operating hoop stress calculated by Lame's relationship is 60 ,.......--,---,--....---,--r---r---.--.--....---~~
also shown. This operating-pressure stress is combined
with the residual stresses to give series of combined a
stresses for various values of re. The curve at the top
of the figure shows the locus of the maximum combined
stress and indicates a minimum value where re is about
7 in. If the vessel had not been autofrettaged, the maxi-
mum stress would have been 39,600 psi. If the vessel had
been autofrettaged so that Tc was equal to 7 in., this stress
would have been reduced to 35,000 psi. This amounts to
about an 11 % reduction in the maximum stress at operating
pressure. Examination of Fig. 14.14 indicates that the
vessel could be overautofrettaged with the result that the
combined stress would be greater than that in the same
vessel without autofrettage.

14.10 RESULTS FROM EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

OF AUTO FRETTAGE
Faupel and Furbeck (215) experimentally studied residual
stresses in autofrettaged vessels constructed of plain carbon
steel and various alloys. The theoretical residual stresses
were computed from relationships which may be derived
from equations presented earlier in this chapter.
In these derivations Eq. 14.70 is substituted into Eqs.
14.67, 14.68, and 14.69, and these last three equations added
to Eqs. 14.58, 14.59, and 14.60, respectively, to give the
residual stresses:

2
Jr' = 2Js.y. In -ror - T0
2
pr-•
- ri 2
(
1 _ r/)
r2
(14.86)

2 ( 2) 7 8 9 10 11
= 2fs.y. ( 1 + In -T) pr- r r (inches)
ft' - • 1- -; (14.87)
ro ro 2 - ri 2 r
fig. 1-4.1-4. Plot of residual hoop stresses and combined operating hoop-
, r pr,.2
fa = 2fs.y.
1
( 11" + In r.- ) -
r. -
2
Ti
2 (14.88) pressure stress for various values of r,.

Faupel and Furbeck (215) determined experimental values where Ao = initial cross-sectional area of cylinder including
of residual stresses in autofrettaged vessels by means of the the bore, square inches
method developed by Sachs (219). In this procedure, A = cross-sectional area of the bore following a
prestressed thick-walled cylinders were aligned in a lathe, machine cut, square inches
and concentric layers of metal machined from the bore in a. = (Ea + µEe), inches per inch
successive steps. The axial and circumferential strains 0 = (Ee + µEa), inches per inch
were recorded for each successive cut (usually about 0.05 in. Ea = axial strain, inches per inch
measured on the diameter). Also, after each cut the bore Ee = circumferential strain, inches per inch
diameter was measured to within 0.00(n· in. by use of E = modulus of elasticity, pounds per square inch
flush-cooling and temperature-compensating gages. These µ = Poisson's ratio
data on the strains and bore diameters were substituted into
the following equations developed by Sachs (219) to give In one test a cylinder with an outside diameter to inside
values of residual stresses based upon these measurements. diameter ratio of 2.74 fabricated of Cr-Ni-Mo-V steel was
heat-treated to a hardness of 42 Rockwell C to remove

fr'= 1 -
E
µ2
[Ao -
2A
A] O (14.89)
residual stresses. It was then autofrettaged at a pressure
of 200,000 psi for 4.5 hours. This procedure was followed
by a stabilizing heat-treatment at 650° F for 3 hours. The

ft' = E
1 - µ2
[
(Ao - A) dA -
dO (Ao2A+ A) 0] (14.90)
cylinder was checked for stability and elastic behavior up
to the autofrettage pressure by repeating the loading to
200,000 psi through four cycles of operation, and then the
, E [ da. ] (14.91) residual stresses were determined by the Sachs method.
fa = l _ µ 2 (Ao - A) dA - a.
The results are shown in Fig. 14.15.
292 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
2,757• According to Manning, two assumptions are involved:
(1) the cross-sectional area remains constant under strain,
I
120
- r-E---1.022·
(2} the relation between maximum shear stress and maxi-
mum shear strain is the same in a cylinder as in a torsion
test. The first assumption permits the calculation of the
shear strain at any point in the wall of the vessel and the

80
,.._ ,., - second permits the calculation of shear stress from torsion
data. Equation 14.2h (with proper allmyance for sign
v~r
- /; ~- convention) is a statement of the first assuniption, or:
40
,-..
~
~
;1. Hoop dfr
ft-fr=r-
dr
(14.2b}

·.;;

"0
C.
0.,,
-40
0 .,
\~
,,,~ r<? ~ The corresponding maximum shear stress at radius r is
given by Eq. 9,85:
.,.,,C Longitudinal ...,.Radial ½Ut (9.85)

''
:,
fa= -fr)
6
= -80
.;
If Eq. 9.85 is substituted into Eq. 14.2b we have:
e
~ -120 • (14.92}
"'
:, Experimental o
:-2
¥.: Theoretical • In Eq. 14.92 the value of r must be that of the strained
a: -160 '
condition. This can he expressed as follows for the inte-
grated form:
-200 r+Ar J.

-240
)
fr = -p.;, +2
f ,+Ar,
(+ ) d(r + 4r)
r 4r
8
(14.93)

where Ar = shift of point at radius r as a result of strain

induced by pressure Pi
-280
Ar;, = shift of inside radius, r,, as a result of strain
induced by pressure p.;,
Pt = internal autofrettage pressure
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 In order to integrate Eq. 14.93 the shear stress, / 8 , as a
Cross-sectional area, square inches function of strain must be known. For this purpose
Manning uses the results from a torsion test and the follow-
Fig. 14.15. Theoretical and experimental residual-stress distributions In an
ing equation given by Nadai (241):
autofrettaged cylinder (215). (Extracted-from Transactions of tlie ASME
with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical
4 { dT
Engineers.) ls = 1rda () d() + 3T } (14.94)

where T = torque
() = unit twist
In Fig. 14.15 the theoretical stresses predicted by Eqs. d = diameter of shaft used in torque test
14.86, 14.87, and 14.88 show good agreement with the
experimental values. If the cross-sectional area is constant, the following rela-
tion is true:
U.11 MANNING'S METHOD 1rr2 - 1rr,.2 = 1r(r + .:1r) 2 - 1r(ri + .:1r.;,} 2
or
Table 14.5 compares experimental values of bursting with (14.95)
various theories of failure and shows good correlation
between the experimental values and those predicted by Using Eqs. 14.94 and 14.95 and experimental data for
the method of Manning (203). Manning's hypothesis is torsion tests, Manning integrates the integral group of
that since vessels for high-pressure service are usually fabri- Eq. 14.93 and plots twice the· integral as a function of
cated of high-tensile steel, which usually fails by shear, an radius ratio r/r.;,. If twice the integral is combined with
experimentally determined shear stress should be used in - p.;, as indicated in Eq. 14.93, the radial stress is obtained
the design of such vessels rather than tensile-test data. under autofrettage conditions.
He proposes that a simple torsion test be used to determine This stress curve is plotted in Fig. 14.16 and is indicated
the shear stress-strain relationships and has presented by the line labeled "Manning's value." The curve is
methods of using these data in the design of high-pressure plotted over a range of r/r;, from 1.0 to 10.0 hut the inte-
vessels (203, 237-240). gration has been made for a vessel of infinite external radius.
 \

Manning's Method 293

240,000

220,000 - Plastic range

r-Elastic-plastic interface
l Elastic range
l
I

200,000 i
I

r('" 185,800 psi

180,000 i
·11160,000 ~ ~ = =
i
-.//--Eq. 14.58 (with r0 00 , fs.y. 57,800 psi) for radial stress
'of- :::--. Manning's value for radial stress (Ref. 239)
-~ 140,000 ~
:!:!
Q. ~~ I
§ 120,000
~
Ill

! 100,000
~

¾,_,, !
I
Ill
I
Jii
J ao.ooo
~
~-- i
-~ j Shear yield point= 57,800
60,000 (for r0 = 00 only)

40,000 ~
: '--.....
I I'--_
20,000

0 i -5200 psi
.....:..-...~
----== ~- ·-
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Radius ratio

fig. 14.16. Comparison of Manning's method with Eq. U.58.

For a vessel of infinite external radius the maximum value For use in the analysis of actual vessels in which r0 is less
of the integral for the example given (see page 511 of than infinity this ratio becomes 3r/rc and a correction must
Reference 239) is 185,800 psi. In the example quoted the he made to the values of stress determined from the figure
elastic-plastic interface was placed at a radius ratio of 3.0. since the limits of the integration are no longer from one to
The dashed line was obtained by use of Eq. 14.58, using infinity. The use of the figure in this manner assumes the
values of ri = l in., re = 3 in., r0 = 00, and fs.y. 57,800 criterion of dimensional similarity mentioned earlier. To
psi. The value of fs.y. = 57,800 was obtained from Man- illustrate the use of the stress curve examples will be given.
ning's plot on page 511 of Reference 239. Note that the
formal integration given by Eq. 14.58 gives essentially the E:xample 1. r;, = 3 in., re = 9 in., and r0 = 30 in.
same curve as obtained by Manning, who used the rather Therefore, for r = r., = 3 in.,
tedious procedure of stepwise integration. The problem
lies more in the determination of the correct shear yield 3r 3(3)
1
stress than in the method of integration.
The reason for using the ratio of r/ri on a logarithmic
scale is for convenience in vessel design. Manning points From Fig. 14.16, /,(uncorrected) -185,800 psi.
out that for an isotropic material the same·stress and strain For r = re,
curves versus radius ratio (r/r;,) will apply regardless of the
absolute dimensions of the vessel. Jasper (242, 243), on the
other hand, states that for "very thick-walled vessels the
ratio of thickness to diameter is not as good a criterion as -57,800 psi.
From Fig. 14.16, /r(uncorrected)
definite thickness." It must he recognized that vessels
For r = ro,
may not behave ideally and their characteristics may be
influenced by the nonisotropic nature of the material of 3r (3)(30)
construction. Such deviations can only be determined by
tests with vessels of full size. In the absence of such data
correlations based on dimensional similarity are the only From Fig. 14.16, /,(uncorrected) 5200 psi.
method of analysis.
The abscissa of Fig. 14.16 is labeled "Radius Ratio." Since the radial pressure at r0 is zero (for a vessel with
This ratio is equal to r0 /ri for the case in which ro = 00. zero external pressure) and since the shape of the radial
294 High-pressure Monobloc Vessels
X From the figure, fr(uncorreeted) -20,800 psi.
To correct these values so that fr. = 0, -20,800 psi is
subtracted from the values given above to give:

fr; = -104,600 - (-20,800) = -83,800

autofrettage pressure

frc = -57,800 - (-20,800) = 37,000 psi:

,,

and

fro= 0
It should be mentioned that Fig. 14.16 could have been
prepared using rc/ri = 4 or any other convenient quantity
rather than 3. 'If such a plot were prepared with rc/r; 4,
then the radius ratio would become 4r/rc and would change
correspondingly for any other value.
Manning recommends that the elastic-plastic interface re
he located approximately at re = ~ for optimwn pre-
Change in outside diameter
stressing with autofrettage.
Fig. 14.17. Hysteresis in autofrettaged vessel (2371. {Courtesy of
American Chemical Society,) 14.12 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN AUTOFRETTAGE
In the process of autofrettage it is the usual practice to
stress curve depends upon the radius ratio (assuming provide additional metal on both the inside and outside
dimensional similarity), the curve has only to he shifted surface of the .wall. The excess metal on the inner surface
downward until the radial stress is zero at 3r/rc = 10. The is necessary in order to allow for permanent radial strain
same result may he obtained by subtracting the right-hand and yet maintain the desired internal diameter. Also, some
intercept of 5200 psi from the uncorrected stress values metal must be provided both on the inner and the outer
obtained from the figure. Therefore the corrected stresses surfaces for machining off the scale and for truing subse-
become: quent to the heat-treating operation which should follow
autofrettage.
fr, = -185,800 - ( -5200) = -180,600 psi The desirability of heat treatment after autofrettage can
= autofrettage pressure he explained by reference to Fig. 14.17.
Figure 14.17 was used by Manning (237) to illustrate the
fr, = -57,800 - (-5200) = -52,600 psi problem of hysteresis in an autofrettaged vessel. If in the
original overstraining the internal pressure is carried to
and point B in Fig. 14.17 and released, the outside diameter
fro= 0
will have a permanent strain as indicated by point C.
Decrease in diameter to C' may result if the vessel is allowed
The radial stress at any other point in the wall of the vessel to remain in the unloaded state. On reloading the vessel
can he determined in a similar manner. to a pressure of B' the strain of the outside diameter will
follow the path between C' and B', producing a hysteresis
Example 2. r,;. = 8 in., re = 12 in., r
0 = 20 in. loop. However, if the vessel is given a low-temperature
For r = r,, anneal (575°-600° F for mild steel), the hysteresis loop will
be replaced by a straight line characteristic of elastic strain.
Furthermore, the yield point will ri!ffl from B' to E. This
phenomenon was first investigated by Macrae (192), who
termed the rise in yield from B' to E the "elastic gain."
From Fig. 14.16, fr(uneorrected) = -104,600 psi. Thus a low-temperature heat treatment has the advantage
For r = re, of producing greater dimensional stability in the final vessel.
One suggested procedure of design consists of determining
the thickness of a shell that would burst at twice the service
pressure by means of Eq. 14.42. This vessel can then be
From the figure, fr(uneorrected) = -57,800 psi. autofrettaged with a pressure sufficient to place the elastic~
For r = r0 , plastic interface at the geometric-mean radius. This should
he followed by a low-temperature heat treatment and
machining to desired dimensions. The vessel will have a
factor of safety of 2 based on the working pressure.
 Practical Considerations in Autofrettage 295
PROBLEMS

1. A thick-walled pressure vessel having an inside diameter of 8 in. and an outside diameter
of 16 in. is subjected to an internal pressure of 15,000 psi. Determine the maximum iqduced
stress according to the maximum-principal-stress theory, the maximum-shear-stress theory,
the maximum-strain theory, and the maximum-strain-energy theory.
2. Prepare a plot of the tangential stress, ft. and the radial stress, f., for the vessel in prob-
lem 1.
3. Determine the bursting strength of the vessel described in problem I if the vessel is
fabricated of SA-302 grade B steel (see Chapter 12 for J.... and Fig. 2.6 for f.:,.p.),
4. Calculate the stress distribution across the vessel shell for the vessel described in section
14.Sd (Illustration of the Voorhees Method) after l % strain from creep has occurred in the
shell.
5. A vessel with an inside diameter of 20 in. and an outside diameter of 32 in. is to be operated
at 1100° F. What is the maximum allowable working pressure if the vessel is fabricated of
18-8 type 316 steel (see Fig. 2.15) and its anticipated life is 20,000 hours? (See Eq. 14.49).
6. For the vessel described in problem l calculate the optimum autofrettage pressure that
will give the minimum peak stress under operating conditions.
7. A reactor is needed in our plant for service at 400° F with an internal pressure of 25,000 lb
per sq in. gage. We have elected to use an inside diameter of 16 in.
The thickness of the vessel is to be selected so that the vessel will rupture at twice the service
pressure by use of the equation of Faupel, which is based on experimental-test data.
The vessel is to be autofrettaged with a pressure sufficient to place the elastic-plastic inter-
face at the geometric-mean radius, that is, at Yrvo•
The physical properties of the steel are:
Tensile strength = 105,000 psi
Yield strength = 90,000 psi
Using the above suggested design procedure, determine:
a. The required thickness of the shell.
b. The autofrettage gage pressure· required for locating the elastic-plastic interface at the
geometric-mean radius.
c. The radial compressive stress under autofrettage pressure at:
L the inside surface
2. the elastic-plastic interface
3. the outer surface.

MULTILAYER VESSELS
~n the previous chapter the Lame relationships based
_up~n the theory of elasticity were presented for tangential,
axial, and radial stress distribution in a thick-walled vessel.
Also, the relationships of Voorhees and Faupel based upon
the theory of plasticity were discussed. These relation-
shil)s make possible the determination of the required thick-
ness of thick-walled vessels for high-pressure applications
and the de~rmination of the stress variations according to
the theory of "plane strain." The possibility of reducing
the required wall thickness by using multiwall construction
in which the concentric shells are "shrink-fitted" together
will now be considered.
The Lame hoop-stress equation indicates that the maxi-
mum stress occurs at the inner surface of the vessel. By
shrink-fitting concentric shells together the inner shells are
placed in residual compression so that the initial compressive
hoop stress must be relieved by the internal pressure before
hoop tensile stresses are developed. Therefore the maxi-
mum hoop tensile stress as determined by Lame's relation-
ship is appreciably reduced with the result that there is a
reduction of the total wall thickness required to contain the
pressure when the vessel-wall thickness is designed with a
specified allowable stress.
15.1 MULTILAYER VESSELS WITH
SHRINK-FITTED SHELLS
The relationships which follow were first presented by
H. L. Cox in 1936 (220). The theory as developed is based
upon the assumption that the maximum combined stresses
(hoop-~ressure stress plus hoop-shrinkage stress) existing
at the mner surface of each of the several shells will attain
296
CHAPTER
a certain identical value. It is assumed that both the
internal and external diameters are -known and that the
number of shells is to be a minimum. It is also assumed
that the combined cylinder is fabricated by shrinking-on
each successive shell from the inside outwards and that
after each shell is shrunk-on, the outside diameter rs
machined to size before the next cylinder is shrunk-on to
the inner shell or shells. Therefore the designer must deter-
mine the number of shells and their radii plus the inter-
ference (the amount by which the outside diameter exceeds
the inside diameter of the next shell). The relationships
for designing such a vessel may be derived as follows:
Consider a cylinder fabricated from n shells like the one
in Fig. 15.1 where:
<4, d1, · · · d,. = diameter of successive intershell sur-
faces, inches
Pi = internal pressure, pounds per square
inch
Po = external pressure, pounds per square
inch
P1, P2, • • • Pn-1 = successive interface pressures with Pi
and Po acting
iv. = hoop stress set up at the inside of each
shell with Pi and Po acting, pounds per
square inch (to he the same for all
shells)
Pi', P2 1, • • • p,,,' = interface shell pressure that exists
whenp, = Po
• A~ording to the Lame thick-walled-vessel theory, con·
Sidermg the rt11 + 1 shell and using the sign convention as
given by Eq. 14.6b gives:
 \

,e.:.) ti_u!tild~e(Ve-ssels .wi~ Shrl:hk.fhted Shell, '197

b 4o
J, • a-";t-o.-;p
bu!.

thefflor&
b 4b
~ •-
r"
-a=--a
a-
(IS. I)

1• ... ,, .., tb + o • t46 + a: (15,3)

,, '4
where a and I, are dd'med by Eq$. 14.1 1b and U.lOa.,
ra:peetive,)y. Therefo,e

p, - J" • -10 (lS•.f)

Subtract.ul,g Jt.q, 15.3 (rom Eq. 15.2 giv·es:
p,..._1d,.+1 -/,d.-1 - -o.(44+1" + d/)

-
Dividing tllro1i1gb by '4t g:ives:
1 '-t, U.t. Olotf'OM ol o - •ilo1•• -.it ohoWIIJ ..-1k,,. u-=I in dtrl•
p,.+1 d..+1' - I _, -o (d,.1:1 + ·) (LS.5)
4,.1 • d.r'
Let
(15.6) Equatloo 15 .l2 then become&:
Fp. - Pi ... ( l - P)/• (15.14)
Subelituting Eq. 1S.6 int.o Eq. 15.5 1:ivea: Solving (or ftt gives:
P..+1 K,+1: - /,, - - a(K,..,,' + I) (15.7) ,. C A - Pp... (p,- s;> - (Fp, -pJ
Oividiog Bq. IS.7 b:y &1. 15.i\ gives: F - 1 P-1
tticnf<M't
Pr;t:1 Kr+i' -I.= K,;:ti' +1 (15.8)
p, - 1. 2
I, - -p,. + ( Pi
-
P-1
--
,.) (15.15)

C 2K,+1' T~ 11m1tl~1 value u( ft for a given pres.wre difl'uen,oe

(1;,9) (p, - A,) obvi(Kl.d)' exisl3 whto P hu a maximum value.
r+l - 1 + K,+ 11
'fbe meth<>d or I.ti.grange r:nuhlplien may be U9ed for
h 1he:o follo.-s tN>m Eq. 15.8 the\ dl!t«ml.alng auch a COMtrained in.1:imum {34). Th~
rnetbod ind.iu tc. tbat t.he maximum value or F exists when
C...t-1 A-+• - p,.,. (} - C,+i}/, (15.10)
o.nd similn.rly K, • K, = K, • · • = K .. • K (15.16)
C,p, - PY- I - (1 - Cr,)/. tlS.11)
SubeLitutii,g F.q, 1$.6 into Bq. 15,16 gives:
Now ifr = l. ·
K ,.. <47 1 • d1,.. ~ - da - •.. ~ ( 15.17)
rr, - 2., d., d.; di d! ~-I
CtPt - Pt = ( I - C,)/9
lfr = 3,
(16. 18)
llr - n,
C,.p., - p,._, ... (1 - C,.)/, Sub!ltltutlf)g Eq. IS.18 i.1110 &-i, IS.IS l,;1~:

Thi$ &eJ'ieg con be N:1Jf%00led by : P ... c!c,c, • • • c,. - C" ( IS,19)

(C1C1Ca • · · C,.)p0 - p; = ( I - C1C, · · · C,.)J, {15.12) Subsdluling Eq. IS.19 into Eq. 15.l5 ¥i\·es:

Let p; - ,.) (IS.20)

ft = -p., + ( c• - I
298 Multilayer Vessels
-where p 0 = external pressure on vessel, pounds per square If this vessel had been fabricated of two shells instead
inch of three, then in order to satisfy Eq. 15.16 the interface
Pi = internal pressure in vessel, pounds per square diameter would have had to be 16.8 in. For this vessel
inch
n = total number of shells in vessel wall with thick- n = 2
and
nesses satisfying Eq. 15.17
Jq = combined stress at interface of each shell (pres- K = 16.8 = 23.4375 l.4, K 2 = 1.96
sure stress superimposed on shrinkage stress) 12 16.8
C = constant as defined by Eqs. 15.9 and 15.6 .Substituting into Eq. 15.25 gives:
A comparison of Eqs. 15.16 and 15.18 indicates that 20,000(1 + 1.96) 2
Eq. 15.9 may be written as: fq = 2 2 (1.4) 4 - (1 + 1.96) 2
C = _2_K_2_ (15.21) = 26,530 psi
1 + K2
where If the shell had been of monobloc construction, the maxi-
mum stress would have been 34,212 psi (see Example
K_ ( drz 1
) _ (i::) _(t:) _... (L=i) (15.22) Calculation 14.1). A reduction of 22H % was achieved by
two-shell construction whereas a. reduction of only 28H; %
Therefore it follows that was realized by three-shell construction. It is therefore
apparent that from the economic ·consideration of shrink-fit
2nK2n fabrication the use of more than two shells may not be
en = ------,-- (15.23)
c1 + K2)n justified.
15.1 b Determination of Interface Pressures. To deter-
Substituting Eq. 15.23 into Eq. 15.20 gives: mine the variations in hoop stress throughout the wall of
(l 2
+
K )n(p; - Po)]
(15.24)
any shell by using the Lame relationships it is necessary
fq = [ 2 nK2n _ (l K2)n - Po+ to determine the combined pressure at any interface (pres-
sure resulting from internal pressure plus shrinkage stresses).
Equation 15.24 is the general relationship for determining Eq. 15.15 may be rewritten as follows:
the maximum combined stresses at the interfaces of the
concentric shells and at the inside surface of the innermost Jq(F - 1) = -Fpo ::¼- Pi
shell. The combined stresses (hoop) at these locations all At the r1,. shell
have the same numerical value. This equation for the
usual case where the external pressure is zero (gage), Pi Pr and F = en-1' (by Eq. 15.19)
Po = 0, reduces to: therefore
+K )Pi(l 2 3 Jq(en-r - 1) = -en-f'Po + Pr
(15.25)
fq = 2nK2n _ (1 + K2)n Substituting for Jq by Eq. 15.20 and rearranging gives:

15.1 a Example Calculation 15.1. To illustrate the Pr =

en-1' -
[ en _ l
l] (p; - Po) + .Po (15.26)
application of Eq. 15.25, consider a multilayer vessel
having an inside diameter of 12 in. and an outside diameter 15.lc Example Calculation 15.2. Determine the inter-
of 23½ 6 in. which has been formed by shrink-fitting. The face pressures of Example Calculation 15.1. The combined
vessel .is to operate under an internal pressure of 20,000 psi pressure existing at the two interfaces (shrinkage stress with
and is constructed of three shells. The interface diameters a superimposed 20,000-psi pressure stress) is given by
are 15 in. and 18¾ in., respectively. Determine fq• Eq. 15.26.
K = K = 15 = K2 = 18.75 = K
3
= 23.4375 = 1. 25 Pr =
en-1' -
[ en _ l
l] (pi - Po) + Po
l 12 15 18.250
but
Because K1 K2 = K 3 , this vessel satisfies Eq. 15.16; Po= 0
therefore Eq. 15.25 is applicable and may be used to calcu- and
late Jq• Substituting in Eq. 15.25, we find that: C = 2K2 = 2(1.5625) = 1.222
Pi= 20,000 1 + K2 2.5626
therefore
K 1.25, K 2 = 1.5625
Pr [ 1.222n - 1 · '
J
l.222(n-rl - 1 (20 000)
n 3
therefore Therefore when n = 3 and r = 2 (second interface),
20,000(1 + l.5625) 3 substituting for (n - r) = 3 - 2 = 1.0 gives:
Jq = 2 3 (1.25) 6 - (1 + 1.5625) 3
(p)
= (1.222 - 1)(20,000) = 5350 si
Jq = 24,582 psi (compressive stress) r r- 2 1.2223 - 1 p
 Multilayer Vessels with Shrink-fitted Shells 299
Also, for n 3 and r = l (the first interface), and
( ) _ [(1.222) 2 - 11(20,000)
Ut)d=do = 17,820 psi
Pr 1.2223 - 1 11,920 psi
r=l - For the outer shell

To summarize the pressure-stress considerations: d;, = 18. 75 in.

1. The pressure at the interface of the inner shell is equal d,, = 23.4375 in.
to the operating pressure of 20,000 psi. Pi 5350 psi
2. The pressure at the interface of the inner shell and
the middle shell is 11,920 psi. Po= 0
3. The pressure at the interface of the middle shell and Substituting into Eq. 14.12 gives:
the outer shell is 5350 psi.
4. The pressure at the outer surface of the outer shell is (in comparison to 24,582 psi
0 lb per sq in. gage. obtained by use of Eq. 15.25)
and
15.1 d Determine tion of the Hoop Stresses at the Outer
Ut)d=do = 19,040 psi
Surfaces of Multilayer Vessels. The individual shells may
be treated in accordance with Lame's theory if the pressures To summarize the stresses existing in the three shells
at the interfaces are computed by use of Eq. 15.26. The (combined shrinkage and pressure stress),
hoop stresses may then be computed by use of Eq. 14.12 as L For the inner shell
an alternative to the use of Eq. 15.25.
15.1 e Example Calculation 15.3. By using the vessel Ii 24,970 psi (24,582)
under· consideration in Example Calculation 15.1 and the
results obtained in Example Calculation 15.2, the hoop-
Jo = 16,870 psi
stress variation in each of the three shells may be readily 2. For the middle shell
determined.
The Lame relationship for hoop stresses as given in
Ii = 24,270 psi (24,582)
Eq. 14.12 is: Jo = 17,820 psi
3. For the outer shell
f = p,d, 2 - Podo
2
+ di 2do 2 [ Pi - Po ]
t do 2 _ d;,2 d2 d,, 2 _ d;,2 Ii = 24,400 psi (24,582)
Each of the individual shells can be treated as a monobloc fo = 19,040
vessel as follows. 15.1 f Determination of Shrinkage Stresses. The
For the inner shell shrinkage stresses may be readily determined by the method
di= 12 in. of superposition. The stress variation, assuming the vessel
is a monobloc shell having the same inside diameter and
d,, 15 in. outside diameter as the multilayer vessel, may be deter-
Pi = 20,000 psi mined in each by use of Lame's equations.
The stress variation in each of the shells can be determined
Po = 11,920 psi by the methods presented in the previous section. The
Substituting into Eq. 14.12 gives: shrinkage stresses are obtained by subtraction with proper
allowance for signs.
Ut)d=d, 24,970 psi 15.1 g Example Calculation 15.4. The vessel under con-
sideration in Example Calculations 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3 will
The value of 24,970 psi is within slide-rule agreement of the
he used for demonstrating the method of obtaining shrinkage
value of 24,582 psi obtained by use of Eq. 15.25 in Example
stresses.
Calculation 15.L
In Example Calculation 14.1 a monohloc vessel was
Ut)d=d,, = 16,870 psi considered which had the same proportions as the multi-
layer vessel in Example Calculations 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3.
For the middle shell
The shrinkage (shrink.) stresses are obtained by subtracting
d, 15 in. the individual combined stresses in each of the shells of the
multilayer vessel from the monobloc-vessel stresses as
d0 = 18.75 in. follows.
Pi = 11,920 psi Inner surface of inner shell (r = 6):
Po = 5350 psi ft = 34,212 psi (for monobloc)
Substituting into Eq. 14.12 gives: ft 24,970 psi (for multilayer)
Ut)a=d; 24,270 psi (in comparison to 24,582 psi 34,212 + ft(shrink.) = 24,970
obtained by use of Eq. 15.25) Therefore f1(shrink.) -9242 psi (compression).
300 Multilayer Vessels
40,000 , - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

30,000

-~ 20,000
' ',,.("Lame monobtoc
+24,582 ' ,
+24.454
__________ +24.582

+ 1s,666 + 19,040
l "C "'

e.5 ~
~
::f
~
t,
+16,870 +17,820 - - - - -
------- +14,212 -
Rt,
fig. 15.2. Graphical representalion
C.
8 10,000 of the stress distribution in vessel of
.c Example Calculation 15.4 •
.....+_5_734
_ _ _ _ _ _ _-1+5600
...::

0
-184 -846

v_-~9~24~2_ _ _ 7584
1
-10,000

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Radial distance, inches

Outer surface of inner shell (r = 7.5): having the same dimensions as the multilayer vessel, the
shrinkage stresses of the multilayer vessel, and the com-
ft = 24,454 psi (for monobloc) bined operating-pressure stresses of the multilayer vessel.
ft = 16,870 psi (for multilayer) A reduction of 9630 psi in the maximum hoop stress at the
inner surface is obtained as a result of shrink-fitting
24,454 + ft(shrink.) = 16,870 fabrication.
Therefore shrinkage ft = -7584 psi (compression). 15.lh Determination of Interferences Required in
-Inner surface of middle shell (r =. 7.5): Shrink-fitted Vessels. The necessary total difference in
diameters (interference) may be calculated by the relation-
ft = 24,454 psi (for monobloc) ships developed by Cox (220). The general relationship is:
ft = 24,270 psi (for multilayer)
24,454 + ft(shrink.) = 24,270 Ez, = (<? - l)~K2r - 1) [<?-r(K2r + 1) - 2<?J(pi - Po)

Therefore ft<shrink.) = -184 psi (compression). (15.27)

Outer surface of middle shell (r = 9¾_ 6 ):
where U, = difference in diameters, inches
ft = 18,666 psi (for monobloc) c4 = outside diameter of the ru1 shell, inches
ft = 17,820 psi (for multilayer) E = modulus of elasticity of shell material, pounds
per square inch ·
18,666 + ft{shrink.) = 17,820 2K 2
C = l + K2 (see Eq. J5.21)
Therefore fi(shrink.)= -846 psi (compression).
"'Inner surface of outer shell (r 9¾. 6 ): n = total number of shells
r = interface number, numbering outward
ft = 18,666 psi (for monobloc)
K = OD .
ID ratio (see E q. 15.22)
ft = 24,400 psi (for multilayer)
18,666 + ft{shrink.) = 24,400 Pi = internal pressure, pounds per square inch gage
Po = external pressure, pounds per square inch gage
Therefore ft(shrink.) = +5734 psi (tension).
Outer surface of outer shell (r = 11.718): Substituting for C in Eq. 15.27 by means of Eq. 15.21
ft = 14,212 psi (for monobloc) gives:

ft = 17,820 psi (for multilayer) EUr. 2"-rK2'>-2r[(K 2 + 1Y(K r + 1) -

2 2r+tK2f'](pi - Po)
Therefore fi(shrink.) = +5608 psi (tension). T = (K r - 1)[2"K 2" - (K 2
2
+ l)"]
(15.28)
Figure 15.2 is a graphical representation of the super-
imposed Lame pressure-stress curve for a monobloc vessel For a multilayer shrink-fitted vessel fabricated from two
 \

Multilayer Vessels with Shrink-fitted Shells 301

shells, n = 2 and r = 1. Therefore For the second interface, where n = 3 and r = 2, Eq.
15.31 applies.
2
EU 1 2K
di = 3K2
[
+ 1] (pi - Po) (15.29)
2K 2 (K 4 4K 2 1) + +
d2 = (K2 + 1)(7K 4 + 4K 2 + 1) (pi - Po)
For a multilayer shrink-fitted vessel fabricated from
three shells, n 3, and r = 1 and r = 2. Substituting and solving for U2 gives:
For r = 1
4
U2 _ ( 18.75 )
EU 1 [ 4K ] (15.30) - 30 X 10 6
di = 7K 4 + 4K 2 +1 (p .. - Po) 2
(2)(1.25) [(1.25)
4
(4)(1.25)+2
+
l] ] ( 0 000)
For r = 2 [ [(1.25) + 11[(7)(1.25) + (4)(1.25) 2 + l] 2 '
2 4

EU2 [ 2K (K
2
4K
4
1) +
]
2
+ Po) (15.31)
therefore
T = (K 2 + 1)(7K4 + 4K 2 + 1) (p,.
U2 = 0.0061
For a multilayer vessel fabricated from four shells n = 4, The outside diameter of the subassembly consisting of
and r = 1, 2, and 3. the inner and middle shells must be machined to provide an
For r = 1 interference on the diameter of 0.0061 in. with the outer
8K6 shell before shrink-fitting of the outer shell.
EU1 = 15KG + 11K4 + 5K2 + 1 (pi - Po) (15.32) 15.1 j Simplified Relationships. The general relation-
ships for multilayer-vessel <;onstruction have been presented
For r =2 in the previous sections according to the method developed
by Cox (220). The use of these relationships is somewhat
EU2 4K 4(K 4 + 4K 2 + 1)
· involved; also, for practical reasons most shrink-fitted multi-
-d-2 = (K + 1)(15K6 + 11K4 + 5K 2 + 1) (pi - Po)
2
layer vessels consist of two shells. Therefore it is desirable
(15.33) to work with simplified relationships for the case of two-
For r 3 shell construction in which the external pressure is zero.
2K 2 (K 8 + 5K6 + 12K4 + 5K 2 + l)(p,. - Po) For this condition the combined shrinkage stress and pres-
(K 4 + K 2 + 1)(15K6 + 11K 4 + 5K 2 + 1) sure stress at the inner surface of each shell (/q) is given
(15.34) by Eq. 15.25.
Pi(l + K 2)""
15.li Example Calculation 15.5. The interferences for fq = 2n K2n - (1 + K2)n
the multilayer vessel described in Example Calculation 15.1
will be determined. The nominal dimensions of the three- This equation may be rewritten as:
layer vessel from Example Calculation 15.1 are:
1 + K2)n .
1. Inner-shell inside diameter, 12 in.; outside diameter, ( 2K2 Pi
15 in.
2. Middle-shell inside diameter, 15 in.; outside diameter,
fq = 1- (1 + K2r 2K 2
(15.35)

18¾ in.
3. Outer-shell inside diameter, 18¾ in.; outside diameter, Eq. 15.21 C is defined as:
23:½'s in.
2K 2
Also, K = 1.25, Pi = 20,000 psi, and Po = 0. C = - -2
The modulus of elasticity will be taken as 30,000,000 psi.
1 K +
For the first interface, n = 3 and r = l, Eq. 15.30 Substituting into Eq. 15.35 gives:
applies.
(15.36)
4K4
7K4 +4K2 + 1 (pi Po)
Solving this equation for C gives:
Substituting and solving for U1 gives:
G = V(pi/fq +1 (15.37)
u1 - ( 15 ) ( (4)(1.25)4 ) (20 000) This relationship gives the value of C for n number of
- 30 X 10 6 (7)(1.25) 4 (4)(1.25) 2 + +1 ' shells with Pi (internal working pressure) and fq (allowable
therefore stress) specified. The corresponding value of K is given
by Eq. 15.21 rewritten as follows:
U1 0.0040 in.
K VG/(2 - G) (15.38)
The outside diamete1· of the inner shell must exceed the
inside diamete1· of the middle shell by 0.0040 in. before An examination of Eqs. 15.37 and 15.38 indicates that
shrink-fitting. when n = 2, Pi 3fq, C = 2, and K = C(). Thus, when
 __! ~

302 Multilayer Vessels

the working pressure is three times the allowable stress, the where !:.d = increase in shell diameter, inches
theoretical required thickness approaches infinity. This d = inside diameter of shell, inches
situation may be compared with that of the Lame equation l:.t = temperature of heating minus room tempera-
for a monobloo shell, in which the theoretical required shell ture, degrees Fahrenheit ·
thickness approaches infinity when the working pressure a = coefficient of thermal expansion
approaches the allowable stress of the material. Thus, the = 0.0000067 in. per in. per °F (for steel)
use of multilayer-vessel theory theoretically permits a
threefold extension of the design range, two-shell construc- 15.1 m Example Calculation 15.7, Determination of Pre-
tion being assumed. A greater extension may be obtained heat Temperature for Shrink-fitting. In reference to Exam-
by using more than two shells. The practical limits of ple Calculation 15.5, the required interferences for a three-
two-shell construction occur in the range in which the shell shrink-fitted vessel were found to be 0.0040 in. ai;id
working pressure is from one half to twice the allowable 0.0061 in., for the inner and outer interfaces, respectively.
working stress. The preheat temperature necessary to provide the required
15.1 k Example Calculation 15.6, a Two-shell Shrink- thermal expansions without clearances and also with an
fitted Vessel. A multilayer vessel having an ID of 12 in. additional clearance of 0.050 in. is to be determined.
and consisting of two shells which operate under a working The interface diameters are 15 in. and 18¾ in. The
pressure of 20,000 psi with an allowable working stress of inside diameter is 12 in. and the outside diameter is 23½6 in.
24,582 psi (same as the maximum stress in the three-shell / By use of Eq. 15.39 the temperature to which the shells
vessel of Example Calculation 15.1) will be designed. must be preheated may be determined.
By Eq. 15.37
/:J.d = a(l:.t)d
C = V (pi/fq) + 1 = V(20,000/24,582) + 1 = 1.348 where a = 0.0000067° F
By Eq. 15.38 /:J.t = (t - 70° F)
/:J.d = interference + clearance
K = V C/(2 - C) = Vl.348/(2 - 1.348) 1.44
For the case of no clearance:
d1 = (12)(1.44) = 17.28 For the middle shell
d2 = (17.28)(1.44) = 24.85 in. /:J.d = 0.0040 in.
Thus, for the same maximum-stress limitations, the two- d = 15 in.
shell vessel has an outside diameter of 24.85 in. and a three-
shell vessel has an outside diameter of 23½ 6 in. (see Example therefore
Calculation 15.1). t - 70 = 0.0040 = 39.9° F
If this vessel had been of monobloc construction and the (15) (0.0000067)
maximum stress had been limited to 24,582 psi, the follow-
t = 110° F
ing would have been true.
By Eq. 14.14a For the outer shell

f = K + 1 = 24,582 = K2 + 1
2
= 1.229 1:J.d 0.0061 in.
p K2 - I 20,000 K2 - 1 d = 18¾ in.
therefore therefore
K = 3.12
70 = 0.0061 = 48.50 F
OD = (12)(3.12) = 37.4 in. (18. 75) (0.0000067)

Thus, the monobloc shell would he 37.4/23.44 = 1.59 t = 118.5° F

times as thick as the vessel of three-shell construction. The
For the practical case in which a clearance of 0.050 in. is
vessel of two-shell construction would be 24.85/23.44 = 1.06
provided:
times as thick as the vessel of three-shell construction.
For the middle shell
15.11 Thermal Expansion for Shrink-fltting. In order
to shrink-fit successive shells upon one another, the outer /:J.d = 0.0040 + 0.050 = 0.054 in.
shell must be expanded by heating. It may then he slipped
over the inner shell or shells and allowed to cool. The d = 15 in.
expansion must be sufficient to overcome the required inter,- therefore
ference after cooling and also to provide some clearance for
easy assembly. The diametral enlargement of the outer t - 70 = . 0.0540 , = 538° F
shell resulting from heating is: (15) (0.0000067)
./:J.d = a(/:J.t)d (15.39) t=608°F

For the outer shell
t:.d 0.0061 + 0.050 = 0.561 in.
d 18¾ in.
theref'ore
0 0651
t - 70 = . · . = 447° F
(18.75) (0.0000067)
t - 517° F
Thus, a shrinkage resulting from a temperature difference
of only 40° to 50° is sufficient, but to insure ease of assembly
the two shells are heated to about 500 to 600° F. (Note
that after the middle shell is shrunk on the inner shell, this
partial assembly is cooled and machined to accurate size
before the third shell is added.)
15.2 MULTILAYER CONSTRUCTION USING
WELD SHRINKAGE
The previous section on the thermal expansion for shrink-
fitting demonstrated that the necessary interference for
prestressing could be obtained with a very small increase in
the temperature of the outer ring (40 to 50° F), uniform
heating of the ring and no clearance for assembly being
assumed. It follows that if a narrow longitudinal band
of from one tenth to one twentieth of the circumference of
the outer shell were heated to 10 to 20 times this temper-
ature difference, the same effect would be produced by
cooling. In the cooling of a longitudinal welded joint such
an effect can be produced. Therefore a possible convenient
Multilayer Construction Using Weld Shrinkage 303
method of prestressing would take advantage of the shrink-
age stresses in the longitudinal welded joints of shells.
The A. 0. Smith Company has developed this technique
(221) and has successfully fabricated a considerable number
of large pressure vessels operating at a pressure above
500Opsi.
The shrinkages of longitudinal welds have been correlated
by Spraragen and Ettinger (222). For transverse shrinkage
of butt welds the following relationship holds:
a
s = 0.1716- + 0.0121w (15.40)
t
where s = transverse shrinkage, inches
a = cross-sectional. area of weld, square inches
t = plate thickness, inches
w = average width of weld, inches
Substituting into Eq. 15.40 the dimensions for a single-V
butt weld of a ¼-in. plate gives shrinkage values in the
order of magnitude of ¾ in. This shrinkage is greater than
necessary to prestress successive shells to the desired
amount. Therefore some of the shrinkage must be absorbed
by the provision of a clearance between successive shells at
the time of welding.
As this procedure depends upon shop technique, it is not
possible to compute the final stresses that exist upon
completion of the fabrication. Peening after welding may
also be used to reduce the shrinkage stresses.
In the technique used by the A. 0. Smith Company an
inner shell having a thickness usually greater than ¼ in.
and often ½ in. is first fabricated. This shell is not perfo-

Fig. 15.3. Arc-welding of multilayer vessels. (Courtesy of A. 0. Smith Corporation.)

304 Multilayer Vessels

Fig. 15.4. Multilayer vessel tested to desirudion, d/t = 9.3 (245). (Courtesy of A. 0. Smith Corporation.)

rated and serves to contain the fluid to be held under 12 or more successive layers are oft:,en used. Figure 15.3
pressure in the vessel. Subsequent shells usually :>i in. in shows the arc welding of multilayer shells.
thickness are progressively wrapped around the inner shell, A .number of these vessels were tested to destruction.
tightened mechanically, and welded longitudinally. These The test data obtained have provided some valuable infor-
subsequent shells are perforated with small holes for venting. mation concerning this method of fabrication. Whereas
Cylindrical rings are inserted at both ends of the inner shell monobloc vessels which fail under high-pressure service
qllring these operations to maintain a true cylindrical shape. often fragment, the multilayer vessels do not fail in such
The welds are staggered around the circumference to a manner. Considerable deformation occurs prior to failure,
minimize localization of any excessive stresses at or near and when a leak develops in the inner shell;, fluid escapes
the welded joints and are ground flush prior to the adding through the perforations' in the outer shells.. ,This provides
of subsequent layers. After the vessel shell has been built a system of venting which gives warning of p<i~sible rupture.
up to the desired thickness with successive layers, the ends In the tests to destruction some of the ves!!tlis were stress
of the built-up shell are machined for the welding groove relieved and others were not. One vessel ~hich was not
for the attachment of a formed head. In the final vessel stress relieved withstood 8 % greater ,stress than the corre-
sponding vessel which was stress·relieved. This indicates
the desirability of not stress relieving, in ordet to retain the
24,000 compressive stresses de~eloped in fabrication.' Figure 15.4
·;;;
~ 20,000
al
.c ~
0
0
- __., shows ,a multilayer vessel tested to destruction.
15;2a Analysis of Test Data. Figure 15.5 shows a plot
of the induced compressive hoop stresses at the inside
-- ~ 0
"'
~
C
.e
16,000 .,. surface of the inner shell as determined by circumferential

Vo
0(
· strain measurements during the progressive wrapping of
.e
::8 12,000
successive shells. · The vessel used in this test had an inside
~Q)
>
·;;;
8,000
/ diameter of 48 in. The vessel wall consisted of an inner
shell ½ in. thick wrapped with 32 concentric layers each
"'~
Q.
} % in. in · ness. The curve gives an indication of the
cumulative ·ect of the shrinkage of successive layers on
§ 4,000 the inner shell.
(.)

0
lo One method of analyzing these data involves the pre-
diction 01',,.the experimental curve by use of simplified
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Number of layers welded theoretical relationships. Consider the inner shell and the
first wrapped layer as an inner shell under external pressure
Fig. 15.5. Increase in cclmpressive stress In inner layer as o fraction of and an outer shell under internal pressure, respectively.
number of wrapped layers (di =
48 In., fi =
½ In., t,. ¼ In. (245). = The interface pressure is common to both shells. A sum-
(Courtesy of A. 0. Smith Corporation.) mation of forces about a diametrical plane can he made
 \

Multilayer Construction Using Weld Shrinkage 305

according to the membrane theory. The forces in the two By Eq. 15.42
shells are equal and opposite, or
2000 =h ( o.25 )
-Fi -f.i4,l (for inner core) 0.5 + 0.25
therefore
+Fi= +fitil (for first wrapped layer) h. 6600 psi
Equating and solving for Ji gives:
ti
E2 = i= 0.0002 in. per in.
f
-1 incremental stress induced in inner
4 Total circumferential strain Erd (15.44)
core by first wrapped layer
but 0.0002(-ir)49.25 = 0.031 in.
U1)n-o =o Apparently 0.031/0.045 or about 70 % of the weld shrink-
age is converted to induced stress.
therefore
The total "free" weld shrinkage is a function of weld-
Li
tlfi = (f,)n=l - (f;.)n=O = -fi joint dimensions. If the same plate thickness and weld
4 joint is used in each successive weld, the free weld shrinkage
Assuming that there is uniform stress addition across the will be a constant. Part of this free weld shrinkage is used
shell and considering that the inner core and the first layer in overcoming clearance between layers, and part in com-
are a unit, we may tteat the second wrapped layer in like pressing the inner layers elastically. The major portion of
manner. The incremental stress induced in the inner core the free weld shrinkage develops elastic strain and resultant
plus the first layer by a second wrapped layer is: stress in the layer itself. Assuming for purposes of simplifi-
cation that each clearance in the welding operation absorbs
the same amount of the free weld shrinkage, we find that
the total circumferential strain contributing to stress
therefore development will remain the same. The unit strain will
then be proportional to the diameter, or by Eq. 15.44
(15.41)
total strain 0.031
0.00987 in. per in.
For uniform thickness of successive shells, t 1 = t2 = t3 = t 11 •
'll"dn 'll"dn
Therefore (0.00987)(30 X 10 6) 296,000
= ----'-----
tl(fi)n = -fn (
4
+ (~n- l)l) (15.41a) dn d{. + 1+~ - 0.25
2
For the vessel data in Fig. 15.5, where ti ½ in. and (15.45)
ti, l2, · · · la2 = ~'.4 in., Substituting Eq. 15.45 into Eq. 15.42 for fn, we obtain:
tl(f-) _ -f 0.25 _ ( 1 ) (15.42)
' n - n 0.5 + (n - 1)0.25 - f n n +1 tl(f;,)n = ( -296,000 ) ( - 1 )
d{. + 0.75 + '.'.: n + l
The stress in the nth wrapped shell is produced by inducing 2
strain resulting from weld shrinkage. Weld shrinkage is or
described by Eq. 15.40, where tJ.(f;,)11, = ( -296,000)(2)
n2 + 100.5n + 99.5
s = 0.1716 G) + 0.0121w (15.43)
·
Or as an approximation,

For %-in. plate with 45° bevel welds and }1'. 6 -in. clearance, tJ.(f;,)11, = 592,000 (15.46)
n2 + 100n + 100
a = 0.06 sq in.
Equation 15.46 represents the incremental increase in the
t = 0.25 induced compressive stress in the inner core. Since the
w = 0.30 increments are small, },( in., and the number of shells is
large, Eq. 15.46 will be written in differential form and will
s = 0.041 + 0.004 0.045 in. (circumferential strain) be formally integrated, or
A calculation from the data given in Fig. 15.5 shows that df; = 5.92 X 10 5
all of this shrinkage was not used to develop induced stress. dn n + 100n + 100
2

In reference to Fig. 15.5, the point given for the first

w-rapped layer which is most consistent with the other data Ji= 5.92 X 10° {" _._ _d_n_ __
occurs at Ji = 2000 psi. } o w + 100n + 100
306 Multilayer Vessels
22,000
0
<l -
20,000
:...-- ...---
--
I I I I I

----
Theoretical curve (Eq. 15.55)---..,_ 1---
18,000 .,,,,,,,. __,.. .... .::J--.--
i __.,.,.
~

16,000
'./
_,,,...,. ......... ~ ~Theoretical curve (Eq. 15.47)
·1s. / 0
• 14,000
vo
..,, ~
..::
'i
-5 12,000
...., ~/ Fig. 15.6. Comparison of predicted
C
.5 10,000
~ stresses with experimental data of Fig.
.5 ~/ 15.5.
:i1 8,000 /
i f/
6,000

4,000
/I
I
~

o Values from Fig. 15.5

I I I
2,000
I I

0
o 2 4 6 a 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Number of layers, n

therefore Substituting for K = d,,/d, gives:

-5.92 X 105 . l (~n + 100 - Vl00 2 - 4(100))

ft(membrane)
-poK
= K _ I (15.52)
V(l00) 2 - 4(100) n \2n + 100 + Vl00 2 - 4(100)

J- = -5.92 X10 In (2n + 100 -

6
98)
The ratio of the maximum fiber stress at the inside
surface as given by Lame's analysis, by Eq. 15.49, to the
• 98 2n + 100 + 98
corresponding stress based on membrane theory, by Eq.
15.52, is:
Jr = -6030 In 2n + 2 (15.47)
' 2n + 198 fHLame) = (-2poK2)/(K2 - 1) = _E£_ (15.53)
Equation 15.47 gives the change in the inside-wall hoop ft(membrane) (-poK)/(K - 1) K +1
compressive stress resulting from n number of shells. The Rewriting Eq. 15.53 in terms of n number of wrapped
analysis of the stresses was based on thin-wall theory. As layers for the particular vessel under consideration, we
the number of shells increases, the wall becomes progres- obtain:
sively thicker, and the thin-wall analysis should be adjusted
K = 48 + 1 + 2(n - I)¼ 91.+n
for this factor. This can be accomplished by application
48 96
of Lame's analysis for thick-wall vessels. The wall is under
an external pressure because of the weld shrinkage. By or
Eq. 14.12, and for -p, 0 and d = d., ft(Lam'3) 2(97 + n)96 194 2n (lS.S4,)
= +n
-2pod,, 2
(15.48)
ft(membrane) 96(97 + n + 96) 193 ·
ft(Lame) = do 2 _ d,2
Multiplying Eq. 15.47 by the ratio given in Eq. 15.54
Let K = d,,/ d., then corrects the stress based on membrane theory to the stress
based on Lame theory for thick walls, or
-2poK2
ft<.La.me) = K2 _ I (15.49)
fi(corrected)
+-
194-
= [- 2n] [ - 6030 In - ~2n
+-2 ] · - 27,200
193 +n 2n + 198 -
The thin-wall hoop-stress equation, 3.14, can be written (15.55)
1
for external pressure as: •
Table 15.1 lists calculations for the vessel under con-
~ Pod.a sideration.
Jt(membrane) = 2t (15.50)
Inspection of Table IS.I indicates that the rate of increase
Substituting fort = (do - d.)/2 gives: in the compressive hoop stress in the inner core decreases
rapidly as the number of outer shells is increased.
-pod.a Figure 15.6 shows a plot of the experimental data from
f t(membrane) = do _ d; (15.51)
Fig. 15.5 compared with the predicted values based on thin~
 \

Ribbon- and Wire-wound Vessels 307

Table 15.1. Calculation of Stresses in a Multilayer Core tube
Vessel C
(d,: = 48 in., t, ½ in., t.,. = ¾ in.)
f.
. . . .
J.
I·(2n + 2)
n n 2n + 198 -6030 In rected)
(uncor- 194 + 2n (cor-
193 + n rect~d)
0 -4.501 27,200
1 -3.922 23,700 -3,500 1.01 -3,530 Welds
2 -3.527 21,300, -5,900 1.02 -6,010
4 -3. 034 18,300 -8,900 1.03 -9,150 --::::'"-'~
7 ! ! I 1 !
.
~117-
10 -2.293 13,850 -13,350 1.06 -14,100 ,L, . --, J
20 -1. 734 10,480 16,720 1.10 -18,400 ....- -, l
32 -1. 378
50 -1. 075
8,320
6,480
-18,880
-20,520
1.15
1.21
-21,700
-24,800
'-i..1- ... ,_::I-

wall analysis (column 4 in Table 15.1) shown in the dashed

line and the predicted values based on thick-wall analysis
(column 6 in Table 15.1) shown by the solid line.
15.2b Discussion. The stress distribution across the
shell of the completed vessel may be predicted by use of the
relationships given. To do this the initial stress in the
given layer as it is wrapped on is determined by Eq. 15.45.
The contribution to this value of each subsequent layer
must be determined by integration with the correct con-
stants for the layer under consideration.
The relationships given apply only to the vessel described
and are limited by the assumptions made in the analysis.
Variations in manufacturing methods will alter the analysis.
It should also be pointed out that certain assumptions
were made concerning the shrinkage of the layers. These
assumptions were approximations and may or may not have
accurately represented the shrinkages that were used in the
fabrication of the vessel. The final relationship given by
Eq. 15.45 fits the experimental data in a satisfactory manner
{see Fig. 15.6). Seely and Smith (231) have presented an
analysis of the stresses in a hollow cylinder made of thin-
walled shells having various wrapping pressures.
15.3 RIBBON- AND WIRE-WOUND VESSELS
The technique of wire winding cylindrical shells subjected
to high internal pressure is old and has long been used for
reinforcing gun barrels. More recently this technique has
been extended to include the use of flat and interlocking
ribbons for prestressing shells.
15.3a Wire and Flat-ribbon Windings. Wire and flat-
ribbon windings are used only for absorbing hoop and
Fig. 15.7. Typical section of a prestressed vessel with wire or flat-ribbon
windings (194).
Profile roller
Fig. 15.8. Detan of Wickelofen wrapping (225). (Courtesy American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.)
radial stresses and offer no restraint to axial load: An inner
monobloc shell must be used having a minimum thickness
sufficient to absorb the axial internal-pressure load. In the
process of winding, the inner shell may be considered· to
behave as a vessel under an external pressure induced by
the winding. This pressure at the interface between the
shell and wire windings also acts as an internal pressure
on the wire windings.
An internal pressure in the vessel induces hoop-tension
stresses in both the inner monobloc shell and the outer
windings. Thus, under the operating conditions the inner
monobloc shell may be considered to have both internal and
external pressures, and the windings to have induced
stresses resulting from winding tension and internal pressure.
A typical section of a flat-ribbon- or wire-wound vessel is
shown in Fig. 15.7.
15.3b Interlocking-ribbon Winding. A method of con-
structing prestressed vessels with spiral-wound interlocking
ribbons of steel was developed in Germany by Schierenbeck
{223) and described by Holroyd {224) and by Donovan,
Josenhans, and Markovits (225). The principle involved
in this design consists of interlocking the winding by means
of grooved profiles to permit the winding to carry a portion
of the axial load.
Figures 15.8, 15.9, and 15.10 illustrate the method of
interlocking-ribbon construction, which is also ]mown as
"Wickelofen" wrapping.
In prestressing Wickelofen-wound vessels, shrinkage is
obtained by preheating the ribbon to from 1100 to 1550° F
(prior to winding), as indicated in Fig. 15.9. The wound
308 Multilayer Vessels
Wickelofen drum
Profile band
Electric heater
Back-up roller
Wickelofen
on lathe
Air and
er jets
Profile-
roller
carriage

1/.

Fig. 15.9. Wickelofen-wrapping lathe (2251. (Courtesy of American

Society of Mechanical Engineers.I

ribbon is cooled first by air jets and then by water jets:

After each layer of tape is spirally wound around the length
of the vessel, the end is welded to the previous wrapped
layer. Winding speeds can he as high as 15 fpm (224).
The ribbon may vary in thickness from % in. to ¾ in., and
the width is usually about 10 times the thickness.
Special lathes are required for wrapping. These lathes
can he of the same type used in machining monohloc-vessel
Shrunk flange
Wickelofen flange
'Fig. 15,10, Wickelofen flanges (225). (Courtesy of American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.)
Fig. 15.1 I. Flanged end of a Wickelofen vessel (225). (Courtesy of
Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior and American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.)
shells except that the tool carriage must he modified to
accommodate the reel of tape, the tape heating and cooling
equipment, and a profile hack-up roll.
Figure 15.11 shows the flanged end of a Wickelofen-
wound vessel. Figure 15.12 shows a sectional drawing of a
design for a high-pressure vessel for coal hydrogenation
reported by Donovan, Josenhans, and Markovits (225).
This vessel was designed to he fabricated of a low-chrome
vanadium steel similar to SAE 6115 suitable for being heat
treated during wrapping. This steel has a yield strength
of about 90,000 psi and an ultimate strength of about
130,000 psi. Donovan recommends that the yield strength
he between 60% and 75% of the ultimate strength and that
the elongation not, be less than 17 %. In the designing of
the vessel the strip was stressed to 70,000 psi on the outer
layer; this resulted in a compressive prestress of 50,000 psi
in the core. Twenty-two layers ½ 6 in. thick were used
over a core U~ in. thick (see Fig. 15.12).
15.4 THEORY OF. RIBBON AND WIRE WINDING
Ribbon- and wire-wound vessels may he fabricated with
either a thin or a thick shell (inner core plus windings).
Thick shells with windings are used obviously because of
the greater strength resulting from wound construction in
comparison with monobloc construction. The reason for
the use of wound thin shells is not so apparent. One
example of the use of such shells is the case in which the
inner core must he fabricated of a noncorrosive or ductile
material that does not have sufficient strength to resist the
tensile (hoop) loads produced by the internal pressure.
15.4a Thin Shells Wound at Constant Tension. The
simplest application of ribbon or wire winding involves the
use of a thin shell onto which is wound flat ribbon or wire
of'the same material of construction as the shell with con-
stant tension in the wire during winding. As the ribbon
or wire is wound onto the shell, it causes a circumferential
compressive stress to develop in the shell.
In such an application an internal shell must he designed
 Theory of Ribbon and Wire Winding 309
of sufficient thickness to resist the axial load resulting from Carrying out the operations indicated for the derivation
internal pressure. The axial stress is only one haJf of the for the ribbon-wound condition gives:
hoop stress according to membrane theory; therefore the
inner shell needs to be about half as thick as the corre- Ui)n = -T In [1rrw(n - l) + 21;] (15.60)
1rrw 2 2ti 1rrw
sponding monobloc shell. The necessary additional shell
material required to absorb the hoop stress is made up of Under the operating condition of internal pressure the
the wire winding. The inner core may be considered to combined-stress, Ji, total in the shell will be Ui)n plus the
behave as a thin-walled vessel if the operating pressure is pressure stress, Ui) 11 • Assuming uniform distribution of the
moderate. pressure stress and using the method of superposition, we
The compressive stress induced in the inner shell may be obtain:
determined by taking a summation of forces about a Ui)tow = Ui)n + Ui)p (15.61)
diametral plane with no internal pressure in the vessel. But for ribbon and square-wire windings,
At this plane the total tensile force in the wires is equal to
and opposite in sign to the compressive forces in the shell, or Pid. Pid.
(fi)p = 2t = 2ti + 2nt., (15.62)
4i
(Afi)., = -f., t; + (n - l)t., (See Eq. 15.41a.) and for round wire,
(15.63)
The following equations are for a ribbon-wound vessel
where
n = number of layers of winding
t., thickness of ribbon, inches
Wn = width of ribbon, inches
fn = stress in ribbon, pounds per square inch
ti = thickness of inner shell, inches
Ji induced compressive stress in inner shell, pounds
per square inch
(Af;)n = induced-stress increment in inner shell from tlie
winding on of n layers of ribbon, pounds per square
inch
T = tension in ribbon, pounds
and
(15.56)

Substituting Eq. 15.56 into Eq. 15.41a gives:

lnsulation--N111M Detail A

(A/i}n = ~~ [ l; + (~n- l)lJ (15.57) Shrink ring----;~!fi.....,.,....-11..LL.,\..LJLL..

For the case where the ribbon thickness is small com- SAE 6115
pared to the shell thickness,

dfi
-T
Wn
{n I
}o t; + (n - l)t.,
dn
22 layer
I)
Detail B

Integrating and substituting limits gives the following

equations.
For ribbon windings,
t.,(n - I) + t;
(J,·) ._, - -
T- l n ----- (15.58) Shrink ring
tnwn l; - t.,
For square-wire windings where w., tn,
-T t,.(n - 1)
- -2n1- - - " ' - - - - ' -
+4 (15.59)
t., ti - t.,
For circular-wire windings where Wn = 2rw = ln, and wire
area = 1rrw 2, Eq. 15.57 may be modified to:
2
fig. 15.12. Bureau of Mines converter design based on the Wickelofen
(At) = -T [ 1rru- (1/2rw) ] principle (225). (Courtesy of Bureau of Mines, United Stales Department
i " 1rrw 2 li + (n - I)1rr,,,2(I/2rw) of the Interior and American Society of Mechanical Engineer$.)
310 Multilayer Vessels
Combining Eq. 15.62 with Eq. 15.58 and Eq. 15.60 with Eqs. 15.58, 15.59, and 15.60, apply. However, in the case
Eq. 15.63 gives the following equations. of a shell that has a modulus of elasticity which differs from
For ribbon windings, that of the windings, Eqs. 15.62, 15.63, 15.64, 15.65, 15.66,
and 15.67 must be modified. A summation of forces may
(/,·) total -_ - -T In ln(n - 1) + ti+ p,-d; (l 5 .64) be taken at a diametral plane as follows:
l,,w 11 4 - in 24 + 2nln
'1':iF Fahell + Fwinding - Fpressure = 0
For round wire, = f;2t,,l + f n2nlnl - Pid;l 0,,

(f)itotBJ = -T In 1rrw(n - 1) + 2li + Pi.di (l 5.65 )

24 - 1rrw 24 + 1rnrw
Equations 15.58, 15.59, and 15.60 become indeterminate Under the influence of internal pressure, the shell and
as tn approaches 4. This is also true in Eqs. 15.60 and the winding expand together. Clark (31) assumes that the
15.65 when rw approaches (2/r)ti. This case is seldom unit strain in the shell and the winding is proportional to
encountered except when n = I. If n = 1, the equations the radial distance of the point under consideration; or
mentioned above may be modified as follows.
For ribbon, ( Ei)p ri
(En)p rn
(15.58b) But

For square wire,

and
(15.59b)

For round wire,

therefore
(15.60b) (ft)p N.Ei
--=--
Un)p rnEn
For ribbon, Substituting for the mean value of ri and rn, for ribbon
winding, gives:
(15.64b)
(15.69)
For round wire,
Equations 15.68 and 15.69 contain an unknown /i and an
-T Pid;
(fi)total = 2 ,. + 2t + (15.65b) unknown In which may be determined by simultaneous
rU>'-i i 1rnrw solution.
For calculations in which n > 1 but t11 or 2rw approaches
4, successive calculations using the above equations may
he made for each value of n, and the stresses combined by
the method superposition.
The stress in the winding will be a maximum at the outer and
layer when the vessel is under internal pressure and will
equal the sum of the tensile stress from the tension during
winding plus the pressure stress.
For ribbon winding, \

To calculate the stress in the shell under the influence

(15.66)
For round wire,
(15.67)
15.4b Thin Shells Wound at Constant Tension with
Winding and Shell of Dissimilar Metals. Corrosive fluids
under pressure may be contained in vessels having an inner
shell of corrosion-resistant material dissimilar to the wind-
ing. The relationships derived for the induced compressive
stress in the shell Ui) for n layers of winding, including
of internal pressure, Eq. 15.71 may be substituted for the
second term in Eq. 15.65. To calculate the maximum
stress in the winding under the influence of pressure, Eq.
15.70 may be substituted for the second term in Eq. 15.66.
Equations for square- and round-wire windings on a shell
of dissimilar metal corresponding to Eqs. 15.70 and 15. 71
may be derived.
15.4c Example Calculation 15.8, Wound Thin Shell with·
Winding and Shell of Dissimilar Metals. A copper vessel
having an internal diameter of 6 in. and a wall thickness
of H in. is to he used under a 2000-psi internal pressure.
The copper cylinder is to be wire-wound with two layers
 Theory of Ribbon and Wire Winding 311

of square steel wire 0.05 x 0.05 in. Calculate (1) the com- To design such a vessel it is necessary to be able to predict
pressive stress in the copper cylinder before application of the residual-stress distribution throughout the inner mono-
internal pressure, (2) the tension to be used in winding the bloc core and throughout the windings prior to application
wire if the maximum tensile stress in the copper is to be of internal pressure. The pressure stresses may be super-
6000 psi, and (3) the maximum tensile stress in the winding imposed upon the residual stresses to obtain the combined
under operating pressure. stresses under operating conditions. To obtain the residual-
stress distribution in the inner core {when Pi = 0) it is
Ecopper = 16 X 106 psi, Estee! = 30 X 10 6 psi necessary to predict the radial pressure at the junction
(interface) between the core and the windings. The core
Solution:
may then be treated as a shell under external pressure, and
1. Determination of compressive stress. Solving Eq.
the stress distribution computed. It is also necessary to
15.71 for (fi)r,,, we obtain:
predict the residual stresses in the windings after all the
windings have been added.
U,;)p = 2000(6)
The induced hoop tensile stresses and radial compression
6
4 (0.05) [(6 + 1 + 0.30)306 X 10 ] + 2 (0. 5) stresses resulting from an external pressure can be related
6.5(16 X 10 ) to each other by use of the relationships based on Lama's
12,000 analysis. These relationships, given by Eqs. 14.12 and
0.20(2.11) + 1.0 14.13 in terms of diameter, can be rewritten in terms of
radii for the case of no internal pressure as follows.
= 8420 psi For circumferential stresses,
But since the maximum tensile stress in the copper is
6000 psi, the copper must be prestressed with a compressive
stress of 8420 - 6000 2420 psi.
2. Determination of winding tension. Substituting U,;)p
for the second term of Eq. 15.64, we obtain the following
equations.

U·)1 = 6000 = _T_ ln o.o5 (l) + o.5o + 8420

total (0.05) 2 0.50 0,05 The above two equations can be combined to give a
relationship for no internal pressure.
or
r + ri ]
2 2

-2420 = __ T_ ln 55
0.0025 0.45
°· ftc = fre [ r 2 - ri 2 (15.72)

Equation 15.72 gives the hoop stress, ftc, in terms of the

T = 2420(0.0025) radial stress, !re, and the inside radius of the vessel, r,;, at
0.203 any radius, r. This relationship is useful in predicting the
= 26.30 lb (tension in wire during winding) stresses in the wire windings and in the core which result
from the compression of subsequent windings. It should
26.3 . be noted that both fie and f re of Eq. 15. 72 are compression
J,. = (0.05) 2 = 10, 500 psi stresses resulting from external pressure.
Let
· 3. Determination of maximum wire stress under oper-
ating pressure. Substituting into Eq. 15.70, we obtain: f w = stress in wire during winding of layer under
consideration (initial stress in wire)
(J.. )p = (2000)(6)
After n layers have been wound, the stress f w * in the
4(0.05) + 2(0.5) [ 6.5(16 X 106) ] inner layer becomes:
(6 + 1 + 0.30)30 X 10 6
12,000 = 12,000 = 17 800 si
0.20 + 0.474 0.674 ' p
where f w • = total stress in the winding under consideration
Therefore
for Pi= 0
Maximum combined stress in outer Jtc = stress induced in the winding under considera-
winding layer under pressure = 10,500 + 17,800 tion by the external windings for Pi =0
28,300 psi The total hoop stress in an inner winding may also be
expressed in terms of the radial stress, fr, and the radius, r,
15.4d Thick Shells with Winding Applied under Con- in differential form by means of Eq. 14.3; or
stant Tens ion. Windings of wire or ribbon may be applied
under various degrees of tension. The simplest method of f w* = -!, _ r dfrc (15.H)
fabrication is to apply the winding under constant tension. re dr
312 Multilayer Vessels
Equations 15. 73 and 15. 74 both define the stress distribu- Substituting for C in Eq. 15.77 gives:
tion in the windings. Equating 15.73 to 15.74 gives:
2
-rdf,c =f -J [r
dr w
rl]
re r2 _ r;2
+ +fre (15.75)

Equation 15.75 is written in differential form and must

be integrated to give the cumulative radial stress, !re, at or
any radius, r, when a given tensile winding stress, fw, is
used. The equation can be rearranged as follows to permit frc (15.78)
integration:

Substituting Eq. 15.78 for frc in Eq. 15.73 gives:

or
therefore
f w = _ df,-c + 2f,.cri
r dr r(r 2 - r/') It should be noted that the variable r under consideration
Multiplying through by -r 2/(r 2 - r/) gives: lies between r; and r0 where r; is the radius at the junction
(interface).
2f,.cr/r2 Equation 15.78 gives the radial stress at the outer surface
(15.76) of the monobloc core due to the windings (prior to the
r(r2 - ri2)2
application of internal pressure) if r; is substituted for r.
The right-hand side of Eq. 15.76 can be shown to be This radial stress is numerically equal to the external pres-
equal to the following differential: sure on the core and, together with the dimensions of the
monobloc, permits the computation of the residual-stress
distribution.
Equation 15.79 gives the hoop-stress distribution in the
windings (without internal pressure, Pi = 0). The com-
Differentiating the above expression gives: bined-stress distribution, including the effect of internal
pressure, may be deter.mined by superposition of the
(r 2 - r,. 2) (r 2
~; + 2f,-cr) - 2r 8frc internal-pressure stresses upon the residual stresses.
The application and design conditions normally fix the
(r2 - r;2)2 inside diameter of the vessel, the operating pressure, the
Expanding the above and regrouping results in the right- operating temperature, and the material of construction.
The axial load induced by the operating pressure fixes the
hand side of Eq. 15.76. Substituting the differential for
the right-hand side of Eq. 15.76 gives: minimum wall thickness of the inner core. The material
of constructiorl and operating temperature fix the allowable
2 stress of the inner core. The remaining variables are the
d ( r frc ) -fwr
dr r2 - r,.2 = (r2 - ri2) total thickness of the windings, the winding tension, and
or the maximum stress induced in the windings under oper-
ating conditions. The maximum hoop stress in the core
for the operating conditions, the winding tension, and the
maximum combined stress in the windings are a function
therefore of the thickness of the windings. As all of the variables
for the windings cannot be fixed, one may be selected, and
the other two calculated. In the example which follows,
r0 will be fixed, and the tension and combined stress
To evaluate the constant of integration, it is noted that calculated.
!re = 0 at the outer surface of the windings, where r = r 0 • 15.4e Example Calculation 15.9, Thick Shell Wound at
Constant Tension. Consider a vessel having the same inside
0 = -:w In (r 0
2
- r,;.2) +C diameter (12 in.) and operating at the same internal pres-
sure (20,000 psi) as the one in Example Calculation 14.1
therefore but fabricated by wire winding with high-tensile-strength
wire with the result that its outside diameter is 20 in. The
stress in the inner core is not to exceed 25,000 psi. Deter-
mine the inner-core thickness, the winding tension required,
 Theory of Ribbon and Wire Winding 313

.+
2
and the stress distributions with and without internal ft = -17,500 = -p;r/ r;2r, [ -p; ]
pressure. , - r,2
r·2 r2 ,
r·2 - r,2
\

CalculaUon of inner-core thickness:

By Eq. 14.1 -17,500 = - 64· 8Pi + 64.8 [ -pi ]
2
64.8 - 36 64.8 - 36
r
1a
= Pid;
d/ -_ Pidl
d; 2
= 25 , 000 psi· = -2.25p; 2.25p;
therefore
Pi at vessel ends = 0. Therefore
2 17,500 .
25 000 = 20,000(12) Pi = _ _ = -3890 pSl
4 50
' d/ - (12) 2
The residual-stress distribution in the inner-core wall
d -2 = 20,000 (144) + 144 = 259 may now be calculated by using Pi = 3890; or
' 25,000
di= 16.1 ft = -64.8(3890) + (64.8)(36) [-3890]
or 28.8 r2 28.8
t = 2.05 in.
therefore
Therefore
r; = 6 in. + 2.05 in. 8.05 in.
ft = -8760 - 316,000
r0 = 10 in. (given) r2

r, = 6 in. For r = 8.05 in.,

ft = - 8760 - 4870 -13,630 psi
Induced hoop stresses in the core and winding due to internal For r = 7 in.,
pressure: ft = -8760 - 6440 = -15,200 psi
By Eq.14.12 withp0 = 0 andp, = 20,000 psi, r 10 in.,
r,
and = 6 in.,
0 For r 6.5 in.,
ft = -8760 - 7460 = -16,220 psi

Calculation of required winding stress:

By Eq. 15.78 with r = r;, andfrc = Pi at r;,
= 20,000(36) + (100)(36) [ 20,000 ]
100 36 r2 100 - 36 -frc = Pi r-
( '
2

2r/
- r•'
2
)
f ln
"'
(rri° - r•rl'
2 2
)

therefore
3890 = (8.052 - 62)1 ln ( 9_52 - 62)
ft = 11,250 + 1,125,000 2 X 8.05 2 w 8.05 2 - 62
r2
fw = 29,100 psi
For r = r0 10 in.,
ft = 11,250 + 11,250 = 22,500 psi Calculation of residual hoop stresses in windings:
For r 9 in., Equation 15.79 gives the residual hoop stress in the
ft = 11,250 + 13,900 = 25,150 psi windings at any radial distance.
For r = 8.5 in.,
ft = 11,250 + 15,600 = 26,850 psi fw*
For r = 8.05 in.
ft = 11,250 + 17,500 28,750 psi When r = r 0 ,
For r = 7 in., fw * = fw = 29,100 psi (by inspection)
ft 11,250 + 22,950 = 34,200 psi When r = 9 in.,
For r = 6 in.,
ft = 11,250 + 31,250 = 42,500 psi f * = 29 l00 [l _ (81 + 36) In (100 - 36)]
w ' 2 X 81 81 - 36
The necessary residual hoop stress at the inside surface = 21,700 psi
of the inner core is obtained by subtracting the 42,500-psi When r 8.5 in.,
hoop pressure stress from the allowable value of 25,000 psi fw * 29,100 [1 - (108.2) In ( 64 )]
to give: 144.4 36.2
= 16,650 psi
ft(residual) = 25,000 - 42,500 -17,500 psi \Yhen r = r; = 8.05 in.,
The required external pressure on the inner core (with 100 8
Pi 0) may be calculated by use of Eq. 14.12 with Po = P;,
Jw * = 29 ' 100 [1 - ( 129.6
· ) In(~)]
28.8
r = r;, and r0 = r;. 11,080 psi
314 Multilayer Vessels
60 high-strength cold-drawn steel wire is available that has
r;
Core rj Wire winding ro ultimate strengths in the range of 200,000 psi.
55 15.4f Thick Shells with Windings Applied under Vari-
50 able Tension to Produce Constant Tension under Oper-
ating Conditions. It is apparent from the previous
45 example, Example Calculation 15.9, that the maximum com-
bined stresses in the windings can be reduced if the windings
40
are applied under variable tension so tha~ an ideal pre-
35
'~ '°re~
stressed condition results. Derivations of relationships for
this condition have been presented by Comstock (226).

--~
30 :Ssl.tre........._
If the windings are to possess constant combined stress

20
--- 4
under operating conditions, the thin-wall equation is appli-
cable for determining the pressure at the junction, r;; or by
Eq. 3.14,
ft
15
/4#~ (15.80)

10
/
where ftw = tension in wire under operating conditions,
5 pounds per square inch

0 The value of Pi required to reduce the induced pressure

stress at the inner surface of the inner core to the allowable
-5 level may be calculated by use of Eq. 14.12 after the thick-
ness of the inner core has been established. This thickness

---
-10
is established by use of Eq. 14.1 and is equal to (ri - ri)-
-15 After the value of Pi has been determined, a value for
-ResldUal either ro or ftc may be selected, and the value for the other
-20 determined from Eq. 15.80.
If Eq. 15.80 is substituted for p 0 in Eq. 14.12, r; substi-
-25
tuted for r0 , and the equation soJved for ihe condition
-30 r = ri, Eq. 15.81 results.
6 7 8 9 10
Radius. inches
(J)
_ p,(r/ + r, 2) - 2r;ftw(ro - ri)
(15.81)
t r-r, - 2 2
r; - ri
Fig. 15.13. Hoop-stress distribution in wire-wound veuel (Exomple
Colculotion 15.9). If (Jt)r-r, is taken as the maximum allowable stress in
the core, Eq. 15.81 may he rearranged to give ftw•
ftw = p,(rl + r.2) - f,ca.llow.)(r;2 - r.2) (15.82)
Combined stresses in the windings and core: 2r;(r0 - r;)
For r = 6 in., If it is desirable to fix both the combined stress in the
ft = 42,500 - 17,500 = 25,000 psi wire, ftw, and f1(a.llow.), then r0 can he calculated directly by
For r = 7 in., either of the above equations.
ft = 34,200 - 15,200 = 19,000 psi When the internal pressure becomes zero, the residual
For r = 8.05 in. (in core), stress in the wire is equal to the combined stress, ftw, minus
ft = 28,750 - 13,630 = 15,120 psi the pressure stress, ft; or
For r = 8.05 in. (in winding), Piri
2 2 2
ft.. = 28,750 + 11,080 = 39,830 ft(residua.l) = ftw - [ 2
ro - ri
2 + r2(Piro
2
ri
ro - ri
2)
]

For r = 8.5 in.,

ft.. = 26,850 + 16,650 = 43,500 psi = ftw - Ptr/ (1 + r,,2) (15.83)
For r = 9.0 in., r/' - r, 2 r2

ftv = 25,150 + 21,700 = 46,850 psi The hoop stress corresponding to a radial stress is given
For r = 10 in., by Eq. 15.72.
= 22,500 + 29,100 = 51,600 psi
f tv
The stress distributions are plotted in Fig. 15.13. The
- [r2r +- r,ri2j
ft -fr 2 2

maximum induced hoop stress from internal pressure of Comstock has shown (226) that the radial stress, fr, pro-
42,500 psi has been reduced to 25,000 psi by the residual
duced by the wire windings beyond radius r (without
stress from the outer windings. The maximum stress in internal pressure) is:
the vessel occurs under operating conditions, exists in the
outermost winding, and has a value of 51,600 psi. Although fr= - - r {ftw - _Piri:_2 (1 + ~)} (15.84)
this appears to he a high stress, it is not excessive since r r0 2 - r. r
 Theory of Ribbon and Wire Winding 315
Substituting Eq. 15.84 for fr in Eq. 15.72 gives the change existing at r (without internal pressure). Thus the required
in hoop stress, Aft, in the wire at radius r as a result of the winding tension is obtained by subtracting Eq. 15.85 from
windings beyond r (with no internal pressure). Eq. 15.83 to give:
I

fw
_f
- tw
[ro(r
2
+( r1 2) - 2rr?]
) -
2pir,l (
15.86)
r r2 - r 12 r 2 - ri 2
Comstock (226) has presented an illustrative .design
The required winding tension, f w, at radius r is obtained demonstrating the use of Eq. 15.86 in a wire-wound vessel
by subtracting the change in stress, Aft, due to windings to operate at 15,000 psi with a constant tension of 40,000 psi
beyond radius r from the residual hoop stress, ft(residuaJ.J in the wire winding under operating conditions.

PROBLEMS

1. A new high-tensile-strength, high-yield-strength, low-alloy plate steel with a minimum

ultimate strength of 105,000 psi and a minimum yield strength of 70,000 psi and with a mini-
mum elongation in 2 in. of 22% has been described in the literature (228). (The chemical
composition is given as: a maximum of 0.25% carbon, 1.50% manganese, and 0.35% silicon
as well as a minimum of 0.10% vanadium and a nickel range of from 0.40 to 0.70%.)
Design the shell of a two-shell shrink-assembled multilayer vessel using this steel. The
vessel is to have an inside diameter of 24 in. and is to operate at a pressure of 20,000 psi. The
service temperature is to be under 600° F, and an allowable tensile stress of 30,000 psi is to
be used.
2. Redesign the vessel described in problem 1 as a three-shell shrink-assembled multilayer
vessel.
3. What are the interface pressures for the vessel described in problem 2il
4. What metal interferences are required for the vessel described in problem 2?
5. A 12-in.-inside-diameter pressure vessel is fabricated of an inner shell of copper 1 in.
thick and an outer shell of steel ½ in. thick in such a manner that the interface pressure is zero
and the two shells are in contact with each other. The reactor is 4 ft long from tangent line to
tangent line with ellipsoidal heads (also of double layer).
If end effects are ignored, determine the hoop stress in both of the shells if the vessel contains
an internal pressure of 2500 psi and if E of copper = 15 X 10 6 psi and E of steel = 30 X 10 6 psi.
(Suggestion: assume that thin-wall theory is valid.)
6. A copper vessel with an internal diameter of 10 in. and a wall thickness of ½ in. is to be
operated at a 1000-psi internal pressure. The copper shell is to be wire-wound with square
steel wire having a cross section of 0.1 in. by 0.1 in. If the wire is wound at a constant tension
of 20,000 psi, what is the minimum number of layers of winding required to keep the hoop
tension in the copper core below 6000 psi under operating conditions? What is the axial stress
in the copper shell under operating conditions? What is the residual compressive hoop stress
in the copper shell when the internal pressure is removed?
7. Redesign the shell described in problem 6 using the same material and same inside diameter
but using wire winding at a constant tension of 25,000 psi.
8. Redesign the shell described in problem 6 using the same material and same inside diameter
but using a variable-tension winding to produce a constant tension of 35,000 psi in the winding
under operating pressure.
\
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125. "A Survey of Pressure Vessel Design Literature,'' Pressure
Vessel Research Committee of the Welding Research
Council of the Engineering Foundation, New York.
126. Reddick, H. W., and Miller, F. H., Adoonced Mathematics
for Engineer,, Wiley, New York, 3rd ed. 1955.
127. Peirce, B. 0., A Short Table of Integrals, Ginn, 3rd ed.,
1929.
128. Boardman, H. C., "Optimum Torispherical Pressure
Vessel Heads," The Water Tower, 35, No. 3 (1949), p. 8.
129. Watts, G. W., and Lang, H. A., "The Stresses in a Pres-
sure Vessel with a Hemispherical Head,'.' Trans. Am.
Soc. Mech. Engrs., 75, No. 1 (1953), p. 83.
130. Bresse, M., Couri; de mecanique applique, Paris, 1859,
pp. 323-338.
131. Bryan, G. H., "Application of the Energy Test to the
Collapse of a Long Thin Pipe under External Pressure,"
Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 6 (1888), pp. 287-292.
132. Stewart, R. T., "Collapsing Pressure of Bessemer Steel
Lap-welded Tubes, Three to Ten Inches in Diameter,"
Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 27 (1906), p. 780.
133. Southwell, R. V., "On the General Theory of Elastic
Stability," Phil. Trans., 213A (1913). pp. 187-244.
13,t.. Strum, R. G., and O'Brien, H. I., "Computing Strength
of Vessels Subjected to External Pressure," Trar>s. Am.
Soc. Mech. Engrs., 69 (1917}, p. 353.
135. Bergman, E. 0., "Tbe New-type Code Chart for the
320 References
Design of Vessels under External Pressure," Tram. Am.
Soc. Mech. Engrs., 74, No. 10 (1952), p. 1217.
136. Timoshenko, S., "Working Stresses for Columns and Thin
Walled Structures," J. Appl. Mech., 1 (1933), p. 176.
137. "Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Struc-
tures," Am. Standards Assoc., No. A 58.1-1955.
138. Pagon, W. W., "Wind Velocity in Relation to Height
Above Ground," Eng. News-Record, May 23, 1935, p. 742.
139. Nelson, J. G., "Calculation Sheets for Vessel Design,"
Petroleum Refiner, 27, No. 11 (1948), p. 565.
140. Bergman, E. 0., "The Design of Vertical Pressure Vessels
Subjected to Applied Forces," Tram. Am. Soc. Mech.
Engrs., 77 (1955), p. 863.
141. Rouse, H., Fluid Mechanics for Hydraulic Engineers,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1938.
142. Marshall, V. 0., "The Design of Foundations for Stacks
and Towers," Refiner Natural Gasoline Mfr., 18, No. 12
(1939), p. 546.
143. Marshall, V. 0., "The Design of Foundations for Stacks _
and Towers," Petroleum Refiner, 22, No. 8 (1943), p. 251.
144. Hesse, H. C., and Rushton, J. H., Process Equipment
Design, Van Nostrand, New York, 1945.
145. "Lateral Forces of Earthquake and Wind," Paper 2514,
Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., 117 (1952), pp. 716-780.
146. "Uniform Building Code," Pacific Coast Building
Officials' Conference, Los Angeles, 1952 ed.
147. Guest, J. J., "On the Strength of Ductile Materials under
Combined Stress," Phil. Mag., 50, No. 5 (1900), p. 69.
148. Todhunter, I., and Pearson, K., A History of the Theory
of Elasticity and of the Slrength of Materials, Cambridge,
Cambridge, England, Vol. 1, 1886, Vol. 2, 1893.
149. Haigh, B. P., "The Strain-energy Function and the
Elastic Limit," Engineering, 109 (1920), p. 158.
150. Huber, M. T., "Probleme der statik technisch wichtiger
orthotroper Platten," Warszawa, 1929.
151. Hencky, H., "Ober langsame stationlire Stromungen in
plastischen Massen mit Riicksicht auf die Vorgiinge beim
W alzen, Pressen und Ziehen von Metallen," Z. angew.
Matli. u. Mech., 5 (1925), p. 115.
152. von Mises, R., "Gottinger Nachrichten," Math. Phys. KL,
1913, p. 582.
153. Brummerstedt, E. F., "Stress Analysis of Tall Towers,''
Natl. Petroleum News, 85 (1943), p. R-539.
_154. Lazzair, C. C., and Sanderson, C. F., "The Design of
»Octagonal Foundations," Petroleum Refiner, 27, No. 12
(1948), p. 629.
155. Summer, W. B., "Octagonal Foundations for Stacks and
Towers,'' Petroleum Refiner, 83, No. 7 (1954).
156. Taylor, F. W., Thompson, S. E., and Smulski, E., Concrete,
Plain and Reinforced, Vol. 1, Wiley, New York, 4th ed.,
1925.
157. "Modern Flange Design," Taylor Forge and Pipe Works
Bulletin 502, 3rd ed., 1950.
158. Windenburg, D. F., and Trilling, C., "Collapse by
Instability of Thin Cylindrical Shells under External
Pressure," Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 56 (1934), p. 819.
159. Cook, G., "The Collapse of Short Thin Tubes by External
:i;,ressure," Phil. Mag., July, 1914, pp. 51-56.
160. Wolosewick, F. E., "Supports for Vertical Pressure
Vessels, Part III,'' Pdraleum Refiner, 80, No. 10 (1951),
p. 143, and Part IV, SO, No. 12 (1951), p. 151.
161. Wolosewick, F. E., "Supports for Vertical Pressure
Vessels, Part II,'' Petroleum Refiner, SO, No. 8 (1951),
p.101.
162. Boulder Canyon Project, Final Reports, Part V-Techni-
~~estigations, Bulletin 5, "Penstock Analysis and
Stiffener Design," U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau
of Reclamation, 1940.
163. Bijlaard, P. P., "Stresses from Local Loadings in Cylindri-
cal Pressure Vessels," Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 77
(1955), p. 805.
164. Siemon, K. 0. G., "Manual for the Design of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Pressure Vessels and Tanks," Edwards
Brothers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 3rd ed., 1942.
165. Zick, L. P., "Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports," Welding J.
(N. Y.), Res. Suppl., 30 (1951), p. 435-S.
166. Roark, R. J., Formulas for Slress and Strain, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 2nd ed., 1943.
167. "Blaw-Knox Autoclaves for Pressure-Temperature Reac-
tions," Catalog 2413, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1952.
168. "Taylor F9rge Weldells and Flanges," Catalog 484,
Taylor Forge and Pipe Works, Chicago, 1949.
169. Johns-Manville, "A Guide to Gasket Selection," '!'he
Gasket, 1, No. 4.
170. "The Flanged Mouth-piece Rings of Vulcanizers and
Similar Vessels," The Locomoi,ifJe, 25 (1905), pp. 177-203.
171. Waters, E. 0., and Taylor, J. H., "The Strength of Pipe
Flanges,'' Mech. Eng.; 49 (1927), pp. 531-542.
172. Waters, E. .0., and Taylor, J. H., "Methods of Deter-
mining the Strength of Pipe Flanges," discussion of paper
by Waters and Taylor (see Reference 171), Mech. Eng., 49
(1927), pp. 1340-1347.
173. Waters, E. 0., Rossheim, ·D. B., Wesstrom, D. B., and
Williams, F. S. G., "Development of General Formulas
for Bolted Flanges,'' Taylor Forge and Pipe Works,
Chicago, 1949.
174. Waters, E. 0., Wesstrom, D. B., Rossheim, D. B., and
Williams, F. S. G., "Formulas- for Stresses in Bolted
Flange Connections," Trans. Am, Soc. Mech. Engrs.,
April, 1937, p. FSP-59-4.
175. Waters, E. 0., and Williams, F. S. G., "Stress Conditions
in Flanged Joints for Low-pressure Service," Trans. Am.
Soc. Mech. Engrs., 74 (1952), pp. 135-156.
176. Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association, 3rd ed., 1952.
177. Greene, Arthur M., Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: ! -
Introduction-The Antecedents of the Code,'' Mech.
Eng., 74, No. 7 (1952), p. 555.
178. Greene, Arthur M., Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: II-
ASME Sets up Boiler Code C.Ommittee and Adopts Code
of 1914," Mech. Eng., 74, No. 8 (1952), pp. 640-646.
179. Greene, Arthur M., Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: III-
The Administration of the First Code-1915-1918,"
Mech. Eng., 74, No. 9 (1952), pp. 727-734.
180. Greene, Arthur. M.,. Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: IV-
ASME Expands the Boiler Code-1919-1924," Mech.
Eng., 74, No. 11 (1952), pp. 897-907.
181. Greene, Arthur M., Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: V-
Administration of the 1924 Edition of the Power Boiler
Code-1925-1927,'' Mech. Eng., 74, No. 12 (1952), pp.
996-1004.
182. Greene, Arthur M.; Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: VI-
The Great Years-1928-1931," Mech. Eng., 75, No. 2
(1953), pp. 113-148.
183. Greene, Arthur M., Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: VII-
Revisions and Special Committees-1932-1935,'' Mech.
Eng., 75, No. 3 (1953), pp. 211-226.
184. Greene, Arthur M., Jr., "The ASME Boiler Code: VIII-
Revisions by Annulment of Cases-1936-1937,'' Mech.
Eng., 75, No. 7 (1953), pp. 551-558; also continued in
No. 8, pp. 639-646.

185. American Standard Code for Pressure Piping, ASA
B 31.1-1955, Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., New York.
186. "ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels to Supplant
Joint API-ASME Code," Mech. Eng., 78, No. 6, p. 580.
187. American Standard Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged
Fittings, ASA B 16.5-1953, American Standards Associ-
ation, New York.
188. "Taylor Forge Nozzles, Welding Necks, and Large
Diameter Flanges," Catalog No. 501, and Bulletin 502,
Taylor Forge and Pipe Works, Chicago.
189. Lame, G., and Clapeyron, B. P. E., "Memoire sur
l 'equilibre interie des corps soliurdes homogi~mes," Memoires
presenles par divers Savants, Vol. 4, Paris, 1833.
190. Coulomb, C. A., and Tresca, H., "Memoires 1773 de
mathematiques et de physique, presentes a I' Academie
Royale des Sciences, par divers savants, et lus dans ses
assemblees," Paris, 1776, pp. 343-382.
191. Newitt, D. M., The Design of High Pressure Plant and the
Properties of Fluids at High Pressure, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, England, 1940.
192. Macrae, A. E., "Overstrain of Metals," H. M. Stationery
Office, London, 1930.
193. Cook, G., and Robertson, A., "The Strength of Thick
Hollow Cylinders Under Internal Pressure," Engineering,
92 (1911), p. 787.
194. Maccary, R. R., and Fey, R. F., "Design of Thick
Walled Pressure Vessels," Chem. Eng., 76 (1949), No. 8
pp. 124-127, No. 9, pp. 105-111, and No. 10, pp. 120-123.
195. Prager, W., and Hodge, P. G., Theory of Perfectly Plastic
Solids, Wiley, New York, 1951.
196. Nadai, A. L., Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, Vol. I,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
197. Hill, R., The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford,
London, 1950.
198. Sachs, G., and Hoffman, 0., Introduction to the Theory
of Plasticity for Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
199. Freudenthal, A. M., The Inelastic Behavior of Engineering
Materials and Structures, Wiley, New York, 1950.
200. van Iterson, F. K. T., Plasticity in Engineering, Hafner
Publishing Co., 1947.
201. Faupel, J. H., ''Yield and Bursting Characteristics of
Heavy-wall Cylinders," Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.,
78, No. 5 (1956), pp. 1031-1064.
202. Crossland, B., and Bones, J. A., "The Ultimate Strength
of Thick-walled Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pres-
sure," Engineering, January, 1955, pp. 80-83 and 114-117.
203. Manning, W. R. D., "The Overstrain of Tubes by Internal
Pressure," Engineering, 159 (1945), pp. 101 and 102, 183
and 184.
204. Voorhees, H. R., Sliepcevich, C. M., and Freeman, J. W.,
"Thick Walled Pressure Vessels," Ind. Eng. Chem., 48,
No. 5 (1956), p. 872. . writers, 1955.
205. Von Mises, R., "Mechanik der festen ki:irper im plastisch
deformablem Zustand," Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen,
Math.-Physik Klasse,.1913, p. 582.
206. Hencky, H., "Uber einige statisch bestimmte Fiille des
Gleichgewichts in plastischen Ki:irpern," Z. angew. Math.
u. Mech., 3 (1923), p. 241.
207. Hencky, H., "-Ober das Wesen der Plastischen Ver-
formung," Z. Ver. deut. Ing., 69 (1925), pp. 695 and 1253.
208. Hencky, H., "The New Theory of Plasticity, Strain
Hardening and Creep, and the Testing of the Inelastic
Behavior of Metals," Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 55
(1933), pp. 151-155.
209. Huber, M., Statement in: Proceedings of the First Inter-
national Congress for Applied Mechanics, Delft, 1924.
\
References 321
210. Eichinger, A., Statement in: Proceedings, Second Inter-
national Congress of Applied Mechanics, Zi.irich, 1926,
p. 325.
211. Voorhees, H. R., "The Creep-Rupture Life of Engineering
Structures with an Initial Stress Gradient," Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Michigan, 1956.
212. Robinson, E. L., "Effect of Temperature Variation on the
Long-Time Rupture Strength of Steels," Trans. Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs., 74 (1952), pp. 777-781.
213. Higgins, M. B., "Allowable Working Pressure for Long
Tubes Subject to External Pressure," Paper No. 48-A-123,
ASME Meeting, December, 1948 (abstracted in Mech.
Eng., 71 (1949), p. 169).
214. Freeman, J. W., and Voorhees, H. R., "Selection of
Alloys for Service Requirements," Ind. Eng. Chem., 48,
No. 5, p. 861.
215. Faupel, J. H., and Furbeck, A. R., "Influence of Residual
Stress on Behavior of Thick-walled Closed-end Cylinders,"
Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 75 (1953), pp. 345-354.
216. Faupel, J. H., "Residual Stresses in Heavy-wall Cylin-
ders," J. Franklin !net., 259 (January-June, 1955), pp.
405-419.
217. Bridgman, P. W., The Physics of High Pressure, G. Bell
and Sons, London, 1949.
218. Comings, E. W., High Pressure Technology, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1956.
219. Sachs, G., "Residual Stresses, Their Measurement and
Their Effects on Structural Parts,'' Symposium on the
Failure of Metals by Fatigue, Melbourne University Press,
Melbourne, Australia, 1947, pp. 237-247.
220. Cox, H. L., "The Design of Built-up Cylinders," Engineer,
162 (1936), p. 179.
221. Jasper, T. M., and Scudder, C. M., "Multilayer Con-
struction of Thick-wall Pressure Vessels," Trans. Am.
Inst. Chem. Engrs., 37 (1941), p. 885.
222. Spraragen, W., and Ettinger, W. G., "Shrinkage Dis-
tortion in Welding," Welding J. (N. Y.), Res. Suppl., 29
(1950), p. 323-S.
223. Schierenbeck, J.~ Jr., U.S. Patent 2,326,176, Angust, 19:1,3.
224. Holroyd, R., "Report of Investigations by Fuels and
Lubricants Teams," U. S. Bur. Mines Inform. Circ. 7375,
1946.
225. Donovan, J. T., Josenhans, M., and Markovits, J. A.,
"High Pressure Vessels in Coal Hydrogenation Service,''
Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 72 (1950), p. 357.
226. Comstock, C. W., "Some Considerations in the Design of
Thick-wall Pressure Cylinders," Trans. Am. Inst. Chem.
Engrs., 30 (1943), pp. 299-318.
227. "Synopsis of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Laws, Rules and
Regulations: by States, Provinces and Cities (United
States and Canada)," National Bureau of Casualty Under-
228. Fratcher, G. E., "New Alloys for Multi-layer Vessels,''
Petroleum Refiner, 33, No. 11 (1954), pp. 137-141.
229. Chilton, C. H., "Six-tenths Factor Applies to Complete
Plant Costs," Chem. Eng., 57, April (1950), p. 112.
230. Williams, Rodger, Jr., "Six-tenths Fa-ctor Aids in Appr9xi-
mating Costs," Chem. Eng., 54, December (1947), p.
124.
231. Seely, F. B., and Smith, J. 0., Advanced Mechanics of
Materials, Wiley, New York, 2nd ed., 1952.
232. Taylor, C. P., Glenday, C., and Faber, 0., Engineering,
85 (1908), p. 325.
233. Gartner, Abraham I., "Nomograms for the Solution of
Anchor Bolt Problems," Petroleum Refiner, 30, No. 7
(1951), pp. 101-106.
322 References
234. Jorgensen, S. M., "Anchor Bolt Calculations," Petroleum
Refiner, 25, No. 5 (19-16), pp. 211-213.
235. "Equipment Cost Rise Accelerates," Chem. Eng., 64
(March, 1957), pp. 266-267.
236. La Que, F. L., and Cox, G. L., "Some Observations of the
Potentials of Metals and Alloys in Sea Water," Am. Soc.
Testing Materials, Proc. 40 (1940), pp. 670-687.
237. Manning, W. R. D., "Strength of Cylinders," Ind. Eng.
Chem., 49, No. 12 (1957), p. 1969.
238. Manning, W.R. D., "The Design of Compound Cylinders
for High Pressure Service," Engineering, 163 (1947).
pp. 349-352.
239. Manning, W. R. D., "The Design of Cylinders by Auto-
frettage," Engineering, 169 (1950), pp. 479, 509, 562.
240. Manning, W. R. D., "Residual Contact Stresses in
Built-Up C~·linders," Engineering, 170 (1950), p. 464.
241. Nadai and Wahl, Plasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1931.
242. Jasper, T. M., letter to the editor of Engineering, Engi-
neering, 160 (1947), p. 16.
243. Jasper, T. M., letter to the editor of Engineering, Engi-
neering, 160 (1947), p. 160. ·
244. Langenberg, F. G., "Effect of Cold Working on the
Strength of Hollow Cylinders," Trans. fAm. Soc. Steel
Treating, 8 (1925), p. 447. ;
245. "Multi Layer Engineering for Safety," A. 0. Smith Corp.
Bulletin No. V-53, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1950.
 APPENDIX

ORAWING CONVENTIONS

DRAWING SIZES AND SCALES

I lleffl2. TITLE BLOCK AND BILL OF MATERIALS

The Title Block identifies the drawing and should contain the
All drawings should be made on vellum tracing paper following information:
unless otherwise specified. 1. Name of manufacturer and address
2. Name of equipment or part drawn
The drawing paper or cloth to be used ·Should be the
3. Name of purchaser and address
standard trimmed sheets of such sizes that they will fold to the 4. Date of completion of drawing.
letter size of 81" x 11 ~ 5. Scale
Sheet Size 6. Names or draftsman, checker, and tracer
7. Drawing number
A St• X 11"
8 11 • X 17" Tracing paper is usually purchased with the border, title
C 11•x22• block, manufacturer's name and address, etc. printed on the
0 22" X 34• standard sizes of tracing paper. The remainder of the title block is
E All over O size lettered free hand to supply the necessary additional information.
When drawings are made on blank tracing paper. the entire title
The following drawing scales are to be used: block and border must be drawn.
The title block should be placed on the lower right hand corner
1: 1 (lull size) of the paper. The revision block should always accompany the title
1:2 (hall size) block in the manner shown.
1:4
1:8 A bill of materials, listing all the materiai"required in the form
1:12 in which it is purchased or cut forlabrication should be included
1:16 above the title block with two exceptions. In the case of simple details
1:32 compising only one or two parts, the material, size, etc. may be.
indicated by notes on )he drawing. In the case of large assemblies
The scale should be selected to show a clear picture of the comprising many parts.the materials are listed on separate sheets
accompanying the drawings.
part being drawn. Detail drawings are usually made !Jith scales
of 1:1, 1:2, or 1:4, whereas assembly drawings are more often
made with scales of I :4, I :8, or 1:16. 3
3
AGITATOR

.
"
~Xls"UNEQUALANGI.E H.R.S.
6·0"STRAP H.R.S.
6
3 .
FABRICATE

The scale used should always be indicated in the title

block. If more than one scale is used on the same drawing sheet,
each scale is to be indicated under the title of that respective
section or view.
3
2
I
SHELL
fX 7~6• SHAFTING
18" lC 36")( i" Pl.ATE
GL08AL VALVE fCRANE(#70)
1
C.R.S.
A.S.T.M,A7
BRASS
I
I
2
.
"
PURCHASE
PART PART NAME SIZE OF STOCK MATERIAL QUANTITY NOTES
NO.
F CHEMCO, INC.
ANN ARBOR MICHIGAN
E
0 CAUSTIC f:.VAPORATOR ASSEMBLY
C DOWEL
Co. FOR IONIA. CONN-
8 Scale: Drawn by: Chkd by:
3·13-44 A WAS 13f BOLT CIRCLE nw. t· • 1· 1.(.S~ e!/,'}...fl
Date: Trcd. by: No.
Date Mark Revisions By 'h,.,1.,h,lal.J.
Z-1·44 2300

323
324 Drawing Conventions

Item 3. DRAWING CONVENTIONS Item 4. ! LETTERING I

Alphabet ol lines

The line is the basis of the engineering drawing. The weight lettering supplies mt.ormat,on which cannot be g,ven by lines
of an individual line is used to signify the function of that line. alone, and therefore it is one of the most important elements of a
Three weights of lines are used.namely; heavy. medium, and light, good drawing.
and are used in the following manner. lettenng Standards

Outline of parts All lettering must be m the single stroke commercial gothic style.
Heavy
----- Cutting plane lines
Short break lines 2. Lettering may be either vertical or inclined (between 60 and 70
degrees) but must be consistent on each d rawing.j"
Medium
---------------- Hidden edge lines
Example VERTICAL OR INCLINE!) (60°-70")

Light
2r
Dimension and
extension lines
3

4
Only upper case letters are to be used.

All tellers shall be of uniform size with the exception that the
Center lines
Cross-section lines first letter of each word or group of words may be approximately
~ Long break lines 50 percent larger for emphasis, but the form of lettering must be
cons,stent.
Material Symbols
Example: FINISH ALL CONTACT SURFACES

■
5. Spacing between lines of lettering should be 2/3 of the height
of the letter.

Cast iron Steel Bronze, brass, Zinc, lead, 6 A permanent guide line may be used 1/16' below the letters of
and copper and babbitt a word or group of words. These guide lines may be extended to
form a leader. Double lines may be used for titles and for

Im ~
emphasis.
/
/ Example: BUTT WE'Li) . BUTT WELD
Aluminum Electric Sound or heat fire brick DETAIL OF ARM '-:....
Insulation insulation refractories
7 The following letter heights should be used 3/,,·

■Electric
windings
Concrete
~
Common
brick
Wood
TITLES AND DRAWING NUMBERS~ J1i 6•
HEADINGS ANO PROMINENT NOTES ....!-1
SILL OF MATERIALS, DIMENSIONS, GENERAL:~
The material of which a part is constructed is designated, in a
section view, by crosshatching. Accepted symbols of the most common
NOTES, ETC. f
engineering materials are shown above.
Light parallel lines should be used for most cross-sectioning.
All slant lines are 45°. All ad1acent parts are cros.s-sectioned in opposite
directions and in the case of three or more adjacent parts, an angle
of 6<!' or 30" may be used on the additional parts.
 Drawing Conventions 325
Item 5. I DIMENSIONS
I llem 5. cont. I DIMENSIONS
I
Dimension Standards
D,mens,ons are placed on a drawing so that a part may be made
by reading the drawing. The dimensions must be so complete that I. Dimensions for structural steel work, welded parts, castings,
the necessary information as to the size and location of parts Is assembly drawings, etc, where tolerances are greater than
obvious without scahng the drawing or making computations. :!: 1/16",1should be given in inches and fractions of inches up to.
but not including. 12•. Any distance of 72" or more should be
DEFINITIONS given in feet and inches.
l. O,mens,on lines are full, light lines. broken only where the 2. Dimensions for machine shop work, where tolerances are less
dimension is inserted and are parallel to the object or line being than :!:0.01",should be given in inches and decimals only. Long
dimensioned. shafts may be dimensioned in leet and inches.
Dimension lines are used for two purposes: for specifying location Example,
and for showing size.
3. 3. Feet are designated by a single quotation mark('). Inches are
Example: designated by a double quotation mark ('). feet and inches are
Location
separated by a dash.
Size
Example:
8
Dimension lines are terminated by arrows at the surface of the 4. In all cases where feet are given, the inches must also be
pa rt or at the extension lines. indicated. In case of even feet, a (-O"l must be added.
I Example,
Example:
I
5. Dimensions for location should be made from a reference line
2. Extension lines or witness lines indicate the distance measured such as a center line or a base line and not from an edge. This
when the dimension line is placed outside the obiect. They is especially true ii the edge is to be macti ined or is the edge
are run. light lines starting 1/16• lrom the object and extending of a casting.

-
1/8' beyond the dimension line.
I
i-
-r•li~tl
. 1.
Example: 19ii; ., Example:

3 leaders a re light, straight lines which lead from a note or dimension

~ i c h are terminated by an arrowhead touching the part to
which attention is directed. II two or more are used in one drawing. 6. Horizontal and sloping lines should read from left to•right while
they should be kept parallel ii possible. vertical lines should read from bottom to top.

Example,
Example:

4 Center lines are line lines composed of alternate long and short
dashes which are used to represent axes of symmetrical parts
and w-hich- serve as extension li.nes in the location of holes or other
similar features. Important dimensions shoukl not be referred to a
center line that has no finished hole on it or has no finished 7. Dimensions should not be added or repeated unnecessarily.
surlace coinciding with it
326 Drawing Conventions

llem 5. cont DIMENSIONS

8 Dimensions are placed outside ol a view or ob1ect unless ,twill

add clearness or simplicity lo the drawing 11 placed 10side
They should never be placed in cul (sectioned) surlaces unless
absolutely necessa,y, at which time the sectionmg ,s omitted
around the numbers and lines

9 Overall d1mens1ons should be given on all views

10 D1mens1ons should not be crowded If space ,s small.one ol

the lollowing methods may be used

Example

11 When d1mens1ons are placed on an angle, they should be

placed horizontally on the arc as on a dimension line. FoP
large angles, place the dimension in line with the arc.
Example·

12
~-=tr"rU
For equally spaced holes in a circular flange or disc, give the
diameter of the bolt hole w,th the number and size of the holes.
Example
fEVENLY
DRILL 6 HOLE'S
SPACED
ON If 6.C

Example·
r---- ,.
-@r-.. ----·~fR.
=f•
13. C11cular sections should always be dimensioned from center
to center and never from the edge of a part.

14. An outline of a drawing preferably should not be used as an

extension line,.and a hidden edge line should never be used
as an extension line.
 J
APPENDIX

WELDING CONVENTIONS

l!em I. WELDING SPECIFICATIONS 111m 2. I WELDING INSTRUCTIONS

I
20 Gage and Less: Use acetylene welding or seam welding. Arc
welding of light gages is very difficult.

18 Gage and Heavier: Use arc welding or seam-welding. Arc welding

is cheaper than gas welding and seam-welding is cheaper than arc
welding. --·•

Edges to be Welded: Sheared edges (5/S• maximum) are sufficient

for ordinary welds, heavier plates flame cut and scale removed.

Code Welding Is requiring edges machined or flame cut and ground.

Size ot We Ids
Butt and plug welds, and all welds with grooves (V and Ul do not
require dimensions of bead. The gap between the sh eels or grooves
has to be at least completely filled with weld. Other welds are
measured as follows:
/!..., I iJ~.I':
Beveling: 30° bevel can be she'ared-5/8" maximum-all other angles
and larger sized plates are flame cut and ground over or machined.
If both plates are beveled 30" is sufficient. II one plate only is beveled
55°bevelins should be used. Up lo l/4• plates no bevel is required
for ordinary weld- up to 3/4• plates single bevel is sufficient -heavier
plates require double bevel or single U weld if one side only is
accessible for welding and double U welds ii both sides are accessible.
-u• grooves can be made only by machinins,

~- ~l\s•
"W__lW6/~
~~
1//.17/?/7711//l,Wl/.f
Fillet Weld Corner Weld Edge Weld Single bevel ~I!! Double bevel

Welds made on lhe rotary seam welder (called seam welds> also do
not require any cross-sectional dimension as no matenal ,s deposited.

'"'"'""""'"''i" :,.;_<;._"'"'"~~
i~- ~"""'"&~~~
Continuity Single U
Single J
A continuous weld is one which is continued over the lull length
ot seam as shown in the following figure.

Double U Double J
c ~
Corner Welds: No beveling is required, weld outside. Size of fillet is
not to be specified-fillet a little heavier than plate is understood. For
heavy strains weld one bead inside in addition to outside weld. See
Specify on drawing: ~ following examples:

ffl ffl Corner welds

327
328 Welding Conventions

Item 2. cont. I WELDING INSTRUCTIONS

I Item 2. cont. I WELDING INSTRUCTIONS
I
T Welds: If beveled no specification of Sile of weld requ11ed. If not Butt Welds, 100 percent penetration ,s understood-no size or bead
beveled give size ol fillet-specify single or double fillet-continuous, specification is required-specify single or double butt weld. Grind: flush
intermittent or staggered-size of bevel and grind as required. and bevel as requued.

Intermittent and continuous single fillet welds are used for very Single and double plam butt welds are for light loads only. single up to
light loads only. 1/8" plate and double to 1/4"-gap for single equal to plate thickness.
for double 1/2 plate thickness.
For medium light loads a staggered weld having the first and last
weld·a double weld should be used. For all heavier IOads a double Heavier loads use single and double V welds-up to 5/8~ single, up to
intermittent or a double continuous weld is to be preferred as no l" double-gap and toe 1/16" for all welds. '
bending in the weld is present
Extra heavy loads and all code welds use single or double U-welds.
fillet weld normally 1-1/2 times the plate thickness. For light loads For all U welds gap and toe 3/32". use groove dimension.s given
the fillet is same as the plate thickness and for heavier loads twice under code welding.
the plate thickness.
Examples:
Heavy loads use single or double V weld with 55" angle and 1/16' for
gap and toe. Single V up to 5/8" plate and double up to l • pla)e. 1/m?&s\\>):' ?ill/At&~
Heavier welds and all code welds use single or double U welds. For all U Single bull Single V butt Single U bull
welds gap and toe 3/32". Use the dimensions given under code welding, No bevel 30" bevel Groove code std.

Examples: zw4~~ ~ ~
Double butt Double V bull Double U butt
No bevel _30" bevel Groove code std.

Single fillet Single V Single U Z?W~

T weld Tweld Single V butt Single U butt
Welded both sides Welded both sides

Double fillet Double V Double U
Plug Weld: Use only where point of welding is not otherwise accessible.
Diameter of hole at least l-l;/2 times the thickness of the plate and
countersunk. Holes three times the thickness of plate but not fess
than l/2' requires no countersinking: Specify as required: Hole
diameter, Csk, location and distance of welds, and grind.
Lap Welds: Single lap welds use very light loads only-for all heavier
loads use double lap weld and make fillets 1-1/2 times the plate.
thickness to avoid concentration of stress in the weld.
Specify: single or double-size of fillet-continuous-staggered--
intermittent-double inte_rmittent.
Examples:

Examples:

V&A Wff/4 wu/1,)M/#M Single lap weld Double lap weld

_J l-01A. _.J l-e1A.
Plug weld Plug weld
Grind finish
 Welding Conventions 329

llem 2. cont. I WELDING INSTRUCTIONS Item 3. CODE WELDING GROOVES

Edge Welds: Do not use for loads. Edge welds are only used'to make
tight. In. many cases seam weld can be u_sed instead. Up to 3/16"
plates no bevel is required, 1/4· to 7/16" plates use a 30° bevel
over full thickness of the plates, 112· and heall1er 30°bevel is used
over 3/4 of plate thickness. Specify: size of weld (the size is equal to
the width of the weld)-continuous-intermittent-grind as required
Examples:
,&o ~o

I I J,OF PLATE
Edge weld Edge weld Edge weld
•up to 3/16" plates 1/4 • to 7 /16· plates 1;2· plate and up
Single butt weld Single tee weld

--------

Item 2. COl!t. I WELDING INSTRUCTIONS

I
Strength of Welds (non code): Permissible unit stress for fillet welds
made with coated welding rod is 14,000 lbs. per square inch, taking
into consideration that practically every fillet weld is subject to shear.

The following table gives safe working values for fillet welds:

Size of fillet Load in lbs. per lineal inch

1/8· ............................................. 1250
3/16" ............................................. 1875
1/4· ............................................. 2500
5/16" ............................................. 3125
3/8" ............................................. 3750 Oouble butt we Id Double tee weld
1/2' ............................................. 5000
5/8" ............................................. 6250
3/4· ............................................. 7500

Calculated length of weld should be increased 1/4" for starting and

stopping ol the arc.

For welds with no shear present the above values can be increased to:
16.000 lbs. per square inch for tension, and
18.700 lbs. per square inch for compression.

Butt welds and all welds employing a groove and having 100 percent
penetration are considered of the same size as the plate even if weld
is built up higher since the additional material is not adding to the
strength of the weld.
APPENDIX

PRICING OF STEEL PLATE

1. Mill Carbon-steel-plate Extras (in Dollars per 100 Drawing quality 0.35
· Pounds) •specified grain size (McQuaid-Ehn test) . O. 90
•Forging quality. · 0. 80
(Courtesy Inland Steel Company-Jan. 1956) • Includes extras for killed steel or for any minimum
specified silicon up to 0.15 %, inclusive, or any maxi-
a. Item Quantity Extras mum specified silicon over 0.10 to 0.30%, inclusive.
$/100 lb d. Specification Extras
10,000 lb or over None The Collowing extras, applicable to specifications
Under 10,000 lb to 6000 lb, incl. 0.10 listed under this caption or to equivalent specifications,
Under 6000 lb to 4000 lb 0.20. include the classification extras Quality and Chemical
Under 4000 lb to 2000 lb 0.50 Requirement, but no other extras, unless otherwise
Under 2000 lb to 1000 lb 1.00 specified.
Under 1000 lb 1.50
b. Classification Extras ASTM Specification A-201, ASME SA-201,
$/100 lb or Equivalent
(1) Carbon-steel plates subject to chemical-
composition limits or ranges None Grade A Grade B
(2) Carbon-steel plates subject to physical Fire- Fire-
requirements (melt test only) 0. 05 Thickness Flange box Flange box
(3) Carbon-steel plates subject to ladle chem- 1½" and under 1.20 1.25 1.20 1.25
istry (carbon and/or manganese, phos- Over l½" to 2", incl. 1.35 1.40 1.35 1.40
phorus, and sulfur) and to physical re- ~ver 2" to 3", incl. 1.45 1.45
quirements in qualities lower than "flange
grade" 0 .10 ASTM Specification A-212, ASME SA-212,
c. Quality Extras or Equivalent
The Collowing quality extras contain the applicable
classification extras listed in item b above. Grade A Grade B
$/100 lb Fire- Fire-
Hot pressing steel (not boiler flange steel) 0.20 Thickness Flange box Flange box
Cold pressing or cold flanging steel (not 1½" and under 1.20 1.25 1.20 1.25
boiler flange steel) 0.25 Over 1½" to 2", incl. 1.35 1.40 1.35 1.40
Flange steel, ASTM A-285 or equivalent 0.40 •over2"to3",incl. 1.45 1.55
Ordinary firebox steel, ASTM A-285 or • Includes extra for heat treating test specimens.
equivalent 0.50
Locomotive flange steel 0.55 When material is required to be normalized or annealed,
Locomotive firebox steel 0.65 the extra shown under heat-treatment and surCace-
330
 Pricing of Steel Plate 331
finish extras shall apply in addition to the specification 2. Mill-Gos-cutting Extras per Linear Foot of Cutting
extra, which in the case of plates over 2" in thickness
shall be reduced by $0.05 per 100 lb. (Courtesy Inland Steel Company-May 1953)
e. Length Extras-All Plates, Rectangular or Otherwise
$/l00lh Extras, Extras,
8'0" or over up to published limit of length, Thickness, $ per Linear Thickness. $ per Linear
hut not over 50'0" None Inches Foot of Cut Inches Foot of Cut
Under 8'0" to 5'0", incl. 0.10 1 or under 0.37 3¼ 0.61
Under 5'0" to 3'0", incl. 0. 20 l¾ 0.38 3% 0.63
Under 3'0" to 2'0", incl. 0.30 l¼ 0.39 3½ 0.65
Under 2'0" to l'0", incl. 0.50 1% 0.40 3% 0.67
Under l'0" to 6" 2.00 I½ 0.41 3¾ 0.69
Over 50'0" to 60'0", incl. 0 .10 1% 0.42 3½ 0. 71
Over 60'0" to 80'0", incl. 0.30 l¾ 0.43 4 0.73
f. Width and Thickness Extras, Dollars per 100 Pounds l½ 0.44 4¾ 0.75
The size extras in' Tables I and II also apply to 2 0.45 4¼ 0.77
plates ordered to weight per square foot on the basis 2¾ 0.46 4% 0.79
of equivalent thicknesses in the ranges listed below. 2¼ 0.47 4½ 0.81
When plates are specified with the greater dimension 2% 0.48 4¾ 0.85
at right angles to the direction of rolling, this dimen- 2½ 0.49 5 0.89
sion shall be considered as the width, and the extra 2% 0.51 5¼ 0.93
figured accordingly. 2¾ 0.53 5% 0.97
2½ 0.55 5½ 0.99
3 0.57 5¾ 1.03
Tobie I. Sheared, Gos-cut, and Universal Mill 3¾ 0.5\ 6 1.07
Edge Plates
Thickness, Inch"8 Plates ordered to a maximum of carbon exceeding
'Over 0.39 % or a minimum of 0.25 % carbon together with a
¼ to ¾e % to H l to U1i manganese content of over 1.00% require edge treat-
Under ¾a, to¾, ½, to I, l½, to 3,
Width, Inch.,,. ii Exel. Exel. Exel. Exel. Incl. Incl. ment. The extra for such edge treatment is $1.50 per
•Over 8 to 12, incl. I.SS 1.35 1.20 1.10 0.95 0.95 1.00 100 lb to he assessed in addition to the foregoing gas-
•Over'l2to24,incl. I.SO 1.30 I.IS I.OS 0.90 0.90 0.95 cutting rates.
Over 24 to 30, incl. 1.40 1.20 I.OS 0.90 0. 75 0. 75 0.80
Over 30 to 36, incl. 1.25 l. OS 0.90 0. 75 0.60 0.65 0. 70 3. Mill Circular- and Sketch-plate Extras
Over 36 to 48, incl. 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.65 0.50 O.SS 0.60
Over 48 to 60, incl. LOS 0.85 0.65 0.50 0.30 0.40 0.45
Over60to80,inol." 1.00 0.65 0.45 0.30 0.10 0.25 0.30 (Courtesy Inland Steel Company-May 1953)
Over80to90,incl. 1.00 0.60 0.40 0.25 None 0.15 0.20
Over90to96,incl. 0.75 0.50 0.35 0.15 0.25 0.30 Circular plates 35%
1 Add 0.65 per 100 lb to all extras shown above £or plates over l½" Semicircular plates 35 %
thick unless killed steel is speci.6.ed or implied.
• Maximum length limits for side shearing in theee widths: Sketch plates furnished to a radius 35 %
Over 8" to 12", incl., but not over¾." thick, incl.-120" Regular sketch plates with not more than four
Over 12" to 24", excl., but not over H" thick, incl.-240" straight edges 25 %
Over 12" to 24", excl., and over½" to¾." thick, incl.-180''
Irregular sketch plates with more than four straight
edges 40%
All sheared-edge plates longer than the foregoing ,4. Warehouse Bose Prices and Extras
shearing limits or over ¾" thick must be gas cut to
size at the listed gas-cutting extras. {Courtesy J. T. Ryerson and Son, Inc.,
Chicago, 111.-April 14, 1955)

Tobie II. Mill-edge Plates a. Base Price of Hot-rolled Carbon Steels

Thickness, Inches $/100 lb
¼to" ·716 %to Structural shapes 5.99
Under ½ 6 , to %, :J.i, Junior beams 6.64
Width, Inches ¼ Exel. Exel. Exel. ½ Stair channels 6.64
Over 30 to 36, incl. L.10 0.90 0.75 0.60 0.45 Bars and bar shapes 5.81
Over 36 to 48, incl. 1.10 0.90 0.70 0.55 0.40 Hot-rolled strip 5.92
Over 48 to 60, incl. 1.05 0.85 0.65 0.50 0.30 Plates, hot-rolled 5.82
Over 60 to 72, incl. 1.00 0.65 0.45 0.30 0.10 Sheets, hot-rolled 5.68
h. Base Price of Cold-finished Carbon Bars (Rounds,
Squares, Flats, Hexagons)
g. Killed-steel Extra* $/100 lb
Silicon-killed steel, aluminum-killed Chicago 7.25
steel, or steel killed by any deoxidiz-
ing agent, specified or implied $0. 65 per 100 lb
* Extra does not apply to forging quality or speci-
fied-grain-size quality (l\IcQuaid-Ehn test).
332 Pricing of Steel Plate
c. Hot-rolled Carbon Steel Universal Mill Plates
Quantity Extras $/100 lb l" thick and lighter Use shearing schedule above
30,000 lb and over Base l½" thick and heavier,
20,000 to 29,999 lb 0.20 cut under 5'0" long See structural schedule
10,000 to 19,999 lb 0.40 l}s" thick and heavier,
5,000 to 9,999 lb 0.60 cut 5'0" and longer No charge for cutting
2,000 to 4,999 lb 0.70
1,000 to 1,999 lb 1.00 f. Plate Flame-cutting Charges
400 to 999 lb 1.95
100 to 399 lb 3.70 Extras per Linea~ Foot
Under 100 lb 6.70 Addi. Footage
d. Cold-finished Carbon Bars Thickness, First 100 Ft over 100 Ft
Quantity Extras $/100 lb Inches of Any Item of Any Item
2000 lb and over Base ½6 $0.19 $0.10
1000 lb to 1999 lb O. 50 }:,. 0.19 0.10
500 lb to 999 lb 1.50 716 0.20 0.11
300 lb to 499 lb 3.35 ¾ 0.21 0.12
Item under 300 lb 4. 00 ½11 0.22 0.13
299 to 150 lb (total order) 7. 00 ½ 0.23 0.14
149 to 75 lb (total order) 12. 00 ½e 0.24 0.15
Under 75 lb (total order) . 17. 00 % 0.25 0.16
(Total order applies when the total weight of cold- ¾ . 0.26 0.17
finished carbon bars purchased in one day for shipment ½ 0.35 0.26
at one time to one destination falls within one of the 1 0.37 0.28
quantity ranges indicated.) l½ 0.38 0.29
e. Cutting Extras in Dollars per 100 Pounds l¾ 0.39 0.30
l¾ 0.40 0.31
l½ 0.41 0.32
1% 0.42 0.33
Rectangles l¾ 0.43 0.34
To Length Only 2 0.45 0.36
2% 0.47 0.38
To 8' 5' to 2½ 0.49 0.40 i!
Length and under Under Under Under Under 2¾ 0.53 0.44 tJ
Only over 8' 5' to 3' 3' to 2' 2' to l' l' 3 0.57 0.48
t
_--~
:!1'6 to l" 0.00 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.75 1.55 3}:,. 0.61 0.52 J:
thick* 3½ 0.65 0.56 -~
To Width and Length,
½ 6 11 to I" Thick*
To Width 6" Wide Over 6" Over 10"
3¾
4
4½
0.69
0.73
0.81
0.60
0.64
0.72
~,
..
.!11
and and to 10", to 24", Over 24" 5 0.89 0.80
Lengtht under Incl. Incl. Wide 5½ 0.99 0.90 l~
Over 12'0" I.SO 0.75 0.60 0.45 6 1.07 0.98
5'0" to 12'0" 0.60 0.40 0.30 0.25 6½ 1. 16 1.07
Under 5' to 7 1.24 1.15
3', incl. 0.70 0.45 0.35 0.30 1½ 1.33 1.24
Under 3' to 8 1.46 1.37
2', incl. 0.85 0.55 0.50 0.50 9 1. 73 1.64
Under 2' to 10 2.01 1.92
l', incl. 1. 20 0. 80 0. 75 0. 75
Under 1'0" 2.80 1.85 1.80 1. 75 Charges are based on linear feet for each item.
* Over I" thick-see flame-cutting extras, but on Fractions of an inch are charged at the next full inch.
high-carbon and abrasion-resisting use flame-cutting The minimum charge is $1.50 net per item.
extras on items over ½" thick. Note: All other mill extras apply to warehouse stocks.
t This schedule also covers stock-length plates
sheared to width only.

Sketch Plates
For simple sketches with straight sides and no
re-entrant cuts, add 0.10 cwt to above width .
and length extras.
(A simple sketch is a rectangle modified by only
one additional cut.)
 Pricing of Steel Plate 333
g. Flange-quality and Firebox-quality Steel Plates
(Courtesy J. T. Ryerson and Sons, Inc., 1954-55 stock list and reference hook)
Hot Rolled-Open Hearth
Tensile Strength 55,000 to 65,000 psi
Conforms to ASME SA-285, grade C
ASTM A-285 (latest) grade 't
I

Wt Size and Quality Stock Wt Size and Quality Stock

Size, per Ft Extra ($/lOOlh) Lengths, Size, per Ft, Extra ($/100 lb) Lengths,
In. Lb Flange Frrebox Ft In. Lb Flange Firebox Ft
l/4x 9/16x
30 25.50 1.35 1.60 8-30 30 57.38 1.20 8-30
36 30.60 1.20 1.45 8-30 36 68.85 1.05 8-30
42 35.70 1.20 1.45 8-30 42 80.33 1.05 8-30
48 40.80 1.20 1.45 8-30 48 91.80 1.05 8-30
54 45.90

~:::
1.05 1.30 8-30 54 103.30 0.90 8-30
60 51.00 1.05 1.30 8-30 60 114.80 0.90 8-30
72 61.20 0.90 1.15 8-30 72 137.70 0.75 8-30
84 71.40 0.90 1.15 8-30 84 160.65 0.75 8-30
96 81.60 0.95 1.20 8-30 96 183.60 0.80 8-30
120 102.00 1.30 1.55 8-30 5/Sx
5/16x 30 63.75 0.95 1.20 8-30
30 31.88 1.20 1.45 8-30 36 76.50 0.80 1.05 8-30
36 38.25 1.05 1.30 8-30 42 89.25 0.80 1.05 8-30
42 44.63 1.05 1.30 8-30 48 102.00 0.80 1.05 8-30
48 51.00 1.05 1.30 8-30 60 127.50 0.65 0.90 8-30
54 57.38 0.90 1.15 8-30 72 153.00 0.50 0.75 8-30
60 63.75 0.90 1.15 8-30 84 178.50 0.50 0.75 8-30
72 76.50 0.75 1.00 8-30 96 204.00 0.55 0.80 8-30
84 89.25 0.75 1.00 8-30 120 255.00 1.15 8-30
96 102.00 0.80 1.05 8-30 3/4x
120 127.50 1.15 1.40 8-30 30 76.50 0.95 1.20 8-30
3/8x 36 91.80 0.80 1.05 8-30
30 38.25 1.10 1.35 8-30 42 107 .10 0.80 1.05 8-30
36 45.90 0.95 1.20 8-30 48 122.40 0.80 1.05 8-30
42 53.55 0.95 1.20 8-30 60 153.00 0.65 0.90
48 61.20 8-30
0.95 1.20 8-30 72 183.60 0.50 0.75 8-30
54 68.85 0.80 1.05 8-30 84 214.20 0.50 0.75
60 8-30
76.50 0.80 1.05 8-30 96 244.80 0.55 8-30.
72 91.80 0.65 0.90 8-30 120 306.00 1.15 8-30
84 107.10 0.65 0.90 8-30 7/Sx
96 122.40 0.70 0.95 8-30 30 89.25 0.95 1.20 8-30
120 153.00 1.05 1.30 8-30 36 107.10 0.80 1.05
7/16x 8-30
48 142.80 1.05 8-30
30 44.63 I.IO 1 35 8-30 60 178.50 0.65 0.90 8-30
36 53.55 0.95 1.20 8-30 72 214.20 0.50 0.75 8-30
42 62.48 0.95 1.20 8-30 120 357.00 1.15
48 71.40 8-30
0.95 1.20 8-30 lx
54 80.33 0.80 1.05 8-30 30 102.00 0.95 1.20
60 89.25 0,80 8-30
1.05 8-30 36 122.40 0.80 1.05 8-30
72 107.10 0.65 0.90 8-30 1
\ 48 163.20 1.05
84 8-30
124.95 0.65 0.90 8-30 60 204.00 0.65 0.90 8-30
96 142.80 0.70 0.95 8-30 72 244.80 0.50 0.75 8-30
120 178.50 1.05 1.30 8-30 84 285.60 0.50, 8-30
l/2x 96 326.40 0.55 8-30
30 51.00 0.95 1.20 8-30 120 408.00 1.15 8-30
36 61.20 0.80 1.05 8-30 11/Sx
42 71.40 0.80 1.05 8-30 72 275 40 0.50 30
48 81.60 0.80 1.05 8-30 ll/4x
54 91.80 0.65 0.90 8-30 72 306.00 0.50 30
60 102.00 0.65 0.90 8-30 ll/2x
72 122.40 0.50 0.75 8-30 72 367.20 0.50 30
84 142.80 0.50 0.75 8-30 13/4x
96 163.20 0.55 0.80 8-30 72 428.40 1.50 30
120 204.00 0.90 1.15 8-30
/

...,,, .~·:, ~· ;

l
I

l..
;~~;i:!Mftt'ttifitttrfttlr:t:#\tl:ttWi6nW@fj tij'@j lfil···. 113r~,,;;,J,;. ,;; j
 APPENDIX

ALLOWABLE STRESSES

Item 1. Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for Carbon and Low-alloy Pipe and Tubes of Welded Manufacture,
in Pounds per Square Inch
(Extracted from the 1956 Edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels,
with Permission of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
(Joint efficiencies used for preparing this table are: electric-resistance welded-85%, lap welded-80%, butt welded-60%.)
Speci-
Specifi- fled For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding Deg F
cation Nominal Min - 20 to
Number Grade Composition Weld Notes Tensile 650 700 750 800 850
SA-53 Carbon steel Lap (1) 45,000 -9000
- - -8800
--- - - - - - - - 900
8200 - - -950- -1000
-
SA-53 A Carbon steel Resist. (1)(2) 48,000 10,200 9000 9100 7900 6700 5500
SA-53 B Carbon steel Resist. (1)(2) 60,000 12,750 12,200 11,000 9200 7350 5500
SA-72 Wrought iron Lap 40,000 8000 7800 7300
SA-72 Wrought iron Butt 40,000 6000 5850 5500
SA-135 A Carbon steel Resist. (2)(3) 48,000 10,200 9900 9100 7900 6700 5500
SA-135 B Carbon steel Resist. (2)(3) 60,000 12,750 12,200 11,000 9200 7350 5500
SA-178 A Low-carbon steel Resist. (2)(3) 10,000 9700 8950 7800 6650 5500 3800 2100
SA-178 B 0. H. iron Resist. 8500 8300 7750
SA-178 C Medium-carbon steel Resist. (2)(3) 60,000 12,750 12,200 11,000 9200 7350 5500 3800 2100
SA-226 Low-carbon steel Resist. (2)(3) 10,000 9700 8950 7800 6650 5500 3800 2100
SA-250 Tl Carbon-½ molybdenum Resist. 55,000 11,700 11,700 11,700 11,450 11,200 10,650 8500 5300
SA-250 Tla Carbon-½ molybdenum Resist. 60,000 12,750 12,750 12,750 12,250 11,700 10,650 8500 5300
SA-250 Tlb Carbon-½ molybdenum Resist. 53,000 11,250 11,250 11,250 11,050 10,850 10,650 8500 5300
SA-333 C Carbon steel Resist. 55,000 11,700
SA-333 3 3:i,i nickel Resist. 65,000 13,800
SA-333 5 5 nickel Resist. 65,000 13,800
SA-334 C Carbon steel Besist. 55,000 11,700
SA-334 3 3½ nickel Resist. 65,000 13,800
SA-334 5 5 nickel Resist. 65,000 13,800
Noles: The stress values in this table may be interpolated to determine values for intermediate temperatures.
(1) These stress values permitted for open-hearth and electric-furnace steels only.
(2) For service temperatures above 850 F it is recommended that killed steels containing not less than 0.10% residual
silicon be used. Killed steels which have been deoxidized with large amounts of aluminum and rimmed steels may have creep
and stress-rupture properties in the temperature range above 850 F, which are somewhat less than those on which the values
in the above table are based.
(3) Only (silicon) killed steel shall be used above 900 F.
335
336 Allowable Stresses
Item 2. Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for Nonferrous Metals, in Pounds per Square Inch
Aluminum and Aluminum-alloy Products
{Extracted from the 1956 Edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels,
with Permission of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
Specified Minimum
Specifi- Tensile Yield For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding Deg F
cation Strength, Strength,
Number Alloy Temper psi psi Notes 100 150 200 250 I 300 350 400
Sheet and Plate
SB-178 996A 0 9500 2500 1650 1650 1600 1450 1250 1200 1050
H112 10,000 4000 (1)(2) 2500 2150 1950 1700 1500 1300 1100
Hl2 11,000 9000 {l) 2750 2550 2350 2100 1900 1600 1400
Hl4 12,000 10,000 (1) 3000 3000 2900 2700 2350 2000 1600
SB-178 990A 0 11,000 3500 2350 '2350 2300 2100 1850 1600 1300
Hll2 12,000 5000 {1)(3) 3000 2800 2550 2250 2000 1700 1400
Hl2 14,000 11,000 (1) 3500 3400 3150 2900 2650 2400 -2100
Hl4 16,000 a,ooo- (1) 4000 3900 3650 3300 3000 2700 2200
SB-178 MIA 0 14,000 5000 3350 3150 2900 2700 2400 2100 1800
Hll2 14,500 6000 (1)(4) 3600 3250 3000 2800 2500 2200 1900
Hl2 17,000 12,000 (1) 4250 4000 3800 3600 3300 3000 2650
Hl4 20,000 17,000 (1) 5000 4850 4700 4400 4000 3500 3100
SB-178 Clad MIA 0 13,000 4500 3000 2900 2700 2500 2200 2000 1700
Hll2 14,500 6000 (1)(4) 3600 3200 3000 2800 2500 2200 1900
Hl2 16,000 11,000 (1) 4000 3800 3600 3400 3100 2800 2500
Hl4 19,000 16,000 {1) 4800 4600 4400 4200 3800 3400 2900
SB-178 MGllA 0 23,000 8500 5650 5650 5650 5500 4650 3850 3150
Hll2 23,000 9000 (1) 5750 5750 5750 5500 4650 3850 3150
H32 28,000 21,000 (1) 7000 7000 7000 6550 5800 5050 4300
H34 32,000 25,000 (1) 8000 8000 8000 7400 6550 5600 4700
SB-178 Clad MGllA 0 22,000 8000 5300 5300 5300 52.00 4400 3700 3000
Hll2 22,000 8500 (1) 5500 5500· 5500 5200 4400 3700 3000
H32 27,000 20,000 (1) 6800 6800 6800 6300 5600 4900 4100
H34 31,000 24,000 (1) 7800 7800 7700 7200 6300 5400 4600
SB-178 GIA 0 18,000 6000 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000 3350 2800
Hll2 20,000 8000 (1) 5000 5000 5000 4900 4500 3700 2800
H32 22,000 16,000 (1) 5500 5500 5500 5350 4800 3800 2800
H34 25,000 20,000 (1) 6250 6250 6200 6050 5400 .3950 2800
SB-178 GR20A
i112} 25,000 9500 6250 6250 6200 6000 5400 4650 3900
H32 31,000 23,000 (1) 7750 7750 7650 7100 6400 5600 4800
H34 34,000 26,000 (1) 8500 8500 8400 7700 6900 6100 5300
SB-178 GSllA T4 30,000 16,000 (5) 7500 7200 7000 6700 6400 5600 4000
T6 42,000 35,000 (5) 10,500 10,200 9900 9400 7900 6200 4400
T6 welded 24,000 6000 5900 5700 5400 5000 4200 3200
SB-178 Clad GSllA T4 27,000 14,000 (5) 6800 6500 6200 6000 5800 5100 3600
T6 38,000 32,000 (5) 9500 9200 9000 8500 7200 5600 4000
T6 welded 24,000 6000 5900 5700 5400 5000 4200 3200
Bars, Rods, and Shapes
SB-211 GSUA T6 42,000 35,000 (7) 8400 8100 7700 7100 6000 4800 3400
SB-211 CG42A T4 62,000 40,000 (7) 10,000 9700 9400 9000 7800 6200 4600
SB-211 CS41A T6 65,000 55,000 (7) 13,000 12,200 11,600 10,400 7200 4400 3000
SB-273 GSUA T6 38,000 35,000 (5) 9500 9200 9000 8500 7200 5600 4000
T6 welded 24,000* 6000 5900 5700 5400 5000 4200 3200
SB-273 CG42A T4 60,000 40,000 (5)(6) 15,000 14,300 13,700 12,000 9100 5700 3950
Bolting Materials
SB-211 GSllA T6 42,000 35,000 (5) 8400 8200 7900 7500 6300 4900 3300
T6 welded 24,000* ... 4800 4700 4600 4400 4000 3400 2600
SB-211 CG42A T4 62,000 40,000 (7) 10,000 9700 9400 9000 7800 6200 4600
SB-211 CS41A T6 65,000 55,000 (7) 13,000 12,200 11,600 10,400 7200 4400 3000·
 Allowable Stresses 337
Item 2. Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for Nonferrous Metals, in Pounds per Square Inch (Continued)
Aluminum and Aluminum-alloy Products (Continued)
Specified Minimum
Specifi- Tensile Yield For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding Deg F
cation Strength, Strength,
Number Alloy Temper psi psi Notes, 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Pipe and Tube

\
SB-274 0 14,000 5000 3350 3150 2900 2700 2400 2100 1800
SB-274
SB-234}
SB-274
SB-274
rA}
and
Clad
MIA
Hll2
Hl4
Hl8
14,500
20,000
27,000
6000
17,000
24,000
(1)
(1)
(1)
3600
5000
6750
3250
4850
6400
3000
4700
6050
2800
4400
5700
2500 2200
4000 3500
5250 4400
1900
3100
3500
SB-274 GSlOA T42 17,000 10,000 (5) 4250 4200 4200 4150 4050 3300 2100
TS 22,000 16,000 (5) 5500 5100 4900 4600 4150 3300 2100
T6 32,000 25,000 (5) 7600 7200 6550 4800 3300 2100
SB-274 GSUA T4 26,000 16,000 (5) 8~
65 0 6200 6000 5800 5600 4900 3500
SB-234} {T6 38,000 35,000 (5) 950 9200 9000 8500 7200 5600 4000
SB-274 T6 welded 24,000* 6000 5900 5700 5400 5000 4200 3200
Forgings
SB-247 MIA F 14,000 5000 3350 3150 2900 2700 2400 2100 1800
SB-247 CS41A T4 55,000 30,000 (5) 13,800 12,800 12,000 11,000 10,200 5750 3900
T6 65,000 55,000 (5) 16,200 15,200 14,400 14,000 11,300 5750 3900
SB-247 GSllA T6 38,000 35,000 (5) 9500 9200 9000 8500 7200 5600 4000
T6 welded 24,000* 6000 5900 5700 5400 5000 4200 3200
SB-247 GSUB T6 36,000 30,000 (5) 9000 8400 7900 7300 6100 4700 3200
* Strength of full-section tensile specimen required to qualify welding procedures.
Noles:
(1) For welded construction, stress values for O material shall be used.
(2) For nominal thicknesses not greater than 0.500 in., the stress values for Hl4 material may be used; for nominal thick-
nesses of 0.501 to 1.000 in., the values for Hl2 material may be used; for thicker material the values listed shall be used.
(3) For nominal thicknesses not greater than 2.000 in.; for thicker material the stress values for O material shall be used.
(4) For nominal thicknesses not greater than 0.500 in., the stress values for Hl2 material may be used; for thicker material
the values listed shall be used.
(5) The stress values given for this material are not applicable when either welding or thermal cutting are employed.
(6) For nominal thicknesses not less than 0.25 in.
 w
w
O:>

Item 2. ~h\aximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for Nonferrous Metals, in Pounds per Square Inch (Continued)
Copper and Copper Alloys ~
Specified Minimum
0
~
Te1111ile Yield For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding Deg F Q
Material and Specification Strength, Strength, CT
psi 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 ii"
Number Condition Size, in. psi
Copper ....
(/)
..,
SB-II Platea Annealed 30,000 10,000• 6700 6700 6500 6300 5000 3800 2500 Cl)
Ill
SB-12 Rods Annealed 30,000 10,000* 6700 6700 6500 6300 5000 3800 2500 Ill
SB-13 Seamless boiler tubes Annealed 30,000• 9000• 6000 6000 5900 5800 5000 3800 2500 Cl)
Ill
SB-42 Pipe Annealed 30,000• 9000• 6000 6000 5900 5800 5000 3800 2500
SB-42 Pipe Light drawn 36,000• 30,000* 9000 9000 8700 8300 8000 5000 2500
SB-42 Pipe Hard drawn 45,ooo• 40,000• 11,300 ll,300 11,000 10,500 8000 5000 2500
SB-75 Seamless tubes Annealed 30,000• 9000• 6000 6000 5900 5800 5000 3800 2500
SB-75 Seamless tnbes Light drawn 36,000• 30,000• 9000 9000 8700 8300 8000 5000 2500
SB-75 Seamless tubes Hard drawn 45,000• 40,000• 11,300 11,300 11,000 10,500 8000 5000 2500
SB-111 Seamless condenser tubes Light drawn 36,000* 30,000• 9000 9000 8700 8300 8000 5000 2500
SB-lll Seamless condenser tubes Hard drawn 45,000• 40,ooo• 11,300 11,300 11,000 10,500 8000 5000 2500
SB-152 Plate steel, strip and bar Annealed 30,000 10,000• 6700 6700 6500 6300 5000 3800 2500
phosphorus,
deoxidized
Red bra88
SB-43 Pipe Annealed 40,000• 12,0.00• 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 6000 3000 2000
SB-Ill Seamless condenser tubes Annealed 40,000• 12.000• 8000 8000 8000 9000 8000 6000 3000 2000
Admiralty, A, B, C, D
SB-111 Seamless condermer tubes Annealed 45,ooo• 15,000* 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 8000 5000 3000
SB-171 Tube plates Annealed 45,000 15,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 8000 5000 3000

( Aluminum bra88, B, C, D
SB-111 Seamless condenser tubes Annealed
Naval bra88
50,000• 18,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 7500 3000 2000

SB-171 Tube plates Annealed 50,000 20,000 12,500 12,500 12,000 11,200 10,500 7500 2000
Muntz metal
SB-111 Seamless condenoer tubes Annealed 50,000* 20.000• 12,500 12,500 12,000 11,200 10,500 7500 2000
SB-171 Tube plates Annealed 50,000 20,000 . 12,500 12,500 12,000 11,200 10,500 7500 2000
Copper-nickel, 70-30
SB-111 Seamless condenser tubes Annealed 52,000 18,000 12,000 11,600 11,300 11,000 10,800 10,600 10,300 10,l(H! 9900 9800 9600 9500 9400
SB-171 Tube plates Annealed 50,000 20,000 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,200 12,000 11,700 11,300 11,000 10,500 10,000 9500 9000
Copper-nickel, 80-20
SB-111 Seamless condenser tubes Annealed 45,000 16,000 10,700 10,600 10,500 10,400 10,300 10,100 9900 9600 9300 8900 8400 7700 7000
Copper-nickel, 90-10
SB-111 Seamless condenser tubes Annealed 40,000• 15,ooo• 10,000 10,000 9800 9500 9300 9000 8700 8300 7500 6700 6000
Aluminum bronze
SB-111 Seamless condenser tubes Annealed 50.000• 19,000 12,500 12,400 12,200 11,900 11,600 10,000 6000 4000 2000
88-171 · Tube plates Annealed 90,000 36,000 22,500 22,500 21,000 19,500 18,000 16,500 15,000 13,500 12,000 10,500 9000 7500 6000
Aluminum bronze D
SB-169 Plate, oheet Annealed 70,000 30,000 17,500 17,500 16,800 16,000 15,500 15,000 14,500 12,000 10,000
Copper-silicon, A, C
SB-96 Plate, eheet (1) Annealed 50,000 18,000 12,000 12,000 11,900 11,700 10,000 5000
SB-98 Rods (1) So(t 52,000 15,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 5000
SB-98 Roda (1) Hair hard 70,000 38,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 10,000
Copper-ailioon B
SB-98 Rods (1) Sort 40,000 12,000 8000 8000 8000 8000 7000 5000
SB-98 Roda (1) Hal( hard 55,000 20,000 11,000 11,000 11,000 11,000 10,000 8000
BOLTING MATERIALS (3)
Copper
SB-12 Rod Sort 30,000 10,000• 2500 2500 2500 2400 2200 2100 2000
'I
I·
: ',.i,./•.~.2~~ ::, '::-·~ ~·ri•,;.,.
1
i
 Item 2. Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for Nonferrous Metals, in Pounds per Square lnc:h (Continued)
Copper and Copper Alloys (Continued)
Specllled Minimum
Tensile Yield For Metal Temperatures Not Ex.,_.lng Deg F
Material and Specification Strength, Strength
Number Condition Size, in. psi piu ' 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

Copper-silicon, A, D
SB-98 Rod (1) Soft 52,000 15,000 3800 3800 3800 3800 3800 3500
Quarter bard 55,000 24,000 6000 6000 5900 5800 5600 5500
Half bard 70,000 38,000 9500 9500 9300 9000 8800 8500
Copper-silicon B
SB-98 Rod (1) Soft All 40,000 12,000 3000 3000 !1000 3000 2900 2800
Bolt temper Up to½, incl 85,000 55,000 13,800 13,800 13,500 13,100 12,700 12,300
Over ½ to 1, incl. 75,000 45,000 11,200 11,200 11,100 10,800 10,500 10,000
Over 1 to l½, incl. 75,000 40,000 10,000 10,000 9800 9600 9400 9000
Aluminum bronze
SB-150 Alloy No. 1 Up to ½. incl. 80,000 40,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 9900 9800 9800 9700 9500 9400 9000 7500 6009 4500.
Over H to 1; incl. 75,000 37,500 9400 9200 9200 9100 9000 8900 8800 8600

-
9400 9300 7500 600~5QO
Over 1 72,000 35,000 8800 8800 8700 8600 8600 8500 8400 8300 8200 8000 7500 6000 500
SB-150 Alloy No. 2 ½ to 1, incl, 100,000 50,000 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500, 12,400 12,400 12,300 12,200 12,000 10,500 9000 7500 6000·
Over 1 to 2, incl. 90,000 45,000 11,200 11,200 11,200 11,200 11,200 11,200 11,100 11,000 10,800 10,500 9000 7500 6000
Over 2 to 4, incl. 85,000 42,500 10,600 10,600 10,600 10,600 10,600 10,500 10,500 10,400 10,200 10,000 9000 7500 6000
SB-150 Alloy No. 3 Up to ½, incl. 90,000 40,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 9900 9800 9700 9600 9500 7000
Over½ to l, incl. 75,000 35,000 8800 8800 8800 8700 8600 8600 8400 8300 7000
Over 1 to 2, incl. 70,000 32,000 8000 8000 7900 7800 7800 7600 7600 7400 7000 ::/
CASTING MATERIAL
SB-61(2) 34,000 6800 6800 6800 6800 6500 6000 5500 5000 4000 3300
Sll-62(2) 30,000 6000 6000 5800 5500 5000 4500 3500
* Expected vnluo, not included in specifications.
Noles:
(1) Copper-silicon alloys are not always suitable when exposed to certain media and high temperatures, particularly steam above 212 F. The user should satisfy himself that the alloy selected is satisfactory
for tho service for which it is to be used.
(2) In the absence of evidence that the casting is of high quality throughout, values not in excess of 80 % of th°"" given in the table shall be used. This is not intended to apply to valves and fittings made
to recognized standards.
~
f
0
tr
ii"
~
...
CD
1· "'"'CD
"'

I ~
 ) Item 2. Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for Nonferrous Metals, in Pounds per Square Inch (Continued) ...
w
0
Nickel and High-nickel Alloys
Yield
S,j!ooified Strength
For Metal Temperetures Not Exceeding Deg F ~
ensile (0.2 %
Material, Form, and Strenfl'lh, Oll'set), 0
Spooifi<l&tion Numbei: Condition PIil psi Not.ell 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 ~
Nickel 0
tr
Bara. rods, and ahapea
S 160 Hot or cold worked-annealed 55,000 15,000 10,000 <II
10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
SB-160
Bolting
Hot rolled or forged-hot finished 60,000 15,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 9500 8300 ........
C/1
SB-160 Hot or cold worked-annealed 55,000 15,000 3700 3700 3700 3700 3700 3700 (l)
SB-160
Pi§1 or tubing
Hot rolled or forged~hot finished (3) 60,000 15,000 3700 3700 3700 3700 2700 3400 "'"'
(l)
B-161 Seamleee--annealed 55,000
SB-161 Seamless-hard, atreee relieved 65,000
15,000
40,000
10,000
(1) 16,200
10,000
15,300
10,000
15,000
10,000
15,000
10,000
14,500
10,000 "'
SB-161 Seamlea8-11tress equalized 70,000 50,000 (1) 16,200 15,300 15,000 15,000 14,500
CondeDSer tubing
SB-163 Seaml--annealed 55,000 15,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
SB-163 Seam1888-iltress relieved 65,000 · 40,000 16,200 15,300 15,000 15,000 14,500
Plete, sheet, or strip
SB-162 Hot or cold rolled-annealed 55,000 15,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
SB-162 (plate only) Hot rolled-as rolled 55,000 20,000 13,300 13,300 13,300 13,300 12,500 11,500
Low-carbon Nickel
Bars, rods, and shape,,
SB-160 Hot or cold worked-annealed 50,000 10,000 6700 6400 6300 6200 6200 6200 6200 5'100 4500 3000 2000 1200
SB-160 Hot roll_ed or forged-hot finished 50,000 10,000 6700 6400 6300 6200 6200 6200 6200 5900 4500 3000 2000 1200
Bolting
SB-160 Hot worked or annealed 50,000 10.000 2500 2400 2300 2300 2300 2300 2300 2200 2100 2000 1800 1200
Pi!e or tubing
B-161 Seamleee-annealed 50,0CI0 12,000 8000 7700 7500 7500 7500 7500 7400 7200 4500 3000 2000 1200
SM61 Seamless-bard, streas relieved 60,000 30,000 (1) 15,000 14,200 13,800 13,500 13,500
CojtleDBer tubing
B-163 Seamleee-annealed 50,000 12,000 8000 7700 7500 7500 7500 7500 7400 7200 4500 3000 2000 1200
· SB-163 Seamless-atreee relieved 60,000 30,000 15,000 14,200 13,800 13,500 13,500 13,000 12,000 11,000 10,000
Plate, sheet, or atrip
SB-162 Hot or cold rolled-annealed 50,000 12,000 8000 7700 7500 7500 7500 7500 7400 7200 4500 3000 2000 1200
SB-162 (plete only) Hot rolled-as rolled 50,000 12,000 8000 7700 7500 7500 7500 17500 7400 7200 4500 3000 2000 1200
Nickel-coE,f..er
Bara, r , and shapes
SB-164 ~claBB A and B) Hot or cold worked-annealed 70,000 25,000 16,600 14,600 13,600 13,200 13,100 13,100 13,100 13,100 8000
SB-164 clBBB A only) Hot rolled or forged-hot finished 80,000 40,000 20,000 18,900 18,400 18,200 18,200 18,200 17,600 14,500 4000
Bolting
SB-164 (claBB A and B) Hot or cold worked-annealed 70,000 25,000 6100 5700 5200 5000 4900 4900 4900 4900 4700
SB-164 (claBB A only) Hot rolled or tor~ed-bot finished (3) 8500 8500 8500 8300 4000
Class A
ClaeB B
Cold drawn--as rawn !4l
Cold drawn-as drawn 4 5)
is) 80,000
90,000
85,000
40,000
70,000
50,000
10,000
17,400
12,400
9600
16,900
12,000
9400
16,200
11,500
9000
15,500
11,100
15,400
11,100
Pi§e or tubing
B-165 Seamless-annealed 70,000 28,000 17,500 16,500 15,500 14,800 14,700 14,700 14,700 14,500 8000
SB-165
SB-165
Seamless-hard, streBB relieved
Seaml888-11tr- equalized
85,000
85,000
55,000
65,000 p> 21,200
l) 21,200
20,200
20,200
19,500
19,500
19,200
19,200
19,200
19,200
Condenser tubing
SB-163 Seam lees-annealed 70,000 28,000 17,500 16,500 15,500 14,800 14,700 14,700 14,700 14,500 8000
SB-163 Seaml--treee relieved 85,000 55,000 21,200 20,200 19,500 19,200 19,200 19,200 18,500 15,000 (2)
Plate, sheet, or strip
SB-127 Hot or cold rolled--annealed 70,000. 28,000 17,500 16,500 15,500 14,800 14,700 14,700 · 14,700 14,500 8000
SB-127 (plate only) Hot rolled-as rolled 75,000 40,000 18,700 17,500 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 16,500 14,500 4000
Nickel-chromium-iron
Bars, rods, and shapes
SB-166 Hot or cold worked-annealed 80,000 30,000 20,000 18,600 18,000 18,000 18,000 18,000 17,500 17,000 16,000 7000 3000 2000
SB-166 Hot rolled or forged-hot finished 85,000 35,000 21,200 20,200 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 19,500 14,500 7200 5500
Bolting
SB-166 Hot or cold worked-annealed 80,000 30,000 7300 6900 6800 6800 6800 6800 6800 6500 6:100 6000 :1000 2000
SB-166 Hot rolled or forged-hot finished 85,000 35,000 8700 I 8500 8200 8000 7900 7900 7900 7700 7400 7300 7200 5500
Pi§e or tubing
B-167 Seamleaa-annealed 80,000 30,000 20,000 18,600 18,000 18,000 18,000 18,000 17,500 17,000 16,000 7000 3000 2000
Condeneer tubing
SB-163 Seamleee-annealed 80,000 30,000 20,000 18,600 18,000 18,000 18,000 18,000 17,500 17,000 16,000 7000 3000 2000
Plate, sheet, or strip
SB-168 Hot or cold rolled-annealed 80,000 30,000 20,000 18,600 18,000 18,000 18,000 18,000 17,500 17,000 16;000 7000 3000 2000
SB-168 (plate only) Hot rolled-as rolled 85,000 35,000 21,200 20,200 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 19,500 · 14,500 7200 5500
Nolu:
(!l Deeilll atreeees on pipe or tubi!'\l' are difficult to establish because of variation in cold work. Allowable working streee for this material is baaed upon SB-163, stress-relieved condenser tubing.
ma mum opera~ temperature is arb1traril1 set at 500 F.
Tho
(2~ 2000 psi at 9 0 F. Uae annealed condition above 800 F.
(3 Harder tempers oC material may be Wied for bolting materialsb but the deeif: should be baaed uw.n ■tr-es for the bot.-rolled or forged hot.-finiabed temper unlesa other specific data are availuble. The
ma,umum temperature or operation for harder-temper material baa een arbitrari { eiitablisbed at 500 . ·
l4) Safe operating temperature arbitrarily aet at 500 F maximum because or lae or data.
;~.
:·r,q,
i
 Allowable Stresses 341
Item 3. Typical Physical Properties of Materials
(Extracted from the 1956 Edition of the ASME Boiler and Pr~ssuieVessel Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels, with
Permission of the Publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
Thermal
Approx. ConductiYity, Thermal Specific
Weight, Melting 32 F-212 F, Expansion, Heat, Btu/
ASME lb per Range, Btu/sq ft/hr, 10-a in./in., lb/°F
Material Spec. No. cu in. OF °F/in. OF at 212F
Aluminum alloy 996A SB-178 0.098 1195-1220 1660 13.2(a) 0.23
990A SB-178 0.098 1190-1215 1540 13. l(a) 0.23
MIA SB-178 0.099 1190-1210 1340 12.9(a) 0.23
MGllA SB-178 0.098 1165-1205 1130 13. 3(a) 0.23
GR20A SB-178 0.097 1100-1200 960 13.2(a) 0.23
GSllA SB-178 0.098 1080-1205 1190 13.l(a) 0.23
Copper, deoxidized SB-11 and 111 0.323 1980 2352 9.8(b) 0.09
Red brass SB-111 and 43 0.316 1810-1880 1104 10.4(b) 0.09
Admiralty SB-111 and 171 0.308 1650-1720 768 ll .2(b) 0.09
Aluminum brass SB-111 0.301 1710-1780 696 10.3(b) 0.09
NaYal brass
Muntz metal
30% Cupronickel
20 % Cupronickel
SB-171
SB-171
SB-111 and 171
SB-111 and 171
0.304
0.303
0.323
0.323
1630-:-1650
1650-1660
2140-2260 .
2100-2200
804
852
204
240
l ll.8(b)
ll.6(b)
9. l(b)
9.3(b)
0.09
0.09
0.09.
0.09
10 % Cupronickel SB-111 0.323 2020-2100 324 9.5(b) 0.09
Copper-silicon (A, C, D) SB-96 and 98 0.308 1780-1880 252 10.0(b) 0.09
Copper-silicon (B) SB-98 0.316 1890-:-1940 396 9.9(b) 0.09
Aluminum bronze (D) SB-171 0.281 1850-1900 552 9.0 0.09
Aluminum bronze (E) SB-171 0.274 1900-1930 264. 0.09
Nickel and low-carbon nickel SB-162 0.321 2615-2635 420 7 .2(c) 0.13
Nickel-copper SB-127 0.319 2370-2460 180 7 .8(c) 0.13
Nickel-chromium-iron SB-168 0.300 2540-2600 104 6 .4(c) 0.11
Steel SA-30 0.279 460 6. 7(c)
(a) Thermal expansion per degree F from 68 F to 212 F.
(b) Thermal expansion per degree F .from 68 F to 572 F.
(c) Thermal expansion per degree F from 32 F to 212 F.
342 Allowable Stresses
Item 4. Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension
(Extracted from the 1956 Edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pres-
Material and Spec. For Metal Tempsratures
Specification Nominal Min -20 to
Number Grade Type Composition Tensile Notes 100 200 300 400 500 600 650
Plate Steels
SA-167 3 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1) 18,750 17,000 16,000 15,450 15,100 14,900 14,850
SA-167 3 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 18,750 16,650 15,000 13,650 12,500 11,600 11,200
SA-167 5 321 18 Cr-8 Ni-Ti 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA-167 6 347 18 Cr-8 Ni-Cb . 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 .14,900 14,850
SA-167 8 309 25 Cr-12 Ni 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,300 16,700 16,600 16,500 16,450
SA-167 10 310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (2) 18,750 18,750 18,500 18,200 17,700 17,200 16,900
SA-167 10 310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (3) 18,750 18,750 18,500 18,200 17,700 17,200 16,900
SA-167 11 316 18 Cr-10 Ni-2 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
SA-240 A 410 13 Cr 65,000 16,250 15,600 15,100 14,600 14,150 13,850 13,700
SA-240 B 15 Cr 70,000 17,500 17,500 16,300 15,650 15,100 14,600 14,300
SA-240 C 347 18 Cr-8 Ni-Cb 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA-240 D 430 17 Cr 70,000 (9) 17,500 17,500 16,300 15,650 15,100 14,600 14,300
SA-240 M 316 18 Cr-10 Ni-2 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
SA-240 0 405 12 Cr-Al 60,000 - 15,000 15,000 14,700 14,400 13,950 13,400 13,000
· SA-240 s 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1) 18,750 17,000 16,000 15,450 15,100 14,900 14,850
SA-240 s 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 18,750 16,650 15,000 13,650 12,500 11,600 11,200
SA-240 T 321 18 Cr-8 Ni-Ti 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,0!)0 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
.Pipes and Tubes
Seamless
SA-213 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1) 18,750 17,000 16,000 15,450 15,100 14,900 14,850
SA-213 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 18,750 16,650 15,000 13,650 12,500 11,600 11,200
SA-213 TP321 18 Cr-10 Ni-Ti 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA-213 TP347 18 Cr-10 Ni-Cb 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA,413 TP316 16 Cr-13 Ni-3 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
SA-21'3 TP310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (2) 18,750 18,750 18,500 18,200 17,700 17,200 16,900
SA-213 TP310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (3) 18,750 18,750 18,500 18,200 17,700 17,200 16,900
SA-268 TP405 12 Cr-Al 60,000 15,000 15,000 14,700 14,400 13,950 13,400 13,000
SA-268 TP410 13 Cr 60,000 15,000 14,450 14,000 13,500 13,100 12,850 12,700
SA-268 TP430 16 Cr 60,000 (9) 15,000 15,000 14,100 13,400 13,000 12,500 12,200
SA-312 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1) 18,750 17,000 16,000 15,450 15,100 14,900 14,850
SA-312· TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 18,750 16,650 15,000 13,650 12,500 11,600. 11,200
SA-213 TP309 25 Cr-12 Ni 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,300 16,700 16,600 16,500 16,450
SA-312 TP310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (2) 18,750 18,750 18,500 18,200 17,700 17,200 16,900
SA-312 TP310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (3) 18,750 18,750 18,500 18,200 17,700 17,200 16,900
SA-312 TP321 18 Cr-10 Ni-Ti 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA-312 TP347 18 Cr-10 Ni-Cb 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA-312 TP316 16 Cr-13 Ni-3 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
SA-312 TP317 18 Cr-13 Ni-4 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
SA-376 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1) 18,750 17,000 16,000 15,450 15,100 14,900 14,850
SA-376 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni .. 75,000 18,750 16,650 15,000 13,650 12,500 11,600 11,200
SA-376 TP321 18 Cr-10 Ni-Ti 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14;900 14,850
SA-376 TP347 18 Cr-10 Ni-Cb 75,000 18,750\ 18,750 17,000 15,800 15;200 14,900 14,850
SA-376 TP316 16 Cr-13 Ni-3 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
Welded
SA-249 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1)(4) 16,000 14,450 13,60Q 13,150 12,800 12,700 12,650
SA-249 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 . (4) 16,000 14,150 12,750 11,600 10,600 9850 9500
SA-249 TP310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (2)(4) 16,000 16,000 15,750 15,500 15,050 14,600 14,400
SA-249 TP310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (3)(4) 16,000 16,000 15,750 15,500 15,050 14,600 14,400
SA-249 TP321 18 Cr-10 Ni-Ti 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 14,450 13,400 12,900 12,700 12,650
SA-249 TP347 18 Cr-10 Ni-Cb 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 14,450 13,400 12,900 12,700 12,650
SA-249 TP316 16 Cr-13 Ni-3 Mo 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 15,200 14,900 14,600 14,550 14,500
SA-249 TP317 18 Cr-13 Ni-4 Mo 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 15,200 14,900 14,600 14,550 14,500
SA-268 TP405 12 Cr-AI 60,000 (4) 12,750 12,750 12,500 12,250 11,900 11,400 11,050
SA-268 TP410 13 Cr 60,000 (4) 12,750 12,300 11,900 11,500 11,150 · 10,900 10,800
SA-268 TP430 16 Cr 60,000 (4)(9) 12,750 12,750 12,000 11,400 11,050 10,650 10,400
SA-312 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1)(4) 16,000 14,450 13,600 13,150 12,800 12,700 12,650
SA-312 TP304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (4) 16,000 14,150 12,750 11,600 10,600 9850 9500
SA-312 TP309 25 Cr-12 Ni 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 14,750 14,200 14,100 14,050 14,000
SA-312 TP310 25 Cr-20 Ni 75,000 (2)(4) 16,000 16,000 15,750 15,500 15,050 14,600 14,400
SA-312 TP310 25 Cr--20 Ni 75,000 (3)(4) 16,000 16,000 15,750 15,500 15,050 14,600 14,400
SA-312 TP321 18 Cr-IO Ni-Ti 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 14,450 13,400 12,900 12,700 12,650
SA-312 TP347 18 Cr-10 Ni-Cb 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 14,450 13,400 12,900 12,700 12,650
SA-312 TP316 16 Cr-13 Ni-3 Mo 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 15,200 14,900 14,600 14,550 14,500
SA-312 TP317 18 Cr-13 Ni-4 Mo 75,000 (4) 16,000 16,000 15,200 14,900 14,600 14,550 14,500
 Allowable Stresses 343
for High~alloy Steel, in Pounds per Square Inch
sure Vessels, with Permission of the Publisher, the American Soci~ty of Mechanical Engineers)
,};;
Not Exceeding Deg F "- .J, :;;-, "'~._ -~1;i'

700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 ll50 1200 1250 1300 1350 HOO 1450 1500

14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,000 13,400 12,500 10,000 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
10,800 10,400 10,000 9700 9400 9100 8800 8500 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
16,400 16,200 15,700 14,900 13,800 12,500 10,500 8500 6500 5000 3800 2900 2300 1750 1300 900 750
16,600 16,250 15,700 14,900 13,800 12,500 11,000 9750 . 8500 7250 6000 4750 3500 2350 1600 1100 750
16,600 16,250 15,700 14,900 13,800 12,500 11,000 7100 5000 3600 2500 1450 750 450 350 250 200
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
13,400 13,100 12,750 12,100 11,000 8800 6400 4400 2900 1750 1000" ...
13,900 13,500 13,100 12,500 11,700 9200 6500 4500 • 3200 2400 1750
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
13,900 13,500 13,100 12,500 11,700 9200 6500 4500 3200 2400 1750
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
12,450 11,800 11,000 10,100 9100 8000 4000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,000 13,400 12,500 10,000 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
10,800 10,400 10,000 9700 9400 9100 8800 8500 7500 5750 4500 3250 1800 1400 1000 700
14,800 14,700 14,500 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 ~50
700 2000 1550 1200 1000

14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,000 13,400 12,500 10,000 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
10,800 10,400 10,000 9700 9400 9100 8800 8500 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
16,600 16,250 15,700 14,900 13,800 12,500 11,000 9750 8500 7250 6000 4750 3500 2350 1600 1100 750
16,600 16,250 15,700 14,900 13,800 12,500 11,000 7100 5000 3600 2500 1450 750 450 350 250 200
12.450 11,800 11,000 10,100 9100 8000 4000
12,500 12,250 11,950 11,600 11,000 8800 6400 4400 2900 1750 1000
11,850 11,500 ll,100 10,600 10,000 9200 !'i500 4500 3200 2400 1750
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,000 13,400 12,500 10,000 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 '1000 750
10,800 10,400 10,000 9700 9400 9100 8800 8500 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
16,400 16,200 15,700 14,900 13,800 12,500 10,500 8500 6500 5000 3800 2900 2300 1750 1300 900 750
16,600 16,250 15,700 14,900 13,800 12,500 11,000 9750 8500 7250 6000 4750 3500 2350 1600 llOO 750
16,600 16,250 15,700 14,900 13,800 . 12,500 ll,000 7100 5000 3600 2500 1450 750 450 350 250 200
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,000 13,400 12,500 10,000 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
10,800 10,400 10,000 9700 9400 9100 8800 8500 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500

12,600 12,500 12,400 12,150 ll,900 11,400 10,600 8500 6-100 4900 3800 2750 2100 1550 1200 850 650
9200 8850 8500 8250 8000 7750 7500 7200 6400 4900 3800 2750 2100 1550 1200 850 650
14,100 13,800 13,350 12,700 11,700 10,600 9350 8300 7200 6150 5100 4050 3000 2000 1350 950 650
14,100 13,800 13,350 12,700 11,700 10,600 9350 6000 4250 3050 2100 1250 650 400 300 200 150
12,600 12,500 12,350 12,150 12,000 11,800 11,500 11,100 10,600 6800 4250 3050 2300 1700 1300 1000 850
12,600 12,500 12,350 12,150 12,000 11,800 11,500 11,100 10,600 6800 4250 3050 2300 1700 1300 1000 850
14,450 14,350 14,250 14,000 13,600 12,800 11,900 10,400 8850 7200 5800 4500 3400 2550 2000 1550 1300
14,450 14,350 14,250 14,000 13,600 12,800 11,900 10,400 8850 7200 5800 4500 3400 2550 2000 1550 1300
10,600 10,000 9350 8600 7750 6800 3400
10,650 10,400 10,150 9850 9350 7500 5450 3750 2450 1500 850
10,100 9800 9450 9000 8500 7900 5500 3800 2700 2050 1500
12,600 12,500 12,400 12,150 11,900 11,400 10,600 8500 6400 4900 3800 2750 2100 1550 1200 850 650
9200 8850 8500 8250 8000 7750 7500 7200 6400 4900 3800 2750 2100 1550 1200 850 650
13,950 13,800 13,350 12,700 11,700 10,600 8900 7200 5500 4250 3250 2450 1950 1500 1100 750 650
14,100 13,800 13,350 12,700 11,700 10,600 9350 8300 7200 6150 5100 4050 3000 2000 1350 950 650
14,100 13,800 13,350 12,700 11,700 10,600 9350 6000 4250 3050 2100 1250 650 400 300 200 150
12,600 12,500 12,350 12,150 12,000 11,800 11,500 ll,100 10,600 6800 4250 3050 2300 1700 1300 1000 850
12,600 12,500 12,350 12,150 12,000 11,800 11,500 11,100 10,600 6800 4250 3050 2300 1700 1300 1000 850
14,450 14,350 14,250 14,000 13,600 12,800 11,900 10,400 8850 7200 5800 4500 3400 2550 2000 1550 1300
14,450 14,350 14,250 14,000 13,600 12,800 11,900 10,400 8850 7200 5800 4500 3400 2550 2000 1550 1300
344 Allowoble Stresses
Item 4. Moximum Allowoble Stress Volues in Tension
For Metal Temperatures
Material and Spec.
Specification Nominal Min -20 to
Number Grade Type Composition Tensile Notes 100 200 300 ,ioo 500 600 650
Forgings
SA-182 F6 410 13 Cr 85,000 21,250 20,400 19,750 19,000 18,500 18,100 17,900
SA-182 F304 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1) 18,750 17,000 16,000 15,450 15,100 14,900 14,850
SA-182 F304 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 18,750 16,650 15,000 13,650 12,500 11,600 11,200
SA-182 F321 321 18 Cr-8 Ni-Ti 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 ; 14,900 14,850
SA-182 F347 347 18 Cr-8 Ni-Cb 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 • • 14,900 14,850
SA-182 F316 316 18 Cr-8 Ni-3 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
SA-182 F310 310 25 Cr-20 Ni 95,000 23,750 23,750 23,750 23,200 22,400 21,500 20,850
SA-336 F6 410 13 Cr 75,000 18,750 18,100 17,500 16,900 16,400 16,000 15,700
SA-336 F8 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (1) 18,750 17,000 16,000 15,450 15,100 14,900 14,850
SA-336 F8 304 18 Cr--'8 Ni 75.000 18,750 16,650 15,000 13,650 12,500 11,600 11,200
SA-336 F8t 321 18 Cr-8 Ni-Ti 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA-336 F8c 347 18 Cr-8 Ni-Cb 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850
SA-336 F8m 316 18 Cr-8 Ni-3 Mo 75,000 18,750 18,750 17,900 17,500 17,200 17,100 17,050
SA-336 F25 310 25 Cr-20 Ni 95,000 23,750 23,750 23,750 23,200 22,400 21,500 20,850
Castings
SA-351 CA15 13 Cr-½ Mo 90,000 (6) 22,500 22,500 22,500 22,500 22,500 22,000 21;600
SA-351 CFS 18 Cr-8 Ni 70,000 (1)(6) 17,500 16,500 15,600 15,000 14,600 14,350 14,200
SA-351 CFS 18 Cr-8 Ni 70,000 (6) 17,500 15,700 14,250 13,100 12,200 11,700 11,500
SA-351 CF8M 18 Cr-9 Ni-2H Mo 70,000 (1)(6) 17,500 16,900 16,500 16,400 16,350 16,300 16,25-0
SA-351 CF8M 18 Cr-9 Ni-2H Mo 70,000 (6) 17,500 16,900 16,500 16,300 15,900 15,350 15,000
SA-351 CF8C 18 Cr-9 Ni-Cb 70,000 (1)(6) 17,500 17,100 16,600 16,100 15,500 14,700 14,200
SA-351 CF8C 18 Cr-9 Ni-Cb 70,000 (6) 17,500 17,000 15,600 14,200 13,000 12,200 11,900
SA-351 CH20 25 Cr-13 Ni 70,000 (6) 17,500 16,100 15,150 14,600 14,550 14,450 14,400
SA-351 CK20 25 Cr-20 Ni 65,000 (6) 16,250 15,300 14,900 14,600 14,550 14,450 14,400
Boltings
SA-193 B6 416 13 Cr (5) 20,000 19,300 18,700 18,300 17,850 17,000 16,500
SA-193 B8t 321 18 Cr-8 Ni-Ti 75,000 (5)(7) 15,000 15,000 13,600 12,650 12,200 11,900 11,850
SA-193 B8c 347 18 Cr-8 Ni-Cb i, 75,000 (5)(7) 15,000 15,000 13,600 12,650 12,200 11,900 11,850
SA-193 BS 304 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (5)(7) 15,000 13,300 12,000 10,900 10,000 9300 8950
SA-193 B8F 303 18 Cr-8 Ni 75,000 (5)(7) 15,000
SA-320 (8 grades) (5)(7)(8)
Notes: The stress values in this table may be interpolated to determine values for intermediate temperatures.
All stress values in shear are 0.80 times the values in the above table.
All stress values in bearing are 1.60 times the values in the above table.
(1) At temperatures of from 200 F through 1050 F these stress values meet all criteria specified for establishing stress values,
except that they exceed 62H % but do not exceed 90% of the yield'strength at temprature. They may be used where slightly greater
deformation is not objectionable.
(2) These stress values at temperatures of 1050 F and above should be used only when assurance is provided that the steel has a
predominant grain size not finer than ASTM No. 6. ·
(3) These stress values shall be considered basic values to he used when no effort is made to control or check the grain size of the
steel.
 Allowable Stresses 345
for High-alloy Steel, in Pounds per Square Inch (Continued)
Not Exceeding Deg F

700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 J,050 1109 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500
...
'-- ·"'

17,500 17,050 16,300 14,000 11,000 8800 6400 4400 ~2900 1750 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,000 13,400 12,500 10,000 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
10,800 10,400 10,000 9700 9400 9100 8800 8500 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
20,000 18,500 17,000 15,500 14,000 12,500 11,000 9750 8500 7250 6000 4750 3500 2350 1600 1100 750
15,400 15,100 14,650 14,000 11,000 8800 6400 4400 2900 1750 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,000 13,400 12,500 10,000 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
10,800 10,400 10,000 9700 9400 9100 8800 8500 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
14,800 14,700 14,500 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500 13,100 12,500 8000 5000 4600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
17,000 16,900 16,750 16,500 16,000 15,100 14,000 12,200 10,400 8500 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
20,000 18,500 17,000 15,500 14,000 12,500 11,000 9750 8500 7250 6000 4750 3500 2350 1600 1100 750

20,700 19,600 18,300 16,000 11,000 7600 5000 3300 2200 1500 1000~ ...
14,050 13,850 13,600 13,350 13,000 12,600 12,100 9600 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
11,300 11,100 10,900 10,650 10,400 10,100 9850 9600 7500 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750
16,200 16,100 15,900 15,500 15,000 13,500 12,000 10,600 9400 8000 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
14,700 14,350 14,000 13,500 13,000 12,350 11,700 10,600 9400 8000 6800 5300 4000 3000 2350 1850 1500
13,700 13,300 12,900 12,600 12,300 11,900 11,600 11,200 10,f!OO 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
11,700
14,350
11,600
14,300
11,500
14,150
11,350
13,900
11,200
13,500
11,100
12,500
11,000
10,500
10,900
8500
10,800
6500
8000
5000
5000 3600
3800 2900
'iioo
300
2000
1750
1550
1300
1200
900
1000
750
14,350 14,300 14,150 13,900 13,500 12,500 11,000 9750 8500 7250 6000 4750 3.00 2350 1600 HOO 750

15,750 14,900 13,800 12,500 ll,000

11,800 11,750 11,650 11,450 11,300 11,100 10,800 10,500 10,000 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
11,800 11,750 11,650 11,450 11,300 11,100 10,800 10,500 10,000 8000 5000 3600 2700 2000 1550 1200 1000
8650 8300 8000 7750 7500 7250 7050 6800 6300 5750 4500 3250 2450 1800 1400 1000 750

(4) These stress values are the basic values multiplied by a joint-efficiency factor of 0.85.
(5) These stress values are established from a consideration of strength only and will be satisfactory for average service. For bolted
joints where freedom from leakage over a long period of time without retightening is required, lower stress values may be necessary as
determined from the flexibility of the flange and bolts and corresponding relaxation properties.
(6) To these stress values a quality factor shall be applied (see ASME code).
(7) These stress values permitted for material that has been carbide-solution treated.
(8) For temperatures below 100 F, stress values equal to 20% of the specified minimum tensile strength will be permitted.
(9) This steel may be expected to develop embrittlement at room temperature after service at temperatures above 800 F; conse-
quently, its use at higher temperatures is not recommended unless due caution is observed.

--~~-
APPENDIX

TYPICAL TANK SIZES AND CAPACITIES

· Item 1. Typical Sizes and Corresponding Approximate Capacities for Tanks with 72~in. Butt-welded Courses
Recommended by API Standard 12 C
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
1 2 3 4 5 6 L 8 9 io 11
Approx.
Tank Height (ft)
Capacity
Tank per Foot 12 18 24 30 36 .42 48 54 60
Diameter of Height Number of Courses in Completed Tank
(ft) (bbl) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 14.0 170 250 335 420 505
15 31.5 380 565 755 945 1,130
20 56.0. 670 1,010 1,340 1,680 2,010 2,350 2,690
25 87.4 1,050 .l,570 2,100 2,620 3,150 3,670 4,200 4,720 5,250
30 126 1,510 2,270 3,020 3,780 4,530 5,290 6,040 {i,800 7,550

35 171 2,060 3,080 4,110 5,140 6,170 7,200 8,230 9,250 10,280
40 224 2,690 4,030 5,370 6,710 8,060 9,400 10,740 12,090 13,430
45 283 3,400 5,100 .6,800 8,500 10,200 11,900 13,600 15,300 17,000
50 350 4,200 6,290 8,390 10,490 12,590 14,690 16,790 18,880 20,980
60 504 6,030 9,060 12,909 15,110 18,130 21,150 24,170 27,190 30,220

70 685 8,230 12,340 16,450 20,560 24,680 28,790 32,900 37,010 41,130
80 895 10,740 16,120 21,490 26,860 32,230 37,600 42,970 48,350 53,720
90 1133 13,600 20,390 27,190 33,990 40,790 47,590 54,380 61,180 67,980
100 1399 16,790 25,180 33,570 41,970 50,360 58,750 67,140 75,540 • 83,930
120 2014 36,260 48,340 60,430 72,510 84,600 96,690 108,800 120,900
!

140 2742 49,350 65,800 82,250 98,700 115,100 131,600 148,000 164,500
160 3581 107,400 128,900 150,400 171,900 193,400 214.900
180 4532 136,000 163,200 190,400 217,500 244,800 254,300
200 5595 167,900 201,400 235JOOO 268,600 284,500 D = 174
220 6770 203,100 243,700 284,400 322,300 D = 194
D = 219
The approximate capacities shown are based on the formula:
Capacity (42-gal bbl) = 0.14D 2H, where D = listed tank diameter and H = listed tank height.
Capacities and diameters below the heavy lines (cols. 9-11) are maximum for the tank heights shown, on the basis of the
l½-in. maximum permissible thickness of shell plates and the maximum allowable design stresses.
3-46
 Typical Tank Sizes and Capacities 347
Item 2. · Shell Plate Thicknesses for Typical Sizes of Tanks with 72-in. Butt-welded Courses
Recom~ended by API Standard 12 C
(CourJ,esy ofAmerican Petroleum Institute)
,\.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
·Tadk 1feight (ft) Maximum
6 12 18 24 _./30 "-..... .. 36 42 48 54 60 Allowable
Tank Number of Courses in Completed Tank Height for
Diam 1 2 3 4 5 /6 7 8 9 10 Diameters
(ft) Shell Plate Thickness (In.) Listed (ft)
10 ¾6 ¾6 ¾s ¾6 ¾s ¾s
15 ¾6 ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾6
20 ¾s ¾s ¾6 ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s
25 ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾6 0.19 0.20 0.22
30 ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s 0.19 0.21 0.24 0.26

35 ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s 0.19~0.21 0.24 0.27 0.30

40 ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s 0.19 0.21 0.24 0,28 0.31 0.35
45 ¾s ¾s ¾s ¾s 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.39
50 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0.26 0.30 0.35 0.39 0.43
60 ¼ ¼ ¾ ¼ 0.26 0.31 0.36 0.41 0.47 0.52

70
80
90
¼
~i
¼
¼
¼
~i
¼
¼
¼
0.25
0.27
0.31
0.30
0.34
0.38
0.36
0.41
0.46
o.;
0.4
0.54
0.48
0.55
0.62
0.54
0.62
0.70
0.61
0.69
0.78 .
100 ~i ¼ 0.25 0.34 0.43 0.51 0.60 0 ..69 0.78 0.86
120 ¼ ¼ 0.30 0.41 0.51 0.62 0.72 0.83 0.93 1.03

140 ¼ ¼ 0.35 0.47 0.60 0.72 0.84 0.96 1.08 1.21

160 ¼ 0.26 0.40 0.54 0.68 0.82 0.96 1.10 1.24 1.38 65.3
180 ¼ 0.29 0.45 0.61 0.76 0.92 1.08 1.24 1.39 58.2
200 ¼ 0.32 0.50 0.67 0.85 1.02 1.20 1.37 52.5
220 ¼ 0.36 0.55 0.74 0.93 1.13 1.32 47.8
Plate thicknesses shown in item 2 in fractions are thicker than those required for hydrostatic loading but for practical reasons
have been fixed at the values given; therefore, plates for these courses may be ordered on a weight basis. Plate thicknesses
shown in item 2 in decimals are based on maximum allowable stresses, and therefore plates for these courses must be ordered
on a thickness basis.
In deriving the plate-thickness values shown, it was assumed, on the basis of average mill practice, that the edge thickness
of plates 72-in. wide and ordered on the weight basis would underrun the nominal thickness by 0.03 in. The actual thickness
may underrun a calculated or specified thickness by 0.01 in.; consequently, fractional thickness values are shown only when the
fractional value exceeds the calculated thickness of the course in question by more than 0.02 in.
The maximum allowable height for diameters listed in feet is based on the l½-in- maximum permissible thickness of shell
plates and the maximum allowable design stresses.
348 Typical Tank Sizes and Capacities
Item 3. Typical Sizes and Corresponding Approximate Item 4. Shell Plate Thicknesses for Typical Sizes of
Capacities for Tanks with 96-in. Butt-welded Courses Tanks with 96-in. Butt-welded Courses
Recommended by API Standard 12 C Recommended by API Standard 12 C
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute) {Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Approx. Tank Height (ft)
Maximum
Capac- 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 · 64 Allowable
ity per lTank Height (ft) Number of Courses in Completed Tank ;
Tank Height for
Tank -Foot of 16 24 32. 40 48 56 64 Diam 2 5 6
Diam Height Number of Courses in Completed Tank (ft)
3 4
Shell Plate Thickness (in.)
7 :
.. 8 Listed
· Diameten
(ft)
(ft) (bbl) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 ½e 716 ½e ¾e
10 14.0 225 335 450 15 He !Vie He !1-:ie ¾e
15 31.5 505 755 1,010 1,260 20 He ¾e 716 ¾e ¾e He
20 56.0 900 1,340 1,790 2,240 2,690 25 ½o ½o' 716 ¾e 71.6 0.19 0.20 0.23
25 87.4 1,400 2,100 2,800 3,500 4,200 4,900 5,600 30 He ¾6 He ~16 0.19 0.21 0.24 0.28
30 126 2,020 3,020 4,030 5,040 6,040 7,050 8,060
35 Ho ½. ½e 0.19 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.33
35 171 2,740 4,110 5,480 6,850 8,230 9,600 10,960 40 ¾e 716 Hs 0.19 0.23 0.28 0.32 0.37
40 224 3,580 5,370 7,160 8,950 10,740 12,530 14,320 45 ¾e ¾. 0.19 0.21 0.26 0.31 0.36 0.42
45 283 4,530 6,800 9,060 11,330 13,600 15,860 18,130 50 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0.2q 0.29 0.35 0.40 0.46
·50 350 5,600 8,390 11,190 13,990 16,790 19,580 22,380 60 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0.27 0.34 0.41 0.43 0.55
60 504
.....
8,060 12,091) 16,120 20,140 24,170 28,200 32,280
70 ¼ ¼ 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.65
70 685 10,960 16,450 /ii,930 27,420 32,900 38,380 43,870 80 ¼ ¼ 0.27 0.37 0.46 0.55 0.64 0.74
80 895 14,320 .21,490 / .28,650 35,810 42,970 50,130 57,300 90 ¼ ¼ 0.31 o. 41 0.52 0.62 0.72 0.83
90 1133 18,130 .27,190 36,260 45,320 54,390 63,450 72,520 100 }~ 0.25 0.34 0.46 0.57 0.69 0.80 0.92
100 1399 .22,380 33,570 44,760 55,950 67,140 78,340 89,530 120 ¼ 0.27 0.41 0.55 0.69 0.83 0.97 1.10
120 2014 58,340 64,460 80,580 96,690 112,800 128,900
140 }~ 0.31 0.47 0.64 0.80 0.96 i.13 1.29
140 2742 65,800 87,740 109,700 131,600 153,500 175,500 160 ¼ 0.35 0.54 0.73 0.91 1.10 1.29 1.47 65.3
160 3581 114,600 143,200 171,900 200,500 229,200 180 ¼ 0.40 0.61 0.82 1.03 1..24 1.45 58~2
180 4532 145,000 181,300 217,500 253,800 238,100 200 ¼ 0.44 0.67 0.91 1.14 1.37 52.5
220 0.25 0.48 0.74 1.00 1.25 47.8
200 5595 179,100 223,800 268,600 274,200 D = 163
220 6770 216,700 270,800 322,300 D = 187
D =219
The capacities in item 3 are baaed on the formula: Capacity (42-gal bbl) •
0.14D•H, where D - listed tank diameter and H - listed tank height.
Capacities and diameters below the heavy lines (cola. 7-9) are maximum
for the tank heights shown, on the basis of the 1 H-in. maximum permisaihle
thickness of shell plates and the maximum allowable design a t r - .
 APPENDIX

SHELL ACCESSORIES

Item 1. Shell Nozzle Dimensions in Inches as a Function of Nozzle Size, Recommended by API Standard 12 C-
Use with Item 2 and Fig. 3, 14
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Flanged Nozzle, Diameter Length of Side Distance, Distance, Distance from
Minimum of Hole in of Width of Shell to Shell to Bottom of Tank to
Size OD Pipe-wall Reinforcing Reinforcing Reinforcing Flange Flange Center of Nozzle
of of Thicknesst Plate Plate Plate Face, Face, Regular Low
Nozzle Pipe n DR L w Outside, J Inside, K Type H Type C
20 20 See item 2, col. 2 20½ 43 52½ 10 8 24 21½
18 18 18½ 39 47% 10 8 22 19½
16 16 16½ 35 42½ 10 8 20 17½
14 14 14½ 31 38 10 8 18 15½
12 12¾ 0.50 12½ 28½ 35 10 8 17 14¾
10 10¾ 0.50 10½ 24½ 30½ 10 8 15 12¾
8 8% 0.50 8¾ 20¾ 25 8 6 13 10½
6 6% 0.432 6¾ 16¾ 20~:,; 8 6 11 8½
4 4½ 0.337 4% 12 15½ 6 6 9 6
3 3½ 0.300 3% 10 12% 6 6 8 5
2* 2% 0.218 2½ 6 6 7 3½
1%* 1.90 0.200 2 6 6 6 3

3t 4. 000 Coupling 12% 8 5

2 2 .875 Coupling 7 3
l½ 2.200 Coupling 6 3
1 1. 576 Coupling 5 3
¾ 1. 313 Coupling 4 3

* Flanged nozzles 2 in. and U!i in. in diameter do not require reinforcing plates. DR will be the diameter of the hole in the
shell plate, and weld A will be as given in Appendix E, item 3, col. 7. Reinforcing plates may be used if desired.
t Screwed nozzles 3 in. in diameter require a reinforcing plate, the details for which shall he the same as shown for 3-in.
flanged nozzles. Reinforcing plates may be used on the smaller fittings if desired.
:j: Extra-strong pipe, API Std. 5L., made from formed plate, ele,trically butt welded, may he substituted.
349
350 Shell Accessories
Item 2. Shell Nozzle Dimensions in Inches as a Function of Shell Plate Thickness, Recommended by API Standard
12C-ltem 1 and Fig. 3.14
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
Diameter of Hole in Shell
Plate, D11 , Equals OD of Pipe
plus the Following Values Size of Fillet
Shell Thickness (i) 20", 18", 16", and For Max D11 For Min D11 Size of Fillet Weld A for
and Reinforcing- 14" Flanged Nozzle, Add to OD Add to OD Weld A for , Nozzles 2",
plate Thickness Minimum Pipe-wall (Weld A in (Weld A in Size of Fillet Nozzles Larger l½", l",
(T)* Thickness (n)t Shop) Field) Weld B than 2" and¾"
916
>i
½6
½
%
½
%
%
%
%
%
%
91e
>~
½a
¼
¼
,i
,;i~
¼

% ½ ¾ ¾a % ½6 ¼
¾s ½ ¾ ¾6 ¾e ½a ¾
½ ½ ¾ ¾6 ½ ½s ½a
¾e ½ 1¾6 ¾6 ¾6 % ½a
% ½ 1 ½6 ¾6 % % ½a
J l 7i6 ½ 1¾6 ¾a 1½6 % ½a
¾ ½ l½a % ¾ ¾a ¾a
1916 ½ 1½6 % 1916 ¾a ½6
½ ½ l½a ¾ ½ ¾a ½6
1 ½6 ½ l¼ ¾ 1¾6 ½ ¾a
1 ½ u~ ¾ 1 ½ ¾6
1½6 ¾6 l¼ ¾ 1½6 ½ ¾6
l¼ ¾a l¼ ¾ l¼ ½ ¾a
1¾6 ¾ l¼ ¾ l¾a ½ ¾6
l¾ ¾ 1% 1¾6 l¼ ¾a ¾6
l½a 1½6 1% 1¾6 1~16 ¾6 ¾a
1% 1½6 1% 1;½'6 1% ¾6 ¾a
1¾6 ¾ 1% 1;½'6 1¾6 %6 916
l½ ¾ 1% 1¾6 l½ ¾a ½a
* If a thicker shell plate is used than is required for the hydrostatic loading, the excess shell-plate thickness may be con-
sidered as reinforcement, and the thickness of reinforcing plate (T) decreased accordingly.
t Based on API Std. 5L for pipe of ½-in. wall thickness; for pipe of over ½-in. wall thickness, use ASTM A-53, A-135., or
A-139 of latest issue. Pipe made from formed plate, electrically butt welded, may be substituted for any of the above-
mentioned pipe sections.

Item 3. Shell-manhole Cover-plate Thickness and Bolting-

flange Thickness, Recommended by API Standard 12 C-
See Item 4 and Fig. 3.15
(Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
Bolting-flange
Equiva- Cover-plate Thickness after
Max lent Thickness, Finishing,
. · Tank Pres- Min (in.) Min (in.)
Height, sure* 20-in. 24-in. 20-in. 24-in.
(ft) (psi) Manhole Manhole Manhole Manhole
20 8.7 ¾6 % ¾ ¼
35 15.2 % ½ ¼ %
54 23.4 ½ ¾ ¼ ½
79 34.2 % ¾ ½ %
• Based on water loading.
/ - Shtil A«euorles 351
hem 4. o... ension$ In lnchff fo r 20-ln. Shell Mol'lhol• , R♦'°'1\ll'lend•d by API $1andard 12 C---$ee Item 3 and Fig. 3.JS
(Courtesy ot American Petroleum lna\itut.e)
Sllall
Thie.knc:$11
and Manhole Approx. Max
A\tacbmcot
Flat1ge
Woku~
I, T
H,
Stle ot •·eiet
Weld A W.WB
¾, H,
RadJld
(App!;es to
Fo,med Type
0.11) R
¾,
- ..
M\n1tb Widlb ~

"5)S
RelD.(orc-
"L w
s,x
Oia.m

D,
U½
lmide Diam or Man- Bolt
of Hoki
~ Pia~ in SheD• h~ Frame
MUI IO M'ulD
:tO
Cit«;le

26¼
''"
D,
Oiam ot Diam. ol
Cove,
Plate
De
28¾
¼

""'ll,
li.,
"'K,
)f,

1{,
¼
K,
"li
l,.
."
½,
¼
K,
4S)i
••x
45¼
4S
..
,;,y.

S3)i
!lt)i
U)S
Uj{
2-,v.
20
%0
20
20
22½

""
26¾

22¼
22)i
26¼
26¾
26¼
28¾
%8"
28¾
28¾

......
K, H 28¾
~
j{ 4S S3)f 20 2Z 26¾
¼ ll, K, 45 S3)i 20 2U( 26~t 28¾
25¼ 21¾ 28¾
"'li, ¾
"¾'li. "'){, S3¾ 20 26¼
¾
'¾•
u
¼
¾,

"" 'ii(.
u
y.
¾ .... 52
51¾
51¼
25¼
2S)i
2$){
20
20
20
21§.
21,S
21¾
26¾
2Ci¾
26¾
28¾
28¾
28¾

I
'li, U,
)i I
'li,
I
"i, .:l)i
43)i
Sl)i
SI
SOK
26
%6
26¼
20
20
20
2:1~
2l)i
20
26¼
UY.
26¾
28¾
28¾
28¾
IH, 1{, I){, I <3¼ SOJ{ 26)i 20 20){ Uy. :t&¾
so 20¾ %8,t
t i.
JJ{, " I)(
i ll,
I
I
43
43 ..,,so
· 26)i
26)i
20
20 20,S
UY.
28¾
I¼
l )f, " I¼
¾
¾ 0(,
I
I
I
42)!
••u 49
<9
%6¾
27
20
20
20½
2'lff
26¾
26¾
26¼
:t&¾
28¾

"' " '"

'¾• I
42)f 27 2') 20¾ 26¾ 28¾
l¼a I½, 42JS <9 21 20 20!, 26¼ 28¾
IJS .l <9 20 20
H l)i 4')f
" 26¾ 28¾
• lfole in ehell m.ay be oval. wilh horuoo.\al majOf diamet.er ol 2'9 i'D., whete neces&ary (or removal ol rigid ~<>ld l.ln.oketl.

J
3S2 Sh•ll Acc.~sories
Item .5. Oia,ension., in Ind!~, for U •in. Shell Mot1hole, Rec:om,n.nd•d by API Stondord 12 C-S•• htm 3 ond Fig, 3.15
(Courtesy ol .\mericao Pe-ttoWtll l ostit.ute)
Sheil
Thiclui.ess
and Manhole Approx. .Mnx
Attachm.e.ot Radiut Leogth WldLh or o;.,. Diam or Diam ol
FIA""' (A.pplit!S to of Reinforo- or Hole Inside Diam of M1rn.• Bolt. C<>,·er
1'hickDC5ll Stte. ol fi'ille1, J<~orrned T rpe Side ing Phu in Soe:IJ hole Pro.me Circle Plate
CT Weld A Wekf B Only) R l IV D, Min JD A•1 u JD o. De
li•
¼
li,
li,
){,
K,
li'
¼
;,,
li,
¼
li,
53¾
SJ)f
S3)f
6'¼
61
6'
28){
28){
28)f
24
24
24
26){
26,1,f
26U
30¼
30¼
30¼
,2,,
32¾

32¾
li, H H S3){ M 28){ 2A t6¼, 30¼ 32¾
"
){,
½
J<,
){,
½,
){
X,
)f
53
53
~
63
28¾
28¾ .
24
24
26)(
26
30¼
:W¼
32¾
32¾

·¾
J(,

"'11,
¼
){
¼
¾,
J(,
¼
'11,
¾
'){,
li,

"
'){,
¾
53
52¼
52¾
52¼
63
62){
62½
62¼
29¼
29;,
29¼
29){
..
24
24
24
24
25)j
25¼
25)(
25){
30¼
:W¼
30¼
30¼
32¾
32¾
:J2J~
32¾
'½, ¾, '½• S2}i 62 29¾ 25¼ 30){ 32¾
u 52){ 24

""x,
)f ¼ til¾ 30¼ 2S¼ 30){ 32¾
>;,, '*• z4 ·
l '*•
52 61 30¼ 25){ 30¼ 32¼
I I 52 61 30¾ 24 25 30¼ 32¾
1½,, ,x, l 51¼ ~ 30½ 24 30¼
l¼
llf,
½
)f
li•
l){
Llf,
l
l
Sl¼
51¼
60
60
30)i
30){
24
24 "'"
24){
24¼
34¼
30.\,i
32¾
32J{
32Jl
u, H l¼ I SO½ 58¾ SO¾ 24 24½ 30)( 32¾
llio '11, L¾, I 50)i se,~ 30¾ 24 24¼ 30¼ 32¼
l)f
Hf•
l)l
" '"
Yo
'lf'
1½•
l)i
.l
I
I
50
30
60
58
S8
S8
30){
30Y.
31 ..
24
24
24¼
24){
24
.
30¼
30¼
30¼
The dimenaloaa aho'lf'D In ooL 1 o't Item& 4 and 5, are b8!led oo heaving the thiekne$a or the au.aohrnent Oange. T. and aJ.o
32){
32¾
32¾

tNltc>fthe neck f'or a. diND<:ed11t Je.,t 4T exteod.i.ng c,utw1trd fr-om tlie c::oonec:ting face of the l'.ttnchme.ot&na:e, iNJUal to the
thi<J.knes&of' t.be ~WU,,. lftbe manbole ,uacbee to 1:1. tliickcr &hieUplate tban is r«JUin,d for the hydr0&1.at.ie loadiAg, the
u.CN& 11he0-plate tbicltnesa may be oonddered as 'r-einf'orcement, aod t.he t h ~ T, ol the manhole attachmeot flange may
be dec::reued aooordingly. The enliTC !Wlek or portt()n:9 ot lhe neck in/ly be 1hii111er lh11n the att.aohment flau,ge, pco..-ided there
is au.lGcienL t'1:U1forccment rtJrnWi.ed otl'C:rwiie; bo,rever, the neck should nOl be tJiinocr than the thickne-. of the eheil plate
Or the nllowu.ble tninimum firuehed tJtlckoese ol the bolting i111.0p, wbic:hcver is the amaUtt. The ioiabed manhole bolWII·
flaqe thi,o.knes,e ahall 001 be la lhan that o( the cover plate leee Ji in.. whJ1 a mJnittmm of¼ in.

\
 APPENDIX

PROPERTIES OF .
SELECTED ROLLED STRUCTURAL MEM\ERS

Item 1. Channels, American Standard, Properties of S~ctions

l·l
2

2
Avg
Section Weight Area Depth Width Flange Web
Index and per of of of Thick- Thick- Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Nominal Foot Section Channel Flange ness ness I s r I s r y
Size (lb) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in.)
58.0 16.98 4.200 0.625 0.700 670.7' 74.5 6.29 18.5 5.6 1.04 0.88
C 60 . 4.100 0.625 0.600 622.1 69.1 6.40 17.1
18 x4 51.9 l5.18 18 5.3 1.06 0.87
45.8 13.38 4.000 0.625 0.500 573.5 63.7 6.55 15.8 5.1 1.09 0.89
R = 0.625 42.7 12.48 3.950 0.625 0.450 549.2 61.0 6.64 15.0 4.9 I.IO 0.90
Cl 50.0 14.64 3.716 0.650 0.716 401.4 53.6 5.24 11.2 3.8 0.87 0.80
15x3% 40.0 11.70 15 3.520 0.650 0.520 346.3 46.2 5.44 9.3 3.4 0.89 0.78
R = 0.50 33.9 9.90 3.400 0.650 0.400 312.6 41.7 5.62 8.2 3.2 0.91 0.79
50.0 14.66 4.412 0.610 0.787 312.9 48.1 4.62 16.7 4.9 1.07 0.98
C 20 40.0 11.71 4.185 0.610 0.560 271.4 41. 7 4.82 13.9. 4.3
13 x4 13 1.09 0.97
35.0 10.24 4.072 0.610 0.447 250.7 38.6 4.95 12.5 4.0 I.IO 0.99
R = 0.48 31.8 9.30 4.000 0.610 0.375 237.5 36.5 5.05 11.6 3.9 1.11 1.01
C2 30.0 8.79 . 3.170 0.501 0.510 161.2 26.9 4.28 5.2 2.1 0.77 0.68
12 X 3 25.0 7.32 12 3.047 0.501 0.387 143.5 23.9 4.43 4.5 1.9 0.79 0.68
R = 0.38 20.7 6.03 2.940 0.501 0.280 128.1 21.4 4.61 3.9 1.7 0.81 0.70
30.0 8.80 3.033 0.436 0.673 103.0 20.6 3.42 4.0 1.7 0.67 0.65
C3 25.0 7.33 2.886 0.436 0.526 90.7 18.1 3.52 3.4 0.62
10x2% 10 1.5 0.68
20.0 5.86 2.739 0.436 0.379 78.5 15.7 3.66 2!8 1.3 0.70 0.61
R = 0.34 15.3 4.47 2.600 0.436 0.240 66.9 13.4 3.87 2.3 1.2 0.72 0.64
C4 20.0 5.86 2.648 0.413 0.448 60.6 13.5 3.22 2.4 1.2 0.65 0.59
9x2½ 15.0 4.39 9 2.485 0.413 0.285 50.7 11.3 3.40 1.9 1.0 0.67 0.59
R = 0.33 13.4 3.89 2.430 0.413 0.230 47.3 10.5 3.~9 1.8 0.97 0.67 0.61
cs 18.75 5.49 2.527 0.390 0.487 43.7 10.9 2.82 2.00 1.00 0.60 0.57
8x2¾ 13.75 4.02 8 2.343 0.390 0.303 35.8 9.9 2 99 1.50 0.86 0.62 0.56
R = 0.32 11.50 3.36 2.260 0.390 0.220 32.3 ts:1 3.10 1.30 0.79 0.63 0.58
353
 354 Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Memb~rs
Item 1. Channels, American Standard, Properties of Sections (Continued)
Avg
Section Weight Area Depth Width Flange Web
Index and per of of of Thick- Thick- Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Nominal Foot Section Channel Flange ness ness I s3 r I s3 r y
Size (lb) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) {in.) (in. 4) (in. ) (in.) (in. 4) (in. ) (in.) (in.)
C6 14.75 4.32 2.299 0.366 0.419 27.1 7.7 2.51 1.40 0.79 0.57 0.53
) 7x2;,s 12.25 3.58 7 2.194 0.366 0.314 24.1 6.9 2.59 1.20 0.71 0.58 0.53
R = 0.31 9.80 2.85 2.090 0.366 0.2.0 21.1 6.0 2.72 0.98 0.63 :0.59 0.55
C7 13.00 3.81 2.157 0.343 0.437 17.3 5.8 · 2.13 1.10 0.65 0.53 0.52
6x2 10.50 3.07 6 2.034 0.343 0.314 15.l 5.0 2.22 0.87 0.57 0.53 ·o.5o
R = 0.30 8.20 2.39 1.920 0 .34;3 0.200 13.0 4.S 2.34 0.70 0.50 . 0.54 0.52
cs 9.00 2.63 1.885 0.320 0.325 8.8 3.5 1.83 0.64 0.45 0.49 0.48
5xl¾ 6.70 1.95 5
1.750 0.320 0.190 7.4 3.lo 1.95 0.48 0.38 0.50 0.49
R = 0.29

C9 7.25 2.12 1.720 0.296 0.320 4.5 2.3 . 1.47 0.44 0.35 0.46 0.46
4xHi 5.40 1.56 4 1.580 0.296 0.180 3.8 1.9 1.56 0.32 0.29 0.45 0.46
R = 0.28

C 10 6.00 1. 75 1.596 0.273 0.356 2.1 1.4 1.08 0.31 0.27 0.42 0.46
3xl½ 5.00 1.46 3 1.498 0.273 0.258 1.8 1.2 1.12 0.25 0.24 0.41 . 0.44
R = 0.27 4.10 1.19 1.410 0.273 1. 6 1.1 1.17 0.20 0.21 0.41 0.44

Item 2. Beams, American Standard, Properties of Sections

2

Avg
Section Weight Area . Depth Width Flange Web
Index and per of of of Thick- Thick- Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Nominal Foot Section Beam Flange ness ness I s ,. I s ,.
Size (lbs) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.)
24" I
B 18 120.0 35.13 8.048 1.102 0.798 . 3010.8 250.9 9.26 84.9 21.1 1.56
24 7.875 1.102 0.625 2811.5 234.3
24x7H 105.9 30.98 9.53 78.9 20.0 1.60
R = 0.60
24" I 100.0 29.25 7.247 0.871 0.747 2371.8 197.6 9.05 58.4 13.4 1.29
Bl 90.0 26.30 24 7.124 0.871 0.624- 2230.1 185.8 · 9.21 45.5 12.8 1.32
24x 7 79.9 23.33 7.000 0.871 0.500 2087.2 173.9 9.46 42.9 12.2 1.36
R = 0.60
20" I
B2 95.0 27.74 7.200 0.916 0.800 1599.7 160.0 7.59 50.5 14.0 1.35
20x7 20 0.916 0.653 1501. 7 150.2
85.0 24.80 7.053 7.78 47.0 13.3 1.38
R = 0.70
20" I
B3 75.0 21.90 6.391 0.789 0.641 1263.5 126.3 7.60 30.1 9.4 1.17
20 0.500 1169.5 1.21
20x6¼ 65.4 19.08 6.250 0.779 116.9 7.83 27.9 8.9
R = 0.60
18" I
B4 70.0 20.46 6.251 0.691 0.711 917.5 101.9 6.70 24.5 7.8 1.09
18
18 X 6 54.7 15.94 6.000 0.691 0.460 795.5 88.4 7.07 21.2 7.1 1.15
R = 0.56
15" I
B7 50.0 14.59 5.640 0.622 0.550 481.1 64.2 5.74 16.0 5.7 1.05
42.9 12.49 15 5.500 0.622 0.410 441.8 58.9 5.95 14.6 5.3 I.OS-
15x5H
R = 0.51
---~ -~
"·
 "' Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members 355
Jtem 2. Beams, American Standard, Properties of Sections (Continued)
Avg
Section Weight Area Depth Width Flange Web
Index and per of of of Thick- Thick- Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Nominal Foot Section BeamJJ'lange ness ness l s r l s r
Size (lbs) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) 0
(in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.)
12" I
B8 50.0 14.57 12 5.477. 0.659 0.687 301.6 50.3 4.55 16.0 5.8 1.05
12x5H 40.8 11.84 5.250 0.659 0.460 ~68.9 44.8 4.77 13.8 5.3 1.08
R = 0.56
12" I
B9 35.0 10.20 5.078 ~44 0.428 227.0 37.8 4.72 10.0 3.9 0.99
12 X 5 31.8 9.26·- 12 5.000 44 0.350 215.8 36.0 4.83 9.5 3.8 1.01
T = 0.45
10" I
B 10 35.0 10.22 10 4.944 0.491 0.594 145.8 29.2 3.78 8.5 3.4 0.91
10x4% 25.4 7.38 ' 4;660 0.491 0.310 122.1 24.4 4.07 6.9 3.0 0.97
R = 0.41
8" I
B 12 23.0 6.71 4.171 0.425) 0.441 64.2 16.0 3.09 4.4 2.1 0.81
8 4.000 0.425 56.9 14.2
8x4 18.4 5.34 0.270 3.26 3.8 1.9 0.84
R = 0.37
7" I
B 13 20.0 5.83 7 3.860 0.392 0.450 41.9 12.0 2.68 3.1 1.6 0.74
7x3% 15.3 4.43 3.660 0.392 0.250 36.2 10.4 2.86 2.7 1.5 0,78
R = 0.35
6" I
B 14 17.25 5.02 3.565 0.359 0.465 26.0 8.7 2.28 2.3 l.3 0.68
12.5 3.61 6 0.230 21.8 7.3 2.46
6x3% 3.330 0.359 1.8 1.1 0.72
R = 0.33
5" I
B 15 14.75 4.29 3.284 0.326 0.494 15.0 6.0 1.87 1. 7 1.0 0.63
2.87 5 3.000 0.326 0.210 12.1 4.8 2.05
5x3 10.0 1.2 0.82 0.65
R 0.31
4" I
B 16 9.5 2.76 2.796 0.293 0.326 6.7 3.3 1.56 0.91 0.65 0.58
7.7 2.21 4 2.660 0.293 0.190 6.0 3.0 1.64
4x2% 0.77 0.58 0.59
R = 0.29
3" I
B 17 7.5 2.17 2.509 0.260 0.349 2.9 1.9 1.15 0.59 0.47 0.52
1.64 3 2.330 0.260 0.170 2.5 1. 7 1.23
3x2% 5.7 0.46 0.40 0.53
R 0.27
Item 3. Wide-flange light Beams, Stanchions, and Joists, Properties of Sections

,I
2

Section
Index Weight Area Depth Flange Web
and per of of Thick- Thick- Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Nominal Foot Section Section Width ness ness I s r I s r
Size (lbs) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.)
Light Beams
CBL 12 22.0 6.47 12.31 4.030 0.424 0.260 155.7 25.3 4.91 4.55 2.26 0.84
12 X 4 19.0 5.62 12.16 4.010 0.349 0.240 130.1 21.4 4.81 3.67 1.83 0.81
R = 0.30 16.5 4.86 12.00 4.000 0.269 0.230 105.3 17.5 4.65 2.79 1.39 0.76

---·-------
356 Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members
Item 3. Wide-flange Light Beams, Stanchions, end Joists, Properties of Sections (Continued)
Section
Index Weight Area Depth Flange Web
and per of of Thick- Thick- Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Nominal Foot Section Section Width ness ness I s r I s r
Size (lbs) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.)
CBL 10 19.0 5.61 10.25 4.020 0.394 0.250 96.2 18.8 4.14 4.19 2.08 0.86
10 X 4 17.0 4.98 10.12 4.010 0.329 0.240 81.8 16.2 4.05 3.45 1. 72 0.83
R = 0.30 15.0 4.40 10.00 4.000 0.269 0.230 68.8 13.8 3.95 2.79 i.39 0.80
CBL8
8x4 15.0 4.43 8.12 4.015 0.314 0.245 48.0 11.8 3.29 3.30 1.65 0.86
R = 0.30 13.0 3.83 8.00 4.000 0.254 0.230 39.5 9.88 3.21 2.62 1.31 0.83
CBL6 16.0 4.72 6.25 4.030 0.404 0.260 31. 7 10.1 2.59 4.32 2.14 0.96
6x4 0.279 0.230 7.24 2.89
R = 0.30
12.0 3.53 6.00 4.000 21.7 2.48 1.44 0.90

Stanchions
CBS 6 25.0 7.35 6.37 6.080 0.456 0.320 53.5 16.8 2.69 17.1 5.6 1.52
6x6 20.0 5.88 6.20 6.018 0.367 0.258 41. 7 13.4 2.66 13.3 4.4 1.50
R = 0.25 15.5 4.59 6.00 6.000 0.269 0.240 30.3 10.1 2.56 9.69 3.2 1.45
CB 51 5.45 5.12 5.025 0.420 0.265 25.4 2.16 8.89 3.54
5x5 18.5 9.94 1.28
16.0 4.70 5.00 5.000 0.360 0.240 21.3 8.53 2.13 7.51 3.00 1.26
R =0.3

Joists
CBJ 12
12 X 4 14.0 4.14 11.91 3.970 0.224 0.200 88.2 14.8 4.61 2.. 25 1.13 0.74
R = 0.30
CBJ 10
10 X 4 11.5 3.39 9.87 3.950 0.204 0.180 51.9 10.5 3.92 2.01 1.02 0.77
R = 0.30

CBJ 8
8x4 10.0 2.95 7.90 3.940 0.204 0.170 30.8 7.79 3.23 1.99 1.01 0.82
R = 0.30
CBJ 6
6x4 8.5 2.50 5.83 3.940 0.194 0.170 14.8 5.07 2.43 1.89 0.96 0.87
R = 0.25

Item 4. Equal Angles, Properties of Sections

~t
2

,fi
2 'a T

Weight Area of Axis 1-1 and Axis 2-2 Axis 3-3

Section ~. _ Size Thickness per Foot Section I s r :c rmin
Index (in.) (in.) (lb) (in. 2) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in.)
J¾ 56.9 16.73 98.0 17.5 2.42 2.41 1.55
1 51.0 15.00 89.0 15.8 2.44 2.37 1.56
Al ¼ 45.0 13.23 79.6 14.0 2.45 2.32 1.56
R=¾ 8x8 ¾ 38.9 11.44 69.7 12.2 2.47 2.28 1.57
¾ 32.7 9.61 59.4 10.3 2.49 2.23 1.58
½6 29.6 8.68 54.1 9.3 2.50 2.21 1.58
½ 26.4 7.75 48.6 8.4 2.51 2.19 1.58
 Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members 357
Item 4. Equal Angles, Properties of Sections (Continued)

Weight Area of Axis 1-1 and Axis 2-2 Axis 3-3

Section Size Thickness per Foot Section I s3 r X r min
Index (in.) (in.) (lb) (in. 2) (in. 4) (in. ) (in.) (in.) (in.)
f,. 37.4 11.00 35.5 8.6 1.80 1.86 1.16
I'
~. 33.1 9.73 31.9 7.6 1.81 1.82 1.17
~.
28.7 8.44 28.2 6.7 1.83 1. 78 1.17
A2 ¾• ~--· 24.2 7.11 24.2 5.7 1.84 1. 73 1.17
R=½ 6x6 %-r' 21.9 6.43 22.1 5.1 1.85 1.71 1.18
½\-'<. 19.6 5.75 19.9 4.6 1.86 1.68 1.18
'½.6 17.2 5.06 17.7 4.1 1.87 1.66 1.19
% 14.9 4.36 15.4 3.5 1.88 1.64 1.19
*¾6 12.6 3.66 13.0 3.0 1.89 1.61 1.19

½ 27.2 7.98 17.8 5.2 1.49 1.57 0.96

¾ 23.6 6.94 15.7 4.5 1.50 1.52 0.97
A3 ¾ 20.0----- 5.86 13.6 3.9 · 1.52 1.48 0.97
R=½ 5x5 ½ 16.2 .f.75 11.3 3.2 1.54 1.43 0.98
½a 14.3 4.18 10.0 2.8 1.55 1.41 0.98
% 12.3 3.61 8.7 2.4 1.56 1.39 0.99
*¾6 10.3 3.03 7.4 2.0 1.56 1.36 0.99

¾ 18.5 5.44 7.7 2.8 1.19 1.27 0.77

¾ 15.7 4.61 6.7 2.4 1.20 1.23 0.77
A4 ½ 12.8 3.75 5.6 2.0 1.22 1.18 0.78
4x4 '½.s 11.3 3.31 5.0 1.8 1.23 1.16 0.78
R=¾ 9.8 2.86 4.4 1.5 1.23 1.14 0.79
%
¾a 8.2 2.40 3.7 1.3 1.24 1.12 0.79
*¼ 6.6 1.94 3.0 1.0 1.25 1.09 0.79

½ 11. l 3.25 3.6 1.5 1.06 1.06 0.68

½6 9.8 2.87 3.3 1.3 1.07 1.04 0.68
AS 8.5 2.48 2.9 1.2 1.07
3½ x3½ % 1.01 0.69
R=% 7.2 2.5
¾a 2.09 0.98 1.08 0.99 0.69
¼ 5.8 1.69 2.0 0.79 1.09 0.97 0.69
• Special gage.
Item 5. Equal Angles, Properties of Sections
2

3
1 ,~ -----1-1
2 '3T

Weight Area of Axis 1-1 and Axis 2-2 Axis 3-3

Section Size Thickness per Foot Section I s r X rmin
Index (in.) (in.) (lb) (in. 2) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in.)
.) ½ 9.4 2.75 2.2 1.1 0.90 0.93 0.58
½e 8.3 2.43 2.0 0.95 0.91 0.91 0.58
A7 % 7.2 2.11 1.8 0.83 0.91 0.89 0.58
3x3
R = ¾s ¾s 6.1 I. 78 1.5 0.71 0.92 0.87 0.59
¼ 4.9 1.44 1.2 0.58 0.93 0.84 0.59
*¾e 3.71 1.09 0.96 0.44 0.94 0.82 0.59
½ 7.7 2.25 1.2 0.73 0.74 0,.81 0.47
% 5.9 1. 73 0.98 0.57 0.75 0.76 0.48
tA 9 5.0 1.47 0.85 0.48 0.76
R=¼ 2~2 X 2½ ¾s 0.74 0.49
¼ 4.1 1.19 0.70 0.39 0.77 0.72 0.49
¾s 3.07 0.90 0.55 0.30 0.78 0.69 0.49
% 4.7 1.36 0.48 0.35 0.59 0.64 0.39
¾6 3.92 1.15 0.42 0.30 0.60 0.61 0.39
tAll 2x2 3.19 0.94 0.35 0.25 0.61
R=¼ ¼ 0.59 0.39
¾s 2.44 0.71 0.28 0.19 0.62 0.57 0.40
¾ 1.65 0.48 0.19 0.13 0.63 0.55 0.40
-...--..-.-
358 Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members
Item 5. Equal Angles, Properties of Sections (Continued)
Weight Area of Axis 1-1 and Axis 2-2 Axis 3-3
Section Size Thickness per Foot Section I s r X r min
Index (in.) (in.) (lb) (in. 2) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in.)
% 3.99 1.17 0.31 0.26 0.51 0.57 0.34
¾a 3.39 1.00 0.27 0.23 0.52 0.55 0.34
tA 12 2.77 0.81 0.23 0.19 0.53 0.53 0.34
l¾ x l¾ ¼
R=¼ ½6 2.12 0.62 0.18 0.14 0.54 0.51 0.35
}' 1.44 0.42 0.13 0.10 0.55 0.48, 0.35
~~ 2.34 0.69 0.14 0.13 0.45 0.47 •. 0.29
tA 13 1.80 0.53 0.11 0.10 0.46 0.44 0.29
l½ X l½ ½6
R = ½6 ¼ 1.23 0.36 0.08 0.07 0.46 0.42 0.30
¼ 1.92 0.56 0.08 0.09 0.37 0.40 0.24
tA 15 1.48 0.43 0.06 0.07 0.38 0.38 0.24
IJ~ X l¼ ½6
R = ½6 1.01 0.30 0.04 . 0.05 0.38 0.35 0.25
¼
¼ 1.49 0.44 0.04 0.06 0.29 0.34 0.19
tA 16 1. 16 0.34 0.03 0.04 0.30 0.32
lxl ½a 0.19
R = }' ½ 0.80 0.23 0.02 0.03 0.31 0.30 0·.19
* Special gage.
t Bar size.
Item 6. Unequal Angles, Properties of Sections
2

·1
1 --{--1
2
3t
Weight Area Axis
Thick- per of Axis' 1-1 Axis 2-2 3-3
Section Size ness Foot Section I s r X I s3 r y r min
Index (in.) (in.) (in.) (in. 2) (in. 4 ) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. ) (in.) (in.) (in.)
¾ 14.7 4.30 6.4 2.4 1.22 1.29 4.5 1. 8 1.03 1.04 0.72
½ 11.9 3.50 5.3 1.9 1.23 1.25 3.8 1.5 1.04 1.00 0.72
A26 >16 10.6 3.09 4.8 1.7 1.24 1.23 3.4 1.4 1.05 0.98 0.72
4x3½ o·.96
R=¾ % 9.1 2.67 4.2 1.5 1.25 1.21 3.0 1.2 1.06 0.73
¾a 7.7 2.25 3.6 1.3 1.26 1.18 2.6 1.0 1.07 0.93 0.73
*¾ 6.2 1.81 2.9 1.0 1.27 1.16 2.1 0.81 1.07 0.91 0.73
¾ 13.6 3.98 6.0 2.3 1.23 1.37 2.9 1.4 0.85 0.87 0.64
½ 11.1 3.25 5.1 1.9 1.25 1.33 2.4 I.I 0.86 0.83 0.64
A27 ½. 6 9.8 2.87 4.5 l. 7 1.25 1.30 2.2 1.0 0.87 0.80 0.64
4x3
R=¾ ¾ 8.5 2.48 4.0 1.5 1.26 1.28 1.9 0.87 0.88 0.78 0.64
¾a 7.2 2.09 3.4 1.2 1.27 1.26 1. 7 0.73 0.89 0.76 0.65
*¼ 5.8 1.69 2.8 1.0 1.28 1.24 1.4 0.60 0.90 0.74 0.65
½ 10.2 3.00 3.5 1.5 1.07 1.13 2.3 1.1 0.88 0.88 0.62
½.6 9.1 2.65 3.1 1.3 1.08 1.10 2.1 0.98 0.89 0.85 0.62
A28 2.30 2.7 1.09 1.08 1.9 0.85 0.62
3½x 3 % 7.9 I.I 0.90 0.83
R=~ ¾a 6.6 1.93 2.3 0.95 1.10 1.06 1.6 0.72 0.90 0.81 0.63
¼ 5.4 1.56 1.9 0.78 1.11 1.04 1.3 0.59 0.91 0.79 0.63
½ 9.4 2.75 3.2 1.4 1.09 1.20 1.4 0.76 0.70 0.70 0.53
½a 8.3 2.43 2.9 1.3 1.09 1.18 1.2 0.68 0.71 0.68 0.54
A 29 7.2 2.11 2.6 1.10 1.16 1.1 0.59 0.72 0.54
3½x2½ ¾ I.I 0.66
R= ¾6 6.1 1. 78 2.2 0.93 1.11 1.14 0.94 0.50 0.73 0.64 0.54
716
¾ 4.9 1.44 1.8 0.75 1.12 1.11 0.78 0.41 0.74 0.61 0.54
½ 8.5 2.50 2.1 1.0 0.91 1.00 1.3 0. 74 0.72 0.75 0.52 ·
>16 7.6 2.21 1.9 0.93 0.92 0.98 1.2 0.66 0.73 0.73 0.52 ·
A32 6.6 1.92 1. 7 0.81 0.93 0.96 1.0 0.58 0.74 0.52
3x2½ ¾ 0.71
R= 716 716 5.6 1.62 1.4 0.69 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.49 0.74 0.68 0.53
¼ 4.5 1.31 1.2 0.56 0.95 0.91 0.74 0.40 0.75 0.66 0.53
* Special gage.
 Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members 359
lt~~-Une:Ual Angles, Prop~rties of Sections
~
2

Weight Area
'1:
1
' I

2
---}·1
3+
Axis
Thick- per 0£ Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2 3-3
Section · Size ness Foot Section I s :,; I s r y rmin
Index (in.) (in.) (lb) (in. 2) (in. 4) (in. I) ~.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in.)
½ 7.7 . 2.25 1.9 1.0 0.92 1.08 0.67 0.47 0.55 0.58 0.43
¾6 6.8° 2.00 1.7 0.89 0.93 1.06 0.61 0.42 0.55 0.56 0.43
A 33 % 5.9 1. 73 1.5 0.78 0.94 1.04 0.54 0.37 0.56 0.54 0.43
3x2 1.02 0.47
R= 716 ¾a 5.0 1.47 1.3 0.66 0.95 0.32 0.57 0.52 0.43
¼ 4.1 1.19 1.1 0.54 0.95 0.99 0.39 0.26 0.57 0.49 0.43
•¾a 3.07 0.90 0.84 0.41 0.97 0.97 0.31 0.20 0.58 0.47 0.44

% 5.3 1.55 0.91 0.55 0.77 0.83 0.51 0.36 0.58 0.58 0.42
tA 35 716 4.5 1.31 0.79 0.47 0.78 0.81 0.45 0.31 0.58 0.56 0.42
R = ¾. 2½ x2 ¾. 3.62 1.06 0.65 0.38 0.78 0.79 0.37 0.25 0.59 0.54 0.42
¾6 2.75 0.81 0.51 0.29 0.79 0.76 0.29 0.20 0.60 0.51 0.43
7

¾6 3.92 1.15 0.71 0.44 0.79 0.90 0.19 0.17 0.41 0.40 0.32
tA 48 2½ x l½ 3.19 0.94 0.59 0.36 0.79 0.88 0.16. 0.14 0.41 0.38 0.32
R=¾ ¾
¾a 2.44 0.72 0.46 0.28 0.80 0.85 0.13 0.11 0.42 0.35 0.33

¾ 2.77 0.81 0.32 0.24 0.62 0.66 0.15 0.14 0.43 0.41 0.32
tA 37 2.12 0.62 0.25 0.18 0.63 0.64 0.12 0.11 0.44
R=¼ 2x l½ ¾6 0.39 0.32
¾ 1.44 0.42 0.17 0.13 0.64 0.62 0.09 0.08 0.45 0.37 0.33
tA 645 ¾ 2.55 0.75 0.30 0.23 0.63 0.71 0.09 0.10 0.34 0.33 0.27
2xl¾ 0.69 0;07
R=¼ ¾a 1.96 0.57 0.23 0.18 0.64 0.08 0.35 0.31 0.27
tA 39 ¼ 2.34 0.69 0.20 0.18 0.54 0.60 0.09 0.10 0.35 0.35 0.27
l¾ x l¼ ¾6 1.80 0.53 0.16 0.14 0.55 0.58 0.07 0.08 0.36 0.33 0.27
R=¼ ¾ 1.23 0.36 0.11 0.09 0.56 0.56 0.05 0.05 0.37 0.31 0.27
• Special gage.
t Bar size.
(

Item 8. Tees, Equal and Unequal, Properties and Dimensions of Sections

Size
it
X
lt~
'

l+o
2
·-1
a

Radius
Weight Area Thickness of
per of Toe Root Fillet Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Section Foot Section Flange Stem a b R I s r z I s r
Index (lb) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.)
Equal Tees
Tl 13.5 3.97 4 4 ½ ½s ½ 5.7 2.0 1.20 1.18 2.8 1.4 0.84
T8 7.8 2.27 3 3 % ¾a 716 1.8 0.86 0.90 0.88 0.90 0.60 0.63
T9 6.7 1. 95 3 3 716 % 716 1.6 0.74 0.90 0.86 0.75 0.50 0.62
tTIO 6.4 1.87 2½ 2½ % ½a ¼ 1.0 0.59 0.74 0.76 0.52 0.42 0.53
tT 11 5.5 1.60 2½ 2½ 716 % ¼ 0.88 0.50 0.74 0.74 0.44 0.35 0.52
tT 13 4.1 1.19 2¾ 2¼ ¾ 716 ¼ 0.52 0.32 0.66 0.65 0.25 0.22 0.46
tT 14 4.3 1.26 2 2 ¾6 ¾ ¼ 0.44 0.31 0.59 0.61 0.23 0.23 0.43
tT 15 3.62 1.05 2 2 ¾ 716 ¼ 0.37 0.26 0.59 0.59 0.18 0.18 0.42
---- ,...,~
 360 Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members
Tees, Equal and Unequal, Properties and Dimensions of Sections (Continued)
Item 8.
Size
Radius
\Veight Area Thickness of
per of Root Fillet Axis 1-1 Axis 2-2
Toe
Section Foot Section Flange Stem a b R I s r X I s r
Index (lb) (in. 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in.)

Unequal Tees

• •
T 50 13.6 4.00 5 3}s ½, 1%2 ¾6, % % 2.7 1.1 0.82 0.76 5.2 2.1 1.14
11.5 3.37 5 3 %, 1%2 716, % ¾ 2.4 1.1 0.84 0.76 3.9 1. 6 1.10

T 60 11.2 3.29 4 4½ ¾ 716 ½ 6.3 2.0 1.39 1.31 2.1 1.1 0.80
T 61 9.2 2.68 4 3 ¾ 716 ¾ 2.0 0.90 0.86 0.78 2 1 1.1 0.89 ·
T 62 8.5 2.48 4 2½ ¾ 716 % 1.2 0.62 0.69 0.62 1.2 1.0 0.92
T 79 6.1 1. 77 3 2½ 716 % ~ 716 0.94 0.52 0.73 0.68 0.75 0.50 0.65

• Where two dimensions are shown, the first is for the flange, the second for the stem.
t Bar size.
Item 9. Two Channels, Properties of Sections
y

xij-x"1
.t_
y
Vertical Horizontal
Channel Channel Weight Axis X-X
Size Size Total per I I Axis Y-Y
and and Area Foot
I 81 = - 82 = - r Y1 I s r
Yi Y2
Weight Weight (in. 2) (lb) (in. 4) (in. 3) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) .(in. 4) (in. B) (in.)
3"- 4.1 4" 5.4 2.75 9.5 4.5 1. 7 2.3 1.28 2.61 4.0 2.0 1.21
4"- 5.4 3.12 10.8 8.8 2.7 3.8 1.69 3.23 4.1 2.1 1.15

--
4"- 5.4 1.66 3.38
5"- 6.7 3.51 12.1 9.7 2.9 4.1 7.7 3.1 1.48
5"- 6.7 3.90 13.4 16.6 4.2 6.0 2.06 3.99 7.9 3.2 1.42
~ 511
- 6. 7 6"- 8.2,t-- 4.34 14.9 17.9 4.3 6.5 2.03 4.16 13.5 4.5 1.76
7"- 9.8 4.80 16.5 19.1 4.4 6.9 1.99 4.31 21.6 6.2 2.12
5"- 6.7 4.34 14.9 26.6 5.8 8.4 2.47 4.57 8.1 3.2 1.37
6"- 8.2 4.78 16.4 28.5 6.0 9.0 2.44 4.76 13. 7 · 4.6 1.69
6"- 8.2 7"- 9.8 5.24 18.0 30.4 6.2 9.6 2.41 4.93 21.8 6.2 2.04
8"-11.5 5.75 19.7 32.2 6.3 10.2 2.37 5.09 33.0 8.2 2.40
9"-13.4 6.28 21.6 34.0 6.5 10.7 2.33 5.24 48.0 10.7 2.76
10"-15.3 6.86 23.5 36.0 6.7 11.1 2.29 5.37 67.6 13.5 3.14
6"- 8.2 5.24 18.0 42.8 8.0 11.9 2.86 5.33 14.0 4.7 1.69
7"- 9.8 5.70 19.6 45.5 8.2 12.8 2.82 5.52 22.1 6.3 1. 97
7"- 9.8 8"-11.5 6.21 21.3 48.0 8.4 13.5 2.78 5.71 33.3 8.3 2.31
9"-13.4 6.74 23.2 50.7 8.6 14.2 2.74 5.87 48.3 10.7 2.68
10"-15.3 7.32 25.1 53.2 8.8 14.9 2.70 6.03 67.9 13.6 3.05
611- 8.2 5.75 19.7 61.5 10.5 15.2 3.27 5.88 14.3 4.8 1.58
7"- 9.8 6.21 21.3 65.2 10.7 16.3 3.24 6.09 22.4 6.4 1.90
8"-11.5 8"-11.5 6.72 23.0 68.8 10.9 17.3 3.20 6.29 33.6 8.4 2.24
9"-13.4 7.25 24.9 72.5 11.2 18.3 '3.16 6.47 48.6 10.8 2.59
10''-15.3 7.83 26.8 75.9 11.4 19.2 3.11 6.65 68.2 13.6 2.95
12' ---'20 . 7 9.39 32.2 83.8 11.9 21.4 2.99 7.02 129.4 21.6 3.71
- ~-
 Properties of Selected Rolled Structural Members 361

lte\J'. .Two. Channels, Properties~ S::;ns (Continued)

Vertical Horizontal
8
Channel Channel !~eight
Axis Y-Y
Size
and
Size
and
· Total ' per
Area Foot
I S1 -I
= Y1 S2 -I
= Y2 r YI 1 s r
Weight - Weight (in. 2) (lb) (in.') (in. 3) (in. 3) (in.) (in.) (in.') . (in. 3) (in.)
7"- 9.8 6.74 23.2 - 90.2 13.6 20.3 3.66 6.64 22.9 6.5 1.84
8"-11.5 7.25 24.9 95.2 13.9 21.6 3.62 6.85 34.1 8.5 2.17
9"-13.4 9"-13.4 7.78 26.8 99.8 14.1 22.8 3.58 7.06 49.1 10.9 2.51
10"-15.3 8.36 28.7 -..l.Q_4._5 14.4 24.0 3.54 7.25 68.7 13.7 2.87
12"-20.7 9.92 34.1 115':2 -15.0 26.9 3.41 7.66 129.9 21.6 3.62
8"-,11.5 7.83 26.8 127.8 17.3 26.3 4.04 7.40 34.6 8.6 2.10
9"-13.4 8.36 28.7 134.2 17.6 27.8 4.01 7.61 49.6 11.0 2.44
10"-15.3 10"-15.3 8.94 30.6 140.3 17.9 29.4 3.96 7.82 69.2 13.8 2.78
12"-20.7 10.50 36.0 154.3 ~- 18.7 33.0 3.83 8.27 130.4 21.7 3.52
15"-33.9 14.37 49.2 178.3 C 19.8 40.4 3.52 8.99 314.9 42.0 4.68
9"-13.4 9.92 34.l 233.2 27.2 39.9 4.85 8.59 51.2 11.4 2.27
10"-15.3 10.50 36.0 243.5 27.6 42.2 4.82 8.83 70.8 14.2 2.60
12"-20.7 12"-20.7 12.06 41:4 267.3 28.6 47.8 4.71 9.35 132.0 22.0 3.31
15"-33.9 15.93 54.6 309.0 30.2 59.7 4.40 10.22 316.5 42.2 4.46
10"-15.3 14.37 49.2 519.0 51.8 68.6 6.01 10.03 75.1 15.0 2.29
12"-20.7 15.93 54.6 568.7 53.6 17.5 5.97 10.60 136.3 22.7 2:93
15"-33.9 15"-33.9 19.80 67.8 661.4 5.78 11.64 320.8 42.8 4.02
56.8 97.8
18"-42. 7 22.38 76.6 717.6 58.9 106."o 5.66 12.18 557.2 61.9 4.99
12"-20.7 18.51 63.4 935.4 76.9 106.5 7.11 12.16 143.1 23.8 2.78
18"-42.7 15"-33.9 22.38 76.6 1086.4 81.5 134.6 6.97 13.33 327.6 43.7 3.83
18"-42.7 24.96 85.4 1175.6 84.3 147.0 6.86 13.95 564.0 62.7 4.75
Centers of gravity of both channels are in the same vertical line.
APPENDIX
VALUES OF CONSTANT C OF EQ. 13,27*
C = 0.162 for plates rigidly riveted or bolted to shells,
flanges, or side plates, as shown in Fig. 13.8a.
C = 0.162 for integral flat heads, as shown in Fig. 13.8b,
where dimension d does not exceed 24 in., and the ratio
of thickness of the head to dimension dis at least equal
to or greater than 0.05.
C = 0.30 for flanged plates attached to vessels, as shown in
Fig. 13.8c, by means of circumferential lap joints
riveted, welded, or brazed, and meeting all the require-
ments therefore, where the corner radius on the inside
is not less than three times the thickness of the flange
immediately adjacent thereto; and for flanged plates
with the same inside-corner radius screwed over the
ends of vessels, in which the design of the threaded
joint against failure by shear, tension or compression,
resulting from the end force due to pressure, is based on
a factor of safety of at least 4, and the threaded parts
are at least as strong as the threads for standard piping
of the same diameter. Seal welding may be used, if
desired.
C ·= 0.25 for heads forged integral with or butt welded to
vessels, as shown in Fig. 13.8d and Fig. 13.8e, where the·
corner radius on the inside is not less than three times
the thickness of the flange immediately adjacent
thereto, and where the welding meets all the require-
ments for circumferential joints given in the code,
including those for stress relieving and radiographic
examination; d = G as defined in Chapter 12, inches.
C = 0.50 for plates having a diameter, d, not exceeding 18 in.
inserted into vessels and welded thereto, as shown in
Fig. 13.8i, and otherwise meeting the requirements for
the respective types of welded vessels, including stress
• Extracted from the 1956 edition of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels, with permission
of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
362
relieving when required for the vessl:ll but omitting
radiographic examination. The end of the vessel
shall be crimped over not less than 30° nor more than
45°. The crimping shall be done cold only when this
operation will not injure the metal. The throat of the
weld shall be not less than the thickness of the flat
head.
C = 0.75 for plates screwed into the end of a vessel having
an inside diameter, d, not exceeding 12 in., as shown in
Fig. 13.8j, or for heads having an integral flange ·
screwed over the end· of a vessel having an inside
diameter, d, not exceeding 12 in., where the design of
the threaded joint against failure by shear, tension, or
compression, resulting from the end force due to pres-
sure, is based on a factor of safety of at least 4, and the
threaded parts are at least as strong as the threads for
standard piping of the same diameter. Seal welding
may be used, if desired.
C = 0.30 for plates inserted into the ends of vessels and held
in place by some suitable positiv~ mechanical-locking
arrangements, such as those shown in Fig. 13.8k and
Fig. 13.81, where all possible means of failure, either by
shear, tension, or compression, due to the hydrostatic
end force, are resisted with a factor of safety of 4.
Seal welding may be used, if desired.
C == 0.50 for plates welded to the inside of a vessel, as
shown in Fig. 13.8/, and otherwise meeting the require-
ments for the respective types of welded vessels,
including stress relieving when required for the vessel
but omitting radiographic examination. The size of
weld shall be not less than two times the required
thickness of a seamless shell or less than 1.25 times the
nominal shell thickness and shall not be greater than
the head thickness. The weld shall be deposited in a
welding groove with the root of the weld at the inner
face of the head, as shown in Fig. 13.8/.
 /
C = 0.050 for beveled carbon and'~oy ~teeJ . plates
having a diameter, d, not exceeding 18 in~ inserted
into shells, pipes, or headers, the ends of which are
crimped over the bevel with the limitati6ns shown in
Fig. 13.8n. The crimping shall be done when the
entire circumference of the cylinder is unifoll!!!! heated
to a proper forging temperature f'or the material ~d.
For this construction the ratio l2/d shall be not less
than the ratio PIS nor less than 0.05.
C = 0.30 + (I.40Who/Hd) for, plates bolted to shells,
flanges, or side plates in such a manner that the setting
of the bolts tends to dish the plate, and where the
pressure is on the same side of the plate as the bolting
flange, as shown in Fig. 13.8g and Fig. 13.8h, where:
-··--~-•-----
I
--~
Values of Constant C of Eq. 13.27 363
W = bolt load under operating conditions, pounds (see
Chapter 12)
ha = radial distance from the bolt-circle di~eter to
the diameter d, inches
H = total hydrostatic end force as defined in Chap-
ter 12, pounds
C = 0.30 for plates held by set bolts in line with the gasket,
as shown in Fig. 13.8m, provided the design of all
holding parts against failure by shear, tension, or com-
pression, resulting from the end force due to pressure,
is based on a factor of safety of at least 4, and threaded
joints, if any, are at least as strong as those for standard
piping of the same diameter.
 I
,- ·--- ~~---·' ,._" --··•<, .---,~·~-----~

APPENDIX

CHARTS FOR DETERMINING SHELL THICKNESS

OF CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL VESSELS

UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE

364
 , ~rts for,,Cy:indrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 365

' 50,000 l--+--+-+-+--+--+-l-+-1-+-1

40,000
35 ~ :rs :::. .,,
Q
35,000
""
30 1-"":.i-+-1--1-<4+~--11-4-14-t-+l--+4-lH--+--H-+-Hl-1-H-I--HH--t+t--Hlr+-+++ti-t-t-iH--t-+-t-t-'H-I 30,000
251--4-----1-11-1-++l--+~+-I--H+l--+-t-t-t-t-;+t-Htt,~t-+++--tt-t---1--tt--t-t--t-H-t--·t--t-t-t--t-+-1-t-t-H 25,000

20t--t-t-++--H+--+-ll-'l'- 20,000
18 t--t-t-,-tt- 18,000
161--\t--ld--- 16,000
14 14,000
12 12,000
10 10,000
9.0 9,000
ao 8,000
7.0 7,000
6.0 6,000
~ 5.0 5,000
8
~
,.,. ... 4.0 4,000
-I- H 3.5 3,500
!I
Eli
~.s.!
j
3,000
2,500
i l
§
i8
! 2.0 1---t-½-t-~~+f-f,d-,t-,,9,6{9~+-Tl~'l'.H-'kt-,t~+t-it-Prl-N-t+--\-t--t--'k-+-t-+++t+l 2,000 l-!_
l.81--+-l-\hl\--t-+t-lH-l~~~-r1,.-NiW-l-tt---k-~~f-\l-Mf'tt----\-+-t-\l---++++-l!-H 1800 :?,if
o- 1.6 t--t-l--ll+-\f--f-lH~-lli'tHHH-+-+~-M'iNt-'\rl-~~--p,,:-+-f>.:Hrl-t~-1-~-1---Plrl--t-+-t-+-H 1'600 i::t
++
~ 1.4
' Q, ...
1,400 '--t-1
j I! 1.2 t--+-++B:-+-H-Hl~.-~-t\:+'l~H-f>.:1-H~~~H.t-''<t-"',1-H'+t-1~+++-t--l-l,,;H-+-t+I 1,200 n
~
r!~ 1.0 t---+--+-+-t-;,,,-+ 1,000 ij...
~ ~ 0.90 I---+-+ 900 :!
.e·:-: o.80
~e
s.!
0.10
800
700
i.. ~ 0.60 I---+-+-+- 600
~ 0.50 l---+--+-+- 500
0.40 r--+--+ 400
0.35 t---t--t7Wfi---1-t-+-t-++t--'l.--t-~-t-'t-'t-t-'d-t-+'H~-t-'lrl-Mt-~-+'ltt-M-t---..+-'lt-l,'t-l----jl,~ 350
0.30 l---+--¥Jilr+-+-+-+-I-H+--''I--~ 300
0.25 l--t#.ff-H--,-+-t--t++t--t-"Tf---1\- 250
200
180
160
140
120
0.10 l----+--+-+-+-+-+-1-HH+-l--l-++-+\,l-+'M-!~-4--l-',-H--'rf~+-P.:H-1---+~-t-i:i..+-4-+-+-\. 100
0.09 l---+--+--H--+-++-+++l---+--+-+-+-+-fr-++'H-l--',-..µ,.+-,ll-+-J.--Hl-+-M+~i.f-~-4,.-j.:Y-''-!-1irl-l 90
0.08 J---+--+--H--+-++-+++t---+--+-+-+-+-!-'l-+f++-''d-''d-'t-'d--+"d---1->d--H>l--~+->.!-+..+-+>.. 80
0 07
· ~==l:==l:=t:t==t=t:t:tttt===1==1=t:t==t=t=:t~:c..
0.06 t---+--+--H--+-+-H++l---+--+-++-+-!-+-H.
'4. 70
60
0.05 '-----:!2:-'-~3:--4i......S'-':-6~7~8........__ _._~2c--'---,3:--4i......5'-':-6~7~8.u.::c..->---,-,..___,~~,-+~--'-.__.....,_..,,........,_,,.._".!'-~-:--!,..» 50
0.00001 0.0001 0.001
Factor A =(IE= E

Item I. Chort for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of low-corbon nickel, (Fram the
1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engn.1
366 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure
50,000

11 u II 40,000
...,:::.
0
:::.0a::. :::.
..., ..., ...,
0 0 ...,:::.
0
...,:::.
0 35,000
30,000
25,000
201---1-1-44---Hf-l--l---'1-4--+++-l+-!--+--l-+--11---H-+-H+-1-H-l--+-t-+--t++-+-tt--++++tt--+--+-+-t---l-+-+-l-++i 20.000···
18 18,000
16 16,000 -
14 14,000·
12 12,000
1 10,000
9. 9,000
8. 8,000
7.0 7,000
6.0 6,000
5,000
4,000
3,500
3,000 ; ·,
2.500 It
--~....
15 .§
2,000 ;:-.,=
1,800
1,600 ieQ, Q,

1,400 '--,..I
II
1.200 CQ
1,000
900
i
if
800
700
600
500
0.40 r----t--t-+-+-t-+-i~!Jtft 400
0.35 t---+--+-+-+-+-+-HWH+~+....-t-+->t-~+>d-~H-'.-+"Tt--+'tl-T'lir+'ri-+~~+>,:1--!lr-f--t.--1-'1: 350
0.30 l---+--+-+-11-4---+---.-++4--...lj..~+4~~~-!+~->t!--J.-+-+~-ld-+>,j--!-Pl,---t,......µ..il-!',,...;..--1'1.' 300
0.25 t---t--+-t-+-+--at++++--+->t+-Mf-f~d+H+-T-P.-!-;+-~-JH--N-1---li:-I-~~~~ 250
0.26 l---t--1-t-+-lll-++++++--+---1-'~r\-t--fl:+½-I-H,r-ft-~-Pt-+-t-'d:-i+r?c-~+-t~..lt--~ 200
0.18 t---+---+-++-lll--t-H-Ht-t-Hrl-'d--H-+\-~r-t-\l---ir-1--41H--M--Pt-,l-\:+..:lt--l--fl:-µ.+4~ 180
0.16 _l---+-+-+- 160
0.14 I---+--+-+-.. 140
0.12 t--t---HF+-+-++++++--+-+-Hf->t-+1~+:l.¼-+-P.-r--+~+--1--½-l+f\--~-P.--l-ft.-+-~ :120--
100
90
80
70
60
~-'---'=---'"~~~~~...1.L.~'-l-,I......L~~~:i..._..ll,;_.L..ll..M.....,l.;...~~Jll50
2 3 4 2
0.00001 0.1
Factor A = {IE = e

Item 2. Chart for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of aluminum alloy MI A-0 or
MIA-HI 12. (from the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)
 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 367

50.--.-.......
, ......., ......
8 ~ :g ~ = =~
,-.-,--,.,..........,,~
,__,.,...,...,~-.--.,~..,,,......,,...,.,..........,.,..,...,__,..,.,--,,....,,.--,-__,..,,,..,,...--,--.-...--....-..--,....,....,..,..,.., 50,000
§ 8- ~ r- g-g i ~ -~ ~ ~ ~ r-~ 2 1--+--+--+-i-t-+-+-++-H

~
40 ';;' ';;
35 ~f.-.!'!,_
~
_! \--" ~--"- i; - ,11. ~ 11 ,11. II
~ ~ ~
~~~
-3 "t)
,".
~
U
r-
"'l;3"'
,11. , - ,". . - -
~
"t) "U
~
U t---t--+-ir-t---t--t--t-+++-140,000
"t$
3sooo
~-:-~
,
l ~. --~-~
1 2
0 1-'-+........a-+-..-1+--',1-~~-~f--+-+-l-+-+--++-1-++-H-l-+-+t--+t-1-t-tt-++++++-+-t-+-+---t---t-+-++-H 30,000
l-+-H-+-+++-+--'111-1-HH-+11--H-l-+-f-+1-H-I-H-+--,1-+++--+H--+-lt-++++++-+-+-+-+--+-+-+-i++-1
\
25,000
20 l--l-l-++-++f-+-+-'ll--+H+l--+++-+-+--++-+-+++H-+-++l--++-l---l-H-+++H+-+-+-1--t--t-+....-+t-+-1 20,000
18 \ 18,000
16 16,000
14 lr--¼--llc+--¼--+--1'1l-Hf-\l\l+½--1--H-+-I--H-HH-H-t-+-+-H--t+t--Hl--t-t-t-ttt-t--t-1-t----t---t--i-t--H1 14,000
12
~ \ \ \
\ I\ I\ tlt 12,000
10 \ 't u! I Up to 100• F 10,000
9.0 ..i \ ' \ I\ \~ \ -~l---'-2oo•F 9,000
8.0 Q,o~ I\ \ 11 \ ,~_.,11,.,+-1-+,+-1+1H-1H-+-+-4+-+l+--l-,~+1--+...-Y:44-1,_-==Fl--::+-I~i - - 8,000
7.0 "\..,\ \ , \ . 'I.":! I\ \ .,. ,__ 300•f 7,000
,,_, \ \ \ ~"31\ ,,
6.0 ~ I\ , , , , _,, ,... 6,000
5.0 \ ,, • , \ \ ,I ' \\l't.
\ \ \ I\ , ./ ., ~
;,
\
~ I
r-1-
1 -t-t-++t-tt 5,000
l-'-~..1-1-..u..H
<8. , \ I\ ' \ ' Y \,.,, \ Upto400"F
4.0 ~.'t) \ \ I\ \ \ \ I\ \ V "- 4,000
3.5 ~\\\'I\ \ , \ \ ,/1./ Y' \ , )(' S,500
,!j 3.0 "- 3000 e1
!I
u,

~ ~ \v )I ' , 11, \1,? \ ~500

'\' ~ ~ \ )<\ I\ 1\1\ f\ ~~
a, ' ' [\ " , \ ' \ ' \ \
j j 2.5 \ '... \ 'I\ ' \ \ \ \ \
~
]!
X
g·
2.0
1.8
\
, ,
\
,
\ '
I\
\ \
,
'JI /
,,,r... ~ \
, , , \ i\ m I\
\
, ,
. \. i
· -: :r~
21,000800

: + 1.6 i\ ' \ I\ \ j re; / l \ \ I\ \ ' :-NT \ \ ~ 'it

1,600
ii
a, ...
~~ \ I\ I\ \ I\ \ \ I\' ~
\ V ><.. \
\V '
'
\ I\ \ \ ' i\
~ \ \ I\ 'I\ \ I\ I\
\ \
\
I\
I\.~
y
1,400
l,20Q iq ..
:: ~ 1.0 1000 l'l
~ ·- ~ t;

lit m 4!,
I\ I\ \ \ ' 'r~Hl\.~H-'--ll\~"- '

H~ ~
I\ \ } '., ' ' \\

// i K ,\
i;' _
0.70 1111
-
1
+-+--+-1-'l\k+
' I\
. '
,
\ "t.,
' .\ I\
I\
I\ '
"'
\
,
,
\
,
,
I\ I\ ' ,
" ' , I\
t-~I\.~
' \.."'o
700
cS .c \. '\ '\ ...-;..,;
L£.; ~:: " ,~ , ' , , ~., r\ ,I\. , :;:~ :
\ I\ I\ 11 \· I' I\ \. . I\ \ l\°o...; p
I\ ' I\ \ I\ '· . r, I\ I\ t-.'""-...,1.
~:: \ I\ I\ \ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\. \\ I\ I\ I\ I\ ' \ I\~-~ :
~V \ ' I\ \. \ \ I\.' \ I\ '\ I\ ', \ i\~~~
0.30 ti I\ \ \ , ~ I\ [\ I\ \\I\ I\ I\ \ ~ / 300

"~r<~t~t:,
I\ \
0.25 ' I\ I\ ' ' \ \ I\ I\ \ \ 250 \ \ I\. \ I
0.20 t--+-t--t-t--#i
;.,~t+ttt--t-
\
\ ~ ,\ \
\ ~
\
,, ~ 200. \
\.
\ ,
: \.
,
0.18 Ill ~....µ>l,-\+Jl-,~\.-l-\-1-4.l\+~+-W-P<l-W...+\4-,+~i\.~~,,--µ~,: 180
0.16 ,'/ Note: [\ \ \ !\ , \ , , , ~,,,.,,· 160
0.14 T~\~~::u: \ \ ~ I\ I\ \ \
\ \ \ \ ~ 140 l,.~'t,
0.1 2 /J welded construction \ , \ \ \ \~ 120
'II I\ \ \ ' r\ \. \ ~~

2 345678 2 345678 2 345678 2 345678

0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Factor A= {IE= E

Item 3, Chart for determining shell thickness of c:ylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of aluminum alloy MI A-H 14.
(from the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code wifh permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)
368 Charts for Cylindrical end Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure
.....,,....,.-,-,.....,..,-,--,-,,...,..,..,-,.,,.,....-,-T"T'..,....,,...'TT',-,.-,,-,"TT-,--,-,-,--n,r--r-n-,-TT"M'"1r---r--,--,....,.--,,-..-,-,MT, 50,QOO

ft II II II t--r---t-T"'1r---ct-t--r--i--t-H 40,QOO
l ::..
~
...
~
~
~ ~
~ ~
-3
::..
"rjQ
:::.
'3't--t---t-T"'1r---,t-t--t-t-t-H 35,000
t-+-t-'H--H-t---'l---tt-+-t-+-t-t+-+-t-+-l:-l!--tt-t-t-tH--tt--t-l-t-l--HH---t-H--t-H-icl-1---t---+--t-1r--t-t-+++H 30,000
25 t-+---t-H--t++-+'"'Tl-+-t-+-t-t+-+++-1:-l!--+t-t-t-!H--tt--t-t-+t-+IH--+-tt-!-t+-i+t--t---+--t-1r--t-++++H 25,000

20 +t-t-++t--tH-t-lt-t-HH-Hr-l-t-t-1-t-+++-1-H 20,000
18 ++-+-+-++-++t--1HI--H-++l+-+-+--t-+--l-f-+++H 18,000
16 +1--t-l-rt-+IH--+-tt--t-t+-i+t--t---+--t-ir--t-++++H 16,000
14 _ _ __..,._,,_......+I-I--+
14,000
12 12,000
10 10,000
9.0 9,000
8.0 --P,--14-+4+-!--l-1!-+-P----l+-+---l-+-l-l-+--!l+++--+-+-++-Hl--+-t!---l---iH-1H+---i---i-+-+---+--+-++-++18,000
7.0 r-n-"'il-!t-c-t''<'t--~cl-"r-t~~--r---v-""t\"-r-t-T'"t"'i--,a-"M"-tt---f"'"t---t-1'-1--t-H""t-t--i---r--;--i---i--1"4"--r-tTi 7,000

8
~
6.0
5.0 ·--~--------lt. -lr+----¥-41---¼
W--+H-+-t--ttt+----+-l----+---il-1-++t-t+---+--+-+-+--+-+-t-+-IH-I 6,000

\--H.-1-''H-~-!r-tt-,~H-+~-H-Hrl--t--t-t--+---t-t++H 5,000

-:3~ 4.0 l.-i~tt-t'tt-"'r-t-''lt-frt-\i--t-t\'.t+t:r""'t-1--!-l-+--+-+-+++H 4,000

~
n ..,:t
u 3.5 \--;;..r-'ic-flH-Tl-+\l-t.lc+-'H-\i---'l--Rrt-~Hffir'tt---f\rl-'l--bot-'f=-ft-lrtt--\l--++-1-H;+t+ti 3,500

~.j 3.o 3,ooo -i I

e 2.5 '¥.H~-\t~I-H'i--\-t~-l'lrl-4rl-"H::?H~rr-'HHl:➔rl-'tt++'l:--+++t-H-+t+tt 2,soo ~ it
~~ ~l
;G x 2.0 l--l-+~-+~H-hH--\-*~~~W'-ll1tH*~f-\i--1t--t---\-l~N-,H-''t+-t-->t--lH-+++-1-H 2,000
~ 8 1.8
6 - 1.6
•I- ·I• 1A
----t-+++,f-H 1,800 -0 ~
--t'T"i-+~--M.et-t-t-+H 1,600 l; it
<"""t-~-!-t-"lot-r-t-t-H-t 1,400 '-.-J
~~

j-~ 12 II
i ~ · 1,200 i:tl
~ ~ 1.0 1,000 ,§
,ij :! 0.90 rl--k--t'r-t-'l.+t-Af--'t.:t-"<i-'lrl-""d-~i-llrH-t"T--hc-l'lrl-t-'<t-t-+''r+H 900 ~
€ j(l 0.80 800
G~~ ~
i '§.... 0.60 600
if 500
0.40 400
0.35 350
0.30 300
0.25 250
0.20 200
0.18 180
0.16 160
0.14 140
0.12 120
0.10 100
0.09 90
0.08 80
0.07 70
0.06 60
0.05 50
2 ll 4 5 6 78
0.00001 0.001
Factor A= f/E =E
Item 4. Chart for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of aluminum alloy MG11A-0 or
MG 11 A-Hl 12. (From the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)
 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 369

Factor A = f/E = E
Item 5. Chart for determining shell thickness af cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of aluminum alloy MG11A-H34.
(From the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.l
370 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure

50
8
<')
40 II "'11
-~ g -!Q
II -11
0
"'II -~
~u
->- s
i-11
-
~

:::. :::. :::.

35 .:::.0 -~
.., -3 --3 "'
i:, ..,.:::.
i--,<> c-- ..,.:::.
0

30
25

0.40 - :§
0.35 -
0.30
\.
025

020 /f
/ID
0.18 Ill/
0.16
0.14 'II
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
2 3 4 5618
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
=
Factor A f/E = t

Item 6, Chart for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of nickel, {From the 1956 ASME
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)
 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 371
50 ......_-~ ...A.....,..,--......,,,...,...,..,.,.,..,,,...--,1..,..,--,-,.,......,_,......,......,J.,,....,:.,..;--, ,-,--..,.,..,--,-,-n--.,....,..,.'T"1-~n---,---,--,-,---,....,....,,...n-r, 50,000
1-.,......
9 6il> ~r -~ g'l s~2 -~~~ ~ -:g -
40 c;; ~ c;: ~ - -;; -;; 'jj' - ! - ! - !
.?= --::-.g
I O·"

\i~~
~-·~

- ,.. ~ ~
.-.
0

!1--+-+-t-+-+-+--+++-H 40,ooo
35i~:: ?"1: ~\= ? - --~-~ ~ ~ ~0 ~
-8~··.:~
30 l-l--!-l,-l---++l---'t--ff-f-+H+t--++-+-+-t----++--t-+H-+-H-l--+++-+t-1--iHt-++++H--+---+-t-+-+-+-I--H--H 30,000
.g -""0 r-- -8 t---t--t-t-t--+-t-+-+-1--H 35,000

[\
25 25,000

-++-t--+-+-f-1---1--+-I-+-~ 20,000
-++-t--+-+-f-+--l--+-4--l-~ 18,000
n+-+-+--Hl---l-'--'--'-J..L.J 16,000
Up to lOO•F 14,000
12,000

0.00001

Item 7. Chart for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of annealed nickel-copper alloy,
IFrom the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am, Soc. Mech. Engrs,)
372 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure
50 .,, 50,000
0 0
"'II "'II "'II II ii 40,000
II
:::.
-8
..,;:::_
0 ..,:::.
0 ..,:::. l
0
:::.
0
"t) ..,:::.
0 ..,:::.
0 35,000
30,000
25,000

20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
4 5,000

-
o-
~.:
~
8
11
4,000
3,500
u "' 3,000
I! Ii I
..,_
Eti 2,500] {
i:i" ..
'6:5
~x 2.0
~a
2,000 J! -
~-
·-g
0
.,.
...
ti)
1.8
1.6
1.4
1,800 ~:!
1600
'
i1::.
""'
1,40()\....,.../
.c .2
til,,:, II
C I! 1.2 1,200 i:q
.!!! "' ...
i(i
a, C

'iiri
"D ·-
1.000
900
800
I
;
... .c 700
if Ii}-
... 600
if 500

200
180
160
140
0.12 120.
~w
0.091---l--+-4-1---1--1---1-~l-l-----!---!--l-4--l-~4.\l.-l-+-4---~-l->l-+--+4-l,l--l-~--"U.--l.-,l...ll.---!..l,,l..-'-l.~
100

0.08 i---+--+-+-+-t-+-+++
·0.07 0
0.()61----+--+-+-+--!--+--l-
o.os ......._.__,_..._..___.,__._...........L-W.___,_............_..__._..........L..IJI_J.L-~J....A....L....,_L.l..ll..1..LJ.-.~J...lll..l,l...-ll,...I..J...Wu.ll
2 345678 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 •. 5 6 78
:0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Fact.Qr A.=; {IE - E

Item 8. Chart for determining shell thickness· of cylindrictd and spherical vessels under external pressure when constNded of annealed nickel-chromium-Iron
alloy. (From the 1956 ASME Unftred Pressure Venel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Eng11.)
 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 373

... I
& 0.50 \' \' \ \'1 \ '\' ,,, ~~
~ \ ,. \ \ " \ , , , '\ '\ , \ \.~-;::. 500
0.40
I
\' \\\ "\ \' \ \ \' ''~tt :~~
0.35
0.30
/
I \

\
\

\
'
\
\

\
\

\
\
\
\.

\
\
~
\

\
\
\

\
\
\
'\ \ \

\\\
\ \ \
'\

\
\

\
\

\
"

\
I\\
\

r,._ \
'

\ is'!
,~-;::. 0

t~ ;s- 300
0.25 .,i 250
/ \ \ I\ i\ \ \ \ \ \ ~ \. ' \ \. I\ \'\~._f'N'
0.20
0.18 1
I '
\
\
,
"
,
" I\
\
\ '
, \
\
\
\
'
'
\
\ 200180
~ 160
' \. ~~:t
0.16 t---+--t--+-+-+--t-t-H++--+--+-----1....+-+>,i-+\-+-~---l...+-'t--+\,+-i~H-l'~-'l--~-i-\,l-!->.~
/ I\ ~ ' \ " \ i\ " ' '- ~~ 140
o.14 / \ ' ' i\ \ \ \ I\ \ ' ' ' :~
0.12 / i\ ' \. \ ' r\ \ \ i\ \ \ \ ~*1 120
0.10 I , \ ,. \ \ I\ \.. , \ \ l\<ti 100
0.09 I I\ \ \ ' " •: \ \ ~ t:li :~
~:~~ t---+-t--+-+-+--++H+--+--+-+-1---+--1-A\%•
0.06,
t==t==t~~:t=:t=t=::t::t: ++:t==:t=:t=t:t=::t=:t:t::r-~,~ 11.\
*~ ~~ ~1t; ~~ ~%~~ ~~
~o'e -~%~%'~i'e~~%it-;;:~-::,~\""~%~%~"-:;::ij\:J 70
~ ~'1,- \\~ ~'q, u 60
0.05 ..___..__..._2__......._..,_......,....,_,.........__..,__...._......____............_,~~-•_._.___,......_1_.__.......,..._I_..__...._......___,...,_,_·.....,..,__1......._._....._
I._.. 50
3 45678 2 3 45678 2 3 45678 2 3 45678
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Factor A = (IE= E

Item 9. Chart fer determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when construded of annealed copper, type DHP.'
(From the 1956 ASME Unflred Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)

iiiiii,I
374 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Presusre

.;;:
g
......
~?
II II

3 4 5678
0.001
Factor A = f/E = E

Item JO. Chart for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under extemal pressure when conslruded of copper-silicon alloys A and<;.
(From the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)
 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 375

50 8 50,000
~ g
40 "'u
ff H
:!::. :!::. 40,000
~
35 .g
.o
')2 -: 35,000
30 30,000
25 25,000

20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
1 12,000
1 10,000
9. 9,000
8. 8,000
7. 7,000
6.0 6,000
,:f 5,000
08 4,000
~:::::!.
~..: 3,500
u II
tm 3,000
.;; QI
e= 1I
2,500 =".cQ.
"'ti 2.5
'6 :E it~
~a
QI -
~x 2.0 2,000 ,2 -
!i8 1.8 1soos:~
.g
I N
o- 1.6 1,600-"ii
+ •I·
.s;;;"' 1.4 1,400 '-,..../
1il,.2
c-o
.!!! 1!
12 1,200 •
a:i
...
1,000
li ·;,;; 1.0
in~
"O C 0.90
C •-
~ in 0.80
900
800
I
<>f
. . QI 0.70 700
0 .s;;;
"- ~ 0.60 600
...
.....0 0.50 500

0.40 400
0.35 350
0.30 300
0.25 250
0.20 200
0.18 180
0.16 160
0.14 140
0.12 120
0.10 100
0.09 90
0.08 80
0.07 70
0.06 60
0.05 50
2 3 4 5678 2 3 4 5678 2 3 4 5678 2 3 4 5 6 78
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Factor A = f/E = E

Item 11. Chart for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when tonstructed of annealed 90-10 copper-nickel
alloy. (from the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)
376 Charts for Cylindrical ond Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure

~..-,__-..-,f.il..,,_..,~r-r-,-,8r-r,r~--,.f6"T--,~-,-'g-r-5-l-r,.,.,-~..,.,Tl'"T-r'r;~.,--~rr-r-~-r,.,.,LL,--,~r-Tl"-•_-..,.--r-,g-r,r--.---rl-r.--.--r!;"T""T",.,., 50,000
50 ,...i;....,,..-~..-..._..-...,....
40 ~ ,....; ,_ ~ ._ ..._II 7' 7' ~ !!, ,-1... ! N II H II U 4- II ,.... - II t--+--+-t-t--+-;-++++1 40,000
35 t'b' _ ~ ~ 0 "'c
-01-'"ot-
- -
~f-~t-1-
- -
~ ~ ~
.:
~ ::. ~
.:
' j L j
,_. V
~r- j
V
I 35,ooo
"t:t ..g "'C "ti ...,
30 1---1--t-++-'i-i-~---t+l-~--+-l-+-+--+t-+-+-fH-H-+-t-+-t-+++--+-1+-le+-H-t+---+---+-T-t---t--t--+-t-++-1 30,000
1
25 1-J.-+-,1-+-+1+--+-\-1-HH-+,r--+-t-t-+-ll--+t-t--+IH--H-t-i-t-t-+--t++--+-tt-t-t-rti"t---t--r-t--i--r-r-t-""1"-t-rl 25,000

20 l-lH-¼+-+-l+-+-l\~i-H-++--+-H-+-11--tt++H-+-tt-+--t-t-t--+t+--Ht-t--H-H-t----+-+---1-t--1-t--t-ti-H 20,000
18 ' I\ 18,000
16 16,000
14 ~ 14,000

\ :: ~~~ \/\ ', I\\

9_.0 ~~\ , I\ \
l
\!S-'\-l--!-\-\..+-t+-1--l-l-++--+--ii-+-t-++4---+-i!--4-H!+t-t--+-+-t-1_JP to 150°f 9,000
:~::

8.0 ~f , \ \ , \ t\_+\+-+~,.+-ll-+H-1+-H-+f-+l+--+--+-+-+H+t-_-+::_:::,ol-""'F-11-,-,---,-,--t+i 8,000

1.0
60 ~
·" " 11.
'
, ~ ,
~ ,
~~=td\d±ttt=tt::t:t!~~:'.l-=t:1:tt:l=:l=:l=~=t:::ttttt:l
-:::.•
l
1.000
6°000
1
. ' ' \ \+---11-bi-4.,,.-+-+1+H-l-t+-+-+-+-t--t-H-++ti '
~ ~ I\ " \ \ I\ \. ~ ~~ \
g 5.0 -;:.~ \ , \ , , ,, \ \ \ I\ ~-+-\-+\~\....+\+-+-++++t-t-\\-+-++-t-+-t-+-H+-15,000
:a? 4.0 ~~~ ,\ \ \ \ \ ~ ~ I\ \ \ 1\/ I\ ,_ I__,\\.-t---+-\r-..-ft-t.....\H--ic--H<'H-t-r-'\H--t-t-1""--t--t-t-t-t-1-1 4,000
jj 11 3.5 ~\ \ \ , ~ ~ \ , I\ \ , ~ \ \._ , I\ \ , 3,500
~! 3.0 3,0QO ~~
~~ ~
4, I '\ \ \ I/ \ \ I'\ \ \
,'t> \ \ \ .' f\ \ \ I\
1
j\ 2,500 j{
! ;§ \

~ .,
a,
]8
x
2.5
2.0
18 rn " \
\ ,
\
,
\
I\
1
' I\
\ \
I\ i \
X
, / \
\
\
\
\
'
.,
' \
\

'
\ I\ \ \
I\ \
I\
'
I\
"'-
I\
I\
\
\
;,
2 000
,
.e !
":::-..,
1,800 <> ~

!::: r
:, - · - \ I\ , \ I\ , I\ I\ \ I\ 11. I' "
:! l.61-- ' I\ /\I\ I \ ' I' \\I\\ ,, I\ \ I\ l,6001~
i~ u2 I\ I\ " /\ \ \ ' ~ I\ \ \ I\ I\ "' ~ \ i\ I\
i ~ 1. \ \ I\ r\ \ ' i\ I\ ~\ ' I\ \ I\ ~ I\ f'\ \ I\~~
\'.! j 1.0 I\ I\ \ ' I\ ~ ~ I\ \ \ ' I'\ I\ ' I\ I\~~ 1.000 ~
-8 .!: 0.90 I\ I\ \ I\ I\ \ \ I\ ;' I' \ I\ \ 1\.0 900 ~
~ kl
if~:: '\ ,"\ ,,,\'>--:""II\,", ,"rr~~:
800
O.SOJ----t--t-t-+--t-+l'--f--\~ '., \ ,' I\ I\ t\ \ I\ ' ' I\ I\ I)

500
1--t--+-+-+-..,_'-+-+++-Nf--\..,.___,l\~"-+--foc-+-l-\H"tt-~ '-+
\t--~~\,..._..-l<- \ I'\ I\ ' I\~ I )I
K~1
0.40
0.35
i/
' \ !\ \ I\ \\ !\
\ \ I\ \ I\ .\
\
\
\
" ,\
, I\
\ r,,, \
'
\ \
I\. '\.
, ,~•:j 4-00
J \
0.30 t--t--+-+V-1-+-t-++++----'l-~-\+--1-'\-\-+>,i-,'1-+-f>-\--\-,.!\-r+'<-'I\H\Hi\l-'I-\--H-T\--l'l\.....-1-1\1-'r-\~r•~.;)
' \ \ I\ \I\ ' \ \ r\. '\ \ 0:,-1~ 350
-:;:.
300

0.25 I \ I\ i\ , \ , \ ,, , " \ '\. \ \ 250

" \ " \ ' ,, " \ I\ " I\~- 200
0.20 I \, "\ \ ~ \'\ ,~,
0.18 , I\ , \ I\ \ \ , \. "E> 180
~~
1
0.16 l--/-+-+-l-l--+-+-+-+--1--l-l---+-+---l-\l,-4!\..-1--1-' , ,\ \ \ \ I\ , 160
0.14 1 \ , ~ I\ !\ \ , 140
1,

t-~1.)
\ , , "'-~~

0.12 , , , , \ , I\ I\ , \ I\ , \ 120
0.10 , \ , \ , I\ \\ , \ I\. I\'ti 100
0.09 I\ I\ 90

-~~=t=~t=t=:t:i.ti~:l~i il~·~i~~ ~
I\ ' \ 9-~~

~:~: -=: :+-

I \ \ \ \ "

--+:: : ~-+--+:::::~--:::~-
~ 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3· 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 78
50
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Factor A ={IE= t

Item 12. Chart for determining shell thidcness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of annealed 70,30 copper-nickel
alloy. (From the 1956 ASME Unfired Prenure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.)
 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 377
50 50,000
g~g
40 "'II~ "'H
t -§ -~
II -11 -11
8-~ -lz _g
~Ti-! -:::. -:::. _II _11
0
"II
0
"' "'0 -
"'-"'
ii_ II II
-~
...
"' -
--
2
II
40,000
... ... ... '...
35 'o~"o
30
-:::.0 --\- '2; i;~ --3 -~
-~ ..,_
::::.
~
.::::.
~f--3
~
...::::.
0
--8 -- ...::::.
0
35,000
30,000
25
\ 25,000
'\
20 20,000
\
18 18,000
16
\
. 16,000
14
12
~ \\ .
\ \

\
\
~,, .......
~ -- Up to ISO• F
14.000
12.000

',
\ \
10
'\ \ ,,, 10,000

il ,''ffi
9.0 9,000
8.0 ' I\ \ \ \
\ \
<J'!
[\"'½ \
\
\ _,,
/ 8,000
7.0 ,'\
' I\
\
\ ,,~ (.9
I
\ ,. 7,000
6.0
it,' ' \ '-' -::1.·
./ 1
J,
6,000
' \ ~\ \ \

8
.;: 5.0
o.::::, 4.0 ~ \
I\
\
\
\.
\
\
\'.
'
\1
\
\
\
,.-'I
' \
\
\
\ \
\
\
1 \
\
5,000

4,000
.:a -
--
...
II II 3.5
~;\ \ \ '
I\ \ \

'
\
\
\
\
\ \
' \ ~
~ \

'
\
\
\
'
\
\
\
\ \
1 \ 3,500

,, ' \
"' 3.0
I\
3,000
~ ~..
QI"'
-QI QI
E""
C
2.5
\' \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ 2,500
"O
'j. j
tQ -~
·- .s:::
"C -
QI )(
2.0
\ \
\\
I\ \ I\\ \ [\i \ ' \
\ \ \ \ \ \\ !\ 2000s=:
...
~
~
0

' I\ \ e:
'I\ \ , '
:Slo
1.8
\ \ \ \II \ \ 1'soo it-
.'!lo \
\
'
'\
\ \ \ \ i'\ \ • 0

'\
::i-
1.6001 i
I\
o ·I•
·I•"'
1.6
\ \ A\ \ \ ,. \ ' \ ' \ \ \ 1,400'-,..../
1.4
t~ \ \ \ ) \ \ ' \
\ \ \ I\
\
'\\ \ \ \ II
i ~ 1.2
'\\ ,y \ ' \ \ \\\ \ \ \
' \ \
1,200
...
1:1:1
-
~iC
QI
QI
1.0
0.90 ' \
' i\ ' \ I\ ' '
\
,.
~
\
'
\
I\
\
'
1,

'
,\ \
"' \
'\
\t'-,
. ._~ -
1<c.:
1,000 ~
900 .....'°
"C ·-
C ..
:.:: ~ 0.80 \
I\

\ \ '
\
\ \ \. \
\
I\
I\
\
'
I\ "' \
I'\
800
~ lii 0.70
... .s:::
~ ~ 0.60
' '
\
'\ ' \ ' " '
' '
"
,,
.... ~~f=E
l,_ ....."
700
600
~ ' \ ' ' ' '\\ ' '"~ 500
~

~ 0.50
\ \ \
. I\ I'\.

' \ \ :5fW
\ \ \ \ \ \. \

I
\ \ \ ~ \
1v~~
0.40 I
\
\ \
\ \ \. I'\ ' \. ' " '" {A 400
0.35
\ \ \ \ \ \
\
\ '.' ' \ \ 350
I \ \ \ \ \' \ \
0.30
\ '\ \ \
\
\
\ \ \ 'I\ \ ' r.. ' \ \ \ \ '1(~
~ 300

,iJ]
0.25
I \
250
I \
J '\ \
\
\' \ \
\
\
\~, \ I\ \ \.
\
\
\ \ \
0.20
0.18
\ \ . I\ \ '\ \
'\
\ \ \ I\
"~
200
180
0.16
0.14 I
I \
\ 1\
\
\
\ \
' \ \ ' \

' I\ ~ \
\
\
\ '' ' ,i~~
\. ~~
160
1-l, 140
I \ \ \ \ \ ' \ \
I\ 9-'
120
0.12 "-,
I \ \ ,\ I\ \'\ \ \ [\ \ \
0.10 I 100
\
0.09 'l\ \ \
' i\ ' \ I\ " t. ' I\ ' \ \
90

'i·~
, \ \ .,... .
0.08 80

~ li~
0.07
. \~ ..... . ..... ..... .......... 't ..... ..... ....... 70
7
0.06 60
0.05
l'~
;., · ~ ; ~ \ ~ ~ \ ~
~ ~i '% ~ 1. i <£, ~. '% 50
2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 6 78
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Factor A ={IE= E

Item 13. Chart for determining shell thickness cylindrical and spherical veuels under external pressure when constructed of alpha-aluminum bronze. (From
the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Sac. Mech. Engrs.)
378 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure

50 0
o
I
r-g r- 8' -
_\ ' I ' I t'
~ +- ~ ~, 8 - iI -~ g -~I d
• ~I
I '
~ ~~
I !?.~,. ~
I
~-lfl L__
.- b_' 1---1--1---,--1---1----1-.;.......~
I 50,000
II
MN .....
11 - ~ - , - !! - !
---
-_! -- II !
40 II
35 ~::._.:::,
-: ~
\
i-- : :. -~ : :, _
"""11 ,-,. 'jj -
11 -, 11
.: ~ ~
-
~
-
0,_f.- o.__e
"t,
-
"t,
II -
~1·
c
"t,
~
II - II
01-
"tj
-
--a
-
c r-- o f-f--
"t, ""tj ~I
J 40,000
'"'a'---t-+-+-ii-,i-+-+-H-H35000 Q
f

30 1-+-.......+-+-r+r--~,il-,--H--r..+---r-++--l-df--rt-t-rlHH,--+-r-H--,++-r-tt--+-++rr+-+-+-+-+-+-f-+-+-+H 30,000
25 l-+-1-H--++l---!-4!--+-l++H--+-f-+-+-ll--+f-+--H+-++i-+--+-+-+-H+-+-t!-'t-HH-+,l---f-+--+-+---+-+-+-+-!-H 25,000
\
20 l--!--I-H-+-H---!-!l--\,\-l-l-+++--l.+-!-+-ll-+l-!-+H-+l+-+-+-+-+-l+-l--+-l+-I-H-+++--1--1--~~-!-I-H-I 20,000
18 \ 18,000
Up to lOO"F
16 9- I ~ 16,000
1
14 \ \ \ ; _ ~ .,.. , 14,000
12 \ ~ _. "'" 400"F 12,000
10 ' \ ~ -",,
9o -.:~, , ' t,._ \ / ,.- ..3...oo•F ioooo,ooo
. ~\ \ \ \· '<;S \ ~ ./ 900°F '
8.o Q,.-e ,, , , ,{l, , l/ '-"""-.... 8,000
7.0 '?;:" , , , , ,,.t9 ,, ~ - .... 1200°F 7,000
6.0
\\\
'.l:b \ ,
\. ,
\ i,'t9 , I/
'\ - _ 6,000
.:f- s.o ~,rr\'tl--+.:,--+1c+,-1t,-t-kt'+~',rr'~,+"~-fu''J!'-",._rl~"t-t::;1,1c:,,,."-,1,,-..,.-t,P1-"l'~H---+''H-lmt-t,-+-+-+-++-H+1-H 5,000
8 I\ , , , -..: ..,,
i~ 4.0 ~~ P.\+',1,\-'i-\~--w-,+Pr\_...\,--p.\+i/~/-Jr\"'-H'rl)-:Mf-'....+\~...,.,-+--lrt-+-i\t,++l-+-,+--+-+-+-+-+-H+H4,000
K , \ ,

II II 3.5 \\ \ \ \ ,\ ~ \ \J ~ ~ ~' 3,500I' \ \ \ \ \ \

~ ~ 3.0 i , \ r1: 1 , 3,000 ll ! \ \ \ \
) ~ 2.5 1---Pr-+\~""'\..+l\-\l-.,_.,+-11\'-N--\-lv-Mlr1i~1--'\.,..\~~'i++-ll.-~),l-!4'--P,-l\~1-++i.---1-41-\~e--+--1-f-1-..1-1-1 2 500 It
'6
~;
:c
2.0
\ " \ , , \ '~ \ \ , \ \ \ \
i\ \ , I\ v. 'ti. \ \: \ \ I\ ,
~ \
•
2,000 ;_
I\ \ , I\ , ~ i<
~8 1.8 \ //J , , '\ , \. , r.... , 1,800 ~ 1-
:+ 1
5
1.4 I\ ' I\ , "f/JJ \ ' \ i', \ \ , \ ' I\ \ \ I\ l: 'ii:
l.600 .._,_,
1400
:g,.; . \ \ , 'I)\ ' \ ' ' , \ \ \ \. I\ \ \ \ I\ ' II
li ! 1.2 , \ 1 \ i\ , I\ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \i\ K \ \9c 1.200 ~
!!! l!~ 0.90
Cl,)
1.0 i\ " [/ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \. ' \. ' ' \ \ ' \ t~~ 9001,000 ~
..:
]l ·~ 0.80 l--t--t-H-+-Pii%'1~'11l--Hf--\>,.--f~\-t~*+f\\+\..lJ--P'H-iH\-....;'l~\i.--lP.\I-\H\..l\rl'-Mt-~'f-'!\~'\'H_,..,.._Hl-+Ni-'IIOct-l 800
>-.., Q.70
::'. a / ~'I,'
JC
\, \, \.
\ ' i\ \ \ U\ '
' \. \ \ \ ,\ ' \ ' \. , \ , \ \.<f;-., 700 'ij
&Jo.60 -
"
'fl I \ \ ' \
' \. '\
' \ ',
'\ " ...I'\<,
-~ 600
if 0.50 500

2 345678
0.1
Factor A =!IE= E

Item 14. · Chart for determining shell thickness of cyrmdrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of oustenitic Jfeel ( 18 Cr-8 Ni,
type 304). !From the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.l
 ~
Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure 379
50,000

0.40 l---l--1-+-AI-Hl-+++++l~-!'t--+-''l-+~-',1--I-P,H-l'\.---,._f---',l....µ,,+J'r-f-'H+i>o,--,k--,f><-+--f-'l.f->,I-'-\.
0351---l-+IIN'f++I-H+l---\-i~,..+'v----'H-ld-H-\~...Pti-W~-l-\lf-Hid-+'""""11-"d-h+-~~
03Ql---i--+l:i(-¥fft----f-+++++ll---l---lT-+-+'<+"ri--l-'d-H-fir-''t--i'rl-+',:;-->'d-t->t-t-t'k---"1'<--i~-IT-+-~

0.251---+--INi'>f-f----+-+++++II---Hr+--t.+-t.-f->tH..Jk-H-~r'l:i--lt'-1---l'<'.....-.>t-H'd-t--'rt---1H-->t-~t-H. 250

200
180
160
140
120

100
-'td~.+-'\-~-Lf-'tt-t90
80
70
~ 60
0,05...___,_...__~-~~,.......__.~__,__..._.._,......,.,..._.,,,..__...._..,,_......,.._._.,,._.~_._,........,.....,._.,..__~__,...~
2 345678 2
50
0.00001 0.0001
Factor A= f/E = E

Item 15. Chart for determining shell thickness af cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when canstructed of oustenltic steels (18 Cr-8 Ni +
Mo, type 316; 18 Cr-8 Ni+ Ti, type 321; 18 Cr-8 Ni+ Cb, type 347). (From the 1956 ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code with permission of the Am.
Soc. Mech, Engrs.)
380 Charts for Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels Under External Pressure
,....--,.....-,rrrn--.-r-i--rT"TT~TT",-,---n-""T'T",-,-,,...,-n-r-,-.,.....-....,....,--,-n-..,...,....,..,..,....-..,...........,-,-....,...~-- 50,000

l---+--+--+--l--l--l-l-1--1-l-1 40,000
ll---1--1--1--l-......J......J...-W...L.U 35,ooo
l-t.....,-'H-..,.-tt-,--t-r+H.f---H-+-+-ll--1+++11-1-1-l-'4-l--l--l+~-41---l-l-~-i---l--l-l--l--L..L.J....LJ..U 30,000

25 t-t-hH--ttt--+41-++t+t-t--H-+-+-ff---i+++IH-l+-!-+-l+-l+l--l....J.l.-++~..J---1--1-1--1--l--l-l-..W..U 25,000

i--r1-;-HH-t-l-t--++t+t+-+-t+-++-+t+-+ll-+++-H-+-+-H+~-H+++-!+l--l-.,,.L..L..L....L..L.1....L..1..W 20,00Q
t-tt--tt-+tir--t--+-ft!H-+tt--t-H-+-ll-f++-Hf-++f-+-+,-ll-l-++-l--4-41-+-1--1-1-44-4--=:.;:;.:.:;;..;;;!.;z.::..:::::.:...;~ 18,000

t==!=Jt1jt=t=!1J~J1t:JJttj=t~ltt1lJJ1:u~:tt~±t:!jt13j3:tt::!::JCl[as:rs:t':urp:tocjJJFd1 14,000
50 650 0
16 000
1 ·
1 -+'l-\t-+\-+-+-\f----H-H--l--l-Hl-+-+I--H-++11-1-W.,4-,-4-l-l,-,M-l--l-Jl-l-l--l--l-l,,l..~..::;::::;,...:.;::..:!::.=..=..:..w 12,000
1 10,000
9. ~-H+-l-+-i-1-1--1-;;;;:::;;;.:;;:..:::;..:::;..:.::.:....:....u 9,000
8. rt-t--tt➔+-'l+:H-1++-lH--H-1-+-IH-l-H-l4--+-l---l--i---l--l--l-l--l-l-l 8,000
7. ~+--'l--+lfflHi!--l-+-1-,,-!-4+--l--¥-+l'-l-l-l--l-4--1-4--I-..I-LI-I-U-I 7,000
.\t--!+-l:fV-JH-l+---1rl--1---l-1--1--l-l+-l-+-14---l-_;C:;,;la:.:ss;;;.'.::20;!,_-:U:.;P.::!o:..4::;5::;:0;._':. Fu 6,000
~ ~+'<+-l-t-THc+'H--ln-+'t-f~~-+Ht.a~,-¥1"t--l'.---l-\--l-1.\--l-i~+-l..l-J.4---l---l--l--l---l--l-W-WJ 5,000
8
c:,~ 4,000
~-t-ltt-'l-+'ll--+ll-+----1'.--"½-Hll<f-+f-Rll-l-'d-f--+--l--\l,--l\-~.l-,l,-l-\l-.+4--l--->r-l-_..,-1--1--l-~-l-l--l-U
~..:
ff 11 ~1-'H>rt'"'t't--t-'tt'k+-+-+--'.-t-H~H\l*N-+\---',:-l--+'t-Hr-""1H-+M++--1d-+-H~e--4-l--l++I 3,500
:U ; \t-+'ll-+-!\-H.lH--l\--'11--1\-WP<Jhi~+-Pll+.\--!\-+-\-+-\~ll-h--M--l--+H-+-+--+--+-l-.W..+-I 3,000 t! gr
1i> ~
i .!:.! 2.51--l'H~-f-'~-\l---~--H~~+l-hllilh/Yl~-Hr-l-t-ll.-~-),l-44➔.+"'4-++:t--+-ll--+---l---l----l--..W-W..I 2 500 Q.
.g
Ji
i
=o-5 • ~ ..
a,)(
::2 0
20 · is.!!
. t--r--l.-t-'iit-t"T1,-++t'l;t+-+-!-¥Jt-M~.+-'tf-'l'<H-!d---"<t-'lrHH--\--P<H>,f-H~+-+..:"4-+-l--+-+++I 2,000 ;. 4
'$ s 1.s1----1-~1-l'..-1-..J1-!-l"-l--M---' 1,soo ~ ~
o + l.6t------i-HH-\-t-f~-t>,f,-H..-, 1,600 ~ i
.,.
~ :S"' 14
. t--!-Hl-'t-f'rl-Pd-t't-t--¥>f-ll-~A-~.+-l\:H,,w;~~-r-.-li-:;.i.-l!:-+~ 1,400 '-,-I
5 !!! 1.2 1,200 ~
- Cl)

~~ 1,000 ~
~• D ~
~~ 800
l'i' ~ 0.70 700
~I o.60 ooo
500
0.40 t---+--1-+--++i 400
0.35, 1----+---+--' 350
0.30 1 - - - - i
1
300
0.25,t---t--Hf-fr+l+-i' 250

200
180
160
140
120
100
'f-J'-1'f-'l-+-+--+--l--l-l-1-14---l-~-+---l--lr-14~-l---'l.-4.,,,_l--ll-+--lr-l--'l--+-!l.l,-l---'~--l'>.--l-..+--I-~~~ 90
80
70
60
-'n--l-lr'r---1-l>d-l
o.o5 .._......_2~_...,.3_.4_,.,5_61_...1.7.l.8.U.-..1...-2.1-.-JU.3--'4-'-,-61..1..7.L8.W...--lU.....W...i....A..-,.i..i,..t...1-LlU..:~...J.:i...L..l --l~..J...i...i...... 50
0.00001 0.0001 0.001
Factor A = f/E = E

hem 16. · Chart for, determining shell thickness af cylindrical and spherlcal~Eiss~ls under external pressure when constructed of cast iron. (From the 1956
ASME Unflred Pressure vessel Code with permission af the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.J
 A P P E N D 1-x

PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS SECTIONS

AND BEAM FORMULAS

381
382 Properties of Various Sections and Beam Formulas
Item 1. Properties of Various Sections
(Courtesy or the Baldwin Locomotive Wo:rks)
Dista11ce from ~is Section Modulus Radius of Gyration
to Extremities of
Area of Section
A
Section
11and 111
Moment or Inertia.
I
s-!1J ,-~
Section

T□-
.1E::::(p
11 =-.a
2 6
a
_;-
vlll
= 0.289a

ITi 3 3
..!!..-o.577a
vi

_L>... .• -~-0.289,i
~l. V 12

✓a 2 +a,•
12

1 1 - ~ .. o.101a a4 a1 4
_l_2_
V2

A bh• bh• _A_ =0,289A

Lh 'II - -2 v'i2
12 6

_A_ •0.li77A
bA
v"a
bh
l,h '/1•---
Vb•+•·

Acosa+l>sina
bh r- 2

oA• - b1A1•
bA-b,h, 12(bA - b,A ,)

A
r--2

30°)] _A_ ✓ I+ 2 cos 2 30°

-(&_E !
12
[A'(l +2006 2 30°)]
4 - · 30°
= o.OOA•
~ [A(I +2cos•
6 4cos•ao•
- 0.12A3
4 cos 30•
• 0.2644
3

_A_, ✓l

-0i ! [A•(l + 2 cos• 30°)] ~ [A(I + 2 cos 2 30°)] + 2 cos• 30°

I.'= _ l _ = 0.577A 4 cos ao· 4 cos 30• 3
2 cos 30° 12 4 eo11 2 30° 6
.. 0.06l• =0.10443 = 0.264A

A ! [A'(l + 2 cos• 22½'')] ~ [A(I + 2 cos• 221°)] --"-✓ l +2cos•22t•

2A• tan 224° - 0.828h• 11-- 4 cos 221° 3
2 12 4 - · 22i° 6 4cos22f 0
=0.OMA• =- O.tOOII• • 0.2574

l 3(b 2 + 4bb, + b, 2) A2 (1> 2 + 4bb1 + b1 2 )

36(1> + b,) 12(b, + 2b)

l.(b + b,)
2
I
I'

~
Properties of Various Sections and Beam Formulas 383
1tem 1. Properties of Various Sections (Continued)
Distance from Axis Section Modulus Radiua oC Gyration
to Extremities of
Altt or Section Section Moment or Inertia s-!., , .. ~
- Sections A ,,md111 I

18·,·--t-.Yi
i: ·-
1,,--1,-1:-r
M
2
11--
21
3
,. M'
36
bAI
24
2- .. o.21GA
vii
,1-3

T;7\ r ..
Ii :, M ,-1 bl1 /),\1
_!_.o.40&\
.t .J:.... 2 "ii "ii V6
k-t,-..1

~e
d
j___
-·
_f . !!!= .. 0.78S4d 1
4
,--tl 2 "'
- • 0.049d'
64
rd'
--0.098d1
32
tl
i

FBI
dI
lf
' .,.(d 1 - di 1 )
4
- 0.78M(d 1 -d1 1 )
,--2 tl .,.(d4 ~ di 4)
64
• 0.049(d' - d1 ')
.,.(d' - di')
32d
-0.098-d-
d' - di 1
'Vd 1 +di 1
4

ll .. d(3.- - 4) .. 0.288d
61r d'(9.-1 - 64) .. 0.0069d'
d'(9.- 1 - 114) d'V~
fif~~¼\ k-d-tol
~ - 0.3927d 1
8
,1 - 3.-~ - 0.212d 1162.- 192(3.- -4)
.. 0.023&1 1
12..
- 0.132d

2(,P- dill
.-(d 1 - d1 1 ) 11= !, ir,.,. ,1
fI~¥1i
«~-·+ 8
= 0.3927(d1 - d11) 111•
3.-(dl - d1 2 )
31rd(dl -di') - 4(d3 - d1:I)
6.-(d2-d1 1)
0..1(df - di ')(di - d1 1 ) - 64(d 3 "'." di 3)1
1152.-(d1 - dil)
I. if,,>,
1/1
~
,.
I~--r
i.":3..
~-0.78.WM
4 2
1rb4
64
3
= 0.0491,1,3 .-/),\
32
1
• 0.0981,A 1 1
i

r-a
,.r
i_!:. Ii .i
r
1r(bA- b1!i)
4
0.7854(bA - b1A1)
"2
.-(b.\ 3 - b,.A13)
64
- 0.049(bA 3 - 6111 ')
1r(b1,a - b,.A13)
32A
0.098(bl, 3 - bilu3)

"
! ✓bA•-01l1.1 1
4 1,1,-bi/u

[E3r __ _t_
__
(o .. A - r)
,, ..,,
4
6 (1 -i)
r

r•
(1 ..
3-16-36-9r
1) I
-II v'u.08494" 1
- 0.187r
= 0.0075r' = 0.0097r 3
- 0.21461 1 • 0.7767r

0111 3 + 0111 3 - (bi - 20)(11 - 81) 3

2c111 + (b1 - 2.:)11 2 + (o - 2c)(2A - 1)•

✓1
3
1,,+ 2ec +bm II• 2A
111-=A-11
(b - 2<>)(111 - •l 3 ,.I
3

~ 1-.-;,;
/ •,r ~ ( .! - ,1 ✓I
• q,rt
-;,; • 11 = ~ (1 - COIi ,p) ! sin 24>)
2 3,p 4 2 4

~1·- rK rKi 6 , 4Kt I

✓1
' J ___ 11-r.eos,f,

Angle 4> K K1 Ki
5 0.00044 0.9986 0.00000
10 0.00352 0.9908 0.00000
15 0.01180 0.9796 0.00000
20 0.02767 0.9640 0.00001
25 0.05331 0.9439 0.00003
30 0.09058 0.9200 0.00010
35 0.14102 0.8921 0.00033
40 0.20573 0.8607 0.00076
50 0.38026 0.7881 0.00337
60 0.61418 o. 7051 0.01064
70 0.90034 0.614~ 0.02711
80 1.22525 0.5197 0.05848
90 1.57080 0.42H 0.10976
• 4> in radian measure (I radian ,. 180/r d~grees, and 1• = 0.017453 radians).
"I About the XX axis.
A About neutral axis of shaded area.

---~---.u.----·-4 -
384 Properties of Various Sections and Beam Formulas
Item 2. Beam Formulas
(Courtesy of the Baldwin Locomotive Works)

~
IV

,ffl ·1
I
l
I· I ~
~
I
,l ___
Ti--x
---4
Shear
""
~ ,~' R;
±:IIIP•-a
f r--.r -J Shear
·1"R2
f
~
R2 R2 1----"' _J Shea, Shear R2
-WI
Shear
1-W ===::::::::::::-w =--:::::::::::J-w C 1-w -w I 1-1\'
Moment Moment Moment
Moment
==::::::::::::J- Wl =::::::::::::J- I~/
=--:::::::::::J- ~I C 1-2~1 Moment
-.::..:::::.:::
I

R,= W R2=wl- W R,= W R,= W R, = W

M ... Wz w•
Jf.
w ,,. M.
Wz•
= 3is (31- z) M, = W(z - a), (.i: > a)
Mmaz = wl, [,:=I) M,=,- a"ii
Q,= W
f
w ,.
=- Eii(mu)
M .... -
Q,=in
"''
T' [% - II M1fta~==3
Wz•
WI
M~""':'T
Wz ·
2WI M ...... Wb
Q,= W,[z >al
Qma~ m: W
Q,=T Q. • y. (21 - ,:)
Q.,.,. - wl, [:i: - lJ
WI• Qmu-= ff' Q..,.,=W /c,-o, w"
= ID .6
,-ID 8{Wl%) WI• ' W lll'
I= EiTh(mu) I== Fi 60 (11,a:a:l ( 2- ¥ GY)+ (maz)
W 1
,. - Fi 6 0

(-3alt +w+z'-)
3u -3l x+6al.,:
2 1

whenz>a

l-1
""f-r--4
w
+-t-;f -rs-(a+b)±bt }=.'39-
R1
W .

RE:L.r1
W1

R2
ta .. --1
'Im;.,~~ .f":,-~
r _wt:::::::=...
R1
+,!fl I Shear
R2

I-~
+R 1r7-w Shear
-w1-U-R2
+Rd
l Shear
LJ R2
-R2 +Rd
R1
~ Shear
'-.:..]-Ri
R2 + 2Shear
Ri
""'";;;------J- 2
11·

Moment Moment ~+T

+1~,2~
..-1±R1 a + R2b I'::-,, ~ f+ ~«t - c:::::::: ~
~
R, -R,= w R, = T1 [W(I - a) + W1b}
Wei
R,=,-•
We
R,=T
R, = 11"(2c+bl R, =R>-~
2 2l 2
W,: [ "<2
M.=,-, I] Rt=
1
i IWa + Wi(I - b)]
M Wc,z M
• • -,-, z1-=
Wc,(I - z,)
l
Rt_
-
W(2a+ bl
2l
w:
M, - 2(1-z)
bo: Wcet M.-R,.r,[z<aor = a)
M...,,. wl',{z-~ilJ
a
M.-]f (:a:-D, [ .r>fl M~.,. W / (I - .r) + W1 T M...~ = - 1-, [z - cJ W(z-a) 1 8
M ... =- ~• [ ,. ..
w
n when z > a and < (I - b)
M ~., at the larger load Q.
WCt
-1• 0•• -T
We
"---
M. - R,z--- ,
26
lz < (a + b) and > a)
M. - Rt(l-z), [z >(a+ b)J
wl
Q.--r-""'
u,I
I=]!~ (c<l+c,)t!i<. ) Q,..,,- 2 ,lo: •ol
Q.=2 Bl 31 3 maz Q. = R,, [z < a or = a)
w is {,:=,Ve{!+ c,)/3l Q,---W(2c-b) W
- - (z-a), 1DI 511
J • El 48 (ma.r) 21 6 I - Bi· 384 (maz).
[z < (a + 1,) and > a)
Q. - R,, [z > (a + b) and < I)

1· '=7 I- I r, , -, .
~ ~"''"'":,""~
•I
R1t=~:f8-== t ~
1

R1~ RF"'~ ..-,R R1 ,,I R2 Ri "' R2

+.!!'.r--....__ Shear
R2
-J
+ r-,..._;_ Shear
I
~ --y . """"'-J -}f +fr::::::---..., Shear 2 2W +R,q-w Shear + 3 II' t::::::::,.._ Shear
2

Moment
W
.!!:1 +"'i---J-T i-R: T -=-:::.::::::::-~
~
WI
,,-- ~-ir
~ ~oment
<..J- ~ t
+ffl -1
R,=R,•]! R, = R,=]! R,=~W. R,-¾W R1 = W(3l'i'l-C,*) R,•¼wl, R, .. 85 w.
2 2 211
Wz ( 1 -.r')
M,.-Wz (1-2 - -32.r•)
-
I• M. = Wz C-2 - -"'I +2.r•)
-
31•
M.--
3
-
I•
2
Rt_ w(ac~ c•) M,•2 """ (3'T-")
1
M.az = -- WI, [ . i : = -]
(3C,
- -1-C,)
Wl WI 11y3 y3
1
M.,.,, .. ~•lz•IJ
M••••ylo:-~il) - i - ,tci < cl
M...,,-
12, [z= HIJ M. • W.r 21 ' 8

Q..-w (1.
---
2
2:')
11 Q.= w (12-T+12
2,: 2:') 0·- w (1a-ii
2
"') M, ,.. Wz cc••;; C,•) - Q.-s-=3wl

w (.r =o] Q.... ... 3 w. (,: = I) 5wl

Q.... ·r· Q.,.., = 2w, lz• o] 8•.-Rs.
• R,, 1%.r>c
< cj
W(:a:-c), [,: > c] Q.... =s
w
W I•
J "" ID. oo {ma,:) W 31•
I .. Fi . 320 (111<1z)
/ • 0.01304 Ell> (ma.r)
w I= .!'.! •.!.. (maz), [z •
El 185
0.4221]
[,: - 0.5J9l]
I= o.ooos ID i, (maz)
[,: • C = 0.4141]
 Properties of Various Sections and Beam Formulas 385

Item 2. Beam Formulas- (Continued)

~R1
+R 1 c:::J Shear
R,i
+~
R1
r::::--....., Shear
Bi
;r,!

- i . ______ _,j-R2 c::.:.::::::::J- i;

wl 1111
~ .[-~ iu,1
lc~nN~1 ,-1-7 ·Moment '-JT TI
R = W (C,•(3C + C1)) wl
I I• Bi-R.- 2

Rt= W (Cl(3C~ + C)) M.-~ G-r+;)

cc,•
M. - Ri,Z - W' T' [.:r < CJ M .... -
1
Ii fOll, [z - o or z • II
M,. _ Ri,Z _ w cc,• Q.•2-w.i:
1111
l•
- W'(z - C), [.:r > CJ Vil
Q.... •2
Q, - R,, [.:r < CJ
Q, - (R, - W'), [z > CJ WP
2W'C•C1• I • I.Hsi (maz)
I = 3B/(3C + C1)• (ma:,;)

Shear W
==::.J.:.2

Ri, Rt, M,, M..,,,, Q,, Q,,, and/...

R, "'v{(c + 1)1 - c11J/21 R, == Jfic - W,c, + W, are the same as in Col. 8, above
R, = 10{(c, + 1)1 - cl)/21 I
Wabc
M, "' ¼IO(c - ,:)1 R
2 •
W,c, - Wic
l
+W :t·
+
J., = 6Bll (I b), [:rs .. c)
M,1 - j-i,,(c + :ia)• - Ra, Wabd
M,. -= l-i,a(c, - :i-,)' M, = W,(c - :), J,., = 6Ell (I+ a), (.111 • di
+
M, 1 • W,c (Wt - R1):i:1
M~•••R1 (~-•)• M,1 - W2(ci - "'2)
M.... -W,corW,c,
[ n=~-•] Q,"' Wt, Qzi W,-R, =
Qmu., vcorR, -...,, [c >c1] Q., - w.

Notation
R • reaction Q = shear
M• moment I • deflection
W • coacentrated load or total load E - modulus of electriciiy
~ M o m e n t __ I == moment of inertia
111 • unit load
---:;:w~ Weight of bea:m neglected in each case.
Wb-W,a Upward forces are positive (+ f; downwa,d forces, negative ( - ) •
RI - I Shear (at a given section) is the algebraic sum of all forces on either side of the section.
r... W(l-b)+W,(a+I) Moment (at a given section) is the algebraic sum of all moments produced by the forces on one side of the section,
I A moment bending a beam convex downward is positive(+), and one bending a beam convex upward is nega-
M. = R,.:r, [:z: < (I - b)]
M. 1 = R1:r1 - W(b +:r, -1) tive(-).
(:r, > (I - b) and <II No account of the signs of shears and moments has been taken in the formulas above, but the application of
=
M., W,(a - :r,) these principles will at once determine them. Formulas will give values numerically correct, and for the usual
Q,=R1,Q, 1 =R1-W case this is aU that is needed.
Q•• w. = · Deflections in those cases where no formulas are given may be handled by the methods of Applied El<ulu:il11,
Timoshenko and Lessells, 1st ed., pp. 82.--94. Or see Marks Handbook, 3rd ed., p, 452.

f --
APPENDIX

PROPERTIES OF PIPE (Courtesy of Tube Turns, Louisville Kentucky.)

Item 1. Dimensions of Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe

Nominal Nominal Wall Thickness for

Pipe Outside Sched. Sched. Scbed. Sched. Stand- Sched. Sched. Extra Sched. Sched. Sched. Sched. Sched. .xx
Size Diam. 5* lOt 20 30 ardt 40 60 Strongt 80 100 120 140 160 Strong
;~ 0.405 0.049 0.068 0.068 0.095 0.095
¼ 0.540 0.065 0.088 o.088 0.119 0.119
¾ 0.675 0.065 0.091 0.091 0.126 0.126
½ 0.840 0.083 0.109 0.109 0.147 0.147 0.187 0.294
'¾ 1.050 0.065 0.083 0.113 0.113 0.154 0.154 0.218 0.308
'1 1.315 0.065 0.109 0.133 0.133 0.179 0.179 0.250 0.358
[l¼ 1.660 0.065 0.109 0.140 0,140 0.191 0.191 0.250 0.382
l½ 1.900 0.065 0.109 0.145 0.145 0.200 0.200 0.281 0.400
2 2.375 0.065 0.109 0.154 0.154 0.218 0.218 0.343 o.436
2fi 2.875 0.083 0.120 0.203 0,203 0.276 0.276 0.375 0,552
3 3.5 0.083 0.120 0.216 0.216 0.300 0.300 0.438 0.600
3½ 4.0 0.083 0.120 0.226 0.226 0.318 0.318
4 4.5 0.083 0.120 0.237 0.237 0.337 0,337 0.438 0.531 o.674
5 5.563 0.109 0.134 0.258 0.258 0.375 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750
6 6.625 0.109 0.134 0.280 0.280 0.432 0.432 0.562 0.718 0.864
8 8.625 0.109 0.148 0.250 0.277 0.322 0.322 0.406 0.500 0.500 0.593 0.718 0.812 0.906 0.875
10 10.75 0.134 0.165 0.250 0.307 0.365 0.365 0.500 0.500 0.593 0.718 0.843 1.000 1.125
12 12.75 0.165 0.180 0.250 0.330 0.375 0.406 0.562 0.500 0.687 0.843 1.000 1.125 1.312
14OD 14.0 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.375 0.438 0,593 0.500 0.750 0.937 1.093 1.250 1.406
16OD 16.0 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.375 0.500 0.656 0.500 0.843 1.031 1.218 1.438 1.593
18OD 18.0 0.250 0.312 0.438 0.375 0.562 0.750 0.500 0.937 1.156 1.375 1.562 1.781
20OD 20.0 0.250 0.375 0.500 0.375 0.593 0.812 0.500 1.031 1.281 1.500 1.750 1.968
22OD 22.0 0.250 0.375 0.500
24OD 24.0 0~250 0.375 0.562 0.375 0.687 0.968 0.500 1.218 1.531 1.812 2.062 2.343
26OD 26.0 0.375 0.500
30OD 30.0 0.312 0.500 0.625 0.375 0.500
34OD 34.0 0.375 0.500
36OD 36.0 .· 0.375 0.500
42 OD 42.0 0.375 o.5oo
Commercial Pipe Sizu and Wall Thicknesses. This table lists the pipe sizes and wall thicknesses currently established as standard,
or specifically:
1. The traditional standard weight, extra strong, and double extra strong pipe.
2. The pipe wall-thickness schedules listed in American Standard B36.10, which are applicable to carbon steel and alloys other than
stainless steels.
3. The pipe wall-thickness schedules listed in American Standard B36.19, which are ,
applicable only to stainless steels.
All dimensions are given in inches.
The decimal thicknesses listed for the respective pipe sizes represent their nominal or average wall dimensions. The actual thick- :
nesses may be as much as 12.5% under the nominal thickness because of mill tolerance. Thicknesses shown in light face for Sched-
ule 60 and heavier pipe are not currently supplied by the mills, unless a certain minimum tonnage is ordered.
• Thicknesses shown in italics are for Schedules 5S and 10S, which are available in stainless steel only.
t Thicknesses shown in italics are available also in stainless steel, under the designation Schedule 40S.
i Thicknesses shown in italics are available also in stainless steel, under the designation Schedule 80S.
386
 Properties of Pipe 387
) Item 2. Design Properties of Pipe
Areas .and Weight.a
Radius
Nominal
Surface Area Croo>Hlectional Weight or or

-
PiP!l Size Wall F"Ifth Moment
' and . Schedule Thick- .Inside Power Outside Iuside Metal Flow Pipe Water Gym- or Section
Outside Number Diameter 0£1D sq ft sq ft Area Area lb lb tion Inertia Modulna
Diameter and/or inches inches in,l per ft per ft sq in. sq in. per ft per ft inches in.• in,*
inches Weight v d di A. A, A AJ u, u,,.
'• I z
108 0;049 0.307 0.00273 0.106 0.080. 0.OM 0.074 0.186 0.032 0.1271 0.0009 0.0043
}s
408T 408 .068 .269 .00141 .106 .070 .072 .057 .245 .025 .1215 .0011 -~2
D-= 0.406
80XS808 . 09/l .215 .00046 .100 .006 .092 .036 .314 .016 .1146 .0012 . .0060
1(18 .006 - .410 .01159 .141 .107 .097 .132 .330 .057 .1694 .0028 .oio3
¾ 408T 40S .088 .364 · .00639 .141 .095 .125 .104 .425 .045 .1628 .0033 .0123
D-0.540
80XS80S .119 .302 .00251 .141 .079 .157 .072 .535 .031 .1547 .0038' .0140

108 .065 .Mil .04808 .177 .143 .124 .233 .423 .101 .2169 .0069 .0174
¾ 40ST 40S .O!ll .493 .02912 .177 .129 .167 .lilt .668 .083 .2090 .0073 .0216
D = 0.675 80XS808 .126 .423 .01364 .177 .111 .217 .140 .739 .061 .1991 .0086 .02111i

UlB .083 .674 .13909 .220 .176 .197 .367 .671 .154 .269 .0143 .0341
40ST 408 .109 .622 .09310 .220 .163 .250 .304 .86,L_; .132 .261 .0171 .0407
½
D •0.840 80X8808
160
.147
.187
.546
. .466
.04862
.02Ul8
.220
.220
.143
.122
.320
.384
-~
.171
1.03p
1.30
.101
.074
.250
.240
.0201
.0221
.0478
.0627
xx .294 .262 .00102 .220 .066 .504 .050 1.716 .022 .219 .0243 ,/J(,77

58 .065 .920 .6691 .275 .241 .201 .664 .683 .288 .349 .0246 .00!7
1118 .083 .884 .6398 .276 .231 .252 .614 .857 .266 .343 .0297 .Oll66
408T 40S .113 .824 .3799 .276 .216 .333 .533 1.131 .231 .334 .0370 .0706
¾ 80 XS 808 .1114 .742 ·.2249 .275 .194 .434 .432 1.474 .187 .321 .OWi .8053
D,. 1.050
.188 .675 .1401 .275 .177 .508 .358 1. 728 .155 .312 .0495 .0943
160 .218 .614 .0873 .275 .181 .570 .296 1.937 .128 .304 .0627 .1004
xx .308 .434 .0154 .275 .114 . 718 .148 2.441 .064 .284 .0679 .1104

58 .065 1.186 2.337 .344 .310 .2111i 1.103 .867 .478 .443 .0000 .0760
108 .109 1.097 1.689 .344 .287 .413 .945 1.404 .409 .428 .0757 .1151
1 40ST 408 .133 1.049 1.270 .344 .275 .494 .864 1.679 .374 .420 .0874 .1329
D = 1.315 80XS80S .179 .957 .803 .344 .250 .639 .719 2.172 .311 .407 .1056 .1606
.219 .811 .519 .344 .230 .754 .604 2.564 .262 .39/i .1178 .1791
160 .250 .8111 .360 .344 .213 .836 .522 2.844 .226 .387 .1252 .1903
xx .368 .699 .077 .344 .157 1.076 .282 3.659 • 122 .361 .1405 .2137

5S .065 1.530 8.384 .436 .401 .326 1.839 1.108 .796 .664 .1037 .1253
!OS .109 1.442 6.235 .434 .378 .531 1.633 1.805 .707 .550 .1605 .1934
1'4 40 ST 408 .140 1.380 5.005 .434 .361 .668 1.496 2.273 .648 .540 .1948 .2346
D - 1.660 80XB808 .191 1.278 3.409 .434 .334 .881 1.283 2.997 .555 .524 .2418 .2914
160 .250 1.160 2.100 .434 .304 1.107 1.067 3.765 .458 .506 .2839 .3421
"xx .382 .896 .577 .434 .234 1.534 .630 6.215 .273 .472 .3412 .4111

58 .006 1.770 17.37 .497 .463 .375 2.461 1.275 1.066 .649 .158 .166
10S .109 1.682 13.46 .497 .440 .613 2.222 2.085 .962 .634 .247 .260
l}'i 40 ST 40S .145 1.610 10.82 ' .497 .421 .799 2.036 2.718 .882 .623 .310 .326
D = 1.900 80X8808 .200 1.500 7.59 .497 .393 1.068 1.767 3.632 .16/i .605 .391 .412
160 .281 1.337 4.27 .497 .350 1.431 1.404 4.866 .608 .681 .483 .508
xx .400 1.100 1.61 · .497 .288 1.886 .950 6.409 .411 .549 .568 .698
5S .066 2.245 67.03 .622 .588 .472 3.958 1.605 1.714 .817 .315 .265
10$ .109 2.157 46.69 .622 .565 . 776 3.664 2.638 1.582 .802 .499 .420
40 ST 40S .154 2.067 37.73 .622 •541 · 1.074 3.356 3.653• 1.453 .787 .666 .561
.167 2.041 36.42 .622 .534 1.158 3.272 3.938 1.417 .783 .710 .598
2 .188 2.000 32.00 .622 .524 1.288 3.142 4,381 1:aoo .776 .777 .654
D - 2.375 80XS80S .218 1.939 27.41 .622 .508 1. 477 2.953 6.022 1.278 .166 .868 . 731
.250 1.875 23.17 .622 .491 1.669 2.761 5.674 1.196 .756 .956 .804
.312 1. 750 16.41 .622 .458 2.025 2.405 6.884 1.041 .738 1.102 .928
160 .343 1.689 13.74 .622 .442 2.190 2.240 7.445 .970 .728 1.163 .979
xx .436 1.503 7.67 .622 .393 2.656 1.774 9.030 .768 .703 1.312 1.104

5S .083 2.709 145.9 .753 .709 .728 6.76 2.475 2.496 .988 .711 .495
108 .120 2.635 127.0 .753 .690 , 1.039 5.45 3.531 2.361 .975 .988 .687
2~2 408T 408 .203 2.469 91.8 .753 .646 1.704 4.79 5.794 2.073 .947 U30 1.064
D = 2.875 80XS808
.217
.276
2.441
2.323
86.7
61.6
.753
.753
.639
.608
1.812
2.254
4.68
4.24
6.160
7.662
2.026
1.835
.943
.924
1.611
1. 925
1.121
1.339
160 .375 2.125 43.3 .753 .566 2.945 3 .. 55 10.01 1.636 .894 2.353 1.637
:xx .552 1.771 17 .4 .753 .464 4.028 2.46 13.70 1.067 .844 2.872 1.998

5S .083 3.334 411.9 .916 .873 .891 8.73 3.03 3.78 1.208 1.300 .743
108 .120 3.260 368.2 .916 .863 1.274 8.35 4.33 3.61 1.196 1.822 1.041
.125 3.250 362.6 .916 .851' 1.325 8.30 4.51 3.59 1.194 1.890 1.080
.148 3.204 337.6 .916 .839 1.568 8.06 5.30 3.49 1.186 2. 194 1.253
.188 3.124 297 .6 .916 .818 1.956 7.66 6.65 3.32 1.173 2.692 1.538
40ST 40S . 216 3.068 271.8 . .916 .803 2.228 7.39 7.58 3.20 1.164 3.018 1.724
3 .241 3.018 2/lO .916 .790 2.467 7.15 8.39 3.10 1. 155 3.29 1.883
D =3.500 .254 2.992 240 . 916 .783 2.590 7.03 8.81 3.04 1.151 3.43 1. 962
.289 2.922 213 .916 .765 2.915 6.71 9.91 2.90 1.140 3. 19 2.165
soxssos .300 2.900 205 .916 .759 3.016 6.60 10.25 2.86 1.136 3.90 2.226
.312 2.875 196 .916 . 753 3.129 6.49 10.64 2.81 1.132 4.01 2.294
.406 2.687 140 .916 . 703 3.9.!lO 5.67 13.43 2.46 1.103 4.81 2. 748
160 .438 2.624 124 .916 .687 4.213 6.41 14.33 2.34 1.094 5.04 2.879
xx .600 2.300 64 .916 .602 6.466 4.15 18.58 1.80 1.047 5.99 3.425

5S .083 3.834 828 1.047 1.004 1.021 11.55 3.47 5.00 1.385 1.96 .979
108 .120 3.i60 752 1.047 .984 1.463 11. 10 4.97 4.81 1.372 2.76 1.378
3½
D =- 4.000 .128 3.744 736 1.047 .980 1.557 11.01 5.29 4.77 1.370 2.92 1.461
.134 3.732 724 1.047 .977 1.628 10.94 5.53 4.74 1.368 3.0-1 1.522
.148 3.704 697 1.047 .970 1. 791 10.78 6.09 4.67 1.363 3.33 1.664
388 Properties of Pipe

Item 2. Design Properties of Pipe (Continued)

Areas and Weights
Nominal RadiUll
Pipe Size Wall Fifth Surface Area Cross-Sectional Weight of of Moment
and Schedule Thick- Inside Power Outside Inside Metal Flow Pipe Water Gyra- of Section
Outside Number ness Diameter of ID sq ft sq ft Area. Area lb lb tion Inertia Modulus
Diameter and/or inehes inehes in.1 per ft per ft sqin. sq in. per ft per ft inches in. 1 in.a
inches Weight t d d• A. A, A At 1D u,,. r. I z
0.188 3.624 625 1.047 0.949 "2.251 10.31 7.65 4.47 1.349 4.10 2.050
40 ST 40S .226 3.548 562 1.047 .929 2.680 9.89 9.11 4.28 1.337 4. 79 2.394
.281 3.438 480 1.047 .900 3.283 9.28 11.16 4.02 1.319 5.71 2.855
3¼ 80XS80S .318 3.364 431 1.047 .881 3.678 8.89 12.51 3.85
D = 4.000 .344 3.312 399 1.047 .867 3.951 8.62 13.43 3.73
1.307
t.:198
6.28 3.141
6.66 3.331
.469 3.062 269 1.047 .802 5.203 7.36 17.69 3.19 1.259 8.25 4.127
.636 2.728 151 1.047 . 714 6.721 5.84 22.85 2.53 1.210 9.85 4.925
5S .083 4.334 1529 1.178 1.135 1.151 14.75 3.91 6.39 1.562 2.81 l.248
lOS .120 4.260 1403 1.178 1.115 1.651 14.25 5.61 6.17 1.549 3.96 l.762
.128 4.244 1377 1.178 1.111 1. 758 14. 15 5.98 6. 13 1.546 4.21 1.869
.134 4.232 1358 1.178 1.108 1.838 14.07 6.25 6.09 1.544 4.38 1.949
.142 4.216 1332 1.178 1.104 1.944 13.96 6.61 6.04 1.542 4.62 2.054
.165 4.170 1261 1.178 1.092 2.247 13.66 7.64 5.91 1.534 5.29 2.350
.188 4.124 1193 1.178 1.080 2.55 13.36 8.66 5.78 1.526 5.93 2.64
.205 4.000 1144 1.178 l.071 2.77 13.14 9.40 5.69 1.520 6.39 2.84
408T 408 .237 4.026 1058 l.178 1.054 3.17 12. 73 10. 79) 5.51 1.510 7.23 3:22
4 .250 4.000 1024 1.178 1.047 ' 3.34 12.57 11.35 5.44 1.505 7.56 3.36
D -4.500 .271 3.958 971 1.178 1.036 3.60 12.30 12.24 6.33 1.498 8.08 3.59
.281 3.938 947 1.178 1.031 3.74 12.18 12.72 5.27 1.495 8.33 3.70
.300 3.900 902 1.178 1.021 3.96 11.95 13.46 5.17 1.489 8.78 3.90
.312 3.876 875 1.178 1.015 4.10 11.80 13.96 5.11 1.485 9.05 4.02
80XS80S .337 3.826 820 1.178 1.002 4.41 11.50 14.99 '4.98 1.477 9.61 4.27
.375 3.750 742 . 1.178 .982 4.86 11.04 16.52 4.78 1.464 10.42 4.63
120 .438 3.624 625 1.178 .949 5.59 10.31 19.00 4.47 1.444 11.66 5.18
.500 3.500 525 1.178 .916 6.28 9.62 21.36 4.17 1.425 12. 77 5.67
160 .531 3.438 480 1. 178 .900 6.62 9.28 22.51 4.02 1.416 13.27 ll.90
xx .674 3.152 311 1.178 .825 8.10 7.80 27.54 3.38 1.374 15.29 6.79
5S .109 5.345 4363 1.456 1.399 1.88 22.43 6.38 9.71 1.928 6.97 2.51
108 .134 5.295 4162 1.4;6 l.386 2.29 22.02 7.77 9.53 1.920 8.43 3.03
40 ST 40S .258 5.047 3275 l.456 1.321 4.30 20.01 14.62 8.66 1.878 15.17 5.45
.352 4.859 2708 l.436 1.272 5.76 18.54 19.59 8.03 l.847 19.65 7.07
5
D -ll.563 80XSSOS .37ii 4.813 2}83 l.4j6 1.260 6.ll 18.19 20.78 7.88 1.839 20.68 7.43
.438 4.688 2264 1.456 1.227 7.04 17.26 23.95 7.47 l.819 23.31 8.38
120 .500 4.563 1978 1.456 1.194 7.96 16.35 27.04 7.06 1.799 25.74 9.25
160 .625 4.313 1492 1.436 1.129 9.70 14.61 32.97 6.33 1.760 30.03 10.80
xx .750 4.063 1107 1.456 1.064 11.34 12.97 38.55 5.61 1.722 33.64 12.10
&S .109 6.407 10.80 1.734 1.677 2.23 32.2 7.58 13.96 2.314 11.84 3.58
!OS .134 6.357 10.38 I. 734 l.664 2.73 31. 7 9.29. 13.74 2.295 14.40 4.35
.169 6.287 9.82 1.734 1.646 3.43 31.0 11.66 13.44 2.283 17.87 ll.40
.180 6.265 9.6/i 1.734 1.640 3.64 30.8 12.39 13.35 2.280 18.94 5.72
.188 6.249 9.53 I. 734 1.636 3.80 30.7 12.9!s, 13.28 2.277 19.71 5.95
.219 6. 187 9.07 1.734 1.620 4.41 30.1 14.ll9 13.02 2.266 22.64 6.83
6 .250 6.125 8.62 1.734 1.604 5.01 29.5 17.02 12.75 2.256 25.11 7.69
D - 6,625 .277 6.071 8.25 1.734 1.589 5.52 28.9 18.78 12.53 2.246 27.9 8.42
40 ST 408 .280 6.065 8.21 1.734 1.588 5.58 28.9 18.98 12.51 2.246 28.1 8.50
.3711 5.8711 7.00 1. 734 1.538 7.36 27.l 25.04 U.73 2.214 36.l 10.90
soxs sos .432 5.761 6.35 1.734 1.508 8.40 26.l 28.58 11.29 2.195 40.5 12.23
.500 5.6211 11.63 1.73{ 1.473 9.62 24.9 32. 71 10.76 2.173 45.4 13.71
120 .562 5.501 /l.04 1.734 1.440 10.70 23.8 36.40 10.29 2.153 49.6 14.98
160 .718 5.189 3.76 l.734 1.358 13.32 21. I 45.30 9.16 2.104 59.0 17.81
xx .864 4.897 2.82 1.734 1.282 15.64 18.8 53.17 8.16 2.060 66.3 20.03
118 .109 8.407 42.0 ,.\l.258 2.201 2.92 55.5 9.91 24.04 3.01 26.4 6.13
!OS .148 8.329 40.1 2.258 2.180 3.94 54.5 13.30 23.59 3.00 35.4 8.21
.158 8.309 39.6 2.258 2.175 4.20 M.2 14.29 23.48 2.99 37.7 8.74
.165 8.295 39.3 2.258 2.172 4.39 54.0 14.91 23.40 :!..99 39.3 9.10
.188 8.249 38.2 2.258 2.160 4.98 53.4 16.94 23.14 2.98 44.4 10.29
.203 8.219 37.5 2.258 2.152 5.37 53.1 18.26 22.97 2.98 47.7 11.05
.219 8.187 36.8 2.258 2.143 5.78. 52.6 19.66 22. 94 2.97 51.1 11.86
.238 8.149 35.9 2.258 2.133 6.27 52.2 21.32 22.. 58 2.97 65.2 12.80
20 .250 8.125 35.4 2.258 2.127 6.58 51.8 22.37 22.45 2.96 57.7 13.39
30 .277 8.071 34.2 2.258 2.113 7.26 51.2 24.70 22.15 2.95 63.4 14.69
8 40 ST408 .322 7.981 32.4", 2.258 2.089 8.40 50;0 28,56 21.68 2.94 72.5 16.81
D • 8.625 .344 7.937 31.5 2.258 2.078 8.95 49.5 30.43 21.42 2.93 76.9 17.82
.352 7.921 31.2 2.258 2.074 9.15 49.3 31.1 21.3 2.93 78.4 18.19
.375 7.875 30.3 2.258 2.062 9.72 48.7 33.0 21.1 2.92 82.9 19.22
60 .406 7 .813 29.1 2.258 2.0411 10.48 '47.9 35.6 20.8 2.91 88.8 20.58
.469 7.687 26.8 2.258 2.012 12.02 46.4 40.9 20.1 2.89 i00.3 23.25
80:XS 808 .500 7.625 25.8 2.258 1.996 12.76 45.7 43.4 19.8 2.88 105.7 24.52
100 .593 7.439 22.8 2.258 1.948 14.96 43.5 50.9 18.8 2.85 121.4 28.14
.625 7.375 21.8 2.258 1.931 115.71 42.7 a3.4 18.5 2.84 126.5 29.32
120 .718 7.189 19.2 2.258 1.882 17.84 40.6 60.6 17.6 2.81 140.6 32.60
140 .812 7 .001 16.8 2.258 l.833 19.93 38.11 67.8 16.7 2.78 153.7 35.63
xx .875 6.875 15.4 2.258 1.800 21.30 37.1 72.4 16.l 2.76 162.0 37.57
160 .906 6.813 14.7 2.258 1.784 21.97 36.5 74.7 15.8 2.75 165.9 38.48
5S .134 10.482 127 2.81 2.74 4.47 86.a 15.2 37.4 3.75 63.0 11.72
10$ . 165 10.420 123 2.81 2.73 5.49 85.3 18.7 36.9 3.74 76.9 14.30
.188 10.374 120 2.81 2.72 6.24 84.5 21.2 36.6 3.73 87.0 16. 19
10 .203 10.344 118 2.81 2.71 6.73 84.0 22.9 36.4 3.73 93.6 17 .41
D -10.760 .219 10.310 116 2.81 2.70 7.28 83.5 24.7 36. I 3.72 100.9 18.78
20 .250 10.250 113 2.81 2.68 8.25 82.5 28.0 35.7 3.71 113.7 21.16
.279 10.192 110 2.81 2.67 9.18 81.6 31.2 35.3 3.70 125.9 23.42
30 .307 10.136 107 2.81 2.65 10.07 80.7 34.2 34.9 3.69 137.5 25.57
.348 10. 054 103 2.81 2.63 11.37 79.4 38.7 34.4 3.68 154.0 28.66
 Properties of Pipe 389
Item 2. Design Properties ~f Pi~e (Continued)
Nominal
) Areas and Weight,,
Radius
Pipe Sise Wall Fifth Surface Area Crooa-Bectional Weight of of Moment
and Schedule Thick- Inside Power Outeide Inside Meial Flow Pipe Water Gyra. of Section
. Outside Number ness Diameter of ID sq rt sq ft Area Area lb lb tion Inertia Mi>dulus
Diameter incheo inches in. 6 per ft per ft sq in. sq iii. per R per R incheo in.•
and/or
Weight t A. A, A ,.., I
in.a
z,
incheo
408T 406 0.365
d
10.020 101
d•
2.81 2.62 11.91
At
78.9
VI
40.5 34.l
'•
3.67 160.8 29.91
.395 9.960 98.0 2.81 2.61 12.86 77.9 43. 7 33.7 3.66 172.5 32.1
60XS 808. .500 9.7JO 88.1 2.81 2.66 16.10 74.7 64.7 32.3 3.63 212.0 39.4
.531 9.687 85.3 2.81 2.54 17.06 73.7 58.0 31.9 3.62 223.4 41.6
80 .693 --9.664 80.0 2.81 2./iO 18.92 71.8 64.3 31.1 3.60 244.8 46.6
10 76.9
o .. 10.7&0 100 .718 9.314 70.1 2.81 2.44 22.63 68.1 29.6 3.56 286.2 63.2
.760 9.200 67.7 2.81 2.42 23.116 67.2 80.1 29. 1 3.M 296.3 1111.1
120 .843 9.064 61.2 2.81 2.37 26.24 64.11 89.2 27.9 3.62 324.3 60.3
140 1.000 8.700 51.3 2.81 2.29 30.63 60.1 104.1 26.0 3.47 367.9 68.4
1.062 8. 6211 47.7 2.81 2.26 32.33 118.4 109.9 26.3 3.45 384.0 71.4
160 1.125 8.500 44.4 2.81 2.23 34.02 56.7 1111.7 24.6 3.43 399.4 74.3

58 .165 12.420 296 3.34 3.211 6.52 121.2 22.2 52.5 4.46 129.2 20.3
lOS .180 12.390 292 3.34 3.24 7.11 120.6 24.2 62.2 4.44 140.6 22.0
.203 12.344 287 3.34 3.23 8.00 119.7 27.2 51.8 4.44 157.5 24.7
.219 12.312 283 3.34 3.22 8.62 119.1 29.3 51.6 4.43 169.3 26.6
.238 12.274 279 3.34 3.21 9.36 118.3 31.8 51.2 4.42 183.2 28.7
20 .2&0 12.250 276 3.34 3.21 9.82 117.9 33.4 51.0 4.42 191.9 30.1
.279 12.192 269 3.34 3.19 10.93 116. 7 37.2 50.6 4.41 212.7 33.4
.300 12.100 265 3.34 3.18 11.73 115.9 39.9 60.2 4.40 227.6 35.7
30 .330 12. 090 238 3.34 3.17 12.88 114.8 43.8 49.7 4.39 248.5 39.0
.344 12.062 255 3.34 3.16 13.41 114.3 45.6 49.5 4.39 258 40.5
12 ST408 .375 12.000 249 3.34 3.14 14.58 113. l 49.6 49.0 4.38 279 43.8
D-12.760 40 .406 11. 938 242 3.34 3.13 15.74 lll.9 53.5 48.5 4.37 300 47 .l
.438 11. 874 236 3.34 3.11 16.94 110.7 117.6 47.9 4.35 321 50.4
XS80S .500 11.750 224 3.34 3.08 19.24 108.4 65.4 47.0 4.33 362 56.7
60 .Jl62 11. 626 212 3.34 3.04 21.52 106.2 73.2 46.0 4.31 401 62.8
.625 11.500 201 3.34 3.01 23.81 103.9 80.9 45.0 4.29 439 68.8
80 .687 11. 376 191 3.34 2.98 26.04 101.6 88.5 44.0 4.27 475 74.5
100 .843 11.064 166 3.34 2.90 31.113 96.1 107.2 41.6 4.22 562 88.1
.875 11. 000 161 3.34 :us 32.64 95.0 111.0 41.1 4.21 579 90.8
120 1.000 10. 750 144 3.34 2. 81 36.91 90.8 125.5 39.3 4.17 642 100.7
140 1.125 10. llOO 128 3.34 2.75 41.09 86.6 139.7 37.5 4.13 701 109.9
1.219 10. 313 117 3.34 2.70 44.14 83.5 100.1 36.2 4.10· 742 116.4
160 1.312 10. 126 106 3.34 2.65 47.14 80.5 160.3 34.9 4.07 781 122.6

.188 13.624 469 3.67 3.57 8.16 145.8 27.7 63.1 4.88 195 27.8
.220 13.560 458 3.67 3.55 9.52 144.4 32.4 62.6 4.87 226 32.3
.238 13.524 452 3.67 3.54 10.29 143.6 35.0 62.2 4.87 244 34.8
10 .250 13. llOO 448 3.67 3.53 10.80 143.1 36.7 62.0 4.86 255 36.6
20 .312. 13.375 428 3.67 3.50 13.44 140.11 45.7 80.8 4.84 316 45.0
30ST .375 13. 2110 408 3.67 3.47 16.05 137 .9 54.6 59.7 4.82 373 53.3
.406 13.188 399 3.67 3.45 17.34 136.6 59.0 59.1 4.81 401 57.3
40 .438 13.125 389 3.67 3.44 18.66 135.3 63.4 58.6 4.80 429 61.4
14 .469 13.062 380 3.67 3.42 19.94 134.0 67.8 58.0 4.79 457 65.3
D -14.000 XS .500 13.000 371 3.67 3.40 :11.21 132.7 72.1 57.5 4.78 484 69.1
60 .593 12. 814 345 3.67 3.35 24.98 129.0 84.9 55.8 4.74 562 80.3
.625 12. 750 337 3.67 3.34 26.26 127 .7 89.3 56.3 4.73 589 84.1
.656 12.688 329 3.67 3.32 27.50 126.4 93.5 54.8 4.72 614 87 .7
80 .7&0 12. 500 305 3.67 3.27 31.22 122.7 106.1 53.1 4.69 681 98.2
100 .937 12.125 262 3.67 3.17 38.47 115.6 130.8 50.0 4.63 825 117.9
120 1.093 11.814 230 3.67 3.09 44.32 109.6 150.7 47.5 4.58 930 132.8
140 1.2;0 11.roo 201 3.67 3.01 50.07 103.9 170.2 45.0 4.63 1027 146.8
1.344 11.313 185 3.67 2.96 53.42 100.5 181.6 43.5 4.50 1082 154.6
160 1.406 11.188 175 3.67 2.93 55.63 98.3 189.1 42.6 4.48 1117 159.6
.188 15.624 931 4.19 4.09 9.34 191.7 31.8 83.0 5.59 292 36.5
.238 15. 524 002 4.19 4.06 11.78 189.3 40.1 82.0 5.57 366 45.8
10 .250 15.500 895 4.19 4.06 12.37 188.7 42.1 81.7 5.57 384 48.0
.281 15. 438 877 4.19 4.04 13.88 187.2 47.2 81.1 5.56 429 53.6
20 .312 15.375 859 4.19 4.02 ,15.40 185.7 52.4 80.4 5.55 474 59.3
.344 15.312 842 4.19 4.01 16.92 184.1 57.5 79.7 5.54 519 64.8
30ST .375 15.250 8211 4.1!1 3.99 18.41 182.7 62.6 79.1 5.53 562 70.3
.406 15.188 808 4.19 3.98 19.89 181.2 67.6 78.4 5.52 605 75.6
.438 15. 124 791 4.19 3.96 21.41 179.6 72.8 77.8 5.50 649 81.1
16 .469 15.062 775 4.19 3.94 22.88 178.2 77.8 77.2 5.49 691 86.3
D-16.000 40:XS .500 15.000 759 4.19 3.93 24.35 176.7 82.8 76.5 5.48 732 91.5
.531 14. 938 744 4.19 3.91 25.81 175.3 87.7 75.9 5.47 773 96.6
60 .656 14. 688 684 4.19 3.85 31.62 169.4 107.5 73.4 5.43 933 116.6
.688 14.625 669 4.19 3.83 33.07 168.0 112.4 72.7 5.42 , 972 121.4
.750 14. 500 641 4.19 3.80 M.90 165.1 127.5 71.5 5.40 1047 130.9
80 .843 14.314 601 4.19 3.75 40.14 160.9 136.5 69.7 5.37 1157 144.6
100 1.031 13. 938 526 4.19 3.65 48.48 152. 6 164.8 66.1 5.29 1365 170.6
120 1.218 13.564 459 4.19 3.65 56.56 144.5 192.3 62.6 5.23 1M6 194.5
140 1.438 13.124 389 4.19 3.44 65.79 135.3 223.7 58.6 5.17 1761 220.1
1.500 13.000 371 4. 19 3.40 68.33 132.7 232.3 57.5 5.15 1815 226.9
160 1.593 12.814 345 4.19 3.35 72.10 129.0 245.1 55.8 5.12 1894 236.7

10 .250 17 .500 1641 4.71 4.58 13.94 240.5 47.4 104.1 6.28 549 61.0
20 .312 17.375 1584 4.71 4.55 17.36 237.1 59.0 102.7 6.25 679 76.5
ST .375 17.250 1527 4.71 4.52 20.76 233.7 i0.6 101.2 6.23 807 89.6
30 .438 17. 124 1472 4. 71 4.48 2U7 230.3 82.2 99.7 6.21 932 103.6
18 XS .500 li.000 1420 4.71 4.45 27.49 227.0 93.5 98.3 6.19 1063 117.0
D 18.000 40 .562 16.Si6 1369 4. 71 4.42 30.79 223.7 104.7 96.9 6.17 1171 130.2
.594 16.813 1344 4.il 4.-IO 32.46 222.0 110.4 96.1 6.16 1231 136.8
.625 16. 750 1318 4. 71 4.39 34.12 220.4 116.0 95.4 6.15 1289 143.3
. i19 16. 562 1247 4.71 4.34 38.98 215.5 132.5 93.3 6.12 1458 162.0
60 .750 16.500 1223 4.71 4.32 40.64 213.8 138.2 92.6 6.10 1515 168.3

. t .
·----· ---·----•-- . ___J

390 Properties of Pipe

Item 2. Design Properties of Pipe (Continued)
Areas and Weights
Nominal Radius
Surface Area Croes-Sectional Weight of of Moment
Pipe Size Wall Fifth
and Schedule Thick- Inside Power Outside Inside Metal Flow Pipe Water Gyra• of Section
Outside Number ness Diameter of ID sq ft sq ft Area Area lb lb tion Inertia Modulus
Diameter and/or inches inches io. 1 per ft per ft sqin. sq in. per ft per ft inches in~• in.a
t d d• Ao A, A A1 ., I z
inches Weight
0.812 16.375 1177 4.71 4.29 43.87 210.6 149.2
'°"'
91.2
'•
6.08 1624 180.5
80 .937 16.126 1090 4. 71 4.22 50.23 204.2 170.8 88.4 6.04 1834 203.8
100 1.156 15.688 950 4. 71 4.11 61.17 193.3 208.0 83.7 5.97 2180 242.2
18 71.81 182.7 244.2 79. l 5.90
l!lO 1.375 15.250 825 4.71 3.99 2498 277.6
D = 18.000
140 1.562 14.876 728 4. 71 3.89 80.66 173.8 274.3 75.3 5.84 2750 305.5
1.688 14.625 669 4. 71 3.83 86.48 168.0 294.0 72.7 5.80 2908 323.l
160 1.781 14.438 627 4. 71 3.78 90.75 163. 7 308.5 70.9 5.77 3020 335.6

10 .250 19.500 2.82 5.24 5.ll 15.51 298.6 52.7 129.3 6.98 757 75.1
.312 19.375 2.73 5.24 5.07 19.36 294.8 65.8 127 .6 6.96 938 93.8
20ST .375 19.250 2.64 5.24 5.04 23.12 291.0 78.6 126.0 6.94 1114 111.4
.438 19.124 2.56 6.24 s.01 26.9 287.2 91.5 124.4 6.92 1289 128.9
30XS .500 19.000 2.48 6.24 4.97 30.6 283.5 104.1 122.8 6.90 1457 145. 7
.562 18.875 2.4~ 5.24 4.94 34.3 279.8 116.8 121.2 6.88 1624 162.4
40 .593 i8.814 2.36 5.24 4.93 36.2 278.0 122.9 120.4 6.86 1704 170.4
.625 18. 750 2.a2 5.24 4.!11 · 38.0 276.1 129.3 119.6 6.85 1787 178.7
20 60 .812 18.376 2.1.l 5.24 4.81 48.9 265.2 166.4 114.8 6. 79 2257 225.7
0-20.000 .875 18.250 2.02 5.24 4. 78 52.6 261.6 178. 7 113.3 6.11 2409 240.9
.906 18.188 1.99 5.24 4.76 54.3 259.8 184.8 112.5 6.76 2483 248.3
80 1.031· 17.938 1.86 6.24 4.70 ~ 61. 4 252.7 208.9 109.4 6.72 2772 277.2
1.250 17.500 1.64 5.24 4.58 73.6 240.5 250.3 104. I 6.64 3251 325.1
100 1.281 17.438 1.61 5.24 4.57 75.3 238.8 256.1 103.4 6.63 3316 331.6
120 1.500 17 .000 1.42 5.24 4.45 87.2 227.0 296.4 98.3 6.56 3755 375.5
140 1.750 16.500 1.22 5.24 4.32 100.3 213.8 341.1 92.6 6 48 4217 421. 7
1.844 16.313 1.16 5.24 4.27 106.2 209.0 357.5 9.0.5 6.45 4379 437.9
160 1.968 16.064 1.07 5.24 4.21 111.5 202.7 379.L 87.8 6.41 4586 468.6

10 .250 21.500 4.59 5.76 6.63 17. I 363 58.1 157.2 7.69 1010 91.8
22
ST .375 21.250 4.33 5.76 5.56 25.5 355 86.6 153.6 7.6} 1490 135.4
D- 22.000
XS .500 21.000 4.08 5.76 6.50 33.8 346 114.8 150.0 7.60 19J3 177.5

10 .250 23.500 7. 17 6.28 6. 15 18.7 434 63.4 187.8 8.40 1316 109.6
.312 23.376 6.98 6.28 6.12 23.2 429 78.9 18j.8 8.38 1629 135.8
20ST .375 23.250 6.79 6.28 6.09 27.8 425 94.6 183.8 8.35 1943 161.9
.438 23.125 6.61 6.28 6.05 32.4 420 110.1 181.9 8.33 2249 187.4
XS .500 23.000 6.44 6.28 6.02 36.9 415 125.5 179.9 8.31 2.iSO 212.5
30 .662 22.876 6.26 6.28 5.99 41.4 411 140. 7 178.0 8.29 2840 237.0
.625 22. 750 6.09 6.28 5.96 45.9 406 156.0 176.0 8.27 3140 261
24 40 .687 22.626 5.93 6.28 5.92 50.3 402 171.1 174. I 8.25 3420 285
D = 24.000 .750 22.500 5.77 6.28 6.89 54.8 3ll8 186.3 172.2 8.22 3710 309
60 .968 22.064 5.23 6.28 5.78 70.0 382 238.1 165.6 8.15 46.i3 388
1.031 21.938 5.08 6.28 5.74 74.4 378 252.9 163.7 8.13 4920 410
80 1.218 21.564 4.66 6.28 5.65 87.2 865 296.4 158.1 8.07 5670 473
100 1.631 20.938 4.02 6.28 5.48 108.1 344 367.4 149.1 7.96 6852 571
120 1.812 20.376 3.61 6.28 5.33 126.3 326 429.4 141.2 7.87 7824 652
140 2.062 19.876 3.10 6.28 5.20 142.1 310 483.2 134.3 7.79 8630 719
2.188 19.625 2.91 6.28 6.14 149.9 302 1109. 7 131.0 7.75 9010 751
160 2.343 19.314 2.69 6.28 5.06 159.4 293 542.0 126.9 7.70 9455 788

26 ST .375 25.250 10.26 6.81 6.61 30.2 501 102.6 216.8 9.06 2479 191
D-26.000 XS .500 25.000 9.77 6.81 6.54 40.1 491 136.2 212.5 9.02 3257 250

10 .312 211.376 21.9 7.85 · 7.69 29.1 678 98.9 293.5 10.50 3210 214
ST .375 211. 250 21. 4 7.85 7.66 34.9 672 118.7 291.0 10.48 3833 2611
30 .438 211.125 21.0 7.85 7.62 40.6 666 138.0 288.4 10.45 4434 296
D -30.000 20XS .500 29.000 20.6 7.85 7.59 46.3 661 157 .6 286.0 10.43 li040 336
.662 28.875 20.I 7.85 7.56 52.0 655 176.8 283.6 10.41 5635 376
30 .625 28.750 19.6 7.85 7.63 57.7 649 196.1 281.1 10.39 6230 415

34 ST .375 33.250 40.6 8.90 8.70 39.6 868 134. 7 376.0 11.89 5599 329
D-34.000 XS .500 33.000 39.1 8.90 8.64 52.6 855 178.9 370.3 11.85 7383 434

36 ST .375 35.250 54.4 9.44 9.23 42.0 976 142. 7 422.6 12.60 6659 370
D - 36.000 XS .500 35.000 52.6 9.44 9. 16 55.8 962 189.6 416.6 12.611 8786 488

42 ST .375 41.250 119.4 11.0 10.80 49.0 1336 166.7 578.7 14.72 10621 506
n- 42.000 XS .500 41.000 115.9 11.0 10.73 115.2 1320 221.6 671.7 14.67 14037 668
Thia table is belil!Ved to be the most nearly complete tabulation of the dimensional propertiee of commercially available sizee of !Mel pipe ever published. It ineludee: the older weights of
pipe (ST - standard weight, XS - extra strong, XX = double extra strong), the schedulee given in ASA Standard B36.IO (IO, 20. etc.), and thooe given in ASA Standard B36.19 (5$, lOS.
40S. 808), the latter being applicable to stainless steel only.
Piping deeigneni will find herein all the dim,mi,m,,l data they may need to determine:
Pipe wall thiekne&lle8 required to resist internal pmsure.
Bending atreEee resulting from line exl)IIDSion.
Bending stresses caused by weight loadings.
Pipe column sisee n,qu.ired to suatain given axial loada.
Flow areas and fifth powera of the diameter, useful in pressure-drop caleulationa.
Surface vea.s fot uoe
in evaluating heat losses and insulation and coating requirements.
Definition of Properties Listed in Item 2
D • outside diameter of pipe, in. A1 = d%,, =·cross--eectional flow area, sq in.
d = inside diameter of pipe, in. 4
t =- nominal wall thickness of pipe, in. u, - 3.4A • weight of pipe, lb per ft length
A. =~ - outside pipe surfaoo, sq n per ft length
=
,o,. = 0.433A 1 weigbt of water filling. lb per ft length

= ✓1
2
ro -A = VD:+d • rad'1us of gyrat10n,
• .
m.
A, =~
12
= inside pipe surface, sq ft per ft length 4
l • Ar, 2 .. 0.041ll(D' - d')
·
= moment of inertia, in.4
42
= erose-<1eetional metal area, sq in. 21 D' - d•
A= (D! - )..- Z = D = 0.0982 - D - • section modulus, in.•
4
 APPENDIX l

391
APPENDIX

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS*

Stress in Thousands of Pounds per Square Inch

(Courtesy of the Baldwin Locomotive Works)
Com- Modulus
Tension, Elastic pression, Bending, Shearing, of Elongation,
Metals and Alloys Ultimate Limit Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate Elasticity per cent
Aluminum, cast 15 6.5 12 12 11,000,000
Aluminum, bars, sheets 24-28 12-14
Aluminum, wire, hard 30-65 16-30
Aluminum, wire, annealed 20-35 14
Aluminum, 2-7% Ni, Cu, Fe, etc. 40-50 25
Aluminum Bronze, 5% to 7½% Al 75 40 120
Aluminum Bronze, 10 % Al 85-100 60
.
Brass, 17% Zn 32.6 8.2 23.2 26.7
Brass, 23 % Zn 7.6 42 22.3 35.8
Brass, 30 % Zn 28.1 8.6 26.9 20. 7
Brass, 39% Zn 41.1 17.4 75 39 20.7
Brass, 50% Zn 31 17.9 117 33.5 5.0
Brass, cast, common 18-24 6 30 20 36 9,000,000 22
Brass, wire, hard 80
Brass, wire, annealed 50 16 14,000,000
Bronze, 8% Sn 28.5 19 42 43.7 10,000,000 5.5
Bronze, 13% Sn . 29.4 20 53 34.5 3.3
Bronze, 20% Sn 33 78 56.7 0.04
Bronze, 24% Sn 22 22 114 32
Bronze, 30 % Sn 5.6 5.6 147 12.1
Bronze, gun metal, 9% Cu, 1 % Sn 25-55 10 52 10,000,000
Bronze, Manganese, cast } 10% Sn 60 30 125
Bronze, Manganese, rolled 2% Mn 100 80
Bronze, Phosphorus, cast} 9 % Sn 50 24
Bronze, Phosphorus, wire 1 % P 100
Bronze, Silicon, cast, 3 % Si 55
Bronze, Silicon, cast, 5 % Si 75
Bronze, Silicon, wire 108 ...
Bronze, Tobin, cast } 38% Zn 66
Bronze, Tobin, rolled Hi% Sn 80 40 4,500,000 35
Bronze, Tobin, cold-rolled ½ % Pb 100
Copper, cast 25 6 40 22 30 10,000,000
Copper, .plates, rods, bolts 32-35 10 32
Copper, wire, hard 55-65 18,000,000
Copper, wire, annealed 36 10 15,000,000

Delta Metal, =t } S5--60% Cu 45 10

Delta Metal, plates 38-40% Zn 68 16,600,000 17
Delta Metal, bars 2-- 4% Fe 85
Delta Metal, wire 1- 2% Sn 100
• Courtesy of th~ !3aldwin Locomotive Wor.ks.
392
 Strength of Materials 393
Stress in Thousands of Pounds per Square Inch (Continued)
Com- Modulus

/ Metals and Alloys

German Silver, 17.2% Zn, 21.1% Ni
Tension,
Ultimate
40.9
Elastic
Limit
18.8
pression, Bending, Shearing,
Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate
of
Elasticity
Elongation
per cent,
28.5

Gold, cast !:O 4 8,000,000 25

Gold, wire 30
GoJd, Copper, 5% Au,.1% Cu 50

Iron, cast, common 15-18 6 80 30 18-20 12,000,000

Iron, cast, gray 18-24 25-33
Iron, cast, malleable 27-35 15-20 46 30 40

Iron, wrought, shapes 48 26 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 28,000,000

Iron, wrought, bil1·s 50 27 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 28,000,000
Iron, wrought, unannealed 80 15,000,000
Iron, wrought, wire, annealed 60 27 25,000,000

Lead, cast 1.8 1,000,000

Lead, pipe, wire 2.2-2.5 1,000,000
Lead, rolled, sheets 3.3 7.1 2,200,000

Platinum, wire, unannealed 53 24,400,000 18

Platinum, wire, annealed 32 50

Silver, rolled 40

Steel, boiler plates,• fire-box 55-65 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 27.3-23.0
SteeJ, boiler plates, flange plates 52-62 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 28.8-24.2
Steel, castings,• soft 60 27 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 22.0
Steel, castings, medium 70 31.5 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 18.0
Stee], castings, hard 80 36 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 15.0
Steel, reinforcing bars,• plain, structural grade 55-70 33 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 25.4-20.0
Steel, reinforcing bars, plain, intermediate 70-85 40 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 18.6-15.3
Steel, reinforcing bars, plain, hard 80 50 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 15.0
Steel, reinforcing bars, deformed, structural grade 55-70 33 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 22.7-17.9
Steel, reinforcing bars, deformed, intermediate 70-85 40 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 16.1-13.2
Steel, reillforcing bars, deformed, hard 80 50 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 12.5
Steel, reinforcing bars, cold-twisted 55 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 5.0
Steel, rivets,• boilers 45-55 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 33.3-27.3
Steel, rivets, bridges 46-56 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 32.6-26.8
Steel, rivets, buildings 46-56 ~i tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 30.4-25.0
Steel, rivets, cars 48-58 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 31.3-25.9
Sieel, rivets, ships 55-65 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 27.3-23.0

Steel Shapes, bridges 55-65 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 27.3-23.0
Steel Shapes, buildings 55-65 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 25.4-21.5
Steel Shapes, cars 50-65 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,QOO 30.0-23.0
Steel Shapes, locomotives 55-65 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 27.3-23.0
Steel Shapes, ships 58-68 ½ tensile tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 25.9-22.l
Steel Alloys, Nickel Steel,• 3.25 % N
Steel Alloys, Nickel Steel, shapes, plates, bars 85-100 50 tensile tensile %: tensile 29,000,000 17.6-15.0
Steel Alloys, Nickel, Steel, rivets 70-80 45 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 21.4-18.8
Steel Alloys, Nickel Steel, eye bars, unannealed 95-110 55 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 15.8-13.6
Steel Alloys, Nickel Steel, eye bars, annealed 90-105 · 52 tensile tensile ¾ tensile 29,000,000 20.0
Steel Alloys, Copper Steel, 0.50 % Cu 60-68 37-38 tensile tensile % tensile 29,000,000 29.0-23.0
Steel Springs, untempered 65-110 40-70

Steel Wire, unannealed 120 60

Steel Wire, annealed 80 40
Steel Wire, bridge cable 200 95

Tin, cast 3.5-4.6 1.5-1.8 6 4 4,000,000

Tin, antimony, 10% Sn, 1 % Sb 11

Zinc, cast 4-6 4 18 7 13,000,000

Zinc, rolled sheets 7-16

• See Specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials.

J

AUTHOR INDEX

Aries, R. S. (27):* 17,317 Den Hartog, J.P. (32): 19, 20, 107, 317
Armstrong, T. N. (56, 61): 26, 27, 318 Dolan, T. J. (51, 72, 75, 76): 26, 29,318
Donnell, L. H. (44): 23, 63, 318
Bagsar, A. B. (65): 26, 318 Donovan, J. T. (225): 307, 308, 309, 321
Bergman, E. 0. (135, 140): 145, 146, 158, 319, 320 Dykhuizen, M. G. (112): 116, 117, 319
Bibber, L. C. (49): 24, 318
Bijlaard, P. P. (163): 201, 320 · Effinger, R. T. (78): 29, 30, 318
Boardman, H. C. (12,128): 5, 6, 76,120,135,137,144,317,319 Eichinger, A. (210): 281, 321
Bones, J. A. (202): 280, 281, 321 Ellis, W. E. (83): 30, 318
Bowman, C. E. (51, 72, 76): 26, 29, 318 Ettinger, W. G. (222): 303,321
Bresse, M. (130): 144, 319 Euler, Leonard (39): 22, 171, 318
Bridgman, P. W. (217): 278, 32i
Brucker, W. H. (83): 30, 318 Faber, 0. (232): 185, 186, 321
Brummerstedt, E. F. (103, 153): 80, 81, 181, 319, 320 Faupel, J. H. (201,215,216): 279, 280, 287, 291, 292, 321
Bryan, G. H. (131): 144, 319 Feely, F. J. (53, 91, 94, 95, 96): 26, 27, 38, 39, 318, 319
Burington, R. S. (38): 21, 159, 318 Fey, R. F. (194): 275, 276, 286, 307, 321
Burrows, W. R. (77, 109): 29, 104, 138, 318, 319 Fox, Lyle E. (98): 39, 319
Franks, R. (57): 26, 318
Campbell, H. C. (81): 30, 318 Fratcher, G. E. (228): 315, 321
Castigliano, A. : 199 Freeman, J. W. (204, 214): 204, 282, 283, 284, 285, 321
Chilton, C. H. (18, 229): 8, 17, 317, 321 Freudenthal, A. M. (199): 278, 321
Clapeyron, B. P. E. (189): 268, 271, 321 Furbeck, A. R. (215): 280, 287, 291, 292, 321
Clark, D. A. R. (31): 19, 20, 22, 310, 317
Coates, W. M. (117, 123):120, 126,127,132,133,135,136,319 Gagnebin, A. B. (56): 26, 318
Coe, E. H. (99): 39, 319 Gartner, Abraham I. (233): 187, 321
Cohen, A. (40): 22, 318 Gensamer, M. (58, 96): 26, 38, 318, 319
Comings, E.W. (218): 280, 287, 321 Glenday, C. (232): 185, 186, 321
Comstock, C. W. (226): 314, 315, 321 Goodier, J. N. (35): 20, 318
Cook, G. (159, 193): 144, 275, 320, 321 Greene, Arthur M., Jr. (177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184):
Coulomb, C. A. (190): 269, 321 249, 250, 320
Cox, G. L. (236): 33, 322 Greene, T. W. (120, 122): 120, 319
Cox, H. L. (220): 220, 300, 301, 321 Griffith, A. A. (68, 69): 28, 318
Crossland, B. (202): 280, 281, 321 Gross, J. H. (50, 52, 73): 26, 29, 318

* Numbers in parentheses are reference numbers. See References section starting on page 317.
395
 396 Author Index
Grossman, N. (62): 26, 318 Nelson, J. G. (139): 159, 320
Gucer, D. E. (73): 29,318 Newitt, D. M. (191): 274, 287, 321
Guest, J. J. (147): 178, 320 Newmark, N. M. (43, 71): 23, 29, 63, 318
Newton, R. D. (27): 17,317
Haigh, B. P. (149): 180, 320 Nordmark, G. E. (71): 29,318
Harris, L. A. (71): 29, 318 Northrup, M. S. (53, 91, 94, 95, 96): 26, 27, 38, 39, 318, 319
Hencky, H. (151, 206, 207, 208): 180, 281, 320, 321 Norton, M. R. (55): 26, 318
Hesse, H. C. (144): 161, 320
Higgins, M. B. (213): 153, 154, 321 O'Brien, H. L. (112, 134): 116, 117, 144, 319
Hill, R. (197): 278, 287, 321 Orowan, E. (46, 70): 26, 28, 318
. Hodge, P. G. (195): 278, 279, 287, 321 Osborn, C. J. (66): 26, 318
Hoffman, 0. (198): 278, 321
Hohn, E. (113, 114): 120, 121, 122, 125, 126, 132, 135, 136, Pagon, W. W. (138): 158, 320
137, 138, 319 Pearson, K. (148): 179, 268, 320
Holloman, J. H. (54, 55): 26, 318 Peirce, B. 0. (127): 129, 130, 319
Holroyd, R. (224): 307, 308, 321 Plummer, F. L. (8, 9): 3,317
How, H. (21): 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 317 Prager, W. (195): 278,279,287,321
Hrtko, D. (53): 26, 27, 38, 318
Huber, M. T. (150, 209): 180, 281, 320, 321
Huggenberger, A. (115, 116): 120, 122, 126, 132, 133, 319 Rankin, A. W. (77): 29, 318
Rankine, W.J. M.:67
Reddick, H. W. (126): 129, 319
Jaffe, L. D. (54, 55, 82): 26, 30, 318 Rhys, C. 0. (124): 120, 135, 136, 319
Jasper, T. M. (221, 242, 243): 133, 134, 293, 303; 321, 322 Roark, R. J. (166): 210, 320
Jefferson, T. B. (13, 14): 6, 317 Robertson, A. (193): 275, 321
Johnston, B. G. (66): 26; 318 Robertson, T. S. (106): 26, 275, 319
Jorgensen, S. M. (234): 187, 322 Robinson, E. L. (212): 282, 321
Josenhans,M. (225):307,308, 309,321 Rossheim, D. B. (173, 174): 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236, 320
Rouse, H. (141): 159, 320
Kerkhof, W. P. (45): 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 34, 318 Rushton, J. H. (144): 161, 320
Kinzel, A. B. (63, 121): 26, 120, 318, 319
Kleppe, S. R. (53, 96): 26, 27, 38, 318, 319 Sachs, G. (198, 219): 278, 291, 321
Saint-Venant: 268
Lame, G. (189): 254, 268, 269, 271, 272, 275, 288, 321 Sanderson, C. F. (154): 184, 320
Lang, H. A. (108, 110, 129): 104, 107, 108, 109, 110, 114, 115, Schierenbeck, J., Jr. (223): 307,321
116, 138, '319 Schrier, E. (1): 2, 317
Langenberg, F. G. (244): 322 Scotchbrook, A. F. (66): 26, 318
La Que, F. L. (236): 33; 322 Scudder, C. M. (221): 303, 321
Larson, D. E. (7): 3, 317 Sechler, E. (37): 20,318
Lavine, I. (26): 17, 317 Seely, F. B. (231): 208, 307, 321
Lazznir, C. C. (154): 184, 320 Siemon, K. 0. G. (164): 201, 320
Love, A. E. H. (33): 20,317 Sliepcevich, C. M. (204): 204, 282, 283, 284, 285, 321
Lynn, C. V. (97): 39, 40, 319 Smith, J. O. (231): 208, 307, 321 '
Smulski, E. (156): 185, 186, 320
Maccary, R.R. (194): 275, 276, 286, 307, 321 Sokolnikoff,I.S. (34):20,297,318
MacCutcheon, E. M. (93): 38, 319 Southwell, R. V. (36, 133): 20, 144,318,319
MacGregor, C. W. (62): 26, 318 Spraragen, W. (222):303,321
MacLachlan, N. W. (111): 114, 319 Stevens, R. W. {23): 16,317
Macrae, A. E. (192): 275, 278, 287, 294, 321 Stewart, R. T. (132): 144, 153, 319
Maker, F. L.: 127, 133, 134, 135, 138 Stout, R. D. (50, 52, 59, 60, 66, 73): 26, 27, 29, .318
Manning, W.R.D. (203,237,238,239,240):273, 278,279,281. Strum, R. G. (112, 134): 116, 117, 144, 319
292, 293, 294, 321, 322 Summer, W. B. (155): 184, 320
Markovits, J. A. (225): 307, 308, 309, 321
Marshall, V. 0. (142, 143): 161, 184, 320 Taylor, C. P. (232): 185, 186, 321
Mason, J. L. (4): 2,317 Taylor, F. W. (156): 185, 186, 320
McCarthy, D. E. (55): 26, 318 Taylor, J. H. (171, 172): 227,229,320
McGeady, L. J. (59, 60): 26, 27,318 Theisinger, W. G. (104): 82, 83, 319
Michel, R. (77): 29, 318 Thielsch, H. (79): 30, 318
Miller, F. H. (41, 126): 22, 129, 318, 319 Thompson, S. E. (156): 185, 186, 320
Miller, S. W. -(118, 119): 120, 319 Timoshenko, S. (29, 35, 42, 107, 136): 19, 20, 22, 23, 67, 69, 104,
Morley, A. (30): 19, 20, 201, 317 110, 128, 149, 150, 151, 171, 187, 192, 210, 282, 317,318,319,
Morris, J. L. (15): 6, 317 320
Todhunter, I. (148): 179,268,320
Nadai, A. L. (196, 241): 278, 292, 321, 32.2 Tresca, H. (190): 269, 321
Nehl, F: (74): 29, 318 Trilling, C. (158): 144, 320
Nelson, G. A. (78.): 29, 30, 157, 318 Tsang, S. (SO): 26, 29, 318
 Author Index 397
. Vanderbeck, R. W. (58): 26, 318 Wesstrom, D. B. (173, 174): 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236,
van Iterson, F. K. T. (200): 278, 321 320
Von Mises, R. (152, 205): 180, 279, 281, 321, 320 Williams, F. S. G. (173, 174, 175): 229, 230,231,232,233, 236,
Voorhees, H. R. (204, 211, 214): 204, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 320
286,321 . Williams, Roger, Jr. (230): 17, 321
Wilson, W. M. (43): 23, 63, 318
Wahl (241): 292,322 Windenburg, D. F. (158): 144, 320
Waters, E. O. (171,172,173,174,175): 227,229,230,231,232, Witterstrom, E. (112): 116, 117, 319
233, 236, 320 Wolosewick, F. E. (160, 161): 195, 198, 199, 320
Watts, G. W. (108, 109, 110, 129): 104, 107,.108; 109, 110, 114,
115, 116, 138, 319 . Zick, L. P. (48, 165): 24, 25, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211,
Weaver, .J.B. (28): 17, 317 212, 213, 215, 216, 318, 320
Weber, W.W. (17): 6,317 Zimmerman, E. N. (90): 36, 319
Wentworth, ff. P. (81):30, 318 Zimmerman, 0. T. (26): 17, 317
 / --- r

)
SUBJECT INDEX.·

Allowable pressure, for shells under external pressure, 146 ASME boiler code, development of, 250
on long, thin cylinders under external pressure, 144 ASME code, antecedents of, 249
Allowable stress, for nonferrous metals in tension, 336-340 flange design, 240
Allowable stresses, factors influencing, 24 section VIII, scope of, 250
in flange design, 244 vessels, testing of, 266
see also Stress, allowable welding, qualifications, 7
Allowable working pressure, chart for pipes and tubing under ASME code for unfired pressure vessels, 4, 24, 25, :n, 77, 85,
external pressure, 153 ~ 88, 92, 93, 94, 95, 118, 133, 135, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151,
Aluminum alloys, chart for external-pressure vessels, 366-369 152, 228, 229, 239, 240, 241, 250, 251, 252, 254, 255, 256,
Aluminum and aluminum alloys, ASME allowable stress in 257,258,260,263,264,266,267
tension, 336, 337 ASME stress-intensification factors for torispherical closures,
Aluminum-bronze (alpha) chart for external pressure vessels, 138
377 American Society of Testing Materials, 33
Aluminum Company of America, 64 American Standards Association, 62, 158, 159
J\merican Boiler Manufacturer's Association, organization, 250 Code for Pressure Piping, 7
American Institute of Steel Construction, 67, 319 specification for standard flanges, 219
American Petroleum Institute, 3 American Welding Society, 7, 23, 25, 28, 29, 116, 117,137,205,
API accessories for tank shells, 349 207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 216
API-ASME code, 4, 7, 85, 92, 133, 138, 250 Anchor-bolt chair, centered, 191
on Unfired Pressure Vessels, 250 Anchor-bolt loading, for skirt of vertical vessel, 184
API dimensions for shell manholes, 350, 351 Arc, unsupported maximum in.ASME external-pressure vessels,
API Standard 12 C, 3, 7, 8, 36; 37, 38, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 257
58, 59, 60, 68, 69, 77 Autofrettage prestressing of vessel shells, 286
use of in vessel design, 36 Autofrettaged shells, procedure in analysis, 287
API Standard 12 D, 44 Axial stress in Lame analysis of thick-walled vessels, 269
API tank-shell nozzle dimensions, 350
API thicknesses for shell-manhole cover plates, 350 Battelle Memorial Institute, 32
API typical tank sizes and capacities, 346-348 Beam, uniformly loaded, 20
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 4 uniformly loaded continuous, derivation of equations for
ASME allowable stress, for carbon and low-alloy pipes and bending moment and deflection, 66
tuhes, 335 uniformly loaded with free ends, derivation of equations for
for nonferrous metals in tension, 336-340 bending moment and deflection, 65
in tension for aluminum and aluminum alloys, 336, 337 Beam on elastic foundation, applied to shell connected to a
in tension for copper and copper alloys, 336, 337 flange, 230
in tension for nickel and high-nickel alloys, 340 bending relationships, 103
ASME allowable tensile stress for high-alloy steels, 342-345 chart of functions, 128
399
400 Subject Index
Beam formulas, 384
Bearing plate, rolled-angle, 190
single-ring, 190
sketch showing loading for vertical vessels, 185
thickness, 187
width, for skirts of vertical vessels, 187
Bearing plates, for column supports, 201
relationships for compression side for skirts of' vertical vessels,
185
relationships for tension side for skirts of vertical vessels,
185
with centered chairs, 190
Bending, diagram of, in an element of a plate, 109
in flat-plate closure, 106
in shell of cylindrical vessel with flat-plate closure, 104
Bending moment, diagram for horizontal vessels, 205
equation for cylindrical vessel with flat cover plate, 108
equation for various types of beams, 384
for wind load on vertical vessel, 159
from seismic forces on unguyed vertical vessels, 168
in plates, 100
maximum longitudinal in horizontal vessels, 204
Bending moments, in bearing plate with gussets, 187
in guyed vessels, 162
in shell under external pressure, 142
table for bearing plates with gussets, 187
table for ~our double-gusset lugs on vertical vessels, 199
Bending strength, of various metals and alloys, 392
Bending stresses, in elliptical dished head near junction with
shell, 128
in shell near junction with elliptical head, 128
Bethlehem Steel Company, 37
Binomial equation, used in design of shells of vertical vessels, 171
Blaw-Knox Company, 220
Bolt data, table, 188
Bolt size, optimum, 227
Bolting area, for skirt supports of vertical vessels, 188
Bolting calculations for bearing plates for vertical vessels, 187
Bolting chairs, maximum number of centered chairs in vessel
skirts, 191
Bolting steel, area for vertical vessels, 186
Bottom design, for flat-bottomed cylindrical vessels, 58 .
Bottom joints, typical, as recommended by API St~dard 12 C,
58
Bottom plate layout, drawing showing dimensions for large
flat-bottomed tank, 61
Bottom plates, relationship of plate dimensions, 59
Braun, C. F., and Company, 3, 6, 12, 82, 84, 93, 121, 156, 157,
160, 204
Bresse, M., equation for external pressure on long, thin cylin-
ders, 144
British tanks, failure of, 38
Brittle fracture, 38
as function of size of crack, 28
as influenced by yield point, 28
effect of composition on failure, 27
photograph showing in monobloc vessel, 27
Brittle rupture, 26 , Compressive strength of various metals and alloys, 392
Bryan, G. H., equation for external pressure on long, thin cylin-
ders, 144 ' -
Buck.ling, criticilstress in column, 22
Buffalo Tank :&-mpany, 88 · Comstock, theory of wire-wound multilayer vessels, 314
Bursting' pressure of thick-walled vessels, 281
Butt joints, double-welded, 7
single-welded, 7
Butt welding, versus lap welding in vessel shells, 47
Calculation sheet for flange design, 246
Calculations, for design of shell of a tall vertical vessel, 172
Cantilever-beam formulas, 384
Capacities and sizes of typical API storage tanks, 346-348
Carbon steel, grade classification of flat, hot-rolled, 9
Carbon steels, properties of, as recommended by API Standard
12 C, 37
Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation, 31, 32
Cast iron, chart for external-pressure vessels, 380
Centered chairs, used for bolting skirts of vertical vessels, 190
Channels, properties of rolled-steel members, 353
Charpy test, 26
figure showing U-notch data for some' mild steels, 27
Chart for thickness of external-pressure vessels fabricated of
carbon steel, yield point 24,000 to 30,000 psi, 147
yield point 30,000 to 38,000 psi, 148
Chemical enginee;ing, definition of, 1
Chicago Bridge and Iron Company, 5
, Circular plate, dished, diagram showing deflection in, 101
flat, diagram showing bending moments in, 101
Circumferential moment around shell of horizontal vessel, 211
Circumferential stress, at horn of saddle in shell of horizontal
vessel stiffened by head, 211
at horn of saddle in unstiffened shell of horizontal vessel, 211
diagram showing in cylindrical shell under internal pressure,
105
in cylindrical shell, derivation of equation for, 45
in horizontal vessel at horn of saddle support, 203, 209
Coates, W. M., theoretical analysis for local bending stresses
at junction of head and shell, 126, 132, 133, 135, 136
Coates and Rhys, discussion of equations, 136
Coates's relationships, applied to torispherical clo!!ures, 135
Coefficients, for cone, for calculation of bending moment and
shear, 115 ·
for cylinder, for calculation of bending moment and shear,
108
for flat head, for calculation of bending moment and shear,
108
for hemispherical heads, 138
Cold-rolled steel, 9
Collapse, chart for coefficients for shells under external pres-
sure, 144
of shell by external pressure, 143
Collapsing pressure, for pipes and tubing under external pres-
sure, 153
of vessel shells with circumferential stiffeners and under
external pressure, 144
Column, action, in supported roofs of tanks, 66
instability, 22
size, selection of, for Example Design 4.2, 73
supports, for vertical vessels, 201
Combined stresses, in shell of vertical vessel, 1 70
under operating pressure in autofrettaged vessels, 288
Components of forces in elliptical dished head, 124
Compression ring, calculation of thickness, 192
gusset-plate thickness, 193
Compressive force on supports for vertical vessels, 186
Compressive stress, allowable axial in cylindrical shells, 23
caused by dead loads in vertical vessels, 156
induced by guy-wire tension in vertical vessels, 162
Concentrated-loaded-beam formulas, 384, 385
Concentration cell, as cause of corrosion, 34
Concrete, allowable compressive stress, 184
mixes, table of average properties, 184
 Subject Index 401
Conical closure, diagram showing compressive force at junction Cyclic loading, 24
with shell, 114 strain hardening from, 28
experimentally determined stresses, 116 Cylindrical shells, under external pressure, ASME design, 255
Conical closures, bending at the junction, 114 under internal pressure, ASME code design, 254
dished, for ASME code design, 259 with flat-plate closure, bending in the shell, 104
elastic stability under external pressure, 153
location of maximum stresses, 116 · Dead loads, in vertical vessels, 156
stresses in the cone, 115 Dead-weight stress, in skirt of vertical vessel, 183
stresses in the shell, 115 Deflection, derivation of equation for uniformly loaded beam, 21
Conical head, diagram of hoop stress, 113 equation for beam on elastic foundation, 104
diagram of moment and shear at junction with shell, 114 equations for various beams, 384
Conical heads, 96 Deformation, of cylindrical-shell section under external pres-
Conical roof loads, equations for, 55 sure, 142
sketch showing,-54 Density, of various metals and alloys, 341
Conical roofs, radius of curvature, 63 Derivation, of equation for moment of inertia of cylindrical
self-supporting, 63 shell, 159
Constant for Eq. 13.27, 362 Design of saddles for horizontal vessels, 215
Constants, table for loads on bearing plate for vertical vessel, Diameter limitations for vessels with formed heads, 81
186 Dimensions of seamless and welded steel pipe, 386
Continuous-beam formulas, 384 Discontinuity stresses at junction of head and shell, 126
Continuous compression ring, 193 Dome and umbrella roofs, for tanks, 68
Copper and copper alloys, ASME allowable stress in tension, Dorr classifier, 2
338, 339 Drag coefficients, for circular cylinders, 159
Copper, chart for external pressure vessels, 373 Drawings, alphabet of lines, 324
Copper-nickel alloys, charts for external pressure vessels, 375, conventions, 323
376 dimension standards, 325, 326
· Copper-silicon alloys, A and C, chart for external pressure dimensioning, 325
vessels, 374 lettering, 324
Corrosion, concentration-cell attack, 33 material symbols, 324.
deposit attack, 33 sizes and scales, 323
galvanic-cell attack, 33 title block and bill of materials, 323
impingement attack, 33 Draw-off elbow, figure showing for flat-bottomed tank, 60
stress, 33 welded, dimensions for, as recommended by API Standard
types of, 32 12 C, 59
uniform, 33 Draw-off sump, figure showing for flat-bottomed tank, 60
Corrosion Handbook, 33, 319 Ductile rupture, 26
Cost, estimated, for flat-bottomed cylindrical vessels, 38
for large-diameter tanks as installed, 40 Earthquakes, data on some disastrous, 167
for small and me.dium-sized flat-bottomed cone-roofed Eccentric loading, on vertical vessels, 168
storage tanks, 39 Eccentricity, ASME maximum for external-pressure vesse1s,
per ton for large-diameter tanks, 40 257
factors, in proportioning tanks, 42 K, for an ellipse, 129
indices, 16 Effective area for shell of horizontal vessel, 205
of forming for ASME dished heads, 92 Efficiencies, for arc-- and gas-welded joints, 254
relationships, in proportioning vessels with elliptical dished Elastic bending, 20
heads, 80 Elastic deformation, as criterion in design, 19
Costs, fabrication, 11 Elastic gain in heat-treated autotrettaged vessels, 294
Cox, equations for multilayer vessels, 296 Elastic instability, 22
Crack propagation, rate of, in brittle fracture, 28 in vessel shells under axial load, 22
Cracks, in welds, 7 Elastic limit, of various metals and alloys, 392
Creep, 30 Elastic-plastic interface, in autofrettage, 287
in high-pressure vessels, 282 optimum location in autofrettage, 294
-rupture test, 31 Elastic-plastic loadings, 23
test, 30 Elastic stability, equation for curved plate, 151
Crimping, photograph of press for, 12 in design of shells of vertical vessels, 171
Criteria for failure of thick-walled shells based on theory of of conical closures under external pressure, 153
elasticity, 272 of dome roofs for tanks, 69
Critical compressive stress, in shell of vertical vessels, 171 of elliptical closures under external pressure, 152
Critical length between stiffeners for external-pressure vessels, of hemispherical and torispherical closures under external
144 pressure, 151
Critical load in shell under external pressure, 143 of long, thin cylinders under external pressure, 141
Critical stress, in columns, 22 of umbrella roofs for tanks, 69
in shell under external pressure, 143 Ellipse, equation for, 124
in vessel shells, 22 figure shmving trigonometric variables for, 129
Cutting, machine rate burden, 11 Elliptic integrals, 129
Cutting time, for flame-cut steel plate, 11 Elliptical closures, elastic stability under external pressure, 152
402 Subject Index
Elliptical dished heads, chart of blank dimensions, 94
force components in, 124
for ASME code design, 256
Elliptical head, chart of Huggenberger stress-intensification
factors, 126
figure of deformation tn the junction zone, 127
figure of deformation of ellipsoid under internal pressure, 126
photograph showing welding of, 121
Elliptical heads, cost of forming, 95
equation for volume qf, 95
table of forming costs, 95
Elongation, minimum permissible in welds, 7
percentage of, for various metals and alloys, 392
Embrittlement, 29
Engineering News-Record, construction-cost index, 16, 17
Equal angles, properties of rolled-steel members, 356
Equations for various types of beams, 384
Equipment cost, scaling of, 17
Equipment-design group, in vessel procurement, 17
Equivalent stress, 281
Erection of vertical tower, photograph, 169 .
Esso Research and Engineering Company, 39
Euler column formulas, 22 · design of circumferential stiffeners, 150
Euler formula, derivation of, ·22
Example calculation, comparing four theories of elastic failure
for thick-walled vessels, 276
design of bearing-plate for vertical vessel, 188
design of external bolting chairs for vessel skirt,· 193
for monobloc vessel at elevated temperature, 283
guyed vertical vessel, 162
of a two-shell shrink-fitted vessel, 302
of combined stress at interface of shrink-fitted shells, 298
of combined stresses in shrink-fitted multilayer vessels, 299
of interface pressure in multilayer vessel, 298
of interferences required in shrink-fitted vessel, 301
of maximum out-of-roundness for ASME external-pressure
vessel, 256
of optimum autofrettage pressure, 288
of preheat temperature for shrink fitting, 302
of reaction of bolting ring with vessel skirt, 195
of reinforcing area for opening in ASME vessel, 263
of seismic forces on unguyed vertical vessel, 168
of shell thickness and compression-ring area for ASME conical
closures, 259
of shrinkage stresses in multilayer vessels, 299
of stress distribution in thick-wall cylinder based on Lam~
analysis, 271
of stresses in a horizontal vessel, 216
of stresses near junction of shell and elliptical dished head
using Coates's method, 130
of thermal stresses in skirt of vertical vessel, 196
of thick shell wound at constant tension, 312
of thickness for ASME toriconical closure, 259
of thickness of ASME elliptical dished head, 256
of thickness of ASME torispherical head, 258 '
of w.ound thin shell wit~·ding of dissimilar metal, .310
Example design, bottom fo large flat-bottomed tank, 59
complete shell design f. a closed vessel' (storage tank), 55
design of vessel with flat-plate closure, 111
for ring flange, 242
of a torispherical closure for vessel under external pressure,
152
of circumferential stiffeners for external-pressure vessels, 150
of conical closure for vessel under external pressure, 153
of cylindrical shell under external pressure, 146
of elliptical closure for vessel under external pres!ltire, 152
Example design, of hemispherical closure for vessel under exter-
nal pressure, 152
of integral flange, 245
of roof and structural supports for large storage tank, 69
of wind girder for open vessel, 52
shell c9-lculations for a tall vertical vessel, 172
External chair, bolting, for skirts of vertical vessels, 191
External chairs, empirical dimensions, 191
External pressure, effect on elastic stability of long, thin
cylinders, 141
External-pressure vessels, chart for alpha-aluminum bronze, 377
chart for aluminum alloys, 366-369
chart for annealed copper, 373
chart for cast iron, 380
chart for copper-silicon alloys A and C, 374
chart for low-carbon nickel steel, 365
chart for nickel, 370
chart for nickel-chromium-iron alloy, 372
chart for nickel-copper alloy, 371
charts for austenitic stainless steel, 378, 379
charts for copper-nickel alloys, 375, 376
critical stress from externa,I pressure, 143
External stiffening rings for horizontal vessels, 214
Extras, circular- and sketch-plate for steel, 10
classification for steel, 10
for mill carbon-steel plate, 330
for shearing and gas-cutting mill plate, 331
for warehouse steel, 332
gas-cutting for steel, 10
length for steel, 10
mill for steel, 10
quality for steel, 10
width and thickness for steel, 10
Fabrication-cost extras, table listing, 83
Fabrication costs, 11
Facings, for gaskets, 229
for standard flanges, 222
Factor of safety, in determining allowable stress, 24
Failure, of British storage tanks, photograph of, 39
types of, 19
Failures, of dished heads, 137
Faupel, equations for bursting pressure of thick-walled vessels,
280
Faupel and Furbeck, elastic-breakdown pressures, 280
experimental values of residual stresses in autofrettaged
vessels, 291
Field welding, photograph of shell circumferential butt joint,
48
Firebox-quality steel plates, 333
Firebox-quality steels, 78
Flange, analysis for hub, 232
analysis for ring, 230
analysis for shell connection, 230
maximum axial hub stress, 236
maximum radial ring stress, 237
maximum tangential ring stress, 237
-quality steel plates, 333
-quality steels, 78
relationships for hub, shell, and ring combined,.234
stress equations used in ASME code, 239
stress in loose or slip-on type, 238
stresses, location of critical, 236
thickness, for ASME spherical dished covers, 261
with tapered hub, analysis of forces and moments, 229
 Subject Index 403
Flanged and dished heads, ASM~, 88 Hammond Iron Works, 4, 41, 48, 49
figure showing dimensional relationships, 87 Harmonic vibration, components, 165
Flanged-only heads, 85 in vertical vessels, 165
standard, table of dimensioilS, 87 Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, 250
Flanged shallow-dished heads, 86 Heads, ASME dished, 88
Flanged standard-dished heads, 86 cost of forming, 92
Flanges, blind, 221 table of dimensions, 89
code rules for designing, 240 cost extras for standard machining styles, 86
lap-joint, 220 dished only, 97
nonstandard, 223 elliptical dished, 92'
screwed, 221 flanged and reverse dished, 97
slip-on, 219 flared and dished, 97
welding-neck, 219 torispherical, 88
Flanging machine, photograph of world's largest, 77 Heat treating, vessel shell, 157
Flat circular plate, uniformly loaded and simply supported, 102 Heat treatment, for autofrettaged vessels, 274
uniformly loaded with edges clamped; 102 Height-to-diameter ratio for tanks, 41
with concentric load, 103 Hemispherical closure, dished, 138
Flat cover plate and shell, diagram of forces and moment at elastic stability under external pressure, 151
junction, 104 stress in head at junction, 139
Flat cover plates, value of constant for Eq. 13.27, 362 stress in head other than at junction, 139
Flat heads and covers, ASME acceptable types, 262 stress in shell other than at junction, 139
· Flat-plate closures, for ASME design, 261 Hemispherical bead, photograph showing, 96
practical design of, 112 Hemispherical beads, 95
stresses in, 110 dished, for ASME code design, 258
Flat-ribbon-wound vessel, 307 table of dimensions of available sizes, 96
Flexural rigidity of plates, 100 Hemispberoid, photograph of, 5
Flexure, in uniformly loaded beam, 20 High-alloy steel, ASME allowable stress in tension, 342-345
Forces and moments in tapered hub flange, 229 High-temperature service, selection of vessel material, 285
Forgings, 5 Hohn, E., stress analysis by, 120, 121, 122, 126, 135, 136, 137
Formed closures, early uses, 76 Hoop stress, in elliptical closure, 121 '
under external pressure for ASME design, 260 in multilayer vessels, 299
under internal pressure for ASME code design, 256 intensification factor, chart with combination of Huggen-
Formed head, drawing showing various types, 85 berger's and Coates's relationships, 132
Formed heads, hemispherical, elliptical-dished, torispberical, for vessel with elliptical closure from Hohn data, 121
standard-dished, conical, and toriccinical, 4 Horizontal storage tank, photograph showing, 93
other types, 96 Horizontal vessel, example calculation of stresses, 216
pricing quantity differentials, 94 supports for, 203
types and their selection, 84 with two saddle supports, 204
types of applications, 76 Hot-rolled steel, 9
Forming costs, for ASME flanged and dished heads, 93 Hub of flange, proportioning, 244
Franklin Institute, committee on cause of boiler explosions, 249 Huggenberger, analysis of membrane stresses in elliptical
Functions, elliptic integral, 130 closures, 122, 126, 132, 133
Fusion welding, 6 Hydrogen blisters, photograph of, in pressure-vessel steel, 29
Hydrogen embrittlement, 29
Galvanic series, table of, for metals in sea water, 33 Hysteresis, in autofrettaged vessel, 294
Gas welding, 6
Gasket, equation for proportioning, 226 I beams, properties of rolled steel members, 354
factors, table for, 228 Ideal stress distribution in thick-walled vessel, 285
residual force, 225 Impact tests, 26
seating force, 225 Impingement, as cause of coi-rosion, 33
seating width, 229 Influence numbers, for calculation of bending moment and
Gaskets, and their selection, 224 shear at junction of shell and conical closure, 115
flat-ring, laminated, serrated, corrugated, and ring-joint, 225 for calculation of bending moment and shear at junction of
Girder, details, drawing for large tank, 72 shell and flat cover plate, 107
size, selection of, for Example Design 4.2, 73 for hemispherical closure, 138
Girdler Corporation, 169 Inland Steel Company, 10
Graphical comparison, of four theories of failure for vessel Inspecting-and-expediting group, in procurement of vessels,
shells, 180 18
•of various theories for design of vessel shells, 277 Instability, in shells under external pressure, 143
Gray-iron castings, 5 Integral flange, design procedure, 244
Great Lakes Steel Corporation, 9 example design, 245
Greene, A. M., Jr., history of ASME boiler code, 249 Interface pressures, in shrink-fitted shells, 298
Griffith theory of brittle fracture, 27 Interferences, required in shrink-fitted vessels, 300
Gusset plates, for compression rings of vessel skirts, 193 Interlocking-ribbon-wound vessels, 307
Guy wires, 161 Internal stiffening rings for horizontal vessels, 214
Guyed yessels, 161 lzod test, 26

----~--
/
-·-·-
404 Subject Index
k, for reinforced concrete, 184
K, eccentricity of ellipse, 129
Labor, cost, variations of, 17
hourly rates, for skilled, 16
Ladders, platforms and external piping, shown in photograph of
vertical vessels, 160
Lam~ theory, compared with membrane theory, 275
of stress analysis for thick-JYalled cylinders, 269
Lap-joint flanges, 220
Lap joints, 7
Length limitations, for vessels with formed heads, 81
Load, derivation of equation based on deflection of uniformly
loaded beam, 21
Loading conditions, for vertical vessel, 170
Location of saddle support, 203
Long, thin cylinders, under external pressure, 141
Longitudinal bending, moment coI1Stants K1 and K2 for hori-
zontal vessels, 206
Longitudinal stress, in cylindrical shell, derivation of equation
for, 45
in horizontal vessels, 203
Low-alloy, high-strength steels, properties of, as recommended
by API Standard 12 C, 38
Lug supports for vertical vessels, 197
Lugs, with double vertical gussets for vessel supports, 198
with horizontal plates, for vertical vessels, 197
with single vertical gusset for vessel support, 200
without horizontal plates, 198
Lukens Steel Company, 77, 86, 87, 88, 89, 94, 96, 97
Maccary and Fey, ideal prestressing of vessel shells, 286
Machining, 5
Machining styles, for flanges of formed heads, 87
Machining time, charts for, 15
Major-to-minor-axis ratio, effect on maximum stress and maxi-
mum strain in elliptical dished heads, 133 ·
Manhole cover-plate thickness for API tank shells, 350
Manholes, charts for machining time, 15
for shells of storage tanks, 48
Man-hours, required in fabrication, 11
Manning, method of vessel design, 292
rupture of thick-walled vessels, 279
Manning's shear-stress theory, 273
Marshall and Stevens equipment-cost index, 16
"Massachusetts Rules" for boilers, 250
Material specifications, for code vessels, 253
for shells of Oat-bottomed cylindrical vessels, 36
for vessels with formed heads, 77
Materials, typical physical properties, 341
Materials of construction, relative costs of, 8
Maximum compressive stress, in skirt of vertical vessel, 183
Maximum moment, in center of span for horizontal vessel, 205
over supports for horizontal vessel, 204
Maximum operating pressure for ASME vessels, 267
Maximum permissible compressive stress, in skirt of vertical
vessel, 183
Maximum-principal-stress theory, 272
Maximum-shear-stress theory, 272
Maximum-shear theory, in design _gL:redical vessels, 178
Maximum-strain-energy theory, 273
Maximum-strain theory, 273 _ 365
Maximum-stress theory, 'in design of vertical vessels, 178
Maximum tensile stress, in skirt of vertical vessel,_ 183
Melting point of various metals and alloys, 341
Membrane circumferential stress, in elliptical dished head, 125
Membrane hoop stress, in elliptical dished head, 125
Membrane theory, equations for cylindrical shell, 45
Meridional section, for element of an elliptical dished head, 123
Meridional-stress-intensification factor, chart with combination
of Huggenberger's and Coates's relationship, 133
for vessel with elliptical closure from Hohn's data, 122
Methods of analysis, other than maximum-principal-stress
theory for vertical vessels, 177
Methods of fabrication, 5
Mill carbon-steel-plate extras, 330
Mill price list for steel, 10
Mill prices for steel, 9
Modified spherical vessels, 5
Modulus of elasticity, 19, 98
chart for plain carbon and austenitic steels versus temper-
ature, 146
of various metals and alloys, 392
Moment, constants for calculation in compression ring of vessel
skirt, 192
Moment of inertia, for cylindrical shell, derivation of approxi-
mate equation, 159
of arc of shell for horizontal vessel, 205
of rolled-steel channels, 353·
of rolled-steel equal angles, 356
of rolled-steel I beams, 354
of rolled-steel tees, 359
of rolled-steel unequal angles, 358
of rolled-steel wide-Oange beams, steel, 355
of two channels of rolled steel, 360
of various geometrical sections, 382
required for circumferential stiffeners of external-pressure
vessels, 150
Monobloc vessels, at elevated temperatures, 281
bursting pressure, 280
description of failure, 278
experimental studies of autofrettage, 291
test results on cast-iron cylinders, 275
test results on high-tensile-steel cylinders, 275
test results on mild-steel cylinders, 274
theories of elastic failure, 268
Multilayer vessel, photograph showing ductile rupture, 26
Multilayer vessels, determination of interface pressures, 298
interferences required in shrink fitting, 300
ribbon-wound, 307
using weld shrinkage, 303
with shell and winding of dissimilar metals, 310
with shrink-fitted shells, 296
Multispheres, photograph of, 5
National Bureau of Casualty Underwriters, Syrwpsu of Boiler
and Pressure Laws, Rules and Regulations, 249
Nelson refinery index, 16
Newitt's comparison of experimental-test results with theories
of failure, 27 4
Nickel, chart for external-pressure vessels, 370
Nickel and high-nickel alloys, ASME allowable stress in tension,
340
Nickel-chromium-iron alloy, chart for extemal~pressure vessels,
372
Nickel-copper alloy, chart for external-pressure vessels, 371
Nickel steel (low-carbon), chart for external-pressure vessels,
Nomenclature for flange design, 241
Nonferrous metals, ASME allowable stress in tension, 336-340
Nonstandard flanges, 223
Notch brittleness, 26

Nozzle dimensions for API tank shells•, 349, 350
Nozzles, acceptable types for ASME vessels, 264
for shells of storage tanks, 48
openings, and reinforcements for ASME vessels, 263
Oil refinery installation, photograph of, 3
Oil-storage tank (welded), photograph of, 37
Optimum bolt size, 227
Optimum length-to-diameter ratio for vessels with formed
he!lds, 81
Optimum plate dimensions for vessels, 81
width for vessel-shell construction (1953), 83
Optimum proportions, for vessels with elliptical dished heads, 80
Optimum tank proportions, 39
Out-of-roundness, ASME maximum for external-pressure ves-
sels, 256
in external-pressure vessels, 150
Overhead, shop, 17
Overstraining of thick-walled vessels, 279
Periqd of vibration in vertical vessels, 166
Physical properties, of materials, 341
of various metals and alloys, 392
Pipe, welded and seamless steel, 386
Pipes and tubes, ASME allowable stresses, 335
under external pressure, 256
Pipes under external pressure, 153
Plant-design group, in vessel procurement, 17
Plastic instability, 23 ···
Plate, length, selection of, for vessel construction, 84
width, optimum for vessel construction, 81
Plates, equations for bending moment, shear, and load, 100
Poisson's ratio, 98
in Lame analysis, 272
Ponds, settling and storage, 2
Prager and Hodge, equations for analysis of autofrettage, 287
plastic theory of failure, 279, 287
Pressure, allowable on long, thin cylinders, under external pres-
sure, 144
limits in autofrettage, 287
ratings for carbon-steel flanges, 223
testing of ASME code vessels, 266
Pressure Vessel Research Council, 26, 120
Prestressed monobloc vessels, 285
Prestressing of monobloc vessels, adyantages, 285
Price, base for steel, 10 · Screwed flanges, 221
information, sources of, 17
Pricing, steel plate, 330
Process-design group, in vessel procurement, 17
Procurement group, 17
Production tanks, shell design of, 43
standard design for, 44
typical dimensions for, 43
Profit, in vessel fabrication, 16
"Proof test" of ASME code vessels, 266
Properties, of rolled structural members, 353
of steel pipe, 386
of various geometrical sections, 382
Proportioning, of vessels with formed heads, 79
Radial stress in Lame analysis of thick-walled vessels, 269
Radius of curvature, equivalent for design of elliptical heads
under external pressure, 152
mathematical definition of, 21
Radius of gyration, of rolled-steel channels, 353
of rolled-steel equal angles, 356
Subject Index .405
Radius of gyration, of rolled-steel I beams, 354
of rolled-steel tees, 359
of rolled-steel unequal angles, 358
of .rolled-steel wide-flange beams, 355
of two channels of rolled steel, 360
of various geometrical sections, 382
"Radius ratio," use of, in vessel design, 293
Rafter and column details, for Example Design 4.2, 74
Rafter and girder selection, or roof supports in tanks, 68
Rafter spacing for roof supports in tanks, 67
Rating of standard flanges, 221
Ratio of minimum knuckle radius to crown radius, effect on
stress in torispherical closures, 137
Reaction with skirt, of compression rings and external bolting
chairs, 194
References, 317
Reinforced concrete design, 184
Reinforcement, for openings in ASME flat-plate closures, 266
for shell openings in storage tanks, 49
of openings in ASME vessels, 263
of top course of shell for large closed tanks, 53
typical for top course of shells for open vessels, 52
Reynolds' number, versus drag coefficients, 159
Rhys, C. 0., relationships for stresses at the junction or the
knuckle and crown in torispherical closures, 135, 136
Ribbon-.and wire-winding theory, 308
Ribbon- and wire-wound vessels, 307
Ring flanges, design procedure, 242
Ring stiffener design for horizontal vessels, 213
Riveting, 5
Rolled angle as hearing plate, 190
Rolled-structural-member properties, 353
Rolling or vessel shell, photograph, 156
Roof design, for large cylindrical flat-bottomed tanks, 63
Roof plates, drawing showing dirriensions for large tank, 70
Roof support, drawing showing assembly for large tank, 71
photograph showing. for large storage tank, 64
Rupture, brittle, 26
Rupture time, as function or stress at elevated temperatures,
32
Ryerson, J. T., and Son, Inc., 11
Sachs, method of determining residual stresses, 291
Saddle design for horizontal vessels, 215
Saddle supports for horizontal vessels, 203
Season cracking, 33
Section moduli, table of, for stiffening rings of open tanks, 52
, Section modulus, derivation of equation for that required in
uniformly loaded beam, 21
of rolled-steel channels, 353
of rolled-steel equal angles, 356
of rolled-steel I beams, 354
of rolled-steel tees, 359
of rolled-steel unequal angles, 358
of rolled-steel wide-flange beams; 355
of two channels of rolled steel, 360
of various geometrical sections, 382
Seismic forces, sketch for vertical vessel, 168
Seismic load, coefficients, 167
Seismic-load stress, in skirt of vertical vessel, 183
Seismic probability, chart for United States, 164
Selection of Rafter Size, Example Design 4.2, 71
Semi-ellipsoidal tanks, 5
Shape factor, for vessels exposed to wind loads, 158
Shape factors, ASME, for torispberical closures, 138
406 Subject Index
Shear, from seismic forces on unguyed vertical vessel, 168 Spherical and modified spherical vessels, 4
in horizontal vessel shell stiffened by head, 209 Spherical dished covers with pressure on concave side for
in plates. 100 ASME design, 260
Shear diagram, for horizontal vessel stiffened with ring, 207 Spraragen and Ettinger, equation for weld shrinkage, 303
Shear equation, for cylindrical vessel with flat cover plate, 108 Stainless steel (austenitic), chart for external-pressure vessels,
Shear equations, for various types of beams, 384 3i8,379
Shear force, derivation of equation based on deflection of uni- Standard flange facings, 222
formly loaded beam, 21 Standard flanges, ratings of, 22
Shear strength, of various metals and alloys, 392 selection of, 219
Shear stress, derivation of equation for vessel shells, 178 Standard Qualification Procedures of American Welding So-
invariant, 281 ciety, 7
Shearing strength, minimum in welds, 7 Steel, A-7, properties of, 78
Shell, accessories for storage tanks, 349 A-8, properties of, 79
bending moments under external pressure, 142 A-113, properties of, 78
construction, photographs showing rolling and welding, 156 A-131, properties of, 78
deformation under external pressure, 142 A-242, properties of, 79
design for large storage tanks, 43 A-283, properties of, 78
design of shell courses in Example Design 3.2, 55 A-284, properties of, 79
design of top angle in Example Design 3.2, 57 ASTM-A6-54T, specifications, 78
drawing of details of, for Example Design 3.2, 56 ASTM-A-27, specifications of, 37
drawing of elevation view for Example Design 3.2, 55 ASTM-A-242, specifications of, 38
proportioning of, for Example Design 3.2, 55 comparison of specifications for structural- and boiler-quality
reinforcement of top course for large open tanks; 50 plates, 78
Shell Development Company, 29 -cutting extras for mill plate, 331
Shell joints, typical as recommended by API Standard 12 C, 47 extras, 10
Shell manholes, 48 for pressure vessels, 253
as recommended by API Standard 12 C, 51 mill plate-, extras, 330
Shell nozzles, 48 pipe, properties of, 386
as recommended by API Standard 12 C, 50 plates, flange- and firebox-quality, 333
Shell parts, 48 pricing, 8
Shell-plate dimensions, selection of, 46 purchased from mill, 9
Shell plates, cold forming of, 48 purchased from warehouse, 9
Shell strei,is,..critical, produced by external pressure, 143 SA-7, specifications of, 37
Shell thickness, based on tensile stress in vertical vessel, 170 · SA-283, Grades C and D, specifications of, 37
Shipment of long vessels, photograph of oil-refinery fraction- SAE-950, specifications of, 38
ating tower, 82 specifications, table for 1955 ASTM, 79
Shop time, for cutting, 13 structural members, properties of, 353
for fitting and assembly, 13 warehouse base prices and extras, 331
for welding and edge preparation, 13, 14 Stewart, R. T., tests on cylinders under external pressure, 144
Shrink fitting of multilayer shells, 296 Stiffeners, circumferential, for shells of vessels under external
Shrinkage stresses, in multilayer vessels, 299 pressure, 144
"Six-tenths factor," 17 design for external-pressure vessels, 149
Sizes and capacities of typical API storage tanks, 346-348 influence of, in design of shells of vertical vessels, 171
Sizing of hearing plates for vertical vessels, 187 Stiffening rings for external-pressure ASME design, 255
Sketch-plate shaping under shell ring, as recommended by API Straight-flange dimensions for ASME dished heads, 93
Standard 12 C, 59 Strain, two-dimensional, 99
Skirt, reaction of compression rings and external bolting chairs, unit, 98
194 Strain aging, 30
Skirt-anchor-bolt design, 184 Strain energy, in a deflected vertical vessel, 165
Skirt-hearing-plate design, 184 in brittle fracture, 27
Skirt supports, for vertical vessels, 183 relationships, derivation of equations, 163
Skirt thickness, for vertical vessels, 183 Strain-energy theory (modified) for vertical vessels, 179
Slip-on flange, maximum stress, 238 Strain hardening, from cyclic loading, 28
Slip-on flanges, 219 Strain measurements, 120
Smith, A. 0., construction of multilayer vessels using weld Strength of materials, 392
shrinkage, 303 Stress, ASME allowable for aluminum and aluminum alloys,
Corporation, 26, 134 336,337
vessels, method of fabrication, 303 J ASME allowable for copper and copper alloys, 338, 339
Snow loads, chart for United States, 62 ASME allowable for high-alloy steels in tension, 342-345
Southwell, R. V., equation for critical length ~ stiffeners ASME allowable for nickel and high-nickel alloys, 340
for vessels under external pressure, 144 / ASME allowable for nonferrous metals in tension, 336-340
Special flanges, design of, 227 \ allowable, figure showing comparison with yield point and
Specific heat, of various materials, 34l~ ultimate strength for various metals, 25
Specifications, for material in ASME code vessels, 253 allowable in fiange design, 244
of low-alloy, high-strength steels, 38 allowable in reinforced concrete, 184
of plain carbon steels, 37 analysis, from strain measurements, 120

Stress, at mid-span in horizontal -vessel, 206
at the saddle for horizontal vessel, 205
axial at junction of shell and flat cover plate, 110
axial in flat-plate closure at junction, 110
caused by eccentric loading on vertical vessels, 169
caused by seismic forces on vertical vessels, 168
circumferential at junction of shell and flat cover plate, 110
circumferential in flat-plate closure at junction, 110
circumferential in shell at junction with conical closure, 115
. combined at interface of shrink-fitted shells, 298
combined in flat-plate closure, HO
compressive increase from weld shrinkage in.· multilayer
· vessels, 304
conditions in shell of vertical vessel, 170
corrosion cracking, 33
derivation of equation for bending stress based on deflection
of uniformly loaded beam, 20
distribution in shrink-fitted multilayer vessel, 300
distribution in thick-walled cylinders, 271
distribution in wire-wound vessel, 314
from ring compression over saddle support for horizontal
vessel, 213
in center of flat-plate closure, 110
in cylindrical shell with fl!lt-plate closure, 104
in external-pressure vessels produced by out-of-roundness, 151
in head used as stitl'ener for horizontal vessels, 203, 212
in shell for vessel with flat cover plate, 109
in shell other than at junction for vessel with flat cover plate,
110
-intensification factors for vessels with hemispherical closures,
139
leveling in shell of a thick-walled vessel, 282
location of maximum in vessel with hemispherical closure, 139
maximum axial in huh of tapered flange, 236
maximum in loose-type flange, 238
maximum radial in ring of flange, 237
maximum tangential in ring of flange, 237
range, permissible to avoid brittle fr1:1cture failure, 29
ratio, chart of maximum for vessel with conical closure, 116
ratio, chart of maximum in vessel with flat-plate closure,
111
ratio, in vessel with flat-plate closure, 111
redistribution by creep relaxation, 282
relieving, photograph showing annealing of large vessel, 157
shear at junction of shell and flat cover plate, 109
shear in shell other than at junction of vessel with conical
closure, 115
-strain curves, idealized to mathematical equations, 29
-strain curves, typical for several materials, 145
-strain curves, typical for various metals, 20
-strain diagram showing in elemental strip of curved plate or
heam,21 · test, in welds, 7
-strain relationships in elastic-plastic loadings, 23
-strain relationships in vessel shells, 98
two-dimensionla, 99
Stresses, ASME allowable for carbon and low-alloy pipes and
tubes, 335
ASME allowable for carbon and low-alloy steels, 251
at and near junction of shell with hemispherfoal head, 139
calculated for multilayer vessel fabricated by weld shrinkage,
307
caused by dead loads in vertical vessels, 156
caused by wind loads on ..,·ertical vessels, 157, 161
combined, in shell of vessel with flat-plate closure, 110
diagram for differential element in an elliptical dished bead,
123
Subject Index .407
Stress, during autofrettage, 287
from unloading autofrett1:1ge pressure, 287
in a thick-walled vessel under internal pressure by Lame
analysis, 269
in bolting steel for skirt supports of vertical vessels, 185
in cylindrical vessels with conical closures, 113
in shell near junction with hemispherical closure, 138
in skirt of vertical vessels, 183
in the crown of torispherical dished head, 136
in the knuckle of torispherical dished head, 135
induced, 19
induced by attachments to vertical vessels, 157
induced by supported liquid in tall vertical columns, 157
induced by weight of shell and insulation in vertical vessels,
156
seismic forces, 163
Structural-quality steels, 78
Superalloys, for high-temperature service, 32
Tangential shear stress, in horizontal vessel shell stitl'ened by
ring in plane of saddle, 207
in horizontal vessels, 203
in shell of horizontal vessel stiffened by head, 209
in unstiffened shell of horizontal vessel having saddles away
from head, 208 ,
Tangential stress in Lame analysis of thick-walled vessels, 269
Tank, breathers, 3
costs, 8
sizes and capacities, 346-348
Tanks, cylindrical, flat-bottomed, 3
designed to API Standard 12 C, 3
for crude oil and petroleum products, 3
redwood or cyprus, 3
with domed roofs, 3
with self-supporting roofs, 3
with supported roofs, 3
Tapered-huh-flange loadings, 230
Taylor Forge, calculation sheet for integral-type flange, 246
calculation sheet for loose-type flange, 247
Taylor Forge and Pipe Works, 188, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 235,
237,238,239,245,246,247,248
Taylor, Thompson, and Smulski, relationships for bearing plates
for vertical vessels, 185
Tees, properties of rolled-steel members, 359
Temper embrittlement, 30
Temperature, eft'oot on brittle fracture, 27
effect on creep, 31
Tensile force, on supports for vertical vessels, 186
Tension, constant, in wound thick shells, 311
in wound vessels, 308
in guy wires, 161
variable in winding to produce constant tension under load,
314
Theories of failure, example for a vertical vessel, 181
Theory of elasticity, applied to thick-walled vessels, 272
Theory of plasticity, as criteria for failure of thick-walled
vessels, 278
Thermal conductivity, of various materials, 341
Thermal expansion, for shrink fitting, 302
in skirt of vertical vessel, 195
of various materials, 341
Thermal prestressing of vessel shells, 286
Thermal stresses, in skirt of vertical vessel, 195
Thick shells wound under constant tension, 311
Time-elongation curves, 31
408 Subject Index
Timken Roller Bearing Company, 31
Top course of shell, reinforcement of, for large open tanks, 50
Toriconical closures for ASME design, 259
Toriconical heads, 96
Torispherical closures, development of ASME stress-intensifi-
cation factor, 137
dished, 135
elastic stability under external pressure, 151
Torispherical heads, 88
deformation under internal pressure, 136
dished, for ASME code design, 256
possible variations of radii, 135
Transition temperature, effect on brittleness, 26
Tubes under external pressure, ASME chart for wall thickness,
258
Tubing under external pressure, 153
Two channels, properties of rolled-steel members, 360
Two-shell construction for monohloc vessel at elevated temper-
ature, 285
Two-shell vessels, simplified relationships, 301
U edge, photograph of machining of, 12
Ultimate strength, as basis for allowable stress, 24, 25
of various metals and alloys, 392
Unequal angles, properties of rolled-steel members, 358
Uniform Building Code, of Pacific Coast, 167
Uniform-loaded-beam formulas, 384
Uniformly loaded beam, 20
Uniformly loaded cantilever- beam, derivation of deilection
equations, 163
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 16
Universal.'.Cyclops Steel Corporation, 32
Vessel, closed, 3
design, criteria in, 8 r figure showing, 8
designed to' original API-ASME code, 2
types, selection of, 1
Vessels, cast-steel, 5
cylindrical with formed ends, 4
for combustible fluids, 3
for dangerous chemicals, 3
forged, 5
gray-iron cast, 5
machined, 5
multilayer, 5
open, 2
procurement, procedure for, 17
riveted, 5
spherical and modified spherical, 4
vertical, individual stresses in shell, 155
vertical versus horizontal, 77
Vibrational displacement in vertical vessels, 166
Volume, of elliptical heads, equation for, 95
of torispherical heads, equation for, 88
Volume relationships, in proportioning vessels with elliptical
heads, 80
Von Mises, criterion for plastic failure, 279
Voorbees, calculation of time of rupture for monobloc vessels at/
elevated temperatures, 281
Voorhees, Sliepcevich, and Freeman, integrated equation for
design of monobloc vessel at elevated temperatures, 285
Wages, average, boilermaker's as a function of locale, 16
Warehouse, prices for steel, 9
pricing, 10
steel pricing, 331
Waters et al., analysis of flanges, 229, 230, 233, 236 ,
Watts and Lang, combined relationships for bending and shear
in shell and conical closure, 114
combined relationships for bending and shear in shell and
flat cover plate, 107
Wear plates, for saddle supports of horizontal vessels, 213
Weight of fluid in horizontal vessels, 203
Weld shrinkage used in multilayer construction, 303
Welded construction, development of, 76
Welded-jo(nt efficiencies, 253
Welded joints, figure showing examples of, 7
types of; 7
Welding; automatic machine, 7
code grooves, 329
conventions, 327
electric;-arc, 6
gas, 6
instructions, 327, 328, 329
operators, 7
photograph of automatic welding of external circumferential
seam of shell of large vessel, 6
procedures, 7.
specifications, 327
standards, 7
strength of welds, 329
submerged-arc, 6
symbols, 7 '
tests, 7
time and rod requirements, 13
types, 327,328,329
vessel shell, photograph showing inside longitudinal seam, 156
Welds, minimum tensile strength, 7
Wickelofen lathe for ribbon winding, 308
Wickelofen-wound vessels, 307
Wide-flange beams, properties of rolled-steel members, 355
Wind girder, drawing showing details, 54
for open vessel,' example design for, 52
preliminary sketch of subassembly of, 53
Wind-load stress, in skirt of vertical vessel, 183
Wind pressure, equation for, 151
on vertical vessels, 157 .
Wind pressures, as function of height above ground, 159
chart for various areas in the United States, 158
Wire or ribbon winding vessels at constant tension, 308
Wirie rope, used for guys, 161
Y~int, as basis for allowable stress, 24, 25
, Zick's nomograph for design of supports for horizontal vessels,
216 "
- Zick's relationships for saddle supports, 203