ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - The study of

Hydrocarbons (compounds of Carbon and hydrogen) and 2 Categories of Hydrocarbons Arrangements

their derivatives.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - The study of all substances other ACYCLIC CARBON ATOM - linear
than hydrocarbons and their derivatives. CYCLIC CARBON ATOM - hexagon
CARBON ATOM
- Has unique ability to bond to each other involving long
chains of carbon atoms.
- Group IVA of the periodic table (four valence
electrons) which needed for an octet of valence of
electrons; sharing of 4 valence electrons requires
the formation of 4 covalent bond. ALKANES
- saturated hydrocarbon
- Acyclic Carbon Atom
- General molecular formula of Alkane: 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛+2
- 𝑛 =number of carbon atoms present
- number of Hydrogen atoms present in an
alkane is always twice the number of carbon
atoms plus two more
- • Example: CH₄ - Methane
C₂H₆ - Ethane
C₃H₈ - Propane

Structural Formulas (2-D)

-
HYDROCARBON - compound that contains only carbon
atoms and hydrogen atoms
HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVE - compound that contains
carbon and hydrogen and one or more additional elements
A two-dimensional structural representation that shows how
the various atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other
EXPANDED STRUCTURAL FORMULA
- shows all atoms in a molecule and all bonds
connecting the atoms.

CONDENSED STRUCTURAL FORMULA

- uses groupings of atoms in which central atoms and
the atoms connected to them are written as a group,
to convey molecular structural information.

SATURATED CARBON - all carbon–carbon bonds are single

bonds

UNSATURATED CARBON - one or more carbon–carbon

multiple bonds (double bonds, triple bonds, or both) are
present.
SKELETAL STRUCTURAL FORMULA
- is a structural formula that shows the arrangement
and bonding of carbon atoms present in an organic
molecule but does not show the hydrogen atoms
attached to the carbon atoms.
LINE-ANGLE STRUCTURAL FORMULA
- is a structural representation in which a line
represents a carbon–carbon bond and a carbon atom
is understood to be present at every point where two
lines meet and at the ends of lines.
IUPAC Names for Branched-Chain Alkanes
- To name branched-chain alkanes, we must be able to
name the branch or branches that are attached to the
main carbon chain. These branches are formally
called substituents.
- Substituent is an atom or group of atoms attached to
a chain (or ring of carbon atoms. (in general term)
- Alkyl groups – substituents of Alkanes
- is the group of atoms that would be obtained by
removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane.
Alkyl Groups
- The two most commonly encountered alkyl groups
are the two simplest: the one-carbon and two-carbon
alkyl groups. Their formulas and names are:

- • The extra long bond in these formulas (on the left)

ALKANE ISOMERISM
denotes the point of attachment to the carbon chain.
- Isomers are compounds that have the same
- Alkyl groups are always found attached to another
molecular formula (that is, the same numbers and
entity (usually a carbon chain).
kinds of atoms) but that differ in the way the atoms
- Alkyl groups are always found attached to another
are arranged.
entity (usually a carbon chain).

IUPAC RULES for naming Branched-Chain Alkanes

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE FORr ALKANES
RULE 1; Identify the longest continuous carbon chain (the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) parent chain), which may or may not be shown in a straight
- formulated systematic rules for naming Organic line, and name the chain.
compounds known as “IUPAC rules”
- The advantage of the IUPAC naming system is that it
assigns each compound a name that not only
identifies it but also enables one to draw its structural
formula.

Continuous-Chain Alkane
- is an alkane in which all carbon atoms are connected
in a continuous nonbranching chain
RULE 2; Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain from
the end of the chain nearest a substituent (alkyl group).

Branched-Chain Alkane
- is an alkane in which one or more branches (of
carbon atoms) are attached to a continuous chain of
carbon atoms.
 - Additional guideline for numbering carbon atom
chains:
RULE 3: If only one alkyl group is present, name and locate it
(by number), and prefix the number and name to that of the
parent carbon chain.
RULE 4: If two or more of the same kind of alkyl group are
present in a molecule,indicate the number with a Greek
numerical prefix (di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and so forth). In
addition, a number specifying the location of each identical
group must be included. These position numbers, separated by
commas, precede the numerical prefix. Numbers are
separated from words by hyphens
RULE 5: When two kinds of alkyl groups are present on the
same carbon chain, number each group separately, and list the
names of the alkyl groups in alphabetical order.
- Additional guidelines for numbering carbon atom
chains: If there are substituents equidistant from each
end of the chain and there is no third substituent to
use as the “tie-breaker,” begin numbering at the end
nearest the substituent that has alphabeticaL
priority—that is, the substituent whose name occurs
first in the alphabet.
RULE 6: Follow IUPAC punctuation rules, which include the
following:
(1) Separate numbers from each other by commas.
(2) Separate numbers from letters by hyphens.
(3) Do not add a hyphen or a space between the last-named
substituent and the name of the parent alkane that follows.
Line-angle Structural Formulas for Alkanes
- A structural formula in which a line represents
carbon–carbon bond and a carbon atom is
understood to be present at every point where lines
meet and at the ends of lines.
- • The zigzag (sawtooth) pattern used in line-angle
structural formulas has a relationship to the
three-dimensional shape of the molecules that are
represented
- The structures of branched-chain alkanes can also be
designated using LineAngle Structural Formulas
CYCLOALKANES
- Saturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms
connected to one another in a cyclic (ring)
arrangement are present.
- The general formula for cycloalkanes is 𝑪𝒏𝑯𝟐n
- Ex. Butane (C₄H₁₀) -> Cyclobutane (C₄H₈)
 - • Line-angle structural formulas are generally used to - •In halogenation of an alkane, the alkane is said to
represent cycloalkane structures. undergo fluorination, chlorination, bromination, or
iodination, depending on the identity of the halogen
reactant.

HALOGENATED ALKANE - is an alkane derivative in which

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE FOR CYCLOALKANES
- IUPAC naming procedures for cycloalkanes are
similar to those for alkanes.
- The ring portion of a cycloalkane molecule serves as
the name base,and the prefix cyclo- is used to
indicate the presence of the ring.
- Alkyl substituents are named in the same manner as
in alkanes.
- Numbering conventions used in locating substituents
on the ring include the following:
1. If there is just one ring substituent, it is not
necessary to locate it by number.
2. When two ring substituents are present, the carbon
atoms in the ring are numbered beginning with the
substituent of higher alphabetical priority
andproceeding in the direction (clockwise or
counterclockwise) that gives the other substituent the
lower number.
3. When three or more ring substituents are present,
ring numbering begins at the substituent that leads to
the lowest set of location numbers. When two or
more equivalent numbering sets exist, alphabetical
priority among substituents determines the set used.
one or more halogen atoms are present.
HALOGENATED CYCLOALKANE - is a cycloalkane derivative
in which one or more halogen atoms are present
Nomenclature and Properties of Halogenated Alkanes
- The IUPAC rules for naming halogenated alkanes are
similar to those for naming branched alkanes, with the
following modifications:
1. Halogen atoms, treated as substituents on a carbon chain,
are called fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, and iodo-.
2. When a carbon chain bears both a halogen and an alkyl
substituent, the two substituents are considered of equal rank
in determining the numbering system for the chain. The chain
is numbered from the end closer to a substituent, whether it be
a halo- or an alkyl group.
3. Alphabetical priority determines the order in which all
substituents present are listed.

Chemical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

COMBUSTION REACTION - – is a chemical reaction between

a substance and oxygen (usually from air) that proceeds with
the evolution of heat and light (usually as a flame);
- All alkanes and cycloalkanes are flammable
- Complete combustion products: carbon dioxide (CO₂)
and water (H₂O)
- Incomplete combustion products: Carbon monoxide
(CO) and Carbon dioxide(CO₂)

HALOGENATION - - is a chemical reaction between a

substance and a halogen in which one or more halogen atoms
are incorporated intomolecules of the substance.
- Halogens are the elements in Group VIIA of the
periodic table: Fluorine (F₂), Chlorine (Cl₂), Bromine
(Br₂), and Iodine (I₂)
- Hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen atoms (a
substitution reaction)
- Requires the presence of heat or light
Practice: Identify if the following molecular formula is an Alkane
1. C₅H₁₂ - ALKANE
2. C₄H₁₀ - ALKANE
3. C₆H₁₂ - NOT ALKANE
4. C₉H₂₀ - NOT ALKANE
5. C₁₀H₂₄ - ALKANE

Give the IUPAC name for each of the following branched-chain alkanes

3,6-Dimethyloctane 3,4,4,5-Tetramethyloctane

2,3-dimethylpentane 4-ethyl-2,7-dimethyloctane

Draw the Skeletal StructuralFormula of the following

Pentane 2-methylbutane 2,2-dimethylpropane 3-ethyl-5-methylheptane

Line-angle Structural Formulas for Alkanes PRACTICE:

Hexane 2-Methylpentane 3-Methylpentane 2,2-Dimethylbutane 2,3-Dimethylbutane

 2-methylpropane 3-ethyl-5-methylheptane

Practice: Give the IUPAC names to each of the following Cycloalkanes.

Methylcyclopropane 1-Ethyl-4-methylcyclohexane 4-Ethyl-1,2-dimethylcyclopentane

Practice: Give the IUPAC name of the following Halogenated Alkanes

3-Bromo-1-chlorobutane 2-Chloro-3-methylbutane 1-Ethyl-2-fluorocyclohexane

Chemistry: study of matter, anything that occupies
space and has mass.
-organic compounds contains an undefinable ”vital
force” as a result of origin in living sources
-organic compounds can be manipulated in the
laboratory just like inorganic compounds
-EXCEPT: Cyanides (CN-1); Carbonates (CO3-2);
Bicarbonates (HCO3-1); oxides of carbon
Example: CH4- simple contains 1 Carbon atom
(methane)
*DNA most complex carbon compound. Contains
tens of billions of carbons.

However, organic compounds can be manipulated

just like inorganic compounds.
Friedrich Wohler discovered in 1828
-Ammonium cyanite- “inorganic” salt
-Urea- “organic (Isolated in urine)

O
ll
NH4+ -OCN Heat H2N--C--NH2

-Not all organic compounds are derived from living

organisms
Organic compounds could either be natural or
synthetic
*prepared in the laboratory and categorized as
synthetic.
-I know you are done with the inorganic compounds.
Now, what is the difference between organic and
inorganic compounds?

Bond: C-equal sharing of electron; I-transfer of

electrons
Solubility: insoluble to H2O; soluble to H2O
Flammability: easily burn
Electrolyte: does not conduct electricity
Chm rxn: unless heat is applied
ATOMS (Drawing of atoms)
Atom: the smallest particle of a molecule.
NUCLEUS: neutron- subatomic particle (electrically
neutral)
+ proton: positively charged

Electrons: volume around nucleus occupied by

orbiting electrons (negatively charged)

Atoms are composed of positively charged nucleus

surrounded by negatively charged electrons that
occupy specific regions of space called orbitals. Diff
orbitals have different energy levels and shapes. Ex.
S orbitals- spherical; p orbitals- dumbbell-shaped

The formation of covalent bond happens when two

atoms approach each other closely and their orbitals
overlap on one another

kJ=kiloJoules
kcal=kilocalories

4.184kJ
TOO CLOSE=repel each other
TOO FAR=sharing of bonds will not be possible

1. Bronsted-Lowry Definition
2. Lewis Definition

Proton (Hydrogen Ion)

Hydrogen Ion
Forces holding the molecules together

2 fundamental kinds of chemical bonds: ionic and

covalent
Ionic- commonly in inorganic salts result from the
electrical attraction of unlike charges.
Covalent- found in organic molecules result from the
sharing of one or more e pairs bet atoms.

1. Organic compounds; bonding of non-metals; forms

from sharing of electrons
2. Inorganic molecules; formed bet. Metals and
nonmetals; from transfer of 2e; metal loses electron
(cation); non-metal accepts electron (anion)
3. Caused by electronegativity ex. HCl

ability of an atom to attract electrons

In periodic table, to left- increase; from top to bottom
decrease

Francium- least electronegative element

Bond is due to electronegativity.
Usually same or identical atoms. Example Cl:Cl C-C

Single; simplest bond -ane

Double bond -ene
Triple bond -yne
1s2, 2s2, 2p2- 4
2s2, 2p3- 5,
2s2, 2p4- 6,
1s1- 1

All organic compounds (carbon )

has four affinity units- tetravalent (four bonds is
always formed)

Stable molecule results, when an OCTET has been

achieved. OCTET (8 DOTS)

Lone Pair or non-bonding electrons- valence

electrons not used for bonding
Lone pairs are often not shown when drawing
line-bond structures.
HYBRIDIZATION-counting the number of orbitals
used

GROUND STATE
stable state
Electron configuration of carbon: 1s2,2s2,2p2

NOTE: The superscript corresponds to the number of

atomic orbital that formed the hybrid not the number
of electrons
Carbon: 1s2, 2s1, 2p3
State of carbon when it undergoes chemical bonding
to form 4 covalent bonds

NOTE: The superscript corresponds to the number of

atomic orbital that formed the hybrid not the number
of electrons
3 p orbitals
Single bond
2 electrons
109.5 degrees
Bond strength & length varies depending on the
element involved in the bonding process
The superscript corresponds to the number of atomic
orbital that formed the hybrid not the number of
electrons
4 electrons
Double bond
120 degrees (Planar/flat)
S orbital combines with only 2 of the 3 p orbitals (the
unhybridized p orbital will remain unchanged)

Sigma bond- head-on overlap of atomic orbitals

(head-to-head) (the electrons on sigma bond are
directly between the 2 nuclei (s-s, s-p, s-d even p-d)

Pi bond- sideways overlap of p orbitals (side-to-side).

Weaker than sigma bond bec. Orbital paths are
parallel so there is much less overlap between the
p-orbitals. (between p orbitals overlap)

Sp2: 1 Sigma; 1 Pi

The superscript corresponds to the number of

atomic orbital that formed the hybrid not the
number of electrons
6 electrons
3 bonds (1 Sigma, 2 pi)
180 degrees (linear)
Alkyl- a group where you remove one hydrogen from
the alkane group
Aliphatic hydrocarbon-straight chain
Cyclic hydrocarbon-closed chain

Alkyl halide- contains carbon atom bonded to a

halogen