Climatology

M MALUKA IAS
Climatology
CLASS NOTES
MALUKA IAS
Chapter : 1
Earth And Its Surrounds, Location
And Relation
16 – B, OLD RAJINDER NAGAR, NEAR HDFC BANK, DELHI. PH. 9910133084 1|P a g e
MALUKA IAS
1.1 ROTATION AND REVOLUTION OF THE
EARTH
EARTH’S ROTATION:
• Imagine a line passing through the center of Earth that goes through both the North
Pole and the South Pole. This imaginary line is called an axis.
• Earth spins around its axis, just as a top spins around its spindle.
• This spinning movement is called Earth’s rotation. At the same time that the Earth
spins on its axis, it also orbits, or revolves around the Sun.
• This movement is called revolution.
• A pendulum set in motion will not change its motion, and so the direction of its
swinging should not change.
• However, Foucault observed that his pendulum did seem to change direction. Since
he knew that the pendulum could not change its motion, he concluded that the Earth,
underneath the pendulum was moving.
• An observer in space will see that Earth requires 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds
to make one complete rotation on its axis.
• But because Earth moves around the Sun at the same time that it is rotating, the
planet must turn just a little bit more to reach the same place relative to the Sun.
• Hence the length of a day on Earth is actually 24 hours. At the equator, the Earth
rotates at a speed of about 1,700 km per hour, but at the poles the movement speed is
nearly nothing.
EARTH’S REVOLUTION:
• For Earth to make one complete revolution around the Sun takes 365.24 days. This
amount of time is the definition of one year.
• The gravitational pull of the Sun keeps Earth and the other planets in orbit around
the star.
• Like the other planets, Earth’s orbital path is an ellipse so the planet is sometimes
farther away from the Sun than at other times.
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The closest Earth gets to the Sun each year is at perihelion (147 million km) on about
January 3rd and the furthest is at aphelion (152 million km) on July 4th.
• Earth’s elliptical orbit has nothing to do with Earth’s seasons.
• During one revolution around the Sun, Earth travels at an average distance of about
150 million km.
• Earth revolves around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 km (17 mi) per second,
but the speed is not constant.
• The planet moves slower when it is at aphelion and faster when it is at perihelion.
• The reason the Earth (or any planet) has seasons is that Earth is tilted 23 1/2oon its
axis.
• During the Northern Hemisphere summer the North Pole points toward the Sun, and
in the Northern Hemisphere winter the North Pole is tilted away from the Sun.
Solstice:
• On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun
fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat.
• The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.
• The north pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle
experience continuous daylight for about six months.
• Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is
summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at
these places occur on 21st June.
• At this time in the southern hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter
season there. The nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called
the summer solstice.
• On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the
south pole tilts towards it.
• As the sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° s), a larger portion of
the southern hemisphere gets light. Therefore, it is summer in the southern
hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights. The reverse happens in the northern
hemisphere. This position of the earth is called the winter solstice.
Equinox:
• On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this
position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth
experiences equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox.
• On 23rd September, it is autumn season [season after summer and before the
beginning of winter] in the northern hemisphere and spring season [season after
winter and before the beginning of summer] in the southern hemisphere.
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• The opposite is the case on 21st March, when it is spring in the northern hemisphere
and autumn in the southern hemisphere.
What is Daylight Savings Time (DST)?
• Daylight Savings Time (DST) is the international process of putting all clocks within
temperate climates (countries that have summer and winter) ahead an hour during
summer time, to take advantage of the fact that days last much longer.
• When this is done, people wake up earlier, and thus can use more of the daylight to
their advantage – whether that may be for leisure purposes or work purposes.
• DST is used in most of Europe, the United States, Mexico and much of
Canada, as well as countries in South America, portions of Australia and
New Zealand.
• However, while the benefits of DST are there, it also has a few drawbacks – including
“clock confusion", and disruption in the sleeping cycle, where people would simply
wake up late for work.
• These drawbacks and others has had other countries that fall in the geographical
areas where Daylight Savings Time is applicable opt out, like all of East Asia,
northern portions of Australia, much of South America, and countries in North and
South Africa.
• DST is beneficial in a lot of temperate climates, the more extreme north
and extreme south (countries like Finland, Norway, Greenland, and
portions of Russia, or portions of Chile, Argentina and the entirety of
Antarctica) actually experience quite extreme time changes as well.
• The further away from the equator you are, the more does sunrise and sunset
fluctuate.
• Because of that, DST isn’t quite as useful up (and down) there. Same goes for tropical
countries, and other places near the equator, since sunrise and sunset barely
fluctuates the closer you are to the equator.
• Some of the countries that used to be on DST have decided to simply change their
time zones (which is why you’ll see portions of Russia, China, and Canada in time
zones that… they really shouldn’t be in, normally) to replicate the effects of DST
without having to turn clocks forward and back twice a year.
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1.2 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE:

• The latitudes and longitudes are commonly referred to as geographical coordinates as
they provide systematic network of lines upon which the position of various surface
features of the earth, can be represented.
• With the help of these coordinates, location, distance and direction of various points
can be easily determined.
• Although an infinite number of parallels and meridians may be drawn on a globe,
only a selected number of them are usually drawn on a map.
• Latitudes and longitudes are measured in degrees (°) because they represent angular
distances. Each degree is further divided into 60 minutes ( ‘ ) and each minute into
60 seconds ( “ ).
PARALLELS OF LATITUDES
• The latitude of a place on the earth’s surface is its distance north or south of the
equator, measured along the meridian of that place as an angle from the centre of the
earth.
• Lines joining places with the same latitudes are called parallels. The value of equator
is 0° and the latitude of the poles are 90°N and 90°S.
• If parallels of latitude are drawn at an interval of one degree, there will be 89
parallels in the northern and the southern hemispheres each.
• The total number of parallels thus drawn, including the equator, will be 179.
Depending upon the location of a feature or a place north or south of the equator, the
letter N or S is written along with the value of the latitude.
• If the earth were a perfect sphere, the length of 10 of latitude (a one degree arc of a
meridian) would be a constant value, i.e. 111 km everywhere on the earth.
• This length is almost the same as that of a degree of longitude at the equator. But to
be precise, a degree of latitude changes slightly in length from the equator to the
poles.
• While at the equator, it is 110.6 km at the poles, it is 111.7 km.
• Latitude of a place may be determined with the help of the altitude of the sun or the
Pole Star.
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Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth:

• The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the torrid zone.
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles.
• As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle in the
northern hemisphere, and the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic circle in the
southern hemisphere, have moderate temperatures.
• These are, therefore, called temperate zones.
• Areas lying between the Arctic circle and the north pole in the northern hemisphere
and the Antarctic circle and the south pole in the southern hemisphere, are very cold.
• It is because here the sun does not raise much above the horizon.
• Therefore, its rays are always slanting.
• These are, therefore, called frigid zones.
MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE:
• Unlike the parallels of latitude which are circles, the meridians of longitude are semi-
circles that converge at the poles.
• If opposite meridians are taken together, they complete a circle, but, they are valued
separately as two meridians.
• The meridians intersect the equator at right angles.
• Unlike the parallels of latitude, they are all equal in length.
• For convenience of numbering, the meridian of longitude passing through the
Greenwich observatory (near London) has been adopted as the Prime Meridian by an
international agreement and has been given the value of 0°.
• The longitude of a place is its angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. It
is also measured in degrees.
• The longitudes vary from 0° to 180°eastward and westward of the Prime Meridian.
• The part of the earth east of the Prime Meridian is called the eastern hemisphere and
in its west referred to as the western hemisphere.
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•
LONGITUDE AND TIME:
• We all know that the earth rotates from west to east over its axis. It makes the sun
rise in the east and set in the west. The rotation of the earth over its axis takes 24
hours to complete one circle or 360° of longitudes. As 180° of longitudes fall both
east and west of the Prime Meridian, the sun, thus takes 12 hours’ time to traverse
the eastern and western hemispheres.
• In other words, the sun traverses 150 of longitudes per hour or one degree of
longitude in every four minutes of time. It may further be noted that the time
decreases when we move from west to east and increases with our westward
movement.
• The rate of the time at which the sun traverses over certain degrees of longitudes
is used to determine the local time of an area with respect to the time at the Prime
Meridian (0°Longitude).
• Let us try to understand the question of the determination of time
with respect to the Prime Meridian with the following set of examples:
Example 1 : Determine the local time of Thimpu (Bhutan) located at 90°

east longitude when the time at Greenwich (0°) is 12.00 noon.
Statement : The time increases at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of

longitude, east of the Prime Meridian.
Solution :
Difference between Greenwich and Thimpu = 90° of longitudes
Total Time difference = 90 × 4 = 360 minutes = 360/60 hours = 6 hours\Local time
of Thimpu is 6 hours more than that at Greenwich i.e. 6.00 p.m.
Example 2 : Determine the local time of New Orleans (the place, which was worst
affected by Katrina Hurricane in October 2005), located at 900 West longitude when the
time at Greenwich (00) is 12.00 noon.
Statement : The time decrease, at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of longitude, west
of the prime meridian.
Solution :Difference between Greenwich and New Orleans = 90° of longitudes.

Total Time difference = 90 × 4 = 360 minutes = 360/60 hours = 6 hours\Local time of
New Orleans is 6 hours less than that at Greenwich, i.e. 6.00 a. m.
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Indian Standard Time:
• The Indian Standard Time is calculated from 82°30’E meridian passing through
Mirzapur. Therefore, IST is plus 5.30 hours from the GMT ((82°30’ x 4) (6
minutes=5 hours 30 minutes).
• Similarly, all countries of the world choose the standard meridian within their
territory to determine the time within their administrative boundaries. The countries
with large east west span may choose more than one standard meridian to get more
than one time zone such as Russia, Canada and the United States of America.
• The world is divided into 24 major time zones .
What is the International Date Line?
• The International Date Line serves as the "line of demarcation" between two
consecutive calendar dates .
• The International Date Line, shown here as a yellow line, defines the boundary
between calendar dates.
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• The International Date Line, established in 1884, passes through the mid-Pacific
Ocean and roughly follows a 180 degrees longitude north-south line on the Earth.
• It is located halfway round the world from the prime meridian—the zero degrees
longitude established in Greenwich, England, in 1852.
• The International Date Line functions as a “line of demarcation” separating two
consecutive calendar dates.
• When you cross the date line, you become a time traveller of sorts! Cross to the west
and it’s one day later; cross back and you’ve “gone back in time."
• Despite its name, the International Date Line has no legal international
status and countries are free to choose the dates that they observe. While
the date line generally runs north to south from pole to pole, it zigzags
around political borders such as eastern Russia and Alaska’s Aleutian
Islands.
MALUKA IAS
Chapter:2
Atmosphere On Earth And
Temperature Distribution
16 – B, OLD RAJINDER NAGAR, NEAR HDFC BANK, DELHI. PH. 9910133084 10 | P a g e

MALUKA IAS
2.1: ATMOSPHERE ON THE EARTH
• Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
0.93% argon.
• The remainder, less than 0.1%, contains such trace gases as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and ozone.
• All of these trace gases have important effects on Earth’s climate.
• The atmosphere can be divided into vertical layers determined by the way
temperature changes with altitude.
• The layer closest to the surface is the troposphere, which contains over 80% of the
atmospheric mass and nearly all the water vapor.
• The next layer, the stratosphere, contains most of the atmosphere’s ozone, which
absorbs high-energy radiation from the sun and makes life on the surface possible.
Above the stratosphere are the mesosphere and thermosphere.
• These two layers include regions of charged atoms and molecules, or ions.
• The upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere are called the ionosphere, this region
is important to radio communications, because radio waves can bounce off the layer
and travel great distances.
• It is thought that the present atmosphere developed from gases ejected by volcanoes.
• Oxygen, upon which all animal life depends, probably accumulated as excess
emissions from plants that produce it as a waste product during photosynthesis.
• Human activities may be affecting the levels of some important atmospheric
components, particularly carbon dioxide and ozone.
Composition of the atmosphere:
Major gases:
• The most common atmospheric gas, nitrogen (chemical symbol N2) is largely inert,
meaning that it does not readily react with other substances to form new chemical
compounds.

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• The next most common gas, oxygen (O2), is required for the respiration (breathing)
of all animal life on Earth, from humans to bacteria. In contrast to nitrogen, oxygen is
extremely reactive.
• It participates in oxidation, examples of which include apples turning from white to
brown after being sliced, the rusting of iron, and the very rapid oxidation reaction
known as fire.
• Just under 1% of the atmosphere is made up of argon (Ar), which is an inert noble
gas, meaning that it does not take part in any chemical reactions under normal
circumstances.
• Together, these three gases account for 99.96% of the atmosphere.
• The remaining 0.04% contains a wide variety of trace gases, several of which are
crucial to life on Earth.
Important trace gases or major Green House Gases:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) affects Earth’s climate and plays a large support role in the
biosphere, the collection of living things that populate Earth’s surface.
o Only about 0.0325% of the atmosphere is CO2.
o Carbon dioxide is required by plant life for photosynthesis, the process of
using sunlight to store energy as simple sugars, upon which all life on Earth
depends.
o Carbon dioxide is also one of a class of compounds called greenhouse gases.
o These gases are made up of molecules that absorb and emit infrared
radiation, which is felt as heat.
o The solar energy radiated from the sun is mostly in the visible range, within a
narrow band of wavelengths.
o This radiation is absorbed by Earth’s surface, then re-radiated back out to
space not as visible light, but as longer wavelength infrared radiation.
o Greenhouse gas molecules absorb some of this radiation before it escapes to
space, and re-emit some of it back toward the surface.
o In this way, these gases trap some of the escaping heat and increase the
overall temperature of the atmosphere.
o If the atmosphere had no greenhouse gases, it is estimated that Earth’s
surface would be 90°F (32°C) cooler.
• Water vapor (H2 O) is found in the atmosphere in small and highly variable
amounts.
o While it is nearly absent in most of the atmosphere, its concentration can
range up to 4% in very warm, humid areas close to the surface.
o Despite its relative scarcity, atmospheric water probably has more of an
impact on Earth than any of the major gases, aside from oxygen.
o Water vapor is an element of the hydrologic cycle, the process that moves
water between the oceans, the land surface waters, the atmosphere, and the
polar ice caps.
o Water cycling drives erosion and rock weathering, determines Earth’s
weather, and sets up climate conditions that make land areas dry or wet,
habitable or inhospitable.
o When cooled sufficiently, water vapor forms clouds by condensing to liquid
water droplets, or, at lower temperatures, solid ice crystals. Besides creating

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rain or snow, clouds affect Earth’s climate by reflecting some of the energy
coming from the sun, making the planet somewhat cooler.
o Water vapor is also an important greenhouse gas. It is concentrated near the
surface and is much more prevalent near the tropics than in the polar regions.
• Ozone (O3) is found almost exclusively in a layer about 9–36 mi (15–60 km) in
altitude.
o At lower altitudes, ozone gas is irritating to eyes and skin and chemically
attacks rubber and plant tissue.
o Nevertheless, it is vital to life on Earth because it absorbs most of the high-
energy radiation from the sun that is harmful to plants and animals. A portion
of the energy radiated by the sun lies in the ultraviolet (UV) region.
o This shorter wavelength radiation is responsible for suntans and is sufficiently
powerful to harm cells, cause skin cancer, and burn skin.
o The ozone molecules, along with molecules of O2, absorb nearly all the high-
energy UV rays, protecting Earth’s surface from the most damaging radiation.
o The first step in this process occurs high in the atmosphere, where O2
molecules absorb very high energy UV radiation.
o Upon doing so, each absorbing molecule breaks up into two oxygen atoms.
o The oxygen atoms eventually collide with another O2 molecule, forming a
molecule of ozone, O3 (a third molecule is required in the collision to carry
away excess energy).
o Ozone in turn may absorb UV of slightly longer wavelength, which removes
one of its oxygen atoms and leaves O2.
o The free oxygen atom, being very reactive, will almost immediately recombine
with another O2, forming more ozone.
o The last two steps of this cycle repeat themselves but do not create any new
chemical compounds; they only act to absorb ultraviolet radiation.
o The amount of ozone in the stratosphere is small.
o If it were all transported to the surface, the ozone gas would form a layer
about 0.1–0.16 in (2.5–4.0 mm) thick. This layer, as thin as it is, is sufficient
to shield Earth’s occupants from harmful solar radiation.
Aerosols:

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• In addition to gases, the atmosphere has a wide variety of suspended particles known
collectively as aerosols.
• These particles may be liquid or solid and are small enough that they may require
very long times to settle out of the atmosphere by gravity.
• Examples of aerosols include suspended soil or desert sand particles, smoke particles
from wildfires, salt particles from evaporated ocean water, plant pollen, volcanic
dust, and particles formed from the pollution created by coal burning power plants.
• Aerosols significantly affect atmospheric heat balance, cloud growth, and optical
properties.
• The particles in aerosols cover a wide range of sizes.
• Raindrops suspended in a cloud are about 0.04–0.24 in (1–6 mm) in
diameter.
• Fine desert sand and cloud droplets range in diameter down to about
0.0004 in (0.01 mm).
• Sea salt particles and smoke particles are 1/100th of this, about 0.0001 mm, or 0.1
micrometer, in diameter (1 micrometer = one thousandth of a millimeter).
• Smallest of all are the particles that form when certain gases condense—that is, when
several gas molecules come together to form a stable cluster.
• These are the Aitkin nuclei, whose diameters can be measured down to a few
nanometers (1 nanometer = one millionth of a millimeter).
• The size of some aerosol particles allows them to efficiently scatter sunlight and
create atmospheric haze.
• Under some conditions, aerosols act as collecting points for water vapor
molecules, encouraging the growth of cloud droplets and speeding the
formation of clouds.
• They may also play a role in Earth’s climate.
• Aerosols are known to reflect a portion of incoming solar radiation back to space,
which lowers the temperature of Earth’s surface.
• Current research is focused on estimating how much cooling is provided by aerosols,
as well as how and when aerosols form in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric structure:
• The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on the atmospheric pressure and
temperature profiles (the way these quantities change with height).
• Atmospheric temperature drops steadily from its value at the surface, about 290K
(63°F; 17°C), until it reaches a minimum of around 220K (–64°F;–53°C) at 6 mi (10
km) above the surface.
• This first layer is called the troposphere and ranges in pressure from over 1,000
millibars at sea level to 100 millibars at the top of the layer, the tropopause. Above
the tropopause, the temperature rises with increasing altitude up to about 27 mi (45
km).
• This region of increasing temperatures is the stratosphere, spanning a pressure range
from 100 millibars at its base to about 10 millibars at the stratopause, the top of the
layer.

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• Above 30 mi (50 km), the temperature resumes its drop with altitude, reaching a very
cold minimum of 180K (–135°F;–93°C) at around 48 mi (80 km).
• This layer is the mesosphere, which at its top (the mesopause) has an atmospheric
pressure of only 0.01 millibars (that is, only 1/100,000th of the surface pressure).
• Above the mesosphere lies the thermosphere, extending hundreds of miles upward
toward the vacuum of space.
• It is not possible to place an exact top of the atmosphere because air molecules
become scarcer until the atmosphere blends with the material found in space.
The troposphere:
• The troposphere contains over 80% of the mass of the atmosphere, along with nearly
all of the water vapor.
• This layer contains the air we breathe, the winds we observe, and the clouds that
bring our rain. All of what we know as weather occurs in the troposphere, the name of
which means “changing sphere.”
• All of the cold fronts, warm fronts, high and low pressure systems, storm systems,
and other features seen on a weather map occur in this lowest layer. Severe
thunderstorms may penetrate the tropopause.
• Within the troposphere, temperature decreases with increasing height at an average
rate of about 11.7°F per every 3,281 ft (6.5°C per every 1,000 meters). This quantity is
known as the lapse rate.
• When air begins to rise, it will expand and cool at a faster rate determined by the laws
of thermodynamics.
• This means that if a parcel of air begins to rise, it will soon find itself cooler and
denser than its surroundings, and will sink back downward.
• This is an example of a stable atmosphere in which vertical air movement is
prevented. Because air masses move within the troposphere, a cold air mass may
move into an area and have a higher lapse rate.
• That is, its temperature falls off more quickly with height. Under these weather
conditions, air that begins rising and cooling will become warmer than its
surroundings.
• It then is like a hot-air balloon: it is less dense than the surrounding air and buoyant,
so it will continue to rise and cool in a process called convection.

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• If this is sustained, the atmosphere is said to be unstable, and the rising parcel of air
will cool to the point where its water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets.
• The air parcel is now a convective cloud.
• If the buoyancy is vigorous enough, a storm cloud will develop as the cloud droplets
grow to the size of raindrops and begin to fall out of the cloud as rain.
• Thus, under certain conditions the temperature profile of the troposphere makes
possible storm clouds and precipitation.
• During a strong thunderstorm, cumulonimbus clouds (the type that produce heavy
rain, high winds, and hail) may grow tall enough to reach or extend into the
tropopause.
• Here they run into strong stratospheric winds, which may shear off the top of the
clouds and stop their growth.
• One can see this effect in the anvil clouds associated with strong summer
thunderstorms.
The stratosphere:
• The beginning of the stratosphere is defined as that point where the temperature
reaches a minimum and the lapse rate abruptly drops to zero.
• This temperature structure has one important consequence: it inhibits rising air. Any
air that begins to rise will become cooler and denser than the surrounding air.
• The stratosphere is therefore very stable.
• The stratosphere contains most of the ozone found in Earth’s atmosphere, and the
presence of ozone is the reason for the temperature profile found in the stratosphere.
• Ozone and oxygen gas both absorb short wave solar radiation.
• In the series of reactions that follow, heat is released.
• This heat warms the atmosphere in the layer at about 12–27 mi (20–45 km) and
gives the stratosphere its characteristic temperature increase with height.
• The ozone layer has been the subject of concern.
• In 1985, scientists from the British Antarctic Survey noticed that the amount of
stratospheric ozone over the South Pole fell sharply during the spring months,
recovering somewhat as spring turned to summer.
• An examination of the historical records revealed that the springtime ozone losses
had begun around the late 1960s and had grown much more severe by the late 1970s.
• By the mid-1980s virtually all the ozone was disappearing from parts of the polar
stratosphere during the late winter and early spring.
• These ozone losses, dubbed the ozone hole, were the subject of intense research both
in the field and in the laboratory.
• Although the stratosphere has very little water, clouds of ice crystals may
form at times in the lower stratosphere over the polar regions.
• Early Arctic explorers named these clouds nacreous or mother-of-pearl clouds
because of their iridescent appearance.
• More recently, very thin and widespread clouds have been found to form in the polar
stratosphere under extremely cold conditions.
• These clouds, called polar stratospheric clouds, or PSCs, appear to be small crystals
of ice or frozen mixtures of ice and nitric acid.

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• PSCs play a key role in the development of the ozone hole.
• The understanding that has emerged implicates chlorine as the chemical responsible
for ozone destruction in the ozone hole.
• Chlorine apparently gets into the stratosphere from chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs—
industrial chemicals widely used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, and solvents.
• Laboratory experiments show that after destroying an ozone molecule, chlorine is
tied up in a form unable to react with any more ozone.
• However, it can chemically react with other chlorine compounds on the surfaces of
polar stratospheric cloud particles, which frees the chlorine to attack more ozone. In
other words, each chlorine molecule is recycled many times so that it can destroy
thousands of ozone molecules.
• The realization of chlorine’s role in ozone depletion brought about an international
agreement in 1987, the Montreal Protocol, which committed the participating
industrialized countries to begin phasing out CFCs.
The Mesosphere and Thermosphere:

• The upper mesosphere and the lower thermosphere contain charged atoms and
molecules (ions) in a region known as the ionosphere.
• The atmospheric constituents at this level include nitrogen gas, atomic oxygen,
nitrogen (O and N), and nitric oxide (NO).
• All of these are exposed to strong solar emission of ultraviolet and x-ray radiation,
which can result in ionization, knocking off an electron to form an atom or molecule
with a positive charge.
• The ionosphere is a region enriched in free electrons and positive ions.
• This charged particle region affects the propagation of radio waves, reflecting them as
a mirror reflects light.
• The ionosphere makes it possible to tune in radio stations very far from the
transmitter.
• Even if the radio waves coming directly from the transmitter are blocked by
mountains or the curvature of Earth, one can still receive the waves bounced off the
ionosphere.
• After the sun sets, the numbers of electrons and ions in the lower layers drop
drastically, because the sun’s radiation is no longer available to keep them ionized.
• Even at night, however, the higher layers retain some ions.
• The result is that the ionosphere is higher at night, which allows radio waves to
bounce for longer distances.
• This is the reason that one can frequently tune in to more distant radio stations at
night than during the day.
• The upper thermosphere is also where the bright night time displays of
colors and flashes known as the aurora occur.

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• The aurora are caused by energetic particles emitted by the sun.

• These particles become trapped by Earth’s magnetic field and collide with the
relatively few gas atoms present above about 60 mi (100 km), mostly atomic oxygen
(O) and nitrogen gas (N2).
• These collisions cause the atoms and molecules to emit light, resulting in spectacular
displays.
Ionosphere:
• This layer is located between 80 km and 400 km and is an electrically charged layer.
• This layer is characterized by ionization of atoms.
• Because of the electric charge, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected
back to the earth by this layer.
• Temperature again starts increasing with height because of radiation from the sun.
Exosphere:
• This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere
above a height of about 400 km.
• The air is extremely rarefied and the temperature gradually increases through the
layer.
• Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.
• Temperature gradually increases through the layer. (As it is exposed to direct
sunlight)
• This layer coincides with space.
The past and future of the atmosphere:

• If any atmosphere was present after Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, it
was probably much different than that of today.
• Most likely it resembled those of the outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune—with an abundance of hydrogen, methane, and ammonia gases.
• The present atmosphere did not form until after this primary atmosphere was lost.
One theory holds that the primary atmosphere was blasted from Earth by the Sun.

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• If the Sun is like other stars of its type, it may have gone through a phase where it
violently ejected material outward toward the planets, All of the inner planet.
2.2: TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

• The sun radiates its energy in all directions into space in short wavelengths, which is
known as solar radiation.
• The earth’s surface receives only a part of this radiated energy (2 units out of
1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated by the sun).
• The energy received by the earth’s surface in the form of short waves is termed as
Incoming Solar Radiation or Insolation.
• The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is far less than that is
radiated from the sun because of the small size of the earth and its distance from the
sun.
• Moreover, water vapour, dust particles, ozone and other gases present in the
atmosphere absorb a small amount of solar radiation.
• The solar radiation received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due
to the variations in the distance between the earth and the sun.
• During the earth’s revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from
the sun on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion. On 3rd
January, the earth is nearest to the sun. This position is called perihelion.
• Due to this variation in the distance between the earth and the sun, the annual
insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount
received on 4th July.
• However, the effect of this variation is masked by some other factors like the
distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric circulation.
• Hence the variation does not have a greater effect on daily weather changes on the
surface of the earth.
Factors influencing Insolation:

• The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is not uniform everywhere.
It varies according to the place and time.

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• When the tropical regions receive maximum annual insolation, it gradually decreases
towards the poles.
• Insolation is more in summers and less in winters.
• The major factors which influence the amount of insolation received are:
I. Rotation of the earth on its axis

II. The angle of incidence of the sun’s rays
III. Duration of the day
IV. Transparency of the atmosphere
• Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical desert, where the cloudiness is
the least.
• The equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
• Generally, at the same latitude, the insolation is more over the continent than over
the oceans.
• In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.
Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

The sun is the ultimate source of atmospheric heat and energy. There are different ways of
heating and cooling of the atmosphere. They are:
1. Terrestrial Radiation
2. Conduction
3. Convection
4. Advection

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1. Terrestrial Radiation:
Before discussing terrestrial radiation, the following facts about radiation are worth noting.
i) All objects whether hot or cold emit radiant energy continuously.
ii) Hotter objects emit more energy per unit area than colder objects.
iii) The temperature of an object determines the wavelength of radiation.

Temperature and wavelength are inversely proportional. Hotter the object,
shorter is the length of the wave.
• So, when the earth’s surface after being heated up by the insolation (in the form of
short waves), it becomes a radiating body.
• The earth’s surface starts to radiate energy to the atmosphere in the form of long
waves.
• This is what we call as terrestrial radiation. This energy heats up the atmosphere
from bottom to top.
• It should be noted that the atmosphere is transparent to short waves and opaque to
long waves.
• The long-wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the
terrestrial radiation.
• The atmosphere, in turn, radiates and transmits heat to space. Finally, the amount of
heat received from the sun is returned to space, thereby maintaining a constant
temperature at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
2. Conduction (transfer of heat by contact):

• Conduction is the process of heat transfer from a warmer object to a cooler object
when they come in contact with each other.
• The flow of heat energy continues till the temperature of both the objects become
equal or the contact is broken.
• The conduction in the atmosphere occurs at the zone of contact between the
atmosphere and the earth’s surface.
• Conduction is important in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
3. Convection (vertical transfer of heat)

• Transfer of heat by the movement of a mass or substance from one place to another,
generally vertical, is called convection.
• The air of the lower layers of the atmosphere gets heated either by the earth’s
radiation or by conduction. The heating of the air leads to its expansion. Its density
decreases and it moves upwards.
• The continuous ascent of heated air creates a vacuum in the lower layers of the
atmosphere. As a consequence, cooler air comes down to fill the vacuum, leading to
convection.
• The cyclic movement associated with the convectional process in the atmosphere
transfer heat from the lower layer to the upper layer and heats up the atmosphere.
• The convection transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere.
4. Advection (horizontal transfer of heat)

• The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air (wind) is called advection.

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• Winds carry the temperature of one place to another. The temperature of a place will
rise if it lies in the path of winds coming from warmer regions. The temperature will
fall if the place lies in the path of the winds blowing from cold regions.
• Horizontal movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical
movement. In the middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variations in
daily weather are caused by advection alone.
• In tropical regions particularly in northern India during the summer season, local
winds called ‘Loo’ is the outcome of advection process.
2.3 : EARTH’S HEAT BUDGET AND ADIABETIC LAPSE

RATE
The balance of incoming and outgoing heat on Earth is referred to as its heat budget. As with
any budget, to maintain constant conditions the budget must be balanced so that the
incoming heat equals the outgoing heat. The heat budget of Earth appears below:
• Of all of the solar energy reaching the Earth, about 30% is reflected back into space
from the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the Earth.
• Another 23% of the energy is absorbed by the water vapor, clouds, and dust in the
atmosphere, where it is converted into heat.
• Just under half (47%) of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the land and
ocean, and this energy heats up the Earth’s surface. The energy absorbed by the Earth
returns to the atmosphere through three processes; conduction, radiation, and latent
heat (phase change).
• Air is a relatively poor thermal conductor (which means it is a good insulator), so
conduction represents only a small part of the energy transfer between the Earth and
the atmosphere; equal to about 7% of the incoming solar energy.
• All bodies with a temperature above absolute zero (-273o C) radiate heat in the form
of longwave, infrared radiation .

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• The warmed Earth is no exception, and about 16% of the original solar energy is
radiated from the Earth to the atmosphere .
• Some of this radiated energy will dissipate into space, but a significant amount of
heat will be absorbed by the atmosphere.
• This is the basis for the greenhouse effect :
o In the greenhouse effect, shortwave solar radiation passes through the
atmosphere and reaches the Earth’s surface where it gets absorbed.
o When the radiation is re-emitted by the Earth, it is now in the form of long
wavelength, infrared radiation, which does not easily pass through the
atmosphere.
o Instead, this infrared radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, particularly by
the greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane, and water vapor.
o As a result, the atmosphere heats up.
o Without the greenhouse effect, the average temperature on Earth would be
about -18o C, which is too cold for liquid water, and therefore life as we know
it could not exist!
o There is a great deal of concern about the greenhouse effect across the globe;
not because of the presence of the effect itself, but because the effect is
intensifying, causing climate change or global warming.
o Since the Industrial Revolution the atmospheric concentrations of the major
greenhouse gases, particularly CO2 and methane, have increased dramatically
due to industrialization, the burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation.
o At the same time, there has been rapid warming of the global climate; CO2
concentrations have increased more than 25% and global temperature has
risen by 0.5o C over the past century.
o Unless production of these greenhouse gases is curbed, this rapid warming
trend may continue, with potentially dire consequences.

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Differential heating on the Earth surface:
• The largest pathway for heat exchange between the land or oceans and the
atmosphere is latent heat transferred through phase changes; heat released or
absorbed when water moves between solid, liquid, and vapor forms.
• Heat must be added to liquid water to make it evaporate, and when water vapor is
formed, that heat is removed from the ocean and transferred to the atmosphere along
with the water vapor.
• When water vapor condenses into rain, that heat is then returned to the oceans.
• The same process happens with the formation and melting of ice.
• Heat is absorbed by ice when it melts, and heat is released when ice forms, and these
phase changes transfer heat between the oceans and the atmosphere.
• To complete the heat budget, the heat that is absorbed by the atmosphere either
directly from solar radiation or as a result of conduction, radiation and latent heat, is
eventually radiated back into space.
Differential Heating of Earth’s Surface
• If the Earth was a flat surface facing the sun, every part of that surface would receive
the same amount of incoming solar radiation.
• However, because the Earth is a sphere, sunlight is not equally distributed over the
Earth’s surface, so different regions of Earth will be heated to different degrees.
• This differential heating of Earth’s surface occurs for a number of reasons.
o First, because of the curvature of Earth, sunlight only falls perpendicularly to
the surface at the centre of the sphere (equatorial regions).
o At any other point on Earth, the angle between the surface and the incoming
solar radiation is less than 90o.
o Because of this, the same amount of incoming solar radiation will be
concentrated in a smaller area at the equator, but will be spread over a much
larger area at the poles .
o Thus the tropics receive more intense sunlight and a greater amount of
heating per unit of area than the polar regions.
Because of the curvature of the Earth, the same amount of sunlight will be spread out over a larger area at the poles compared to the
equator. The equator therefore receives more intense sunlight, and a greater amount of heat per unit of area (By Thebiologyprimer
(Own work) [CC0], via Wikimedia Commons).

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• The angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth contributes to differential heating of the
surface in an additional way.
• At the poles, because of the angle at which the solar energy strikes the surface, more
of the light will glance off of the surface and the atmosphere and be reflected back
into space.
• At the equator, the direct angle with which light reaches the surface results in more of
the energy being absorbed rather than reflected.
• Finally, the poles reflect more solar energy than other parts of the Earth
because the poles have a higher albedo.
• The albedo refers to reflectivity of a surface. Lighter surfaces are more reflective than
darker surfaces (which absorb more energy), and therefore have a higher albedo.
• At the poles, the ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles
reflect more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes.
• Through all of these mechanisms, the poles absorb much less solar radiation than
equatorial regions, which is why the poles are cold and the tropics are very warm.
• But there is an interesting twist to this global distribution of heat.
• The tropical regions actually receive more radiant heat than they emit, and the poles
emit more heat than they receive .
• We should therefore expect that the tropics will be getting continually warmer, while
the poles become increasingly cold.
• Rather than the heat remaining isolated near the equator, about 20% of the heat
from the tropics is transported to the poles before it is emitted.
• This large scale transport of energy moderates the climates at both extremes.
• The idea of differential heating of the Earth’s surface is fundamental to
understanding a wide range of oceanographic and atmospheric processes.
• This differential heating leads to atmospheric convection, which creates winds, which
blow over the water and create waves and surface currents, and these currents
influence nutrient distribution, which promotes primary production, which then
supports the rest of the ocean ecosystem.
• So there’s a lot riding on the simple fact that more light reaches the tropics than the
poles!
Seasonal Temperature Distribution

• The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the
temperature distribution in January and July.
• The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help of isotherms.
The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.
• In general the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map, as
the isotherms are generally parallel to the latitude. The deviation from this general
trend is more pronounced in January than in July, especially in the northern
hemisphere.
• In the northern hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the southern
hemisphere.
• Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced.
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January

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• During January, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern
hemisphere.
• The western margins of continents are warmer than their eastern
counterparts, since the Westerlies are able to carry high temperature into
the landmasses.
• The temperature gradient is close to the eastern margins of continents. The isotherms
exhibit a more regular behavior in the southern hemisphere.
Northern Hemisphere:
• The isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent.
This can be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean.
• The presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, make the
Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms show a poleward shift indicating
that the oceans are warmer and are able to carry high temperatures poleward.
• An equator ward bend of the isotherms over the northern continents shows that the
landmasses are overcooled and that polar cold winds are able to penetrate southwards,
even in the interiors. It is much pronounced in the Siberian plain.
• Lowest temperatures are recorded over northern Siberia and Greenland.
Southern Hemisphere:
• The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere. Here the
isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is
more gradual than in the northern hemisphere.
• The high temperature belt runs in the southern hemisphere, somewhere along 30°S
latitude.
• The thermal equator lies to the south of geographical equator (because the Intertropical
Convergence Zone or ITCZ has shifted southwards with the apparent southward
movement of the sun).
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – July

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• During July, it is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern
hemisphere.
• The isothermal behaviour is the opposite of what it is in January.
• In July the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitudes. The equatorial oceans
record warmer temperature, more than 27°C. Over the land more than 30°C is noticed
in the subtropical continental region of Asia, along the 30° N latitude.
• The highest range of temperature is more than 60° C over the north-eastern part of
Eurasian continent.
• This is due to continentality. The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20°
S and 15° N.
• Over the northern continents, a poleward bend of the isotherms indicates that the
landmasses are overheated and the hot tropical winds are able to go far into the
northern interiors.
• The isotherms over the northern oceans show an equator ward shift indicating that the
oceans are cooler and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors. The
lowest temperatures are experienced over Greenland.
• The highest temperature belt runs through northern Africa, west Asia, north-west India
arid south eastern USA. The temperature gradient is irregular and follows a zig-zag path
over the northern hemisphere.
• The gradient becomes regular over the southern hemisphere but shows a slight bend
towards the equator at the edges of continents.
• Thermal equator now lies to the north of the geographical equator.
Lapse Rate And Adiabatic Lapse Rate:

Lapse Rate:
• Lapse rate is rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through
the Earth’s atmosphere (troposphere to be specific).
• The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation,
zero when the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the
temperature increases with elevation (temperature inversion).
• The lapse rate of non-rising air – commonly referred to as the normal, or
Environmental, Lapse Rate (ELR) – is highly variable, being affected by radiation,

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convection, and condensation; it averages about 5 °C per kilometer in the lower
atmosphere (troposphere).
• Reason:
o This fall in temperature with elevation is primarily due to two reasons.
o With increase in elevation, the atmospheric pressure falls. Fall in pressure
implies that the temperature also falls [Pressure is directly proportional to
Temperature and vice versa]
o With increase in elevation, the concentration of greenhouse gases decrease
(Water vapor and carbon dioxide fall sharply with elevation). Hence the heat
absorption capacity of atmosphere will also decrease.
o This sort of fall in temperature with elevation is called Temperature Lapse
and the rate at which it happens is called Temperature Lapse Rate or simply
Lapse rate.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate:

• Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall in temperature of a rising or a falling air parcel
adiabatically.
• Adiabatic or adiabatically: Heat doesn’t enter or leave the system. All temperature
changes are internal.
• Adiabatic Lapse rate is governed by Gas law.
• According to gas law Pressure ‘P’ is directly proportional to Temperature ‘T’ when
Volume ‘V’ is a constant.
P𝖺1V→PV=x
where x is a constant depending on amount of gas at a given temperature.
• Example : When we blow air into a balloon, pressure increases but temperature
doesn’t increase due to proportionate increase in volume (here V is not constant).
When excess air is blown, balloon bursts as it cannot with stand the pressure.
• Adiabatic change refers to the change in temperature with pressure.
• On descent through atmosphere, the lower layers are compressed under atmospheric
pressure. As a result, the temperature increases.
• On ascent, the air expands as pressure ‘decreases’. This expansion reduces the
temperature and aids condensation of water vapour. Condensation of water vapour
releases the Latent Heat of Condensation in the process.
• This latent heat of condensation is the major driving force behind tropical cyclones,
convectional rains.
Adiabatic Process: A Parcel of Rising or Falling Air

• An air bubble rises in water whereas stone sinks.
• This is obvious. The stone is denser (heavier than water) and it sinks whereas the air
bubble is less denser (lighter than water) and it rises.
• Similarly, a parcel of air rises when it is less denser than the surrounding
environment and it falls when its density becomes greater than the surrounding
environment.
A Parcel of Rising Air:

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• When an air parcel is subjected to differential heating compared to the surrounding
air, it becomes lighter (less denser) or heavier (more denser) depending on whether
the air parcel is heated or cooled.
• When an air parcel receives more heat than the surrounding air, its temperature
increases leading to an increase in volume (Increase in Volume == Fall in Density).
• The air parcel becomes lighter than the surrounding air and it starts to rise.
• This process is non-adiabatic (there is heat exchange between the air parcel and the
external environment).
• But when the air parcel starts to rise, the ambient pressure on it starts to fall [The
atmospheric pressure decreases with height, so the pressure on the air parcel
decreases with height].
• With the fall in ambient pressure, the temperature falls and the volume increases.
This is adiabatic [there is no heat exchange between the air parcel and the external
environment.
• All the temperature changes are internal. Temperature changes are only due to
change in pressure or volume or both].
• This fall in temperature with the rising of the air parcel is called Adiabatic
Temperature Lapse. And the rate at which it happens is called Adiabatic Lapse Rate
[This is Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate as the Temperature is falling].
• [Lapse Rate == fall in temperature with height. Adiabatic Lapse Rate == Fall in
temperature in a rising parcel of air without losing any internal heat]
• Rising of a parcel of air (and associated Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate) is the first step
in the formation of Thunderstorms, Tornadoes and Cyclones. [We will see this in
detail in future posts]
A Parcel of Falling Air:

• An air parcels falls to the lower levels of troposphere when it is cooled sufficiently.
• When an air parcel is in the upper levels, it gets cooled due to lower temperatures
(Lapse Rate).
• It’s volume falls and it’s density increases. When it becomes more denser than the
surroundings, it starts to fall.
• This also happens when an air parcel is in contact with cooler surfaces like mountain
slopes.
• The beginning of fall is a non-adiabatic process as there is an exchange of heat
between the air parcel and the surrounding environment.
• When an air parcel is falling, the atmospheric pressure acting on it will increase and
its internal temperature will increase adiabatically. [This is Negative Adiabatic Lapse
Rate as the Temperature is rising].
• Katabatic Wind is a hot dry wind that blows down a mountain slope. It is an example
for a falling parcel of air in which the temperature changes happen adiabatically.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate:

• The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the rate of fall in temperature with altitude
for a parcel of dry or unsaturated air (air with less moisture, to keep it simple) rising
under adiabatic conditions.

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• Unsaturated air has less than 100% relative humidity (we will study about Humidity
in future posts).
[Saturated air == The air that cannot hold any more moisture. Its stomach is full.
Unsaturated air == It’s stomach is not full. It can accommodate some more moisture.]
• When a rising air parcel has little moisture, condensation during upliftment is low,
the latent heat of condensation released is low [Less additional heat from inside].
• As a result, the fall in temperature with height is greater compared to Adiabatic Lapse
Rate (normal parcel of air)
• The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s atmosphere equals 8° C per kilometre.
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with stable conditions [because it has
less moisture].
Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate:

• When an air parcel that is saturated (stomach full) with water vapour rises, some of
the vapour will condense and release latent heat [Additional Heat from inside].
• This process causes the parcel to cool more slowly than it would if it were not
saturated.
• The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies considerably because the amount of water
vapour in the air is highly variable.
• The greater the amount of vapour, the smaller the adiabatic lapse rate [because the
condensation process keeps on adding more latent heat of condensation]. On an
average it is taken as 4° C per kilometre.
• Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with unstable conditions [because it
has more moisture].
• As an air parcel rises and cools, it may eventually lose its moisture through
condensation; its lapse rate then increases and approaches the dry adiabatic value.
Weather conditions at different adiabatic lapse rates:

• LR (Lapse Rate) = Average Adiabatic Lapse Rate of entire atmosphere = 6 °C/km
[ALR of a place may be greater than or lesser than the Laspe Rate of atmosphere, i.e.,
it may be less than or greater than 6 °C/km]
• If ALR at a place is greater than 6 °C/km then it is called DALR = Less moisture than
normal = more stable than normal.
• If ALR at a place is lesser than 6 °C/km then it is called WALR = More moisture than
normal = less stable than normal or instability.
• Absolute stability: ALR (at a place) > DALR == Little moisture in the air parcel ==
It won’t rain
• Conditional stability: WALR < ALR < DALR == Normal moisture conditions ==
It may or may not rain.
• Absolute instability: ALR (at a place) < WALR == Excess moisture in the air
parcel == It will rain violently.
LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION:

• Latent heat of condensation is the driving force behind all tropical cyclones.
• Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed during phase change.

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• Latent heat, characteristic amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance
during a change in its physical state that occurs without changing its temperature.
• The latent heat associated with melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat of
fusion; that associated with vaporizing a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapour is
called the heat of vaporization.
• The latent heat is normally expressed as the amount of heat (in units of joules or
calories) per mole or unit mass of the substance undergoing a change of state.
• For example, when a pot of water is kept boiling, the temperature remains at 100 °C
until the last drop evaporates, because all the heat being added to the liquid is
absorbed as latent heat of vaporization and carried away by the escaping vapour
molecules.
• Similarly, while ice melts, it remains at 0 °C, and the liquid water that is formed with
the latent heat of fusion is also at 0 °C.

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Chapter : 3:
Different Wind System And Earth
We are
going to
learn in
this
chapter

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3.1 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE BELTS
Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the
atmospheric pressure. The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of air
from high pressure to low pressure, setting the air in motion. Atmospheric pressure also
determines when the air will rise or sink.
Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across
latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a whole.
The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and bring precipitation.
Pressure Belts of Earth:

• On the earth’s surface, there are seven pressure belts.
• They are the Equatorial Low, the two Subtropical highs, the two Subpolar lows, and
the two Polar highs.
• Except for the Equatorial low, the others form matching pairs in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.
• There is a pattern of alternate high and low-pressure belts over the earth.
• This is due to the spherical shape of the earth—different parts of the earth are heated
unequally.
• The Equatorial region receives a great amount of heat throughout the year. Warm air
being light, the air at the Equator rises, creating low pressure.
• At the poles the cold heavy air causes high pressure to be created/formed. It is also
due to the rotation of the earth.
• In the Subpolar region around latitudes 60° to 65° North and South of the Equator,
the rotation of the earth pushes up the bulk of the air towards the Equator, creating a
low-pressure belt in this region.
(i) Equatorial Low-Pressure Belts:
• This low-pressure belt extends from 0 to 5° North and South of Equator.

• Due to the vertical rays of the sun here, there is intense heating.

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• The air, therefore, expands and rises as convection current causing low pressure to
develop here.
• This low-pressure belt is also called as doldrums because it is a zone of total calm
without any breeze.
(ii) Subtropical High-Pressure Belts:
• At about 30°North and South of Equator lies the area where the ascending equatorial
air currents descend.
• This area is thus an area of high pressure.
• It is also called as the Horse latitude.
• Winds always blow from high pressure to low pressure.
• So the winds from subtropical region blow towards the Equator as Trade winds and
another wind blow towards Sub-Polar Low-Pressure as Westerlies.
• The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high pressure belt are called horse
latitudes.
• In early days, the sailing vessels with cargo of horses found it difficult to sail under
calm conditions of this high pressure belt.
• They used to throw horses into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name horse
latitudes.
(iii) Circum-Polar Low-Pressure Belts:
• These belts located between 60° and 70° in each hemisphere are known as Circum-
Polar Low-Pressure Belts.
• In the Subtropical region, the descending air gets divided into two parts.
• One part blows towards the Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt.
• The other part blows towards the Circum- Polar Low-Pressure Belt.
• This zone is marked by the ascent of warm Subtropical air over cold polar air
blowing from poles.
• Due to the earth’s rotation, the winds surrounding the Polar region blow towards the
Equator.
• Centrifugal forces operating in this region create the low-pressure belt appropriately
called the Circumpolar Low-Pressure Belt.
• This region is marked by violent storms in winter.
(iv) Polar High-Pressure Areas:
• At the North and South Poles, between 70° to 90° North and South, the temperatures
are always extremely low.
• The cold descending air gives rise to high pressures over the Poles.
• These areas of Polar high pressure are known as the Polar Highs.
• These regions are characterized by permanent Ice Caps.
Shifting Of Pressure Belts:
• If the earth had not been inclined towards the sun, the pressure belts, as described
above, would have been as they are.
• But it is not so, because the earth is inclined 23 1/2° towards the sun.
• On account of this inclination, differences in heating of the continents, oceans, and
pressure conditions in January and July vary greatly.

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• January represents winter season and July, summer season in the Northern
Hemisphere.
• Opposite conditions prevail in the Southern Hemisphere.
• When the sun is overhead on the Tropic of Cancer (21 June) the pressure belts shift
5° northward and when it shines vertically overhead on Tropic of Capricorn (22
December), they shift 5° southward from their original position.
• The shifting of the pressure belts causes seasonal changes in the climate, especially
between latitudes 30° and 40° in both hemispheres.
• In this region, the Mediterranean type of climate is experienced because of the
shifting of permanent belts southwards and northwards with the overhead position of
the sun.
• During winters Westerlies prevail and cause rain.
• During summers dry Trade Winds blow offshore and are unable to give rainfall in
these regions.
• When the sun shines vertically over the Equator on 21st March and 23rd September
(the Equinoxes), the pressure belts remain balanced in both the hemispheres.
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• The pattern of planetary winds depend on:

• latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
• emergence of pressure belts;
• the migration of belts following apparent path of the sun;
• the distribution of continents and oceans;
• the rotation of earth.
• The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the general
circulation of the atmosphere. The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in
motion the ocean water circulation which influences the earth’s climate.
Hadley Cell:

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• The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of the convection
currents caused by low pressure. Low pressure in turn occurs due to high insolation.
The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone.
• The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the
troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km, and moves towards the poles. This causes
accumulation of air at about 30° N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the
ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air
when it reaches 30° N and S latitudes.
• Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies.
The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa
are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
Ferrell Cell:
• In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the
poles and the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these
winds are called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrell cell.
Polar Cell:
• At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle
latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
• These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The
transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general
circulation.
• The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds
of the atmosphere initiate large and slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn
provide input of energy and water vapour into the air. These interactions take place
rather slowly over a large part of the ocean.
Walker Cell:
• Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation.
• The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards South American coast
and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm water off the coast of
Peru is known as the El Nino.
• The El Nino event is closely associated with the pressure changes in the Central Pacific
and Australia. This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the southern
oscillation.
• The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO.
• In the years when the ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in weather occur over the
world.
• The arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia
and sometimes in India and floods in China. This phenomenon is closely monitored and
is used for long range forecasting in major parts of the world.

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Factors Controlling Pressure Systems:

• There are two main causes, thermal and dynamic, for the pressure differences
resulting in high and low pressure systems.
Thermal Factors:
• When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density decreases. This naturally leads
to low pressure. On the contrary, cooling results in contraction. This increases the
density and thus leads to high pressure.
• Formation of equatorial low and polar highs are examples of thermal lows and
thermal highs, respectively.
Dynamic Factors:
• Apart from variations of temperature, the formation of pressure belts may be
explained by dynamic controls arising out of pressure gradient forces and rotation of
the earth (Coriolis force).
• Example
o After saturation (complete loss of mosture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away
from equatorial low pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and
cold. This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
o So the high pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from
the equatorial region which descends after becoming heavy.
o The rate of deflection increases with the distance from the equator (Coriolis
force). As a result, by the time the poleward directed winds reach 25° latitude,
they are deflected into a nearly west-to-east flow. It produces a blocking effect
and the air piles up. This causes a general subsidence in the areas between the
tropics and 35°N and S, and they develop into high pressure belts.
o The location of pressure belts is further affected by differences in net
radiation resulting from apparent movement of the sun and from variations in
heating of land and water surfaces.
o Thus formation of sub-tropical high and sub-polar low pressure belts are due
to dynamic factors like pressure gradient forces, apparent movement of sun
and rotation of the earth (Coriolis force).
Pressure belts in July:

• In the northern hemisphere, during summer, with the apparent northward shift of the
sun, the thermal equator (belt of highest temperature) is located north of the
geographical equator.
• The pressure belts shift slightly north of their annual average locations.

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Pressure belts in January
• During winter, these conditions are completely reversed and the pressure belts shift
south of their annual mean locations. Opposite conditions prevail in the southern
hemisphere. The amount of shift is, however, less in the southern hemisphere due to
predominance of water.
• Similarly, distribution of continents and oceans have a marked influence over the
distribution of pressure. In winter, the continents are cooler than the oceans and tend to
develop high pressure centres, whereas in summer, they are relatively warmer and
develop low pressure. It is just the reverse with the oceans.
PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE AND WIND MOVEMENT:

• The differences in atmospheric pressure produces pressure gradient force.
• The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
• Pressure Gradient Force operates from the high pressure area to a low pressure area
and causes wind movement.

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• The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak
where the isobars are apart.
• Since a closely spaced gradient implies a steep pressure change, it also indicates a
strong wind speed.
• The wind direction follows the direction of change of pressure, i.e. perpendicular to
the isobars.
3.2 WIND SYSTEMS ,FACTORS AFFECTING WIND

MOVEMENT
Pressure Gradient Force
• The speed and direction of the wind is governed by three forces;
o The pressure gradient force (PGF),
o The Coriolis Force and
o Friction
• PGF is the force produced by differences in barometric pressure between two

locations and is responsible for the flow of air from an area of high pressure to an
area of low pressure.
•
Flow of air produced by the pressure gradient force.
• The diagram above shows an idealized surface weather map containing a 1030+ mb
high pressure system and a 1002+ mb low pressure system.
• In the absence of the Coriolis Force and friction, the wind flows directly from the
center of the high to the center of the low.
• The speed of this flow is dictated by the magnitude of the change in barometric
pressure and the distance between the centers of the high and the low.
• The diagrams below demonstrate an environment characterized by weak (left) and
strong (right) pressure gradient force.
• In both examples, the surface high is observed at 1012 mb and the surface low is at
1000 mb resulting in a 12 mb difference.
• The curved lines between the high and low represent a portion of the 1008 mb and
1000 mb isobars, or contours of constant barometric pressure.
• In the example of weak PGF (left), the high and low are 100 km apart resulting in a
PGF of .12 mb/km. In the example of strong PGF, the high and low are only 20 km
apart which produces a PGF of .60 mb/km -- a 500% increase over the weak PGF
example.

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Example of a weak pressure gradient force. Example of strong pressure gradient force.
• Stronger winds are generally expected when significant pressure differences occur
over relatively short distances.
• On most surface weather charts produced by NOAA agencies, isobars are plotted at 4
mb intervals.
• It is difficult to accurately determine wind speeds by looking at a surface weather
chart, but it is possible to identify areas where the wind is relatively stronger or
weaker by examining the spacing of the isobars.
Coriolis Force and Wind Movement:
• The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is
called the Coriolis force.
• It has great impact on the direction of wind movement.
• Due to the earth’s rotation, winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the
pressure gradient force directs, but get deflected from their original path.
• This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation and is called the Coriolis effect or
Coriolis force.
• Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the right of their
path and those in the southern hemisphere to their left, following Farrell’s Law (the
law that wind is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere, derived from the application of the Coriolis effect to air
masses).

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• This deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in motion and increases
with wind velocity, air mass and an increase in latitude.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force (pressure
gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar)
• As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-
pressure areas the wind blows around it (cyclonic conditions).
Causes of the Coriolis Effect:

• The main cause of the Coriolis effect is the earth’s rotation. As the earth spins in a
counter-clockwise direction on its axis anything flying or flowing over a long distance
above its surface appears to be deflected.
• This occurs because as something moves freely above the earth’s surface, the earth is
moving east under the object at a faster speed.
• As latitude increases and the speed of the earth’s rotation decreases, Coriolis effect
increases.
• A plane flying along the equator itself would be able to continue flying on the equator
without any apparent deflection. A little to the north or south of the equator, the
plane would be deflected.
• In addition to the speed of the earth’s rotation and latitude, the faster the object itself
is moving, the more deflection there will be.
Impacts of the Coriolis Effect:

• Some of the most important impacts of the Coriolis effect in terms of geography are
the deflection of winds and currents in the ocean. It also has a significant effect on
man-made items like planes and missiles.
Friction:
• The surface of the Earth is not smooth, and as the wind blows it is subject to friction
as it encounters surface features such as mountains, hills, buildings, trees, etc.
• Frictional influence on the wind is essentially restricted to the atmospheric layer
below 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) and varies considerably based upon the roughness of
the terrain.
• Friction is at a minimum over water and strongest over mountainous areas.
• Regardless of the magnitude, friction acts to slow wind speeds and reduce the impact
of the Coriolis Force.
• The flow of the wind around an area of high pressure and low pressure under the
combined influence of the pressure gradient force, the Coriolis Force and friction.
• When the pressure gradient force, the Coriolis Force and friction are combined, the
result is a wind (in the Northern Hemisphere) that flows clockwise and outward
around an area of high pressure and counter-clockwise and inward towards an area
of low pressure .
• The angle at which the wind crosses isobars ranges from 10° over a smooth surface
such as water and and as much as 40° over mountainous areas.
•

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• Because the atmosphere doesn't form perfectly round and neatly arranged highs and
lows, applying the wind's controlling forces to the interpretation of an actual surface
chart (below, left) can be a little challenging.
• However, identifying the low pressure system in eastern Nebraska on the streamline
analysis valid at 12Z on June 21, 2011 (below, right) is reasonably straightforward.
• The large number of arrows converging in a counter-clockwise manner point the way
to the low's centre.
• Once the low has been identified on the two charts, the high can be located by
following the streamlines backwards to their origin.
• For example, notice the arrows that begin in and near Virginia (near the high) and
then flow north towards Ohio before curving west and joining the circulation of the
low in Nebraska.
It can be said that the forces controlling the wind can act on a large or small scale. For
sailors, the most interesting, aggravating and difficult to predict winds are those that form
when the large scale dynamics are relatively weak. Marine forecasts are essentially useless
as the spatial and temporal resolution of computer-generated wind forecasts are simply
too coarse to capture such short-lived and small-scale events. However, a sailor that
possesses a basic understanding of the wind's controlling forces can quickly identify and
take advantage of the fickle winds produced by weak dynamics.
3.3 TYPES OF WINDS:

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Surface winds:
Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun. It does
not have much substance—you cannot see it or hold it—but you can feel its force. It can dry
your clothes in summer and chill you to the bone in winter. It is strong enough to carry
sailing ships across the ocean and rip huge trees from the ground. It is the great equalizer of
the atmosphere, transporting heat, moisture, pollutants, and dust great distances around the
globe. Landforms, processes, and impacts of wind are called Aeolian landforms, processes,
and impacts.
The main cause of generation of wind is the uneven heating of two regions.
Examples –
• Uneven heating between land and sea
• Uneven heating between equator and pole
The wind has speed as well as direction, to measure this parameter, two
different devices are used:
• Anemometers – is used for measuring the speed of the wind.

• Wind vanes – is used for determining the direction of the wind.
So the classification of the surface wind are as follows:
I. Permanent winds or Primary winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary

Winds: The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies.
II. Secondary or Periodic Winds:
• Seasonal winds: These winds change their direction in different seasons. For example
monsoons in India.
• Periodic winds: Land and sea breeze, mountain, and valley breeze.
III. Local winds:
• These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.
• Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora.
PRIMARY WINDS OR PREVAILING WINDS OR PERMANENT WINDS:
• These are the planetary winds which blow extensively over continents and oceans.
• The two most well- understood and significant winds for climate and human
activities are trade winds and westerly winds.
Trade Winds:
• The trade winds are those blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure areas towards
the equatorial low-pressure belt.
• Therefore, these are confined to a region between 30°N and 30°S throughout the
earth’s surface.
• They flow as the north-eastern trades in the northern hemisphere and the south-
eastern trades in the southern hemisphere.
• These Winds are called trade winds because of the fact that they helped the sea
merchants in sailing their ships as their (of trade winds) direction remains more or
less constant and regular.
• This deflection in their ideally expected north-south direction is explained on the
basis of Coriolis force and Farrel’s law.

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• According to Ferrell’s law trade winds are deflected to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
• Trade winds are descending and stable in areas of their origin (sub-tropical high-
pressure belt), and as they reach the equator, they become humid and warmer after
picking up moisture on their way.
• The trade winds from two hemispheres meet at the equator, and due to convergence
they rise and cause heavy rainfall.
• The eastern parts of the trade winds associated with the cool ocean currents are drier
and more stable than the western parts of the ocean.
Westerlies:
• The westerlies are the winds blowing from the subtropical high-pressure belts (30°-
35°) towards the sub-polar low-pressure belts (60°-65°) in both hemispheres.
• They blow from south•west to north-east in the northern hemisphere and north-west
to south-east in the southern hemisphere.
• The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent due to the vast
expanse of water, while those of the northern hemisphere is irregular because of the
uneven relief of vast land-masses.
• Because of the dominance of the land in the northern hemisphere, the westerlies
become more complex and complicated and become less effective during the summer
seasons and more vigorous during the winter season.
• These westerlies bring much precipitation in the western parts of the continents (e.g.
north-west European coasts) because they pick up much moisture while passing over
the vast stretches of the oceans.
• The westerlies become more vigorous in the southern hemisphere because of a lack of
land and dominance of oceans. Their velocity increases southward and they become
stormy. They are also associated with boisterous gales.
• The westerlies are best developed between 40° and 65°S latitudes. These latitudes are
often called Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties – dreaded terms
for sailors.
• The poleward boundary of the westerlies is highly fluctuating. There are many
seasonal and short-term fluctuations.
• These winds produce wet spells and variability in weather.
Polar easterlies:

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• The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from north-east to south-
west direction in Northern Hemisphere and south-east to the north-west in Southern
Hemisphere.
• They blow from the polar high-pressure areas of the sub-polar lows.
SECONDARY WINDS OR PERIODIC WINDS

• These winds change their direction with change in season.
• Monsoons are the best example of large-scale modification of the planetary wind
system.
• Other examples of periodic winds include land and sea breeze, mountain and valley
breeze, cyclones and anticyclones, and air masses.
Monsoons:
• Monsoons were traditionally explained as land and sea breezes on a large scale. Thus,
they were considered a convectional circulation on a giant scale.
• The monsoons are characterized by seasonal reversal of wind direction.
• During summer, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere are pulled northwards
by an apparent northward movement of the sun and by an intense low-pressure core
in the north-west of the Indian sub•continent.
• While crossing the equator, these winds get deflected to their right under the effect of
Coriolis force.
• These winds now approach the Asian landmass as south-west monsoons. Since they
travel a long distance over a vast expanse of water, by the time they reach the south-
western coast of India, they are over-saturated with moisture and cause heavy rainfall
in India and neighbouring countries.
• During winter, these conditions are reversed and a high-pressure core is created to
the north of the Indian subcontinent. Divergent winds are produced by this
anticyclonic movement which travels southwards towards the equator. This
movement is enhanced by the apparent southward movement of the sun. These are
north-east or winter monsoons which are responsible for some precipitation along
the east coast of India.
• The monsoon winds flow over India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Sri
Lanka, the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, south-eastern Asia, northern Australia, China
and
• Outside India, in the eastern Asiatic countries, such as China and Japan, the winter
monsoon is stronger than the summer monsoon. (we will study about monsoons in
detail while studying Indian Climate).

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Land Breeze and Sea Breeze:

• The land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently.
• During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea.
• Therefore, over the land, the air rises giving rise to a low-pressure area, whereas the
sea is relatively cool and the pressure oversea is relatively high.
• Thus, the pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows from the
sea to the land as the sea breeze.
• At the night the reversal of condition takes place.
• The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient is from
the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.
•
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze:
• In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This
wind is known as the valley breeze.
• During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as
the mountain wind.
• The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley, is called
katabatic wind.
• Another type of warm wind (katabatic wind) occurs on the leeward side of the
mountain ranges.
• The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condenses and
precipitate.
• When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the dry air gets warmed up by
the adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.

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TERTIARY WINDS OR LOCAL WINDS:

• Local differences in temperature and pressure produce local winds.
• Such winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of the
troposphere. Some examples of local winds are discussed below.
Loo:
• Harmful Wind
• In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and
dry wind blows from the west in the months of May and June, usually
in the afternoons. It is known as Its temperature invariably ranges
between 45°C and 50°C. It may cause sunstroke to people.
Foehn or Fohn:
• Beneficial Wind
• Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in the Alps. It is a strong, gusty,
dry and warm wind which develops on the leeward side of a mountain
range. As the windward side takes away whatever moisture there is in
the incoming wind in the form of orographic precipitation, the air that
descends on the leeward side is dry and warm (Katabatic Wind).
• The temperature of the wind varies between 15°C and 20°C. The wind
helps animal grazing by melting snow and aids the ripening of grapes.
Chinook:
• Beneficial Wind
• Foehn like winds in USA and Canada move down the west slopes of the
Rockies and are known as
• It is beneficial to ranchers east of the Rockies as it keeps the grasslands
clear of snow during much of the winter.
Mistral:
• Harmful Wind
• Mistral is one of the local names given to such winds that blow from the
Alps over France towards the Mediterranean Sea.
• It is channelled through the Rhine valley. It is very cold and dry with a
high speed.
• It brings blizzards into southern France.
Sirocco:
• Harmful Wind

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• Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara and
reaches hurricane speeds in North Africa and Southern Europe.
• It arises from a warm, dry, tropical air mass that is pulled northward
by low-pressure cells moving eastward across the Mediterranean Sea,
with the wind originating in the Arabian or Sahara deserts.
• The hotter, drier continental air mixes with the cooler, wetter air of the
maritime cyclone, and the counter-clockwise circulation of the low
propels the mixed air across the southern coasts of Europe.
• The Sirocco causes dusty dry conditions along the northern coast of
Africa, storms in the Mediterranean Sea, and cool wet weather in
Europe
3.4 TEMPERATURE INVERSION: TYPES &

EFFECTS ON WEATHER
• Temperature inversion, also called thermal inversion, a reversal of the normal
behaviour of temperature in the troposphere (the region of the atmosphere nearest
Earth’s surface), in which a layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of
warmer air. (Under normal conditions air temperature usually decreases with
height.)
• Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and
visibility.
• An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. As a
result, convection produced by the heating of air from below is limited to levels below
the inversion.
• Diffusion of dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is likewise limited.
• In regions where a pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective clouds
cannot grow high enough to produce showers and, at the same time, visibility may be
greatly reduced below the inversion, even in the absence of clouds, by the
accumulation of dust and smoke particles.
• Because air near the base of an inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently present
there.
• Inversions also affect diurnal variations in air temperature.
• The principal heating of air during the day is produced by its contact with a land
surface that has been heated by the Sun’s radiation.
• Heat from the ground is communicated to the air by conduction and convection.
Since an inversion will usually control the upper level to which heat is carried by

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convection, only a shallow layer of air will be heated if the inversion is low and large,
and the rise in temperature will be great.
•
There are four kinds of inversions: ground, turbulence, subsidence, and
frontal:
Favourable Conditions for Temperature Inversion:

▪ Long winter nights: Loss of heat by terrestrial radiation from the ground surface
during night may exceed the amount of incoming solar radiation.
▪ Cloudless and clear sky: Loss of heat through terrestrial radiation proceeds more
rapidly without any obstruction.
▪ Dry air near the ground surface: It limits the absorption of the radiated heat from
the Earth’s surface.
▪ Slow movement of air: It results in no transfer or mixing of heat in the lower layers
of the atmosphere.
▪ Snow covered ground surface: It results in maximum loss of heat through
reflection of incoming solar radiation.
Types of Temperature Inversion:
▪ Temperature inversion occurs in several conditions ranging from ground surface to

great heights. Thus there are several kinds of temperature inversions.
▪ The following are classified on the basis of relative heights from the earth’s surface at
which it occurs and the type of air circulation:
▪ Non-Advectional:
o Radiation Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)
• Surface temperature inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a
colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere; this
occurs most often on clear nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by

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radiation. If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog
may result.
• It is very common in the higher latitudes. In lower and middle latitudes, it
occurs during cold nights and gets destroyed during day time.
o Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)

• When a widespread layer of air descends, it is compressed and heated by the
resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and as a result the lapse rate of
temperature is reduced.
• The air at higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower altitudes,
producing a temperature inversion. This type of temperature inversion is
called subsidence inversion.
• It is very common over the northern continents in winter (dry atmosphere)
and over the subtropical oceans; these regions generally have subsiding air
because they are located under large high-pressure centers.
• It is also called upper surface temperature inversion because it takes place in
the upper parts of the atmosphere.
▪ Advectional:
o Valley inversion in intermontane valley:
• In high mountains or deep valleys, sometimes, the temperature of the lower
layers of air increases instead of decreasing with elevation along a sloping
surface.

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• Here, the surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools down at a
faster rate than the upper layers. As a result the lower cold layers get
condensed and become heavy.
• The sloping surface underneath makes them move towards the bottom
where the cold layer settles down as a zone of low temperature while the
upper layers are relatively warmer.
• This condition, opposite to normal vertical distribution of temperature, is
known as Temperature Inversion.
o Frontal or Cyclonic inversion

• When the warm and cold fronts meet, then the warm front rises up and
being heavier the cold front sinks down. It results in formation of Frontal
Inversion.
• It has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal. It
often takes place in the temperate zone and causes cyclonic conditions which
result in the precipitation in different forms.
• A frontal inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.
Effect:
▪ Temperature inversion determines the precipitation, forms of clouds, and also causes
frost due to condensation of warm air due to its cooling.

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o Dust particles hanging in the air: Due to inversion of temperature, air
pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do not disperse on the surface.
o Stops the movement of air: It causes the stability of the atmosphere that stops
the downward and upward movement of air.
o Less rainfall: Convection clouds cannot move high upwards so there is less
rainfall and no showers. So, it causes a problem for agricultural productivity.
o Lower visibility: Fog is formed due to the situation of warm air above and cold
air below, and hence visibility is reduced which causes disturbance in
transportation.
o Thunderstorms and tornadoes: Intense thunderstorms and tornadoes are
also associated with inversion of temperature because of the intense energy that is
released after an inversion blocks an area’s normal convention patterns.
o Diurnal variations in temperature tend to be very small.
3.5 GEOSTROPHIC WIND, JET STREAMS &

ROSSBY WAVES
• An air parcel initially at rest will move from high pressure to low pressure because of
the pressure gradient force (PGF).
• However, as that air parcel begins to move, it is deflected by the Coriolis force to the
right in the northern hemisphere (to the left on the southern hemisphere).
• As the wind gains speed, the deflection increases until the Coriolis force equals the
pressure gradient force.
• At this point, the wind will be blowing parallel to the isobars. When this happens, the
wind is referred to as geostrophic.
•
winds don’t flow from tropical high pressure (in upper troposphere) to polar
low (in upper troposphere) directly as shown in figure below:
• Because these winds are geostrophic, i.e., they flow at great speeds due to low friction
and are subjected to greater Coriolis force.
• So they deflect greatly giving rise to three distinct cells called Hadley cell, Ferrel Cell and
Polar cell.
• Instead of one big cell (as shown in fig) we have three small cells that combinedly
produces the same effect.

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Jet stream:
• Jet streams are high-speed winds that occur in narrow bands of upper air
westerlies.
• The width of this Airband can be 160-480km wide and 900-2150m thick, with core
speed exceeding 300km/hr. such is their strength that aircraft routes which run
counter to jet movements are generally avoided. Jets are coincident with major
breaks in the tropopause.
• Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind blowing horizontally through the upper layers of
the troposphere, generally from west to east.
• Jet Streams develop where air masses of differing temperatures meet. So,
usually surface temperatures determine where the Jet Stream will form.
• Greater the difference in temperature, faster is the wind velocity inside the jet stream.
• Jet Streams extend from 20 degrees latitude to the poles in both hemispheres.

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Genesis of Jet Streams:

The genesis of the Jet-streams is provided by three kinds of gradients:
• The thermal gradient between pole and equator
• The pressure gradient between pole and equator
• The pressure gradient between surface and subsurface air over the poles.
Characteristics of Jet Stream:
1. High velocity winds- 400-500km/hr. High velocity is due to great thermal

contrast creating powerful pressure gradient force.
2. meandering- jet streams encircle the globe, thus follow a curved path. Flow is 3
dimensional and develop
crests and trough
3. They cover hundreds of km in width and thousands of km in length.
4. size and dimension- width-10-12km
depth-2-3 km
length-3000km
altitude – below the tropopause
5. they have seasonal variations and shift with the apparent movement of the sun
6. Jet streams travel from west to east in both hemispheres
thermal contrast
Types of jet Streams:
• Polar front jet streams

• Subtropical Westerly Jet streams
• Tropical easterly Jet streams
• Polar night Jet Streams
• Local Jet Streams

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Permanent jet streams – subtropical jets at lower latitudes and polar front jets at
mid latitudes.
Temporary jet streams – Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet ,and Somali
Jet (south westerly).
Polar Front Jet Streams:
• Formed above the convergence zone ( 40-60 degree) of surface polar cold air mass
and tropical warm air mass
• These move in easterly direction but are irregular
Subtropical Westerly jet Streams:
• Formed above 30-35 latitude

• Move-in upper troposphere to the north of the subtropical surface high-pressure belt
• Also known as stratospheric subpolar jet streams.
Tropical Easterly jet streams: Develop in upper troposphere above surface easterly
trade winds over India and Africa during the summer season due to intense heating of
Tibetan plateau and play an important role in Indian Monsoon.
Polar Night Jet Streams: Develop in winter season due to steep temperature gradient in
the stratosphere around the poles.
Local Jet Streams: Formed locally due to local thermal and dynamic conditions and have
limited local importance.
Index cycle of jet streams:
Stage 1-
• In subpolar low-pressure belt, the cold air from poles and warm air from subtropics
converge along a horizontal line
• Due to the great thermal contrast and differences in the physical properties, they
don’t mix up.
• A zone of the stationery situation is created between these 2 air masses
Stage 2-
• Cold polar air is pushed by the easterlies and warm air is pushed by westerlies.

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• The stationary situation is transformed into an oscillating wave. These are known as
Rossby waves
Stage 3-
• Cold and warm air further invades each other territory and waves further meander.
• Jet streams of high sinuosity develop and attain maturity
• Stage 4 cold air mass moves into warm air and latitudinal heat exchange occurs.
• The stationary front situation is reattained.
index
cycle of jet stream

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Rossby Waves:
• The meandering jet streams are called Rossby Waves.
• Rossby waves are natural phenomenon in the atmosphere and oceans due to
rotation of earth.
• In planetary atmospheres, they are due to the variation in the Coriolis effect (When
temperature contrast is low, speed of jet stream is low, and Coriolis force is weak
leading to meandering) with latitude.
• Rossby waves are formed when polar air moves toward the Equator while tropical
air is moving poleward.
• The existence of these waves explains the low-pressure cells (cyclones) and high-
pressure cells (anticyclones).
Significance of jet streams:
• The close relationship between the intensity of Mid-latitude cyclones and jet streams.
The cyclones become very strong and stormy when the upper air tropospheric jet
streams are positioned above temperate cyclones
• The monsoon of South Asia is largely affected and controlled by jet streams
Influencing factors on the Jet Stream Flow:
• The factors that influence the flow of the jet stream are the landmasses and the
Coriolis effect.
• Landmasses interrupt the flow of the jet stream through friction and temperature
differences, whilst the spinning nature of the earth accentuates these changes.
• So the jet stream meanders across the earth, like a river meanders before it reaches
the sea.
• The meandering sections of the jet stream continue to change as they interact with
landmasses on again, creating an ever-changing state of flux and subsequent
temperature differences.
• In winter the temperature of the stratosphere can also have an effect on the strength
and position of the jet stream.
• The cooler the polar stratosphere, the stronger the polar/ tropical differential
becomes; encouraging the jet stream to gain in strength.
• The warmth of the landmasses and oceans (such as the El Nino Southern Oscillation)
can also have a bearing on the strength and amplitude of the jet stream.
Jet streams & the weather:

• Jets streams play a key role in determining the weather because they usually separate
colder air and warmer air.

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• Jet streams generally push air masses around, moving weather systems to new areas
and even causing them to stall if they have moved too far away.
• Climatologists say that changes in the jet streams are closely tied to global warming,
especially the polar jet streams because there is a great deal of evidence that the
North and South poles are warming faster than the remainder of the planet.
• When the jets streams are warmer, their ups and downs become more extreme,
bringing different types of weather to areas that are not accustomed to climate
variations. If the jet stream dips south, for example, it takes the colder air masses
with it.
Air travel:
• Jet streams play a major role in air travel.

• Eastbound flights usually take less flying time than westbound flights because of help
from the fast-moving air.
• Jet streams can contain wind shear, a violent and sudden change in wind direction
and speed, which is a major threat in air travel.
• Wind shear has caused airliners to suddenly lose altitude, putting them in danger of
crashing.
• In 1988, the FAA decided that all commercial aircraft must have wind-shear warning
systems, but it wasn’t until 1996 that all airlines had them on-board.
Jet Streams affecting the Monsoons and the Indian Sub Continent:
• There are different jet streams and in respect of the climate and monsoons of India, it
is the Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) and the countering easterly jet that is most
important.
• As the summertime approaches there is increased solar heating of the Indian
subcontinent, this has a tendency to form a cyclonic monsoon cell situated between
the Indian Ocean and southern Asia.
• This cell is blocked by the STJ which tends to blow to the south of the Himalayas, as
long as the STJ is in this position the development of summer monsoons is inhibited.
• During the summer months, the STJ deflects northwards and crosses over the
Himalayan Range. The altitude of the mountains initially disrupts the jet but once it
has cleared the summits it is able to reform over central Asia.
• With the STJ out of the way, the subcontinental monsoon cell develops very quickly
indeed, often in a matter of a few days. Warmth and moisture are fed into the cell by
a lower level tropical jet stream which brings with it air masses laden with moisture
from the Indian ocean.
• As these air masses are forced upward by north India’s mountainous terrain the air is
cooled and compressed, it easily reaches its saturation vapor point and the excess
moisture is dissipated out in the form of monsoon rains.
• The end of the monsoon season is brought about when the atmosphere over the
Tibetan Plateau begins to cool, this enables the STJ to transition back across the
Himalayas.
• This leads to the formation of a cyclonic winter monsoon cell typified by sinking air
masses over India and relatively moisture-free winds that blow seaward. This gives
rise to relatively settled and dry weather over India during the winter months.

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3.6 MAJOR JET STEAMS: SUBTROPICAL JET
STREAM & POLAR JET STREAM
Both the Northern and Southern hemispheres have jet streams, although the jet streams in
the north are more forceful due greater temperature gradients.
PERMANENT JET STREAMS:

• There are two permanent jet streams – subtropical jets at lower latitudes and polar
front jets at mid-latitudes.
Subtropical jet stream (STJ):
• The sub-tropical jet stream is produced by the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) and
temperature contrast between tropical and sub – tropical regions.
• At the equator, the rotation produces greatest velocity in the atmosphere.
• As a result, the rising air which spreads out northwards and southwards, moves
faster than the latitudes over which it is blowing.
• It is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere, and at about 30° latitude, it becomes concentrated as the subtropical jet
streams.
• During winter, the STJ is nearly continuous in both hemispheres.
• The STJ exists all year in the southern hemisphere.
• However, it is intermittent in the northern hemisphere during summer when it
migrates north.
• The STJ can be temporarily displaced when strong mid-latitude troughs extend into
subtropical latitudes. When these displacements occur, the subtropical jet can merge
with the polar front jet (Related to Cloudbursts. We will study this in Indian
Monsoons).
• STJ is closely connected to the Indian and African summer monsoons (We will study
this in Indian Monsoons)

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Polar front jet (PFJ):

• The polar front jet is produced by a temperature difference and is closely related to
the polar front (more about fronts later).
• It has a more variable position than the sub-tropical jet. In summer, its position
shifts towards the poles and in winter towards the equator.
• The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
• It greatly influences climates of regions lying close to 60 degree latitude.
• It determines the path and speed and intensity of temperate cyclones.
TEMPORARY JET STREAMS

• While the polar and subtropical jet streams are the best known and most studied,
other jet streams can form when wind speeds are above 94 kph in the upper
atmosphere at about 9 – 14.5 km above the surface.
• They are few. Important ones are Somali Jet and The African Easterly jet.
• The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet
• There are also major high velocity winds in the lower troposphere called low-level jets
(LLJs).
• In the tropics, the most prominent of these are the Somali Jet and the African
Easterly Jet.
• The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer over
southern Asia and northern Africa.
• The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
• It is fairly persistent in its position, direction, and intensity from June through the
beginning of October.
• During the south Asian summer monsoon, the TEJ induces secondary circulations
that enhance convection over South India and nearby ocean.
• The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ is not fully understood but it is
believed that the jet may be caused by the uniquely high temperatures and heights
over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.
• The TEJ is the upper-level venting system for the strong southwest monsoon.
The Somali Jet:
• Among the most well-known of the tropical LLJs is the Somali Jet, a south westerly
• The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and off the coast
of Somalia.
• The jet is most intense from June to August.
• It is a major cross-equatorial flow from the southern Indian Ocean to the central
Arabian Sea.
• A split in the axis of the jet over the Arabian Sea, the more northern branch
intersecting the west coast of India near 17°N, while the southerly branch moves
eastward just south of India.
• The jet remains relatively steady from June to September before moving southward
to the southern Indian Ocean during the winter.

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How does jet streams affect in temperate regions?
• PFJ play a key role in determining the weather because they usually separate
colder air and warmer air.
• Jet streams generally push air masses around, moving weather systems to new
areas and even causing them to stall if they have moved too far away.
• PFJ play a major role in determining the path and intensity of frontal
precipitation and frontal cyclones or temperate cyclones.
• Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar vortex into temperate regions.
• Polar jet has distinct peaks (ridges) and troughs.
• Ridges occur where the warm air (at high pressure) pushes against the cold air.
• Troughs occur where cold air (at lower pressure) drops into warm air.
• This condition occurs due to weak jet stream which is weak due to lesser
temperature contrast between sub-tropics and temperate region.
• These ridges and troughs give rise to jet streaks which are the main reason behind
cyclonic and anticyclonic weather conditions at the surface.
• The winds leaving the jet streak are rapidly diverging, creating a lower pressure at
the upper level (Tropopause) in the atmosphere. The air below rapidly replaces
the upper outflowing winds. This in turn creates the low pressure at the surface.
This surface low pressure creates conditions where the surrounding surface winds
rush inwards. The Coriolis effect creates the cyclonic rotation that is associated
with depressions.
• The winds entering the jet streak are rapidly converging, creating a high pressure
at the upper level (Tropopause) in the atmosphere. This convergence at upper
troposphere leads to divergence (high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic
condition).
• The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic rotation that is associated with clear
weather.
• Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to fly in the direction of the flow of
the jet streams, and avoid them when flying in opposite direction.
• Jet streams can also cause a bumpy flight, because the jet stream is sometimes
unpredictable and can cause sudden movement, even when the weather looks
calm and clear.
• During volcanic eruptions plumes of volcanic ash have a tendency to get sucked
into the same jet stream that airplanes use for travel.

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Chapter :4
Different Climatic Region

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DIFFERENT CLIMATIC REGIONS
4.1 RAINFOREST CLIMATE

A tropical rainforest climate or equatorial climate is a tropical climate usually found within
10 to 15 degrees latitude of the equator, and has at least 60 millimetres of rainfall every
month of the year. Regions with this climate are typically designated Af by the Köppen
climate classification.
Tropical rainforests represent the oldest major vegetation type still present on the terrestrial
Earth. Like all vegetation, however, that of the rainforest continues to evolve and change, so
modern tropical rainforests are not identical with rainforests of the geologic past.

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Climate:
• Temperatures stay the same the whole year round—about 20 to 30 degrees Celsius.
• Around the equator there are two rainy seasons with heavy rainfall — up to 10
metres.
• When one move away from the equator it gets a bit drier in some months , but there
is still more than 2 metres of rain a year.
• The weather hardly changes from one day to the next. In the morning it is clear . The
sun starts heating up the ground and warm, humid air starts to rise. In the afternoon
clouds get blacker and there are thunderstorms for an hour or two before it starts to
clear up again .
• Most of the rain stays in the rain forest . It evaporates , creates clouds and falls down
again.
• Rain forest soils are not very fertile because the rain washes out most of the
nutrients.
Precipitation:
• Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
• Annual average is always above 150 cm. In some regions the annual average may be
as high as 250 – 300 cm.
• There is no month without rain (distinct dry season is absent). The monthly average
is above 6 cm most of the times.
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October. [shortly after the
equinox]. Least rain fall occurs in June and December [solstice].
• The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes are a characteristic feature of
equatorial climates not found in any other type of climate.
• There is much evaporation and convectional air currents are set up, followed by
heavy thunderstorms in the afternoons.
Equatorial Vegetation:
• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
• In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense that it is called ‘selvas’.
• [selvas: A dense tropical rainforest usually having a cloud cover (dense canopy)]
• Unlike the temperate regions, the growing season here is all the year round-seeding,
flowering, fruiting and decaying do not take place in a seasonal pattern.
• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical
hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
• Many parts of the tropical rain forests have been cleared either for lumbering or
shifting cultivation.

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• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
Rainforests have four layers:

• The top layer is the canopy. It consists of the tallest trees of the rain forest. They may
get over 50 metres tall. But only very few reach this height. This is the part that gets
most of the sunlight.
• The subcanopy is a layer of trees that is below the canopy. More than 70 % of
rainforest animals and plant species live in the canopy and subcanopy. Lianas often
climb around trees.
• The understory is the shadowy lower area. It has young trees and plants like ferns or
palms that do not need much light. Only 1 or 2 per cent of the sunlight reaches the
understory.
• The floor has a thin layer of leaves, seeds or fruits and branches that fall from the
trees. It decomposes fast and new material takes its place.
• When large , tall trees die and fall to the ground they leave a gap in the rain forest.
Very quickly, smaller trees take this place and their crowns grow larger. That’s why
the layers of the rain forest always change.
Value of the rain forest:

People benefit from the rain forest in many ways :
Economic value:
• Wood is the most important product of the rainforest.
• About 80 % of it is used for energy and 20 % is sold to make furniture.
• The forests produce other valuable goods like fruits, nuts, different kinds of oils and
rubber.
Scientific value:
• Scientists study the rainforest as an ecosystem.
• They learn a lot about how plants and animals live together.

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• Tropical plants are used to cure diseases like malaria.
Environmental value:
• Rain forests help to regulate our environment.
• Trees control the water that reaches the ground.
• They also take up a lot of rain.
• Much of this water evaporates and gets into the atmosphere again as vapour .
• Then it turns into rain and comes down to earth.
• Without rain forests, floods and droughts would be very extreme.
• Rainforests also help our atmosphere from becoming too warm.
Animals and Plants of the Rainforest
• Palm Tree:
▪ Palm trees grow in the hot and wet climate of the tropics. They give us food, drink
and sometimes building material. Most palm trees are found in southeast Asia,
South America and on islands in the Pacific.
▪ There are over 2,000 kinds of palms. They grow straight and tall and most of
them carry fruits, like the coconut, which can be up to two feet big.
• Rubber Tree:
▪ Rubber is one of our most important raw materials. Natural rubber comes
from the juice of the rubber tree. It grows best in hot climates. The tree can
be about 20 metres tall.
▪ It has smooth, shiny leaves. A white, milky fluid comes out of the bark if
you cut into it. This is called latex.
▪ Today, most rubber comes from plantations in southeast Asia.
• Orchid:
▪ Wild orchids grow in places with a lot of rainfall. Most species grow
on trunks or branches of trees. In cooler regions, orchids are grown in
greenhouses. Most of them grow in a mixture of fascinating colours
• Piranha:
o The piranha is a fish with sharp teeth that lives in the lakes and rivers of the
Amazon valley.
o It attacks and eats other fish and water animals. In some cases, it even
attacks humans. Piranhas have flat bodies and can grow up to 30 cm long.
• Toucan:
Toucans are typical birds of the tropical rainforests. They have big and long bills that
are brightly coloured , so that they can attract other birds. The largest toucans can
get up to 65 cm long. Most of them live in hollow trees.
• Gorilla:
▪ Gorillas are the largest members of the ape family. They have huge shoulders,
long arms and short legs. They may weigh up to 200 kg.
▪ Gorillas live in Africa near the equator. Although most of them live in the
lowlands there are some highland types.

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▪ People have hunted gorillas for a long time . As a result , they have become
very rare and only about 1,000 gorillas live in the wild today.
Life and Economy:

Agriculture
• The forests are sparsely populated.
• In the forests most primitive people live as hunter gatherers and the more
advanced ones practice shifting cultivation.
• Food is abundantly available. People generally don’t stock food for the next day.
• In the Amazon basin the Indian tribes collect wild rubber,
• in the Congo Basin the Pygmies gather nuts and
• in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane products and sell
them to people in villages and towns.
Shifting Cultivation or Slash and Burn Cultivation.

• This type of cultivation is followed in many parts of the world where dense forests are
common [In India, North-East is known for this type of cultivation].
• Tribes cut the trees in a plot, burn them and cultivate the plot till the fertility is
exhausted.
• Once the fertility is exhausted, the clearing is abandoned and they move on to a new
plot. Such farming practices are becoming more and more widespread even among
backward tribes.
• In the clearings for shifting cultivation, crops like manioc (tapioca), maize, bananas
and groundnuts are grown.
Plantation Boom in Rainforests:

• With the coming of the Europeans, many large plantations have been established,
especially in Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa and Central America.
• The climate is very Favourable for the cultivation of certain crops that are highly
valued in the industrial West. The most important is natural rubber.
• Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers. The home
country, Brazil exports practically no natural rubber.
• Cocoa is another important crop which is cultivated in West Africa, bordering
the Gulf of Guinea. The two most important producers are Ghana and Nigeria.
All the cocoa here goes into American and European chocolate industry.
• From the same area another crop, oil palm, has done equally well and many
countries like Indonesia have now taken to its cultivation.
• Other important crops include coconuts, sugar, coffee (Brazil), tea, tobacco, spices,
etc.
• The plantations resulted in the destruction of nearly half of equatorial forests.
Issues in the Development of Equatorial Regions:

• Excessive heat (sun-stroke) and high humidity creates serious physical and mental
handicaps.
• High humidity feeds many tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow-fever.

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• Communicable diseases are rampant as germs and bacteria are transmitted through
moist air.
• Insects and pests not only spread diseases but are injurious to crops.
• The construction of roads and railways is a risky business as workers are exposed to
wild animals, poisonous snakes, insects and most importantly tropical diseases.
• Once completed, they have to be maintained at a high cost.
• The fertility of top soil in rainforest regions is very poor. Torrential downpours wash
out most of the top soil nutrients [leaching == percolation and draining way of
nutrients due to rain water action].
• The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent soil erosion and soil impoverishment.
• It takes decades to replenish the soil of lost nutrients.
• So a seed doesn’t usually germinate and even if it does, its development is hindered
due to little availability of sunlight.
• Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth spring up as soon as the trees are cut. They
choke the restoration of forests.
• Indonesian island of Java is an exception because of its rich volcanic ashes.
• Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow grass. The grass
is so tall and coarse that it is not nutritious.
• The few animals like buffaloes are kept mainly for domestic use. Their yield in milk or
beef is well below those of the cattle in the temperate grasslands.
• In Africa, domesticated animals are attacked by tsetse flies that cause nagana, a
deadly disease.
• Gold, copper, diamonds, and other precious metals and gemstones are important
resources that are found in rainforests around the world.
• Extracting these natural resources is a destructive activity that damages the
rainforest ecosystem.
• Examples are gold mining in the Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon, rare earth mining
in the Congo, and gold and copper mining in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
• Some of the world’s most promising oil and gas deposits lie deep in tropical
rainforests. Oil and gas development often takes a heavy toll on the environment and
local people (This happens in Ecuador).
• More than 70 percent of the Peruvian Amazon is now under concession for oil and
gas.
4.2MONSOON CLIMATE, EL NIÑO/ LA NINA
Monsoon climate, also known as the tropical monsoon climate, is found in the region
bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The region is influenced by the
movement of inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and is hot and humid all around the
year because the sun remains overhead. Monsoons are seasonal winds, blowing over the
landmasses from the seas and vice-versa. They are characterized by a seasonal reversal in the
wind direction, leading to variations in temperature and precipitation. Summer, winter, and
rainy season are the three prominent and distinct seasons of this climatic region.
Distribution:
• They are confined within 5 - 30 degrees latitudes on either side of the equator.
• Indian subcontinent, Indo-China (Laos. Vietnam, Cambodia), Thailand. southern
China and northern Australia are the regions experiencing this climate.

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Winds:
• The seasonal reversal in the direction of winds is an outcome differential rate of
heating and cooling of the continental landmasses and seawaters.
• During the summers, a low-pressure region develops over Central Asia as the sun
comes overhead the Tropic of Cancer. This causes the Asian landmass to heat up
faster than the surrounding seas, which remain at a higher pressure in the northern
hemisphere.
• In the southern hemisphere, winter conditions prevail, leading to a high-pressure
zone over northern Australia.
• Winds blow outward from the Australian landmass towards Java (Indonesia) and are
drawn towards the low-pressure region over the Indian subcontinent after crossing
the equator, under the influence of the Coriolis force. These are the South-West
monsoon winds.
• During winters, a reversal in the wind direction occurs.
Temperature:
• Owing to the region's proximity to the tropics, it experiences warm to hot summers.
• Average monthly temperature is above 18 degrees centigrade, but in summers the
maximum can reach as high as 45 degrees centigrade.
• The average temperature in the summer is around 30 degrees centigrade, with an
overall temperature range of 30 to 45 degrees centigrade.
• Winters are mild with a temperature range of 15 to 30 degrees centigrade. Mean
temperature during winters is around 25 degrees centigrade.
Precipitation:
• Seasonality of its precipitation is the hallmark and most well-known characteristic of
the monsoon climate. Many think that the term “monsoon” means wet weather, when
in fact it describes an atmospheric circulation pattern.
• Though the annual amount of precipitation is quite similar to that of the rain forest,
monsoon precipitation is concentrated into the high-sun season.
• Maritime equatorial and maritime tropical air masses travel from the ocean on to
land during the summer, where they are uplifted by either convection or convergence
of air to induce condensation.
• Locally, Orographic (Relief) uplift is an important mechanism for promoting
precipitation. As air travels into the Indian subcontinent, it is uplifted by the
Himalayas, causing cloud development and precipitation.
• The low-sun season is characterized by a short drought season when high pressure
inhibits precipitation formation.

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• In the case of the Asian monsoon, the replacement of the thermal low with the
subsidence of the Siberian High suppresses uplift.
• Air masses that dominate this period are dry given their continental origin or
stability.
• A distinct dry season from October to May, when the temperature are lower, the
interior of Asia is a region of high pressure.
• Wind blow over the land in a north east direction , carrying little or no moisture with
them.
• These cool , dry North East Monsoon winds blows toward areas of low pressure and
do not bring rain.
• A wet season from June to September, when the wind change in direction, the wind
blow in the region of low pressure. Winds blow across the equator and blow over the
oceans, they are warmer and carry a lot of moisture. They bring alot of rain. Total
rainfall can reach 600 mm
• The region experiences very high rainfall, which is concentrated in a few months.
• Annual average rainfall is around 200-250 cm. However, some regions have a very
high average of around 350 cm.
• In India, Maysynram and Cherrapunji of Khasi Hills (Meghalaya) experience an
annual rainfall of over 1000cm.
• They are located on the windward side of the hills, causing heavy orographic rainfall
(caused by a lift of the monsoon winds). Due to the location in between mountains
which causes a concentration of rain-bearing clouds, also known as the funnelling
effect, these places receive very high rainfall.
Seasons:
Unlike the equatorial climate which does not have distinct seasons, monsoon climate
experiences striking differences in weather conditions based on the seasons.
The hot dry season:

• This lasts from March to mid - June.
• The sun is in a northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer. This causes the temperatures
to rise sharply.
• Mean temperatures during the day cross 35 degrees centigrade in Central India. It
can reach as high as 44 degrees centigrade in Sindh and also in south India.
• In coastal areas, the temperatures are not so high, due to the influence of sea breezes.
• Except for the occasional thunderstorms, there is little rainfall during this season.
The rainy season:

• This lasts from mid - June to September
• The rains begin with the 'burst' of monsoon over the subcontinent. It results in
torrential rainfall throughout the country.
• Over 70 percent of the rainfall which the country receives in a year occurs in this
season.
• This can be termed a typical characteristic feature of monsoon type of climate i.e.,
concentrated heavy rainfall during the summer months.
The cold dry season:

• This season begins in October and lasts until February.
• Also known as the season of retreating monsoon. As the sun begins its southward
shift, south-west monsoon begins to retreat southwards until it leaves the Indian
landmass completely.
• The temperatures over the landmass begin to fall creating a high-pressure region
over Indian subcontinent compared to the surrounding seas. This causes the winds to
blow away from the landmass towards the sea.

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• The winds begin to blow from the northeast direction over the Bay of Bengal and
cause some rainfall along the south-east coastal landmass of India in the months of
November and December.
• In the north, the Western Disturbances bring some amount of rain and snow,
otherwise, the region remains dry. Frontal (cyclonic) rainfall due to the western
disturbances is essential for the survival of winter crops.
Monsoon Forests:
• Also known as the Tropical Monsoon Forests.
• These are mostly the trees of deciduous variety - they have a distinct season for the
shedding of leaves. They shed their leaves during the dry/drought season to prevent
transpiration losses.
• They can be of two types - moist deciduous, where the rainfall exceeds 150cm, and
dry deciduous where the average annual rainfall is less than 150cm.
• They are made up of broad-leaf hardwood trees, similar to the equatorial rainforests.
But the forests are not as dense, and they are more open with less diversity of species
(flora as well as fauna).
• Wherever the rainfall exceeds 200-250cm, evergreen rainforests of the equatorial
type can be found. These are prominent in the southern Western Ghats, forests in the
northeast, Andaman and Nicobar islands of India. They are also found in the islands
of southeast Asia.
• Wherever the rainfall is scanty, savanna type grasslands are found with scattered
trees.
• Hence, monsoon vegetation shows a great variation from dense forests to thorny
scrublands (savanna).
Economy:
• These regions have a high population density.

• Subsistence agriculture is the main type of crop cultivation, although shifting
cultivation and plantation agriculture is also practised.
• In the plains of north India, cereals like rice, wheat, maize etc. are cultivated apart
from jute, sugarcane, and spices.
• In the highlands of south and east India, plantation crops can be found - tea, coffee,
rubber, banana etc
• Lumbering is an important activity with the forest yielding durable hardwood. Teak
is an important deciduous timber variety found in central India as well as in
Myanmar.
• Other timber varieties include Sal, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Neem, Mango etc. Bamboo is
also an important source of timber.
• Most of the forests yield valuable timber, and are prized for their durable hardwood.
• Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of which Burma is the leading producer, is
perhaps the most sought after.
• It is valuable on account of its great durability, strength, immunity to shrinkage,
fungus attack and insects.
• Teak logs are so heavy that they will not float readily on water. It is therefore
necessary to ‘poison’ the tree several years before actual felling, so that it is dry and
light enough to be floated down the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy to reach the
saw mills at Rangoon.
• Other kinds of timber include Neem, Banyan, Mango, Teak, Sal, Acacia, Eucalyptus.
• Together with the forests are bamboo thickets, which often grow to great heights.
• Shifting Cultivation this most primitive form of farming is widely practiced.

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• Instead of rotating the crops in the same field to preserve fertility, the tribesmen
move to a new clearing when their first field is exhausted.
• Maize, dry paddy, sweet potatoes and some beans are the most common crops.
• Farming is entirely for subsistence, i.e. everything is consumed by the farmer’s
family, it is not traded or sold.
• As tropical soils are rapidly leached and easily exhausted, the first crop may be
bountiful but the subsequent harvests deteriorate.
• Shifting cultivation is so widely practiced amongst indigenous peoples that different
local names are used in different countries.
EL- NINO, LA-NINA, IOD:

• El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of what is known as the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
• The ENSO cycle is a scientific term that describes the fluctuations in temperature
between the ocean and atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific
(approximately between the International Date Line and 120 degrees West).
• La Niña is sometimes referred to as the cold phase of ENSO and El Niño as the warm
phase of ENSO.
• These deviations from normal surface temperatures can have large-scale impacts not
only on ocean processes, but also on global weather and climate.
• El Niño and La Niña episodes typically last nine to 12 months, but some prolonged
events may last for years.
• While their frequency can be quite irregular, El Niño and La Niña events occur on
average every two to seven years.
• Typically, El Niño occurs more frequently than La Niña.
El-Niño:
El Niño was recognized by fishers off the coast of Peru as the appearance of unusually warm
water. We have no real record of what indigenous Peruvians called the phenomenon, but
Spanish immigrants called it El Niño, meaning “the little boy” in Spanish. When capitalized,
El Niño means the Christ Child, and was used because the phenomenon often arrived around
Christmas. El Niño soon came to describe irregular and intense climate changes rather than
just the warming of coastal surface waters.
Mechanism to EL-NINO:
• Led by the work of Sir Gilbert Walker in the 1930s, climatologists determined that El
Niño occurs simultaneously with the Southern Oscillation.
• About the Southern oscillation:
o The Southern Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific
Ocean.
o When coastal waters become warmer in the eastern tropical Pacific (El Niño),
the atmospheric pressure above the ocean decreases.
o Climatologists define these linked phenomena as El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO).
o Today, most scientists use the terms El Niño and ENSO interchangeably.

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• In order to understand the development of El Niño, it’s important to be familiar with

non-El Niño conditions in the Pacific Ocean.
• Normally, strong trade winds blow westward across the tropical Pacific, the region of
the Pacific Ocean located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• These winds push warm surface water towards the western Pacific, where it borders
Asia and Australia.
• Due to the warm trade winds, the sea surface is normally about .5 meter (1.5 feet)
higher and 45° F warmer in Indonesia than Ecuador.
• The westward movement of warmer waters causes cooler waters to rise up towards
the surface on the coasts of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. This process is known as
upwelling.
• Upwelling elevates cold, nutrient-rich water to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of
the ocean. Nutrients in the cold water include nitrates and phosphates.
Significance of the Upwelling:

• Upwelling provides food for a wide variety of marine life, including most major
fisheries.
• Fishing is one of the primary industries of Peru, Ecuador, and Chile. Some of the
fisheries include anchovy, sardine, mackerel, shrimp, tuna, and hake.
• The upwelling process also influences global climate.
• The warm ocean temperature in the western Pacific contributes to increased rainfall
around the islands of Indonesia and New Guinea.
• The air influenced by the cool eastern Pacific, along the coast of South America,
remains relatively dry.

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EL-NINO and Indian Monsoon:
• El Nino has been generally known to suppress monsoon rainfall in India while La
Nina increases it.
• El Niño years tend to be drier than average, but one of the strongest El Nino of the
century (1997-98) produced a monsoon season with above-average rainfall for India
(see table).
• Researchers also believe that even the location of the warming in the Pacific may
possibly have an influence on the monsoon.
• Anomalous warming in the Central and East Pacific (Nino 3.4 region) could have a
more profound adverse impact on the monsoon than when the warming shifts to the
adjoining far east Pacific (Nino 3. region).
• El Nino affects the flow of moisture-bearing winds from the cooler oceans towards
India, negatively impact the summer monsoon, which accounts for over 70% of
annual rainfall.
• It remains to be seen how it would actually evolve over the next few months, but if it
does retain its strength after the summer, it could mar the prospects of a good
monsoon in India.
• Once El Nino sets in, it continues for around 12-15 months and subsides in next pre-
monsoon season. On some rare occasions, it may start late, gains strength and then
decay before the monsoon onset.
How El Nino affects Indian economy:

• Monsoon rains are critical to India's economy. Nearly 70% of India's farms depend
on rainfall, while the rest have access to irrigation.
• This is very important to the agricultural production, which makes up 18% of India's
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - the measure of the economy. Nearly half of India's
workforce is in agriculture.
• A poor rainfall and the subsequent dip in agriculture income means demand falls in
rural areas.
• The government may also be forced to raise the minimum support prices of crops.
You will then have to pay more for commodities like rice, sugar and other food items
like cereals, pulses, etc. This pushes up retail inflation.
• At a time when the economy is weak, the manufacturing industry is struggling, and
consumer spending is low, an increase in inflation will be harmful.
• It will also force the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to keep interest rates high.
• In February, the government forecast that the Indian economy will grow 4.9% on the
back of good monsoon rains. This is higher than last year's 4.5%. A bad monsoon,
thus, will be detrimental to India's economic recovery.
EL-NINO and the Global Order:

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• El Niño events are defined by their wide-ranging teleconnections. Teleconnections
are large-scale, long-lasting climate anomalies or patterns that are related to each
other and can affect much of the globe.
• During an El Niño event, westward-blowing trade winds weaken along the Equator.
o These changes in air pressure and wind speed cause warm surface water to
move eastward along the Equator, from the western Pacific to the coast of
northern South America.
• These warm surface waters deepen the thermocline, the level of ocean depth that
separates warm surface water from the colder water below.
o During an El Niño event, the thermocline can dip as far as 152 meters (500
feet).
• This thick layer of warm water does not allow normal upwelling to occur.
o Without an upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water, the euphotic zone of the
eastern Pacific can no longer support its normally productive coastal
ecosystem.
o Fish populations die or migrate. El Niño has a devastating impact on
Ecuadorian and Peruvian economies.
• El Niño also produces widespread and sometimes severe changes in the climate.
o Convection above warmer surface waters bring increased precipitation.
Rainfall increases drastically in Ecuador and northern Peru, contributing to
coastal flooding and erosion.
o Rains and floods may destroy homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses. They
also limit transportation and destroy crops.
• As El Niño brings rain to South America, it brings droughts to Indonesia and
Australia.
o These droughts threaten the region’s water supplies, as reservoirs dry and
rivers carry less water. Agriculture, which depends on water for irrigation, is
threatened.
• Stronger El Niño events also disrupt global atmospheric circulation.
o Global atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air that helps
distribute thermal energy (heat) across the surface of the Earth.
o The eastward movement of oceanic and atmospheric heat sources cause
unusually severe winter weather at the higher latitudes of North and South
America.
o Regions as far north as the U.S. states of California and Washington may
experience longer, colder winters because of El Niño.
• El Niño events of 1982-83 and 1997-98 were the most intense of the 20th century.
o During the 1982-83 event, sea surface temperatures in the eastern tropical
Pacific were 9-18° F above normal.
o These strong temperature increases caused severe climatic changes: Australia
experienced harsh drought conditions; typhoons occurred in Tahiti; and
record rainfall and flooding hit central Chile.
o The west coast of North America was unusually stormy during the winter
season, and fish catches were dramatically reduced from Chile to Alaska.
• The El Niño event of 1997-98 was the first El Niño event to be scientifically
monitored from beginning to end.
o The 1997-98 event produced drought conditions in Indonesia, Malaysia, and
the Philippines.
o Peru experienced very heavy rains and severe flooding.
o In the United States, increased winter rainfall hit California, while the
Midwest experienced record-breaking warm temperatures during a period
known as “the year without a winter.”
• El Niño-related disruption of global atmospheric circulation extends beyond Pacific
Rim nations.

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o Strong El Niño events contribute to weaker monsoons in India Southeast
Asia.
o ENSO has even contributed to increased rainfall during the rainy season in
sub-Saharan Africa.
• Diseases thrive in communities devastated by natural hazards such as flood or
drought.
o El Niño-related flooding is associated with increases in cholera, dengue, and
malaria in some parts of the world, while drought can lead to wildfires that
produce respiratory problems.
'Flavours' of El Niño:
• Variations of El Niño are referred to as “flavors.” The transition period of an El Niño
event, for instance, is called a "Trans Niño."
o Trans Niño events occur at the onset and closing of an El Niño event. Trans
Niño events often include increased tornado activity in the American
Midwest.
• Another "flavour" de El Niño is the El Niño Modoki, or Modoki Niño.

o Modoki is a Japanese word meaning "similar, but different." Modoki Niño,
also called the Central Pacific Niño, is characterized by changes in sea-surface
temperatures in the central, not eastern, Pacific.
o Some Modoki Niño events are distinct from traditional El Niño events, such
as increased hurricane activity in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Many
meteorologists are critical of the Modoki Niño, calling for more climate
models to study the proposed phenomenon.
The LA- NINA condition:

• La Niña means The Little Girl in Spanish. La Niña is also sometimes called El Viejo,
anti-El Niño, or simply "a cold event."
• La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across
the east-central Equatorial Pacific. Global climate La Niña impacts tend to be
opposite those of El Niño impacts. In the tropics, ocean temperature variations in La
Niña also tend to be opposite those of El Niño.
• During a La Niña year, winter temperatures are warmer than normal in the Southeast
and cooler than normal in the Northwest.
Indian Ocean Dipole effect:

• Although ENSO was statistically effective in explaining several past droughts in
India, in the recent decades the ENSO-Monsoon relationship seemed to weaken in
the Indian subcontinent. For e.g. the 1997, strong ENSO failed to cause drought in
India.
• However, it was later discovered that just like ENSO was an event in the Pacific
Ocean, a similar seesaw ocean-atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean was also at
play. It was discovered in 1999 and named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface
temperature between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the
Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean
south of Indonesia.
• IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in
October.
• With a positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards Arabian Sea).
• This results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean near African Coast) being
much warmer and eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry.

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• In the negative dipole year (negative IOD), reverse happens making Indonesia much
warmer and rainier.
• It was demonstrated that a positive IOD index often negated the effect of ENSO,
resulting in increased Monsoon rains in several ENSO years like the 1983, 1994 and
1997.
• Further, it was shown that the two poles of the IOD – the eastern pole (around
Indonesia) and the western pole (off the African coast) were independently and
cumulatively affecting the quantity of rains for the Monsoon in the Indian
subcontinent.
• Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD was later discovered and
named as Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation [EQUINOO][Oscillation of warm
water and atmospheric pressure between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea].
• Impact on IOD on Cyclogenesis in Northern Indian Ocean
• Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of Bengal) results in more cyclones than
usual in Arabian Sea.
• Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cyclogenesis (Formation of Tropical
Cyclones) in Bay of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea is suppressed.
4.3 SAVANNA CLIMATE:

Tropical savannas or grasslands are associated with the tropical wet and dry climate type
(Koeppen’s Aw), but they are not generally considered to be a climatic climax. Instead,
savannas develop in regions where the climax community should be some form of seasonal
forest or woodland, but edaphic conditions or disturbances prevent the establishment of
those species of trees associated with the climax community. Seasonal forests of the tropics
are also widespread and vary along a latitudinal/moisture gradient between the tropical
broadleaf evergreen forest of the equatorial zone and the deserts of the subtropics.
The word savanna stems from an Amerind term for plains which became Hispanicized after
the Spanish Conquest.

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Vegetation:
• Savannas are characterized by a continuous cover of perennial grasses, often 3 to 6
feet tall at maturity.
• They may or may not also have an open canopy of drought-resistant, fire-resistant, or
browse-resistant trees, or they may have an open shrub layer.
• Distinction is made between tree or woodland savanna, park savanna, shrub savanna
and grass savanna.
• Furthermore, savannas may be distinguished according to the dominant taxon in the
tree layer: for example, palm savannas, pine savannas, and acacia savannas.

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Climate:
• A tropical wet and dry climate predominates in areas covered by savanna growth.
Mean monthly temperatures are at or above 64° F and annual precipitation averages
between 30 and 50 inches.
• For at least five months of the year, during the dry season, less than 4 inches a month
are received.
• The dry season is associated with the low sun period.
Soils: Soils vary according to bedrock and edaphic conditions. In general, however,
laterization is the dominant soil-forming process and low fertility oxisols can be expected.
Regional expressions:
• East African savannas are typically, perhaps stereotypically, acacia savannas.
• Many survive in the famous game parks of Kenya and Tanzania, and also those of
Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, and Namibia.
• The savannas are actually a mosaic of communities controlled (and today managed)
by fire and grazing pressures.
• The famous Serengeti Plains in Tanzania are a grass savanna developed on droughty
but nutrient-rich volcanic sands.
• The llanos of the Orinoco basin of Venezuela and Colombia are grass savannas
maintained by the annual flooding of the Orinoco and Arauca rivers and their
tributaries.
• The long periods of standing water inhibit the growth of most trees.
• Brazil’s cerrado is an open woodland of short-stature, twisted trees. It is species-
rich, second only to the tropical rainforest in plant diversity.
• There are many endemic species, and several plants have adaptations to tolerate the
high aluminium content of soils resulting from laterization on the ancient
Gondwanan Shield of South America.
• The pine savannas of Belize and Honduras, in Central America, occur on sandy soils.
Savannas as subclimaxes.
Edaphic Subclimaxes of Savana:
Waterlogged conditions :
• This occur when the A-horizon of lateritic soils is exposed to the atmosphere.
• Alternating wet and dry seasons and baking by the sun create a brick-hard layer
impermeable to water.
• This usually red hardpan is called a laterite (from the Latin for brick).
• During the rainy season, there is standing water above the hardpan for several
months, preventing the establishment of most tree species.
• During the dry season, the laterite prevents penetration of roots, also inhibiting the
growth of most trees.
• Several species of palms do tolerate these conditions and, along with grasses, occur
above laterites.
Droughty substrates:

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• such as quartz or volcanic sands, also inhibit the growth of most trees.
• The pine savannas of Central America are examples of savanna vegetation developed
on droughty, low-nutrient conditions of quartz sands; the grass savanna of the
Serengeti–with its herds of large mammals–is virtually treeless.
Low-nutrient soils.
• The cerrado of Brazil occupies a broad expanse of the Brazilian Highlands that, were
it not for the low-nutrient level of the heavily-leached soils, would be occupied by a
seasonal forest.
Fire subclimaxes:
• Two groups of plants that are pre-adapted to survive fire become dominant in areas
where burning is frequent and periodic. Such fires have both natural and human
origins.
• The savannas of South east Asia are generally considered to be man-made.
• Palms have the advantage of being monocots: their vascular bundles are scattered
throughout the stem so that scorching of the outermost layer of the trunk will not kill
the plant. (Dicot trees, on the other hand, have their vascular bundles arrnaged
around the outer, living part of their stems where they may be easily destroyed by
fire.)
• Perennial grasses have underground stems or rhizomes and so their growth nodes are
protected by the soil during a ground fire. Trees and shrubs–with renewal buds above
the surface–are selected against by fire and the balance tips toward the grasses.
Grazing subclimax:
• Large mammals such as the elephant open woodlands by debarking the trees and by
knocking them over.
• This opens the woodland to grass invasion and attracts a variety of grazing animals,
including zebras, wildebeest, and the diverse antelopes of the Ethiopian province.
Grazers will both eat and trample tree seedlings, inhibiting the regrowth of the
woodland.
• Only well-armed species of shrubs and trees can establish themselves in the
clearings, leading to thickets of thorny acacias.
• Protected in the thicket, some acacias and other thorny trees will grow to mature
specimens.
Overgrazing:
• if a grass savanna is overgrazed, patches of bare ground will be created.
• The grassland will not longer carry a ground fire and invasion by trees becomes
possible.
• The bare ground will suffer from increased evaporation and a dry microhabitat
quickly develops.
• Well-armed, drought-resistant species like the acacias tolerate both grazing and
drought, so again an acacia savanna can become established.
Fauna:
• The world’s greatest diversity (over 40 different species) of ungulates (hoofed
mammals) is found on the savannas of Africa.

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• The antelopes are especially diverse and including eland, impalas, gazelles oryx,
gerenuk, and kudu.
• Buffalo, wildebeest, plains zebra, rhinos, giraffes, elephants, and warthogs are among
other herbivores of the African savanna.
• Up to sixteen grazing and browsing species may coexist in the same area.
• They divide the resources spatially and temporally; each having its own food
preferences, grazing/browsing height, time of day or year to use a given area, and
different dry season refugia.
• The species-rich herbivore trophic level supports a diverse set of carnivores,
including cats (lions, leopards, cheetahs, servals), dogs (jackals, wild dogs), and
hyenas.
• Most herbivorous mammals of the open savannas are herd animals, often organized
into groups of females and their young with a single dominant male and groups of
bachelor males.
• In South America a distinct savanna fauna is not well-developed.
• The capybara, the large semi-aquatic rodent, is associated with the llanos, but is
found elsewhere and in other vegetation types as well.
• Indeed, few if any neotropical mammals are restricted to the savannas.
• The highest diversity of mammals is found in the dry or seasonal forests.
• Similarly, most bird species are not restricted to savanna-type habitats.
• Termites are especially abundant in the tropical savannas of the world, and their tall
termitaries are conspicuous elements of the savanna landscape.
• These detrivores are important in soil-formation; their termitaries provide
shelter for other animals; and they are the beginning of the food chain for anteaters
(Neotropical endemics) and aardvarks and pangolins (Ethiopian endemics).
Distribution of Savanna Climate:

• It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in Sudan, hence its name
the Sudan Climate.
• It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial
rainforests and hot deserts.
• African Savanna
o The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into
East Africa and southern Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
• South American Savanna
o There are two distinct regions namely the llanos of the Orinoco basin [north
of equator] and the compos of the Brazilian Highlands [South of equator].
• Australian savanna
o The Australian savanna is located south of the monsoon strip (northern
Australia) running from west to east north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
• Indian Savanna
o Certain parts across Northern Karnataka, Southern Maharashtra and
Telangana exhibit characteristics of both semi-arid and savanna climate.
o Due to irrigation and cultivation, this region is different from other savanna
regions.

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4.4 DESERT CLIMATE | HOT DESERTS & MID-
LATITUDE DESERTS
Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan
type; or temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi. The aridity of the hot deserts
is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence they are also called Trade Wind
Deserts. The temperate deserts are rainless because of their interior location in the
temperate latitudes, well away from the rain- bearing winds.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents
between latitudes 15° and 30°N and S.
• They include the Sahara Desert, the largest single stretch of desert, which is 3,200
miles from east to west and at least 1,000 miles wide. Its total area of 3.5 million
square miles is larger than all the 50 states of U.S.A. put together.
• The next biggest desert is the Great Australian Desert which covers almost half of the
continent.
• The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari
and Namib Deserts.
• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by
different names at different places, e.g. the Mohave.
• Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts with
less than 0.5 inches of rainfall annually.
• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateau and are at a
considerable distance from the sea.
• These are the Gobi, Turkestan and Patagonian Deserts.
• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of
the lofty Andes than to continentally.
Climatic Conditions of Hot Deserts:

Rainfall:
• Few deserts whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of more than
10 inches. For example William Creek in Australia has 5.4 inches; Kotah in India has

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4 inches. Yuma, Arizona, U.S.A. has 3.3 inches. In Salah in the mid-Sahara and Arica
in the mid-Atacama have practically no rain at all.
• In the latter, less than 0.02 inches fell within a period of 17 years in three light
showers!
• In another station less than 150 miles away at Iquique, not a single drop of rain was
recorded for four years and then a torrential down• pour suddenly came one
afternoon in which 2.5 inches of rain fell!
• The aridity of deserts is the most outstanding feature of the desert climate. We shall
examine more closely why they are so dry.
• The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High Pressure
Belts where the air is descending, a condition least favourable for precipitation of any
kind to take place.
• The rain- bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Wester•lies that are on-shore
blow outside the desert limits.
• Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their
relative humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
• There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky.
• The relative humidity is extremely low, de•creasing from 60 per cent in coastal
districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert interiors.
• Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus
regions of permanent drought.
• Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable Coastal stations like Massawa on the
Red Sea, as illustrated in receive light scattered showers from the on-shore winds,
amounting to 5.9 inches for the year.
• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by
chilling the on-coming air.
• This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls.
• The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so
pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than
half an inch! Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type.
• It ‘bursts’ suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small areas.
• An inch or more may be recorded in one single shower! The thunderstorm is so
violent, and comes so suddenly that it has disastrous consequences on desert
landforms.
Temperature:
• The deserts are some of the hottest spots on earth and have high temperatures
throughout the year.
• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is
around 86°F.
• The highest shade temperature recorded is 136°F.
• On the 13 September 1922 at Al Azizia, 25 miles south of Tripoli, Libya, in the Sahara.
• Days are unbearably hot, and in the open barren sands, 170°F is often recorded.
• The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious—a clear, cloudless sky, intense
insolation, dry air and a rapid rate of evapor•ation.
• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime in•fluence and the cooling effect of the
cold currents have much lower temperatures, e.g. Arica has a mean annual
temperature of 66°F., Iquique 65°?., Walvis Bay, South-West Africa, only 63°F.
• The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great.
• Intense insulation by day in a region of dry air and no clouds causes the temperature
to rise with the sun.
• The barren ground is so intensely heated that, by noon, particularly in summer, a
reading of 120°F. is common.
• But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses heat very quickly by radiation, and the
mercury column in the thermometer drops to well below the mean temperature. A

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daily temperature range of 30° to 40°F. is common, though in the Death Valley of
California, an exceptionally great diurnal range of 74°F. has been recorded. Frosts
may occur at night in winter.
• These extremes of temperature make desert living most trying. This explains why the
desert people wear thick gowns all day long, to protect themselves from the glaring
heat by day and chilling frost by night, not to mention the sand grains that are carried
by the wind.
Climatic Conditions of Mid-Latitude Deserts:

• The climatic conditions of the mid-latitude deserts are in many ways similar to those
of the hot deserts.
• Aridity is the keynote. These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea, and are
sheltered by the high mountains all around them. As a result they are cut off from the
rain-bearing winds.
• Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic continental mass and bring light
rainfall in winter, or unexpected convectional storms may bless the parched lands
with brief showers in summer.
• For example Kashgar in western China in the Gobi Desert.
• Due to their coldness and elevation, snow falls in winter.
• it is clear that summers are very hot (80°F. in July at Kashgar) and winters are
extremely cold with two months below freezing point.
• The annual range of temperature is 58°F., much greater than that of the hot deserts.
Continentally accounts for these extremes in temperature.
• Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers, and strong cold winds blow all the
time.
• When the ice thaws in early summer, floods occur in many places. The greatest
inhibiting factors to settlement are the winter cold and the permanent aridity, besides
remoteness from the sea.
Desert Vegetation:
• All deserts have some form of vegetation such as grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots or
bulbs. Though they may not appear green and fresh all the time, they lie dormant in
the soil awaiting rain which comes at irregular intervals or once in many years.
• The environment, so lacking in moisture and so excessive in heat, is most un-
favourable for plant growth and significant vegetation cannot be expected. But very
rarely are there deserts where nothing grows.
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or
drought-resistant scrub.
• This includes the bulbous cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and
scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of
date palms.
• Along the western coastal deserts washed by cold currents as in the Atacama Desert,
the mists and fogs, formed by the chilling of warm air over cold currents, roll inland
and nourish a thin cover of vegetation.
• Plants that exist in deserts have highly specialized means of adapting themselves to
the arid environment.
• Intense evaporation increases the salinity of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to
accumulate on the surface forming hard pans.
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are very
deficient in humus.
• Plants, whether annuals or perennials must struggle for survival against both aridity
and poor soil.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and
search for ground water.

MALUKA IAS
• Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-
shaped to reduce the loss of water through transpiration. Some of them are entirely
leafless, with pricks or thorns.
• Others like the cacti have thick succulent stems to store up water for long droughts.
• There are still others that shed their leaves during droughts. The seeds of many
species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they lie
dormant.
• They germinate at once when their seeds are moistened by the next rain. In short, all
plants must adapt themselves to survive in such an inhospitable region as the desert.
Life in Desert:
• The life-giving waters of the Nile made it possible for the Egyptians to raise
many crops as early as 5,000 years ago.
• Modem concrete dams constructed across the Nile e.g. Aswan and Sennar
Dams improved agriculture.
• In the same way, desert cultivators rely on the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-
Euphrates in Iraq, and the Colorado in the Imperial Valley of California.
• In the deserts, wherever there are oases, some form of settled life is bound to
follow. These are depressions of varying sizes, where underground, water
reaches the surface.
• Some of them are abnormally large like the Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco which
measures 5,000 square miles.
• A wall is usually constructed around the oasis to keep out the violent dust
storms called simooms.
• The most important tree is the date palm. The fruit is consumed locally and
also exported.
• Other crops cultivated include maize, barley, wheat, cotton, cane sugar, fruits
and vegetables.
• It was gold that brought immigrants scrambling into the Great Australian
Desert.
• Some of them like Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie have become towns of
considerable size.

MALUKA IAS
• In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery of diamonds and copper has brought
many white men to the ‘thirs tland’ as it is called.
• Even in the most arid Atacama, in northern Chile, large mining camps have
been established for the mining of caliche (cemented gravels) from which
sodium nitrate, a valuable fertilizer, is extracted and exported to all parts of
the world.
• Besides nitrates, copper is also mined. Chuquicamata is the
world’s largest copper town.
• Similarly in the deserts of North America, silver is mined in Mexico, uranium
in Utah and copper in Nevada.
• In recent years, the discovery of oil, in many parts of the Saharan and Arabian
Deserts has transformed this forgotten part of the globe.
• Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Algeria, Libya, Lebanon, Nigeria etc. are
important oil producing desert countries.
4.5 STEPPE CLIMATE (TEMPERATE

GRASSLAND CLIMATE)
• A steppe is a dry, grassy plain. Steppes occur in temperate climates, which lie
between the tropics and polar regions.
• Temperate regions have distinct seasonal temperature changes, with cold winters and
warm summers.
• Steppes are semi-arid, meaning they receive 25 to 50 centimeters (10-20 inches) of
rain each year.
• This is enough rain to support short grasses, but not enough for tall grasses or trees
to grow. Many kinds of grasses grow on steppes, but few grow taller than half a meter
(20 inches).

MALUKA IAS
• They lie in the interiors of the continents.
• Lie in the Westerly wind belt [mid-latitudes or temperate region].
• Grasslands are practically treeless due to continentiality [deep within the interiors of the
continents where rain bearing winds don’t reach].
• In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes, and stretch eastwards from the shores of the
Black Sea to the foothills of the Altai Mountains. [2,000 miles long belt].
Name of the Temperate Region

Grassland
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
Prairies North America [between the foothills of the Rockies
and the Great Lakes]
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay [Rain-shadow effect]
Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa
High Veld (more Southern South Africa
temperate)
Downs Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia
Canterbury New Zealand
Steppe Climate:
• Climate is continental with extremes of temperature.
• Temperatures vary greatly between summer and winter.
• The summers are hot and the winters are cold.
• Summers are very warm, over 18 – 20° C.
• The steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never severe.
Precipitation:
• The average rainfall may be taken as about 45 cm, but this varies according to
location from 25 cm to 75 cm.
• The heaviest rain comes in June and July (late spring and early summer).
• Most of the winter months have about an 2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the
occasional depressions of the Westerlies and coming in the form of snow.
• The maritime influence in the southern hemisphere causes more rainfall.
• Chinook: Local winds in Steppe regions
• On the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Canada and U.S.A. a local wind, similar to the
Fohn in Switzerland, called the Chinook, comes in a south-westerly direction to the
Prairies and has a considerable effect on the local pastures.
• It actually comes with the depressions in winter or early spring from the Pacific coast
ascending the Rockies and then descending to the Prairies [katabatic wind].
• It is a hot wind and may raise the temperature by 5° C within a matter of 20 minutes.
• It melts the snow-covered pastures and animals can be driven out of doors to graze in
the open fields. The agricultural year is thus accelerated.
• Local farmers welcome the Chinook for frequent. Chinooks [Snow eaters] mean mild
winters.
Vegetation:

MALUKA IAS
• In contrast with the tropical grasslands of savanna, which are interspersed with trees,
temperate grasslands are practically treeless. Also, the grass in these grasslands is
much shorter as compared to that in savanna
• However, the grass is fresh and nutritious, unlike the coarse grass found in the
savannas. This is mostly true for the prairies of North America, and also the
Chernozem grasses of Ukraine. The prairie soils are also nutritious black earth soils.
• The grass is lean, thin and scattered.
• This makes them ideal for large-scale livestock rearing, also known as ranching.
• The grass growing season is throughout the year, uninterrupted by seasonal
variations in temperature and precipitation
• Towards the poleward extension of prairies, there is a transitional zone of forests in
which conifers can be found.
• Within the farmlands of steppes, trees are planted around the croplands to shield
them from strong winds.
Economy:
• Unlike the savannas which are home to some of the largest terrestrial animals,
steppes do not have much animal diversity.
• In the Eurasian steppes, Horses can found riding in the open.
• Crop cultivation is extensively practised in these grasslands, especially in the prairies.
This is because of the development of irrigation canals in the last century.
• Mechanized cultivation over large tracts of land is practised, making them one of
the most productive agricultural regions in the world. Prairies are also known as the
granaries of the world.
• Wheat and maize are the prominent crops of the prairies.
• Apart from the prairies, the Pampas of Argentina and the Downs of Australia are also
known for extensive wheat cultivation.
• Steppes are mostly level grasslands which make ploughing and harvesting a relatively
easy job, aided by machines
• Animal rearing or livestock ranching is carried out over thousands of hectares.
The less nutritious tufted grass was replaced by, the more nutritious Lucerne or
alfalfa grass. This aids in the rearing of cattle and sheep on a large-scale.
• Hence, they have emerged as the leading regions for animal ranching in the world.

MALUKA IAS
• These grasslands are the largest producers of dairy and other animal products in the
world.
• Milk, butter, cheese, beef, animal skins etc. are exported to far off regions aided by
easy access to containerized cargo, and refrigerated ships.
• Nomadic herding is practised in the vast steppes of Eurasia by the natives such as
Kazakhs and Kirghiz who are wandering tribes.
• Long periods of drought because of unreliable rains in the continental interiors have
made crop cultivation and settled animal rearing almost impossible in this region.
• In some regions where water is available, large-scale collective farming was
introduced by Russia.
• Various grassland regions are famous for different kinds of economic activities. They
include,
• Prairies - Wheat cultivation, livestock ranching.
• Velds - sheep and cattle rearing, maize cultivation
• Pustaz - wheat and beet sugar cultivation.
• Pampas - wheat cultivation, export of dairy, beef products.
• Downs and Canterbury - Wool production from Merino sheep, dairy products
4.6 MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

Characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters and located between about 30°
and 45° latitude north and south of the Equator and on the western sides of the continents.
In the Köppen-Geiger-Pohl system, it is divided into the Csa and Csb subtypes.
• Entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses, between 30° and
45° north and south of the equator.
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts.
• Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of ‘winter rain climate’,
and gives rise to the name Mediterranean Climate.

MALUKA IAS
• The best developed form of this climatic type is found in central Chile.
• Other Mediterranean regions include
1. California (around San Francisco),
2. the south-western tip of Africa (around Cape Town),
3. southern Australia, and south-west Australia (Swanland).
Mediterranean Climate:
Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.
• Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm.
• Temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10⁰ C.
• Temperature of coldest month is less than 18⁰ C but greater than –3⁰ C
• Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.
A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades:

• In summer when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the belt of influence of
the Westerlies is shifted a little pole wards. Rain bearing winds are therefore
not likely to reach the Mediterranean lands.
• The prevailing Trade Winds [tropical easterlies] are off-shore and there is
practically no rain.
• Strong winds from inland desert regions pose the risk of wildfires.
Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies:

• The Mediterranean lands receive most of their precipitation in winter when the
Westerlies shift equator wards.
• In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic
rain from the Atlantic (Typical to Mediterranean Climate).
• The rain comes in heavy showers and only on a few days with bright
sunny periods between them. This is another characteristic feature of the
Mediterranean winter rain.
• Though the downpours are infrequent they are often very torrential and in
mountainous districts, destructive floods occur.
• Many local winds, some hot, others cold are common around the Mediterranean Sea.
Sirocco
• This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates in the Sahara Desert.
• It is most frequent in spring and normally lasts for only a few days.
• The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly direction (south to north) from the desert
interiors into the cooler Mediterranean Sea.
• After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption
of the water vapour.
• Its scorching heat withers [To dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture] vegetation and
crops.
• This may be ‘blood rain’ because the wind is carrying the red dust of the Sahara
Desert.
Mistral
• Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing down the Rhone valley in violent
gusts between 40 and 80 miles per hour.
• The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funneling effect in the valley
between the Alps and the Central Massif [Plateau in France].

MALUKA IAS
• A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along the Adriatic coast is
called the Bora.
• Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold winds of the Mediterranean Sea.
Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean Climate:
• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and
prolonged droughts. They are, in short xerophytic [drought tolerant], a word
used to describe the drought-resistant plants in an environment deficient in
moisture.
Mediterranean evergreen forests:

• These are open woodlands with evergreen oaks.
• They are found only in the climatically most favored regions.
• The trees are normally low, even stunted, with massive trunks, small leathery leaves
and a wide-spreading root system in search of water.
• The cork oaks are specially valued for their thick barks, used for making wine-
bottle corks and for export around the world.
• In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the evergreen oak.
• The giant redwood is typical of the Californian trees.

MALUKA IAS
Evergreen coniferous trees:

• These include the various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses which have
evergreen, needle-shaped leaves and tall, straight trunks.
Mediterranean bushes and shrubs:
• This is perhaps the most predominant type of Mediterranean vegetation.
• Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of the rain comes
in the cool season when growth is slow.
• Even if grasses do survive, they are so wiry [lean, tough] and bunchy that they
are not suitable for animal farming.
• Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the Mediterranean.
Economy:
Orchard farming
• The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands.
• A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit
are grown.
• The fruit trees have long roots to draw water from considerable depths during the
long summer drought.
• The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration.
• The long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested.
• The Mediterranean lands account for 70 per cent of the world’s exports of citrus
fruits.
• The olive tree is probably the most typical of all Mediterranean cultivated
vegetation.
• Olive oil extracted is a valuable source of cooking oil in a region deficient in animal
fat.
• Besides olives, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts and almonds are
grown and the nuts picked as fruits or for the chocolate industry.
• Crop cultivation and sheep rearing
• Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is the next most popular cereal.
• The mountain pastures, with their cooler climate, support a few sheep, goats and
sometimes cattle.

MALUKA IAS
• Transhumance is widely practiced (moving up and down the hills in search of
pastures according to seasons).
• Wine production
• Viticulture is by tradition a Mediterranean occupation.
• Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea account for three-quarters of the
world’s production of wine.
• Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into wine.
• The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen.
• Clear skies in summer and good landscapes encourage tourism .
• European Mediterranean has many ancient cities and are famous for their health and
pleasure resorts, frequented by millions all-round the year.
4.7 CHINA TYPE CLIMATE, GULF TYPE

CLIMATE & NATAL TYPE CLIMATE
Different variants of Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate Found between 20° and 35°
N and S latitude (warm temperate latitudes just outside the tropics); on the east coast in
both hemispheres.
China Type Climate:

• Temperate Monsoon or China Type climate is observed in most parts of China.
The climate is also observed in southern parts of Japan.
• Summer:
o Intense heating within interiors (Tibet, desert region) sets up a region of
low pressure in summer attracting tropical Pacific air stream (South-East
Monsoon).
o Monsoon does not ‘burst’ as suddenly, nor ‘pour’ as heavily as in India.
o Typhoons form mostly in late summer, from July to September.
• Winter:
o In winter, there is intense pressure over Siberia and the continental
polar air stream flows outwards as the North-West Monsoon, bitterly cold
and very dry.
o There is little rain but considerable snow on the windward slopes.

MALUKA IAS
o Another climatic feature associated with the China type of climate in
southern China is the occurrence of typhoons.
Gulf Type Climate:

• Found in south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico where continental
heating in summer induces an inflow of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.
• Monsoonal characteristics are less intense compared to China type.
• There is no complete seasonal wind reversal.
• Hurricanes occur in September and October.
Natal Type Climate:

• Found in in New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa), Parana-Paraguay-
Uruguay basin (South America).
• Natal type is different from temperate monsoon or China type as it receives
rainfall from on-shore Trade Winds all the year round.
• The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of maritime
influence eliminate the monsoonal elements.
• The South-East Trade Winds bring about a more even distribution of rainfall
throughout the year
Climate:
Characterized by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter (one exception: winters are
also moist in Natal Type).
Temperature:
• The mean monthly temperature varies between 4° C and 25° C and is strongly
modified by maritime influence.
• Occasionally, the penetration of cold air (Polar Vortex) from the continental
interiors may bring down the temperature to freezing point.
• Though frosts are rare they occasionally occur in the colder interiors.
Precipitation:
• Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 60 cm to 150 cm.
• This is adequate for all agricultural purposes and hence supports a wide range of
crops.
• Areas which experience this climate are very densely populated.
• There is the fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year.
• Rain comes either from convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or
from depressions in prolonged showers in winter.
• In summer, the regions are under the influence of moist, maritime airflow from
the subtropical anticyclonic cells.
• Local storms, e.g. typhoons (tropical cyclones), and hurricanes, also occur.
Natural Vegetation:
• Supports a luxuriant vegetation.
• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees
[hardwood].
• On the highlands, are various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses
which are important softwoods.
• Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.
• The forests of China and southern Japan also have considerable economic value
and include oak, camphor, etc..
• South-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, north-eastern Argentina have Parana
pine, and the quebracho (axe-breaker, an extremely hard wood used for tanning).

MALUKA IAS
• Eastern Australia have Eucalyptus forests.
• In Natal palm trees thrive.
• The Gulf states of U.S.A. have lowland deciduous forests.
Agriculture:
Farming in monsoon China:
• A third of the world’s rice is grown in China, though the huge population leaves very
little for export.
• Monsoon China has all the ideal conditions for padi cultivation; a warm climate,
moderately wet throughout the year, and extensive lowlands with fertile moisture-
retentive alluvial soil, which if necessary, can be easily irrigated.
• As the flat lands are insufficient for rice cultivation, farmers move up the hill-slopes
and grow padi on terraced uplands.
Agriculture in the Gulf states:

• Lack of population pressure and the urge to export gave rise to corn, cotton and
tobacco.
• The humid air, the sunny summer and the heavy showers suit the crop well.
• It is grown right from the Gulf coast to the Mid-west south of the Great Lakes, with
the greatest concentration in the Corn Belt of Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.
• The region accounts for more than half the world’s production of corn, but only 3 per
cent of the world’s export.
• This is because most of the corn is used for fattening animals, mostly cattle and
pigs.
• The fattened animals are then sold to the meat plants in Chicago and Cincinnati to be
processed into ‘corned beef’
• Apart from its ease of cultivation, corn’s most outstanding feature is its prolific yield.
• It gives almost twice as much food (mainly starch) per acre as wheat or other cereals.
• This explains why it is so widely cultivated in both the warm temperate and the
tropical latitudes.

MALUKA IAS
• Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf states, none is comparable with
cotton.
• The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the best for cotton growing.
• Its long, hot growing season with 200 days frost free and a moderately high
temperature permits the crop to grow slowly and mature within six months.
• In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the heavy rainfall damages the lint. This area is
therefore less suitable for cotton and is devoted to citrus fruits, cane
sugar and market gardening, as in Florida.
• The commercial cultivation of cotton is now concentrated only in the most favorable
areas which are the Mississippi flood plains and Atlantic coastlands.
• The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton Belt is the boll-weevil. The pest multiplies
rapidly.
• The pest is responsible for the westward migration of the Cotton Belt.
• Tobacco is the Native crop of America.
• Virginia tobacco is famous.
• The humid atmosphere, the warmth and the well-drained soils of the Gulf states,
enable tobacco to be successfully cultivated in many of the eastern states of U.S.A.
• No less than half the tobacco that enters international trade comes from these states.
Crop in Southern Hemisphere:

• In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is the dominant crop, followed
by cotton and tobacco in the interior.
• Maize is extensively cultivated for use both as food and animal fodder for cattle
rearing.
• In South America where rainfall is less than 120 cm, there is much grassland on
which many cattle and sheep are kept for meat, wool and hides.
• The extensive natural pastures provide valuable forage for both cattle and sheep.
• Further north in southern Brazil, the rainfall increases to more than 120 cm and
forest gradually replaces grass.
• Here the important occupations are the cultivation of yerba mate (Paraguay tea) and
the lumbering of araucaria or Parana pine. Cattle and sheep are reared, and maize
and cane sugar are grown.
• In eastern Australia, Giant eucalyptus trees rise one above the other right up the
Eastern Highlands.
• But with the influx of European immigrants, much of the forest has been cleared for
settlement and dairying.
• The eastern margin of New South Wales is now the chief source of Australia’s milk,
butter and cheese, besides cotton, cane sugar and maize which are increasingly grown
in the north.
4.8 BRITISH TYPE :
British type climatic regions are under the permanent influence of the Westerlies all round
the year. These are also regions of high cyclonic activity., typical of Britain and thus said to
experience the British climate. This climate is also referred to as the cool temperate western
margin climate or the North-west European Maritime Climate.

MALUKA IAS
• The climatic belt stretches from Britain into North-West Europe, including
northern and western France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, western
Norway and also north-western Iberia.
• In North America, it confines mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia. The
Rockies in North America, prevent the on-shore Westerlies from penetrating far
inland.
• The climate is experienced in southern Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania and
most parts of New Zealand, particularly in South Island.
• The surrounding large expanses of water in these regions have increased the
maritime nature of the climate.
Climate:
• Moderately warm summers and fairly mild winters. Extremes of temperatures are
not likely.
• Adequate rainfall throughout the year.
Temperature:
• The mean annual temperature is usually in the range of 5 C - 15 C.
• This range is comparatively small for such high latitudes.
• Summers are never very warm and winters are abnormally mild with no station
recording below freezing point temperatures.
• This is due to the warming effect of the North Atlantic Drift and prevalence of the
South-Westerlies.
• Hence, they are some of the most advanced regions of the world.
Precipitation:
• Adequate rainfall throughout the year.
• There's tendency towards a slight winter or autumn maximum from cyclonic sources.
• The rain-bearing winds come from the west and hence the western margins have the
heaviest rainfall.
• The amount of rainfall decreases as one moves away from the sea, eastwards.

MALUKA IAS
Seasons:
• There are four distinct seasons.
• Summers are long and sunny followed by autumn which is a roar of gusty winds.
• Winter is the season with cloudy skies, foggy and misty mornings and many rainy
days from the passing depressions.
• This is followed by spring which is the driest and most refreshing season from the
depressing winter and the cycle repeats itself.
Natural Vegetation:
• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is the deciduous forest.
• The trees shed their leaves in the cold season. This is an adaptation for protecting
themselves against the winter snow and frost.
• Shedding begins in autumn, the fall season and is scattered by the winds.
• Some of the common species of temperate hardwood include oak, elm, ash, birch,
beech, hornbeam, and poplar.
• In the wetter areas grow willows, alder and aspen.
• The deciduous trees occur in pure stands and have great lumbering value from the
commercial point of view.
• The sparse undergrowth is useful in logging operations.
• The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes.
• Higher up the mountains in the Scandinavian highlands, the Rockies, the southern
Andes and the Southern Alps of New Zealand, the deciduous trees are generally
replaced by the conifers which can survive a higher altitude, a lower temperature and
poorer soils.
Economic Development:
• In Britain, only 4% of the original forest is left. A very large part of the deciduous
hardwoods has been cleared for fuel, timber or agriculture.
• Lumbering in quite profitable in the region for the reasons mentioned above.
Agriculture
Due to the high density of population, all the cereals, fruits and root crops grown in the
region are used for home consumption and the region is a net importer of food crops.
• Market Gardening:
o Nowhere else is market gardening practised as extensively as in North West
Europe.
o The factors that account for this are large urban population and high
densities, highly industrialised nations like Britain, France, Germany.
o There is great demand for fresh vegetables, green salads, eggs, meat, milk and
fruits.
o Farming is carried out intensively and the yield is high due to soil fertility and
there are maximum cash returns.
o Since the crops are perishable, there is a good transport network and the
vegetables and fruits are conveyed at high speeds to urban centres.
o Hence the term "truck farming" is often used to describe this kind of
agriculture.
o In Australia, high-speed boats ply across the Bass Strait daily from Tasmania
to rush vegetables, tomatoes, apples and beans to most of the large cities in
mainland Australia.
o It is no wonder the Australians nicknamed Tasmania the garden state .
• Mixed Farming:
o Throughout north-western Europe, farmers practice both arable farming
(cultivation of crops on ploughed land) and pastoral farming (keeping
animals on grass meadows).

MALUKA IAS
o The proportion of crops and animals in the farm at any time depends to a
great extent on the type of soil, the price of the cereals and the demand for
animals and animal products.
o Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most extensively grown, almost entirely for
home consumption.
o The region is a net importer of wheat.
o The next most important cereal is barley.
o It is used in beer-making or whisky distilling and is raised in drier areas.
o The most important animals kept in the mixed farm are cattle.
o The climate of this region is ideal for intensive dairying.
o New Zealand ranks as one of the world's greatest exporters of dairy products.
o Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef cattle.
o In Argentina or Australia, meat production is the primary concern.
Sheep rearing
• Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton.
• Britain is the home of some of the best known sheep breeds.
• With the greater pressure exerted on land by increased urbanization,
industrialization and agriculture, sheep rearing is being pushed further and further
into the less favoured areas.
• Britain was once an exporter of wool (But now it imports from Australia). But today
exports only British pedigree animals to the newer sheep lands of the world
(Australia).
• In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is the chief occupation of New
Zealand, with its greatest concentration in the Canterbury Plain [The rain
shadow region]. It has been estimated that for every New Zealander there are 20
sheep.
• Favourable conditions include extensive meadows, a mild temperate climate, well-
drained level ground, scientific animal breeding, the development of refrigeration –
enables chilled Canterbury lamb and Corrie dale mutton to reach every corner of the
globe.
• Though New Zealand has only 4 per cent of the world’s sheep population, it accounts
for two-thirds of the world’s mutton exports, and one sixth of world wool exports.
• In Tasmania and southern Chile, sheep rearing has always been a predominant
occupation with surplus sheep products for the international trade.
Industrialization
• The countries are concerned in the production of machinery, chemicals and textiles.
• Industries are also based on dairy products in Denmark, Netherlands and New
Zealand.
• The region is highly industrialised and differs from many others in its unprecedented
industrial advancement.
• Britain, France and Germany have significant mineral resources and are heavily
industrialized.
• Ruhr region in Germany, Yorkshire, Manchester and Liverpool regions in Britain are
significant for wide-ranging manufacturing industries in the region.
• Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef cattle.
• In Argentina or Australia, meat production is the primary concern.
• The high rate of beef consumption in Europe necessitates large imports of frozen
and chilled beef.
• The pigs and poultry act as scavengers that feed on the left-overs from root-
crops and dairy processes. In this way, Denmark is able to export large quantities of
bacon [cured meat from the back or sides of a pig] from pigs that are fed on
the skimmed milk, a by-product of butter-making.

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4.9 TAIGA CLIMATE
• Cool temperate continental (Siberian) climate is only experienced in northern
hemisphere, where the continents within the high latitudes have a broad east
west spread.
• On its poleward side, it merges into Arctic tundra of Canada & Eurasia at around
Arctic Circle;
• Southwards, the climate becomes less severe & fades into the temperate Steppe
climate
• Predominant vegetation of this Siberian or sub-arctic type of climate is evergreen
coniferous forests that stretch in a great, continuous belt across North America,
Europe & Asia.
• The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is Taiga (a Russian word for
coniferous forest) in Siberia.
• In Europe, this climate & forests are mainly confined to Northern Europe,
Sweden & Finland;
• However there are small amount of coniferous forests at high altitudes in
Germany, Poland, Austria, Switzerland & other parts of the Europe.
• In North America, the sub-arctic belt stretches across from Alaska across Canada
into Labrador & is found in the high Rocky Mountains further south.
Taiga Climate:
Temperature:
• Summers are brief and warm reaching 20-25 °C whereas winters are long and
brutually cold – always 30-40 °C below freezing.
• Annual temperature range of the Siberian Climate is the greatest [Almost 50-60
°C in Siberia].
• Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded in Verkhoyansk (68°N.
113°E) where -67 °C was once recorded.
• In North America, the extremes are less severe, because of the continent’s lesser east-
west stretch.
• All over Russia, nearly all the rivers are frozen. In normal years, the Volga is ice-
covered for about 150 days.
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• Occasionally cold, northerly polar local winds such as the blizzards of
Canada and buran of Eurasia blow violently.
• Permafrost [a thick subsurface layer of soil that remains below freezing point
throughout the year] are generally absent as snow is a poor conductor of
heat and protects the ground from the severe cold above.
Precipitation:
• Maritime influence in the interiors is absent.
• Frontal disturbances might occur in winter.
• Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm.
• It is quite well distributed throughout the year, with a summer
maxima [convectional rain in mid-summer – 15 °C to 24 °C]
• In winter the precipitation is in the form of snow, as mean temperatures are well
below freezing all the time.
Natural Vegetation of Taiga Climate:

• The predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest.
• The conifers, which require little moisture are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic
climate.
• The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is the taiga (a Russian word for
coniferous forest) in Siberia.
• In Europe the countries that have a similar type of climate and forests
are Sweden and Finland.
• There are small amounts of natural coniferous forest in Germany, Poland,
Switzerland, Austria and other parts of Europe.
• In North America, the belt stretches from Alaska across Canada into Labrador.
Softwood trees
• The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest sources
of softwood.
• Softwood is used in building construction, furniture, matches, paper and pulp,
rayon and other branches of the chemical industry.
• The world’s greatest softwood producers are Russia, U.S.A., Canada and
the Fennoscandia countries (Finland, Norway and Sweden).
• In the production of wood pulp (by both chemical and mechanical methods), the
U.S.A. is the leader.
• But in the field of newsprint, Canada accounts for almost half of the world’s total
annual production.
• There are four major species in the coniferous forests – Pine, Fir, e.g. Douglas fir and
balsam fir; Spruce and Larch.
• Their presence in pure stands and the existence of only a few species are a great
advantage in commercial forest exploitation.
• Relatively inaccessible taiga of Siberia will remain the richest reserve of temperate
softwood.
Characteristics of Coniferous forests:

• Unlike the equatorial rain forests, Coniferous forests are of moderate density and
are more uniform. The trees in coniferous forests grow straight and tall.
• Almost all conifers are evergreen. There is no annual replacement of new leaves as
in deciduous trees.
• The same leaf remains on the tree for as long as five years. Food is stored in the
trunks, and the bark is thick to protect the trunk from excessive cold.
• Conifers are conical in shape. Their conical shape and sloping branches prevent snow
accumulation. It also offers little grip to the winds.
• Transpiration can be quite rapid in the warm summer. So, leaves are small,
thick, leathery and needle-shaped to check excessive transpiration.
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• The soils of the coniferous forests are poor. They are excessively leached and
very acidic. Humus content is also low as the evergreen leaves barely fall and the
rate of decomposition is slow. Under-growth is negligible because of the poor soil
conditions.
• Absence of direct sunlight and the short duration of summer are other contributory
factors.
• Coniferous forests are also found in regions with high elevation [Example: The
forests just below the snowline in Himalayas].
• But on very steep slopes where soils are immature or non-existent, even the conifer
cannot survive [Example: Southern slopes of Greater Himalayas].
Economic Development of Taiga Region:

• Lot of coniferous forests in the northern hemisphere are still untouched due
to remoteness.
• Only a small fraction of coniferous forests in Canada, Russia etc. are exploited leaving
a huge potential for the future.
• More accessible forests are cleared for lumbering on a large scale.
• Agriculture is most unlikely as few crops can survive in the sub-Arctic climates.
• Many fur-bearing animals are trapped in northerly lands of Canada and Eurasia.
• Wherever the cold is severe, the quality and thickness of the fur increases.
• The most severe winters produce the finest furs.
• In Canada trappers and hunters, armed with automatic rifles, reside in log cabins in
the midst of the coniferous forests to track down these animals.
• Muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox are the most important fur-bearing animals.
• To ensure a more regular supply of furs many fur farms have been established in
Canada and Siberia.
• This is the most important occupation of the Siberian type of climate.
The vast reserves of coniferous forests provide the basis for the lumbering
industry:
• Contract laborers called lumber jacks used to temporarily move to the forest
regions to fell the trees. Now felling is done by machines.
• The soft wood logs easily float on rivers. Hence rivers are used to transport logs to the
sawmills located down the stream.
• Logs are processed in saw mills into timber, plywood, and other constructional
woods.
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• Timber is pulped by both chemical and mechanical means to make wood pulp. Wood
pulp is the raw material for paper-making and newsprint.
• Canada and U.S.A. are leading suppliers of newsprint and wood
pulp respectively.
• Very little softwood is burnt as fuel as its industrial uses are far more significant.
• In Sweden, matches form a major export item.
• From other temperate countries, timber is used for making furniture, wood- carvings,
toys, packing cases etc..
• From the by-products of the timber, many chemically processed articles are derived
such as rayon turpentine, varnishes, paints, dyes, liquid resins, wood-alcohols,
disinfectants and cosmetics.
Factors that favour lumbering:

Coniferous forests is characterized by the following favourable features for
Lumbering.
• The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce and fir in the northern forests and
larch in the warmer south are the most important.
• Unlike rainforests, they occur in homogeneous groups [Pure stands]. This saves
time, costs and enhances the commercial value of the felled timber.
• Lumbering is normally carried out in the winter when the sap ceases to flow. This
makes felling much simpler.
• The snow-covered ground makes logging and haulage [commercial transport of
goods] a relatively easy job.
• The logs are dragged to the rivers and float to the saw-mills downstream when the
rivers thaw [unfreeze] in spring. This has greatly assisted the lumbering industry in
eastern Canada and Sweden.
• Lumbering is quite easy in Canada, Norway and Sweden as the rivers are not frozen
for a greater part of the year. But in Russian taiga most of Siberian rivers drain
poleward into the Arctic Ocean which is frozen for three-quarters of the year, and
there are few saw-mills there.
• With the use of the Northern Sea Route, which links Murmansk and Vladivostok via
the Arctic Ocean, development is increasing.
• Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the saw-mills is harnessed in the mountainous
uplands of North America and Europe and has greatly assisted the lumbering
industry.
4.10 LAURENTIAN CLIMATE | FISHING

OFF NEWFOUNDLAND & JAPAN
• The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate is an intermediate type
of climate between the British and the Siberian type of climate. It has features of
both the maritime and the continental climates. The Laurentian type of climate is
found only in two regions.
• One is north-eastern North America, in•cluding eastern Canada, north-east
U.S.A., (i.e. Maritime Provinces and the New England states), and Newfoundland.
• This may be referred to as the North American region.
• The other region is the eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia,
North China, Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan.
• It may be referred to as the Asiatic region. In the southern hemisphere, this
climatic type is absent because only a small section of the southern continents
extends south of the latitude of 40°S.
• The only possible location is in eastern Patagonia, south of Bahia Blanca (lat.
39°S.) to Tierra del Fuego (lat. 54°S.). But the climatic barrier of the southern
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Andes is so complete, that the Westerlies hardly ever reach Patagonia… The
region is subjected to aridity rather than continentally.
Laurentian Climate:
Temperature:
• Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.
• Winter temperatures is below freezing-point and snow fall is quite natural.
• Summers are as warm as the tropics (~25 °C).
Precipitation:
• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summer maxima [easterly winds from
the oceans bring rains]
• Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm [two – thirds of rainfall occurs in the
summer].
• Dry Westerlies that blow from continental interiors dominate winters.
The North American region:

• In summer, prolonged heat waves cause discomfort.
• In winter, the temperature drops below freezing and snowfall occurs.
• Precipitation occurs all-round the year due to the influence of Atlantic ocean
(summer) and the Great Lakes (winter).
• The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture of easterly winds.
• The prevailing Westerlies carry depressions over the Great Lakes towards eastern
regions causing wet conditions in winter [vital for the agricultural activities].
• Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador Current near
Newfoundland produces dense mist and fog and gives rise to much precipitation.
• It is said that Newfoundland experiences more drizzles than any other part of the
world.
The Asiatic region:

• Rainfall distribution of the Asiatic region is far less uniform when compared to
North American Region.
• Winters are cold and very dry while summers are very warm and exceptionally
wet.
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• The rainfall regime resembles the tropical monsoon type in India.
• Intense heating of the mountainous interior of China in summer creates a region of
extreme low pressure, and moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean and the Sea
of Japan blow in as the South-East Monsoon.
• Thus the Laurentian type of climate in China is often described as the Cool
Temperate Monsoon Climate.
• It has a very long, cold winter, and a large annual range of temperature.
• Much of the winter precipitation in northern China, Korea and Hokkaido, Japan, is in
the form of snow.
• The climate of Japan is modified by the meeting of warm and cold ocean
currents.
• It receives adequate rainfall from both the South-East Monsoon in summer and the
North- West Monsoon in winter (western coasts of Japan)
• The warm Kuroshio makes the climate of Japan less extreme.
• The meeting zone between warm Kuroshio from south and cold Oyashio from
the north produce fog and mist, making north Japan a ‘second Newfoundland’.
• Fishing replaces agriculture as the main occupation in many of the indented
coastlands.
Natural Vegetation – Laurentian Climate:

• The predominant vegetation is cool temperate forest.
• The heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the damp air from fogs, all favour the
growth of trees.
• Forest tend to be coniferous north of the 50°N latitude.
• In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and Korea), the coniferous forests are a
continuation of the great coniferous belt of the taiga.
Economic Development :
• Timber and fish are the leading export items.
• Much of the coniferous forests of fir, spruce and larch are exploited to a great extent.
• Eastern Canada is the heart of the Canadian timber and wood pulp industry [St.
Lawrence River helps in export].
• South of latitude 50°N., the coniferous forests give way to deciduous forests. Oak,
beech, maple and birch are most common.
• Almost homogeneous species of trees [pure stands], and the predominance of only a
handful of species greatly enhance the commercial value of these forests.
• They have been extensively felled for the extraction of temperate hardwood. [From
Laurentian Climate regions, both temperate hardwood and temperate softwood are
obtained]
• In Manchuria, Korea and Japan, the forests have made way for the agriculture.
• Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp industries are the most
important economic undertaking.
• Agriculture is less important because of long and severe winters.
• In the North American region, farmers are engaged in dairy farming.
• The Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia is the world’s most renowned region
for apples.
• Fishing is, however, the most outstanding economic activity.
Fishing off Newfoundland:

• Regions around the Grand Banks of Newfoundland are the world’s largest
fishing grounds.
• Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labrador currents make the region the
most productive fishing ground on earth.
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• Fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton. Plankton is abundantly
available in shallow waters [continental shelves] where they have access to both
sunlight as well as nutrients.
• Also, cold and warm water mixing creates upwelling of cold nutrient rich water to the
surface.
• The gently sloping continental shelves stretch for over 200 miles south-east of
Newfoundland, and off the coasts of the Maritime Provinces and New England.
• Hence microscopic plankton are abundant [Continental Shelf + Mixing of Warm and
Cold Ocean Currents].
• Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed here and support a thriving fishing
industry.
• Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like Norway, France, Britain, Portugal,
Denmark, Russia and Japan, also send fishing fleets to the Grand Banks.
• In Newfoundland, fishing provides employment for almost the entire population.
• Further inland, in lakes and rivers, such as the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes,
freshwater fish, e.g. salmon etc. are caught.
• All the fishing activities are carried out by highly mechanized trawlers which can
store fish in refrigerated chambers for months.
• St. John’s, chief port of Newfoundland is the headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing
industries.
• All processing activities like cutting, cleaning, packing for disposal are done at the
ports itself.
• Over-fishing is a growing problem.
Fishing off Japan:

• North-west Pacific surrounding the islands of Japan is another very important
fishing grounds of the world.
• Majority of the people in the region depend on fishing for survival.
• Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports with complete refrigeration
facilities.
• The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the
Atlantic waters.
• Large whaling fleets with processing plants venture into distant regions as far as
Arctic and Antarctic [Japan is criticized for its whaling operations].
• Japan accounts for a sixth of the world’s total annual fish caught.
• The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal and seaweeds as fertilizers in their
farms.
• Japan is one of the few countries that has taken to seaweed cultivation (India is
taking baby steps in seaweed cultivation).
• Coastal farms that are submerged in water grow weeds for sale as fertilizers, chemical
ingredient and food.
• Another aspect of Japanese fishing is pearl culture. Pearls are harvested from pearl
oysters.
• As natural pearls are difficult to obtain in large numbers, so the Japanese have begun
to harvest ‘cultured pearls’.
• The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in Japan for livestock farming of any kind)
popularized fish as the principal item of diet and the chief protein food of the
Japanese and the Chinese as well.
• There exists a great demand for fish and fish products in the nearby countries where
fishing industry in under-developed.
• Japan has huge stakes in international fishing enterprises and her advanced fishing
techniques give her an edge over competitors.
• Advanced financial services, encouraging government policy, advanced technology at
hand, skilled workforce with decades of experience in fishing and the only available
natural resource to exploit, make Japan a leader in fishing industry.
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• The continental shelves around the islands of Japan are rich in plankton, due to the
meeting of the warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio currents and provide excellent
breeding grounds for all kinds of fish.
• The indented coastline of Japan, provides sheltered fishing ports, calm
waters and safe landing places, ideal for the fishing industry.
4.11 TUNDRA CLIMATE

• Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
• The ice-caps are confined to highlands and high latitude regions of Greenland and
Antarctica.
• In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is the greatest single stretch of ice-cap
(10,000 feet thick).
• The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds of northern Canada
and Alaska and the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia, have tundra climate.
Tundra Climate:
Temperature:
• The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature.
• In mid-winter temperatures are as low as 40 – 50 °C below freezing.
• Summers are relatively warmer.
• Normally not more than four months have temperatures above freezing-point.
• Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are weeks of continuous darkness
(Rotation and Revolution).
• The ground remains solidly frozen and is inaccessible to plants.
• Frost occurs at any time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour are
not infrequent.
Precipitation:
• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet.
• Convectional rainfall is generally absent.
Natural Vegetation – Tundra Climate:

• There are no trees in the tundra.
• Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are found here and there.
• Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands are a little favorable.
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• Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses and the reindeer moss which provide the
only pasturage for reindeers.
• In the brief summer, berry-bearing bushes and Arctic flowers bloom.
• In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on the numerous insects which emerge
when the snow thaws.
• Mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hare and lemmings also live in
tundra regions.
• Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.
Life at Tundra Region:
• Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the coast.

• People live a semi-nomadic life.
• In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos.
• During winter they live in compact igloos.
• Their food is derived from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears.
• Now a days rifles instead of traditional harpoons are used to track down animals.
• New settlements have sprung up because of the discovery of minerals.
• Gold is mined in Alaska, petroleum in the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska; and copper at the
Rankin Inlet, Canada.
• With the declining reserves of iron ore around the Great Lakes, iron ore deposits in
Labrador are gaining importance. New railway lines have been constructed to bring
the ores to the St. Lawrence River.
• Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and Gallivare helped Sweden enjoy a prosperous
export trade in iron and steel and other metallurgical products.
• New ports on the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia has made it possible to ship timber and
fur from Siberia. Modern ice-breakers makes the frozen seas navigable.
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Chapter :5
Some Important definition
from Climatology
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5.1 AIRMASS AND FRONTS
Air mass, in meteorology, large body of air having nearly uniform conditions of
temperature and humidity at any given level of altitude.
• Such a mass has distinct boundaries and may extend hundreds or thousands of
kilometres horizontally and sometimes as high as the top of the troposphere (about
10–18 km [6–11 miles] above the Earth’s surface).
• An air mass forms whenever the atmosphere remains in contact with a large,
relatively uniform land or sea surface for a time sufficiently long to acquire the
temperature and moisture properties of that surface.
• The Earth’s major air masses originate in polar or subtropical latitudes. The middle
latitudes constitute essentially a zone of modification, interaction, and mixing of the
polar and tropical air masses.
• Air masses are commonly classified according to four basic source

regions with respect to latitude.
o These are Polar (cold),
o Arctic (very cold),
o Equatorial (warm and very moist), and
o Tropical (warm).
o In the United States the major air mass types are typically continental Polar,
maritime Polar, continental Tropical, and maritime Tropical.
 Continental Polar (cP) air usually forms during the cold period of the year over
extensive land areas such as central Asia and northern Canada.
o It is likely to be stable and is characteristically free of condensation forms.
When heated or moistened from the ground with strong turbulence, this type
of air mass develops limited convective stratocumulus cloud forms with
scattered light rain or snow showers.
o In summer strong continental heating rapidly modifies the coolness and
dryness of the cP air mass as it moves to lower latitudes.
o Daytime generation of cumulus clouds is the rule, but the upper-level stability
of the air mass is usually such as to prevent rain showers.
 Maritime Polar (mP) air masses develop over the polar areas of both the Northern
and the Southern hemispheres.
o They generally contain considerably more moisture than the cP air masses.
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o As they move inland in middle and high latitudes, heavy precipitation may
occur when the air is forced to ascend mountain slopes or is caught up in
cyclonic activity.
 The continental Tropical (cT) air mass originates in arid or desert regions in
the middle or lower latitudes, principally during the summer season.
o It is strongly heated in general, but its moisture content is so low that the
intense dry convection normally fails to reach the condensation level.
o Of all the air masses, the cT is the most arid, and it sustains the belt of
subtropical deserts worldwide.
 The maritime Tropical (mT) is the most important moisture-bearing and rain-
producing air mass throughout the year.
o In winter it moves poleward and is cooled by the ground surface.
Consequently, it is characterized by fog or low stratus or stratocumulus
clouds, with drizzle and poor visibility.
o A steep lapse rate aloft in regions of cyclonic activity ensures the occurrence
of heavy frontal and convective rains.
o In summer the characteristics of the mT air mass over the oceans and in zones
of cyclonic activity are basically the same as in winter.
o Over warm continental areas, however, the air mass is strongly heated so that,
instead of fog and low stratus clouds, widely scattered and locally heavy
afternoon thunderstorms occur.
THE SOURCE REGION OF AN AIR MASS DEFINES ITS

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
• Source region should be extensive with gentle, divergent air circulation (slightly
at high pressure).
• Areas with high pressure but little pressure difference or pressure gradient
are ideal source regions.
• There are no major source regions in the mid-latitudes as these regions
are dominated by cyclonic and other disturbances.
• The temperature of an air mass will depend largely on its point of origin and its
subsequent journey over the land or sea.
• This might lead to warming or cooling by prolonged contact with a warm or cool
surface.
• A warm air mass is produced by prolonged contact with a warm surface, and
conversely, a cold air mass is produced by prolonged contact with a cold surface.
• The heat transfer processes that warms or cools the air takes place slowly.
• It may take a week or more to warm up the air by 10 oC right through the atmosphere
and for these changes to take place, a large mass of air must stagnate over a region.
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• Parts of the Earth's surface where the air can stagnate and gradually gain properties
of the underlying surface are called source regions.
• The main source regions are the high pressure belts in the subtropics (giving rise to
tropical air masses) and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
Warm source regions (tropical air masses):

• Sahara Desert - warm and dry
• Tropical Oceans - warm and moist
Cold source regions (polar air masses):

• Arctic Ocean - cold and moist
• Siberia - cold and dry
• Northern Canada - cold and dry
• Southern Ocean - cold and moist
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather:

• The properties of an air mass which influence the accompanying weather are vertical
distribution temperature (indicating its stability and coldness or warmness) and
the moisture content.
• The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents and
cause precipitation over landmasses.
• They transport latent heat, thus removing the latitudinal heat balance.
• Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as cyclones and storms
originate at the contact zone between different air masses and the weather associated
with these disturbances is determined by characteristics of the air masses involved.
FRONTS:
• A weather front is a transition zone between two different air masses at the Earth's
surface.
• Each air mass has unique temperature and humidity characteristics. Often there is
turbulence at a front, which is the borderline where two different air masses come
together.
• The turbulence can cause clouds and storms.
• Instead of causing clouds and storms, some fronts just cause a change in
temperature.
• However, some storm fronts start Earth's largest storms.
• Tropical waves are fronts that develop in the tropical Atlantic Ocean off the coast of
Africa.
• These fronts can develop into tropical storms or hurricanes if conditions allow.
• Fronts move across the Earth's surface over multiple days.
• The direction of movement is often guided by high winds, such as Jet Streams.
Landforms like mountains can also change the path of a front.
• There are four different types of weather fronts: cold fronts, warm
fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts.
Cold Front:
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A side view of a cold front (A, top) and how it is represented on a weather map (B, bottom).
Credit: Lisa Gardiner
• A cold front forms when a cold air mass pushes into a warmer air mass. Cold fronts
can produce dramatic changes in the weather. They move fast, up to twice as fast as a
warm front.
• As a cold front moves into an area, the heavier (more dense) cool air pushes under
the lighter (less dense) warm air, causing it to rise up into the troposphere.
• Lifted warm air ahead of the front produces cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds and
thunderstorms, like in the image on the left (A).
• As the cold front passes, winds become gusty.
• There is a sudden drop in temperature, and also heavy rain, sometimes with hail,
thunder, and lightning.
• Atmospheric pressure changes from falling to rising at the front. After a cold front
moves through your area, you may notice that the temperature is cooler, the rain has
stopped, and the cumulus clouds are replaced by stratus and stratocumulus clouds or
clear skies.
• On weather maps, a cold front is represented by a solid blue line with filled-in
triangles along it, like in the map on the left.
• The triangles are like arrowheads pointing in the direction that the front is moving.
Notice on the map that temperatures at the ground level change from warm to cold as
you cross the front line.
Warm Front:
A side view of a warm front (A, top) and how it is represented on a weather map (B, bottom).
• A warm front forms when a warm air mass pushes into a cooler air mass, shown in
the image to the right (A).
• Warm fronts often bring stormy weather as the warm air mass at the surface rises
above the cool air mass, making clouds and storms.
• Warm fronts move more slowly than cold fronts because it is more difficult for the
warm air to push the cold, dense air across the Earth's surface.
• Warm fronts often form on the east side of low-pressure systems where warmer air
from the south is pushed north.
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• You will often see high clouds like cirrus, cirrostratus, and middle clouds like
altostratus ahead of a warm front.
• These clouds form in the warm air that is high above the cool air. As the front passes
over an area, the clouds become lower, and rain is likely.
• There can be thunderstorms around the warm front if the air is unstable.
• On weather maps, the surface location of a warm front is represented by a solid red
line with red, filled-in semicircles along it, like in the map on the right (B).
• The semicircles indicate the direction that the front is moving.
• They are on the side of the line where the front is moving. Notice on the map that
temperatures at ground level are cooler in front of the front than behind it.
Weather along a warm front

• As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and causes precipitation but, unlike a
cold front, the temperature and wind direction changes are gradual.
• Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation over a large area, over several
hours.
• The passage of warm front is marked by rise in temperature, pressure and change
in weather.
Clouds along a warm front:

• With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—-cirrus, stratus and nimbus. [No
cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is gentle]
• Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo around sun and moon.
Stationary Front:
A stationary front is represented on a map by triangles pointing in one direction and semicircles pointed in the other direction.
• A stationary front forms when a cold front or warm front stops moving. This happens
when two masses of air are pushing against each other, but neither is powerful
enough to move the other.
• Winds blowing parallel to the front instead of perpendicular can help it stay in place.
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• A stationary front may stay put for days. If the wind direction changes, the front will
start moving again, becoming either a cold or warm front. Or the front may break
apart.
• Because a stationary front marks the boundary between two air masses, there are
often differences in air temperature and wind on opposite sides of it.
• The weather is often cloudy along a stationary front, and rain or snow often falls,
especially if the front is in an area of low atmospheric pressure.
• On a weather map, a stationary front is shown as alternating red semicircles and blue
triangles like in the image at the left.
• Notice how the blue triangles point in one direction, and the red semicircles point in
the opposite direction.
Occluded Front:
An occluded front is represented on a weather map by a purple line with alternating triangles and semicircles.
Credit:Lisa Gardiner
• Sometimes a cold front follows right behind a warm front.

• A warm air mass pushes into a colder air mass (the warm front), and then another
cold air mass pushes into the warm air mass (the cold front). Because cold fronts
move faster, the cold front is likely to overtake the warm front. This is known as an
occluded front.
• At an occluded front, the cold air mass from the cold front meets the cool air that was
ahead of the warm front.
• The warm air rises as these air masses come together. Occluded fronts usually form
around areas of low atmospheric pressure.
• There is often precipitation along an occluded front from cumulonimbus or
nimbostratus clouds.
• Wind changes direction as the front passes and the temperature either warms or
cools.
• After the front passes, the sky is usually clearer, and the air is drier.
• On a weather map, shown to the left, an occluded front looks like a purple line with
alternating triangles and semicircles pointing in the direction that the front is
moving.
• It ends at a low pressure area shown with a large ‘L’ on the map, begins at the other
end when cold and warm fronts connect.
5.2 PRECIPITATION AND THUNDER STORMS

• Precipitation is any type of water that forms in the Earth's atmosphere and then
drops onto the surface of the Earth.
• Water vapor, droplets of water suspended in the air, builds up in the Earth's
atmosphere. Water vapor in the atmosphere is visible as clouds and fog. Water vapor
collects with other materials, such as dust, in clouds.
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Precipitation condenses, or forms, around these tiny pieces of material, called cloud
condensation nuclei (CCN).
Clouds eventually get too full of water vapor, and the precipitation turns into a liquid
(rain) or a solid (snow).
Precipitation is part of the water cycle. Precipitation falls to the ground as snow and
rain.
It eventually evaporates and rises back into the atmosphere as a gas. In clouds, it
turns back into liquid or solid water, and it falls to Earth again.
People rely on precipitation for fresh water to drink, bathe, and irrigate crops for
food.
The most common types of precipitation are rain, hail, and snow etc.
Different Types of Precipitation
Rain:
• Rain is any liquid that drops from the clouds in the sky. Rain is described as water
droplets of 0.5 mm or larger.
• Droplets less than half a millimetre are defined as a drizzle.
• Raindrops frequently fall when small cloud particles strike and bind together,
creating bigger drops.
• As this process continues, the drops get bigger and bigger to an extent where they
become too heavy to suspend on the air. As a result, the gravity pulls then down to
the earth.
• When high in the air, the raindrops start falling as ice crystals or snow but melt when
as they proceed down the earth through the warmer air.
• Rainfall rates vary from time to time, for example, light rain ranges from rates of 0.01
to 0.1 inches per hour, moderate rain from 0.1 to .3 inches per hour, and heavy rain
above 0.3 inches per hour.
• Rain is the most common component of the water cycle and replenishes most of the
freshwater on the earth.
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Types of Rainfall:
Rainfall has been classified into three main types based on the origin –
• Convectional rainfall
• Orographic or relief rainfall
• Cyclonic or frontal rainfall
Convectional Rainfall – Major Characteristics:

• The air on getting heated becomes light and rises in convection currents.
• As the air rises, it expands and drops the temperature and subsequently,
condensation takes place and cumulus clouds are formed.
• Heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder takes place which does not last long.
• Such rain is usually in the summer or the hotter part of the day.
• This type of rainfall generally takes place in the equatorial regions and internal parts
of the continents, predominantly in the northern hemisphere.
• This rainfall is usually associated with hail and graupel
Orographic Rainfall – Major Characteristics:

• When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to rise.
• The rising air expands, eventually, the temperature falls, and the moisture gets
condensed.
• The principal characteristic of this type of rain is that the windward slopes get more
rainfall.
• After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they
drop away, and their temperature increases. Then their ability to take in moisture
increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain dry and rainless.
• The region situated on the leeward side is known as the rain-shadow area.
Cyclonic Rainfall – Major Characteristics:

• Cyclonic activity causes cyclonic rain and it occurs along the fronts of the cyclone.
• When two masses of air of unlike density, temperature, and humidity meet then it is
formed.
• The layer that separates them is known as the front.
• A warm front and the cold front are the two parts of the front.
• At the warm front, the warm lighter wind increases slightly over the heavier cold air.
• As the warm air rises, it cools, and the moisture present in it condenses to form
clouds
• This rain falls gradually for a few hours to a few days.
Types of Rainfall based on Intensity:

The types of rainfall based on intensity can be classified as:
1. Light rain – Rate of rain varies between 0 to 2.5 millimeters
2. Moderate rain – Rate of rain varies between 2.6 millimeters to 7.6 millimeters
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3. Heavy rain – Rate of rain is beyond 7.6 millimeters
Snow:
• Snow occurs almost every time there is rain.

• However, snow often melts before it reaches the earth’s surface.
• It is precipitation in the form of virga or flakes of ice water falling from the clouds.
• Snow is normally seen together with high, thin, and weak cirrus clouds.
• Snow can at times fall when the atmospheric temperatures are above freezing, but it
mostly occurs in sub-freezing air.
• When the temperatures are above freezing, the snowflakes can partially melt but
because of relatively warm temperatures, the evaporation of the particles occurs
almost immediately.
• This evaporation leads to cooling just around the snowflake and makes it to reach to
the ground as snow.
• Snow has a fluffy, white, and soft structure and its formation is in different shapes
and ways, namely flat plates, and thin needles.
• Each type of snow forms under specific combinations of atmospheric humidity and
temperatures. The process of snow precipitation is called snowfall.
Hail:
• Hailstones are big balls and irregular lumps of ice that fall from large thunderstorms.
• Hail is purely solid precipitation.
• As opposed to sleets that can form in any weather when there are thunderstorms,
hailstones are predominately experienced in the winter or cold weather.
• Hailstones are mostly made up of water ice and measure between 0.2 inches (5
millimeters) and 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter.
• This ranges in size of a pea’s diameter to that larger than a grapefruit.
• For this reason, they are highly damaging to crops, tearing leaves apart and reducing
their value.
• Violent thunderstorms with very strong updrafts usually have the capability to hold
ice against the gravitational pull, which brings about the hailstones when they
eventually escape and fall to the ground.
• So, hailstones are formed from super-cooled droplets that slowly freeze and result in
a sheet of clear ice.
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Other kinds of the Precipitation:

Sleet (Ice Pellets)
• Sleet takes place in freezing atmospheric conditions.
• Sleet, also known as ice pellets, form when snow falls into a warm layer then melts
into the rain and then the rain droplets fall into a freezing layer of air that is cold
enough to refreeze the raindrops into ice pellets.
• Hence, sleet is defined as a form of precipitation composed of small and semi-
transparent balls of ice.
• They should not be confused with hailstones as they are smaller in size.
• Sleet is often experienced during thunderstorms and is normally accompanied by
frosty ice crystals that form white deposits and a mixture of semisolid rain and slushy
snow.
• Ice pellets (sleet) bounce when they hit the ground or any other solid objects and fall
with a hard striking sound. Sleet don does not freeze into a solid mass except when it
combines with freezing rain.
Freezing Rain:
• Freezing rain happens when rain falls during below freezing
conditions/temperatures.
• This normally results in the solidification of rain droplets.
• The raindrops are super-cooled while passing through the sub-freezing layer in the
atmosphere and freezes by the time it reaches the ground.
• During freezing rains, it is common to witness an even coating of ice on cars, streets,
trees, and power lines.
• The resulting coating of ice is called glaze and it can build up to a thickness of several
centimetres.
• Freezing rains pose a huge threat to normal operations of roadway transportation,
aircraft, and power lines.
Drizzle:
• Drizzle is very light rain.
• It is stronger than mist but less than a shower.
• Mist is a thin fog with condensation near the ground.
• Fog is made up of ice crystals or cloud water droplets suspended in the air near or at
the earth’s surface.
• Drizzle droplets are smaller than 0.5 millimeters (0.02 inches) in diameter. They
arise from low stratocumulus clouds.
• They sometimes evaporate even before reaching the ground due to their minute size.
Drizzle can be persistent is cold atmospheric temperatures.
Sun Shower:
• Sun shower is a precipitation event that is registered when rain falls while the sun
shines.
• It occurs when the winds bearing rain together with rainstorms are blown several
miles away, thus giving rise to raindrops into an area without clouds.
• Consequently, a sun shower is formed when a single rain cloud passes above the
earth’s surface and the sun’s rays penetrate through the raindrops.
• Most of the time, it is accompanied by the appearance of a rainbow.
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Snow Grains:
• Snow grains are very small white and opaque grains of ice. Snow grains are fairly flat
and have a diameter generally less than 1mm. They are almost equivalent to the size
of drizzle.
Diamond Dust:
• Diamond dust is extremely small ice crystals usually formed at low levels and at
temperatures below -30 °C. Diamond dust got its name from the sparkling effect
which is created when light reflects on the ice crystals in the air.
Thunderstorm:
• Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe local storms. They are of short
duration, occurring over a small area but are violent.
• Thunderstorm is a storm with thunder and lightning and typically also heavy
rain or hail.
• Thunderstorms mostly occur on ground where the temperature is high.
Thunderstorms are less frequent on water bodies due to low temperature.
• Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 million thunderstorms each year, and at any
given moment, there are roughly 2,000 thunderstorms in progress.
How does a thunderstorm form?

• Three basic ingredients are required for a thunderstorm to form: moisture, rising
unstable air (air that keeps rising when given a nudge), and a lifting mechanism to
provide the “nudge.
• The sun heats the surface of the earth, which warms the air above it. If this warm
surface air is forced to rise—hills or mountains, or areas where warm/cold or wet/dry
air bump together can cause rising motion—it will continue to rise as long as it
weighs less and stays warmer than the air around it.
• As the air rises, it transfers heat from the surface of the earth to the upper levels of
the atmosphere (the process of convection).
• The water vapor it contains begins to cool, releases the heat, condenses and forms a
cloud. The cloud eventually grows upward into areas where the temperature is below
freezing.
• As a storm rises into freezing air, different types of ice particles can be created from
freezing liquid drops.
• The ice particles can grow by condensing vapor (like frost) and by collecting smaller
liquid drops that haven't frozen yet (a state called "supercooled").
• When two ice particles collide, they usually bounce off each other, but one particle
can rip off a little bit of ice from the other one and grab some electric charge. Lots of
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these collisions build up big regions of electric charges to cause a bolt of lightning,
which creates the sound waves we hear as thunder.
The Thunderstorm Life Cycle:

• Thunderstorms have three stages in their life cycle:
o The developing stage,
o the mature stage, and
o the dissipating stage.
• The developing stage of a thunderstorm is marked by a cumulus cloud that is being
pushed upward by a rising column of air (updraft).
• The cumulus cloud soon looks like a tower (called towering cumulus) as the updraft
continues to develop.
• There is little to no rain during this stage but occasional lightning.
• The thunderstorm enters the mature stage when the updraft continues to feed the
storm, but precipitation begins to fall out of the storm, creating a downdraft (a
column of air pushing downward).
• When the downdraft and rain-cooled air spreads out along the ground it forms a gust
front, or a line of gusty winds.
• The mature stage is the most likely time for hail, heavy rain, frequent lightning,
strong winds, and tornadoes.
• Eventually, a large amount of precipitation is produced and the updraft is overcome
by the downdraft beginning the dissipating stage.
• At the ground, the gust front moves out a long distance from the storm and cuts off
the warm moist air that was feeding the thunderstorm.
• Rainfall decreases in intensity, but lightning remains a danger.
Life cycle of a thunderstorm [+]
What does a thunderstorm look like?

• Thunderstorms can look like tall heads of cauliflower or they can have “anvils.” An
anvil is the flat cloud formation at the top of the storm.
• An anvil forms when the updraft (warm air rising) has reached a point where the
surrounding air is about the same temperature or even warmer.
• The cloud growth abruptly stops and flattens out to take the shape of an anvil.
• The most lightning activity on Earth is seen on the shore of Lake
Maracaibo in Venezuela.
• At the place where the Catatumbo river falls into Lake Maracaibo, October sees 28
lightning flashes every minute — a phenomenon referred to as the Beacon of
Maracaibo or the Everlasting Storm.
• The most lightning activity on Earth is seen on the shore of Lake Maracaibo in
Venezuela.
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• At the place where the Catatumbo river falls into Lake Maracaibo, October sees 28
lightning flashes every minute - a phenomenon referred to as the Beacon of
Maracaibo or the Everlasting Storm.
5.3 SMOG, HUMIDITY AND CONDENSATION:

Smog is a term developed by combining the words fog and smoke. Smog has characteristics
of both fog and smoke. The smoke is the product a human air pollution and the fog is a
product of moisture condensing onto the air pollutants or the air pollution's whitish color
reducing visibility. There are several factors that when combined together produce smog.
Each of these is covered below.
• Urban pollution:
o Cars, factors and burning add pollutants to the air. In the urban environment
these pollutants are concentrated over a small area of the earth's surface.
• Forest fires:
o Forest fires put large amounts of pollutants into the air. The burning of wood
gives off large amounts of smoke.
• Light wind:
o Light wind keeps the pollutants concentrated over a certain area. The
pollutants can not be dispersed until wind and other factors mix out and
dissolve the pollutants.
• No rain:
o Widespread rain will remove air pollutants from the troposphere. In periods
of no rain this can not occur.
• Inversion, high pressure system:

o A high pressure system will have stable sinking air. This prevents the
pollutants from mixing out with air aloft. An inversion (temperature increase
with height) results in stability also and will trap pollution near the surface.
• Warm and humid air:

• This is the factor that makes the smog reduce visibility more.
• At warm temperatures the air can evaporate large amounts of water vapor into it.
• If the relative humidity is high at the same time that it is warm then that is an
indication large amounts of moisture are in the air.
• With the relative humidity high, moisture will condense on the pollution
particles.
• This occurs even when the relative humidity is less than 100% on certain particle
types.
• Rain will not occur even when the air is very warm and humid if high pressure is
preventing the air from being lifted to condense out rain.
• This situation produces hot, hazy and humid weather.
• Sunlight:
o The sun's radiation will react with the air pollution to produce new pollutants
such as ozone that reduce visibility further.
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• Persistence:
o If certain of the factors above persist over time the tendency will be for the
smog to get worse each day.
HUMIDITY:
• Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. If there is a lot of water vapor in the
air, the humidity will be high.
• The higher the humidity, the wetter it feels outside.
• On the weather reports, humidity is usually explained as relative humidity.
• Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor actually in the air, expressed as a
percentage of the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at the same
temperature.
• Think of the air at a chilly -10 degrees Celsius (14 degrees Fahrenheit).
• At that temperature, the air can hold, at most, 2.2 grams of water per cubic meter. So
if there are 2.2 grams of water per cubic meter when its -10 degrees Celsius outside,
we're at an uncomfortable 100 percent relative humidity.
• If there was 1.1 grams of water in the air at -10 degrees Celsius, we're at 50 percent
relative humidity.
• When humidity is high, the air is so clogged with water vapor that there isnt room for
much else.
• If you sweat when its humid, it can be hard to cool off because your sweat cant
evaporate into the air like it needs to.
• Humidity is blamed for all kinds of negative things, including mold in your house
(usually the bathroom, where its wet a lot of the time), as well as malfunctions in
regular household electronics.
• Moisture from humid air settles, or condenses, on electronics.
• This can interrupt the electric current, causing a loss of power.
• Computers and television sets can lose power like this if not protected from the
effects of humidity.
• Living with humidity is easier with the aid of a dehumidifier, which sucks moisture
out of the air.
• High humidity is also associated with hurricanes.
• Air with high moisture content is necessary for a hurricane to develop. U.S. states
such as Texas and Louisiana, which border the very warm Gulf of Mexico, have
humid climates.
• This results in tons of rainfall, lots of flooding and the occasional hurricane.
Humidity of the air can be expressed in the following ways:
a. Absolute Humidity: This measures the total amount of water vapour present in the air
at particular time. It is highly variable based on the surface on which the air moves. It is
measured as weight of humidity/ volume of the air.
• Hygrometer is used to measure the relative humidity of a region.
b. Relative Humidity (RH %): This is the ratio of Absolute humidity and humidity
capacity in term of percentage. It reveals the condition of air to get saturated. This is
controlled by both temperature and moisture content of the air. The condition is that when
the temperature increases RH% decreases. But when absolute humidity increases RH%
increases.
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Hydrological Cycle:
Continuous movement of water among the three spheres is known as Hydrological Cycle.
Hydrological cycle involves evaporation, condensation, precipitation, advection,
interception, evapo-transpiration, infiltration, percolation and runoff to the ocean (Figure
6.24).
• Evaporation is the process by which water in liquid state changes into vapour state
using heat energy from Sun. Evaporation is maximum when the temperature is high,
on the large expanse of water and when dry winds blow over water surface.
• Condensation is the process by which water vapour cools to form water droplet by
loosing temperature. The condensation occurs when dew point is reached in the
atmosphere.
• Precipitation is the process by which all forms of water particles fall from the
atmosphere and reach the ground.
PROCESS OF CONDENSATION
Condensation is the change of the physical state of water vapour (gas state) into water (liquid
state). The following process explains mechanism of condensation in the atmosphere.
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• If an air reaches 100% relative humidity, it means that the air is completely filled
with moisture content.
• It indicates that both the absolute humidity and the humidity capacity of the air are
in same level.
• This condition is called ‘saturation of air’ which can be attained by reducing the
temperature of the air or increasing the moisture content. The temperature at which
the air gets saturated is called as ‘dew point’.
• The RH crosses the 100% when the temperature of the air drops below its dew point.
This condition is called as ‘super saturation’ of the air.
• In this condition the air releases the excess moisture out of it in the form of tiny water
droplets which floats and form clouds in the atmosphere.
• If the same process occurs on the surface of the earth, it is called as ‘fog’ or cloud on
the ground.
Clouds and its Types:

Clouds are tiny water droplets suspended in the air formed due to the condensation.
The clouds can be classified based on their form, height and appearance as follows: (Figure
6.22)
a. High clouds: Mainly cirrus (Ci) which are feathery form at 6 km above the ground.
i. Cirrus (Ci) – This looks fibrous and appears as wisps cotton in the blue sky. It indicates
fair weather and gives brilliant sun set.
ii. Cirro Cumulus (Cc) – This appears as white globular masses, forming a mackerel sky.
iii. Cirro Stratus (Cs) – This resembles a thin white sheet. The sky looks milky and the
sun and moon shines through this clouds and form a ‘halo’.
b. Middle Clouds: Mainly Alto (Alt) clouds at 2 km to 6 km above the ground.

• Altocumulus (Alt-Cu): These are woolly, bumpy clouds arranged in layers appearing like
waves in the blue sky. They indicate fine weather.
• Altostratus (Alt-St): These are denser and have watery look.
c. Low Clouds: Mainly Stratus or sheet clouds below 2 km height.

Stratocumulus (St-Cu): This is rough and bumpy clouds with wavy structure.
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• Stratus (St): This is very low cloud, uniformly grey and thick, appears like highland fog. It
brings dull weather and light drizzle. It reduces the visibility and is a hindrance to air
transportation.
• viii. Nimbostratus (Ni-St): This is dark dull cloud, clearly layered, as it brings rain,
snow and sleet and it is called as rainy cloud.
d. Clouds with vertical extent: These are mainly cumulus clouds whose heights extend
from 2 km to 10 km approximately.
• Cumulus (Cu): This is vertical cloud with rounded top and horizontal base, associated
with convectional process in the tropical region. It also called as ‘fair weather cloud’.
• Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni): This is over grown cumulus cloud with great vertical extent,
with black and white globular mass. The cauliflower top spreads like an anvil. This is formed
due to heavy convection in the tropical regions. It is accompanied by lightning, thunder and
heavy rainfall.
5.4 TROPICAL AND TEMPERATE CYCLONE

Tropical cyclones represent still another example of air-sea interactions. These storm
systems are known as hurricanes in the North Atlantic and eastern North Pacific and as
typhoons in the western North Pacific. The winds of such systems revolve around a centre of
low pressure in an counter clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in a
clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The winds attain velocities in excess of 115
km (71 miles) per hour, or 65 knots, in most cases. Tropical cyclones may last from a few
hours to as long as two weeks, the average lifetime being six days.
Conditions Favourable for Tropical Cyclone Formation:

1. Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C,
2. Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex,
3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed,
4. A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation,
5. Upper divergence above the sea level system,
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Origin and Development of Tropical Cyclones:
• The tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas
during late summers (August to mid-November).
• At these locations, the strong local convectional currents acquire a whirling motion
because of the Coriolis force.
• After developing, these cyclones advance till they find a weak spot in the trade wind
belt.
• Under favourable conditions, multiple thunderstorms originate over the oceans.
These thunderstorms merge and create an intense low pressure system (wind is
warm and lighter).
Early stage:
• In the thunderstorm, air is uplifted as it is warm and light. At certain height, due
to lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate, the temperature of air falls and moisture in the
air undergoes condensation.
• Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air more warmer. It
becomes much lighter and is further uplifted.
• The space is filled by fresh moisture laden air.
• Condensation occurs in this air and the cycle is repeated as long as the moisture is
supplied.
• Due to excess moisture over oceans, the thunderstorm intensifies and sucks in air at
much faster rate. The air from surroundings rushes in and undergoes deflection due
to Coriolis force creating a cyclonic vortex .
• Due to centripetal acceleration (centripetal force pulling towards the center is
countered by an opposing force called centrifugal force), the air in the vortex is forced
to form a region of calmness called an eye at the center of the cyclone. The inner
surface of the vortex forms the eye wall, the most violent region of the cyclone.
[Eye is created due to tangential force acting on wind that is following a curvy path]
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• All the wind that is carried upwards loses its moisture and becomes cold and dense. It
descends to the surface through the cylindrical eye region and at the edges of the
cyclone.
• Continuous supply of moisture from the sea is the major driving force behind every
cyclone. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm
dissipates.
• If ocean can supply more moisture, the storm will reach a mature stage.
Mature stage:
• At this stage, the spiraling winds create multiple convective cells with successive calm
and violent regions.
• The regions with cumulonimbus cloud (rising limbs of convective cell) formation are
called rain bands below which intense rainfall occurs.
• The ascending air will lose moisture at some point and descends (subsides) back to
surface through the calm regions (descending limbs of convection cell – subsiding
air) that exist between two rain bands.
• Cloud formation is dense at the center.
• The cloud size decreases from center to periphery.
• Rain bands are mostly made up of cumulonimbus clouds. The ones at the periphery
are made up of nimbostratus and cumulus clouds.
• The dense overcast at the upper levels of troposphere is due to cirrus clouds which
are mostly made up of hexagonal ice crystals.
• The dry air flowing along the central dense overcast descends at the periphery and
the eye region.
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Areas prone to Tropical Cyclones:
• South-east Caribbean region where they are called hurricanes.

• Philippines islands, eastern China, and Japan where they are called typhoons.
• The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea where they are called cyclones.
• Around the south-east African coast and Madagascar-Mauritius islands.
• North-west Australia.
•
What they are

Regions called
Indian
Ocean Cyclones
Atlantic Hurricanes
Western
Pacific and
South China
Sea Typhoons
Western
Australia Willy-willies

The main features of tropical cyclones are as follows:

• Tropical cyclones have symmetrical elliptical shapes (2:3 ratio of length and breadth)
with steep pressure gradients.
• They have a compact size—80 km near center, which may develop up to 300 km to
1500 km.
• Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is more in poleward margins than at center and
is moreover oceans than over landmasses, which are scattered with physical barriers.
The wind velocity may range from nil to 1200 km per hour.
• These cyclones start with a westward movement but turn northwards around 20°
latitude.
• They turn further north-eastwards around 25° latitude, and then eastwards around
30° latitude.
• They then lose energy and subside.
• Tropical cyclones follow a parabolic path, their axis being parallel to the isobars.
• Coriolis force or earth’s rotation, easterly and westerly winds influence the path of a
tropical cyclone.
• Tropical cyclones die at 30° latitude because of cool ocean waters and increasing
wind shear due to westerlies.
Precaution of Tropical Cyclones:

• Detection of any unusual phenomena in the weather leading to cyclones has three
main parameters: fall in pressure, increase in wind velocity, and the
direction and movement (track) of storm.
• There are a network of weather stations monitoring pressure fall and wind velocities
in all countries of the world, including the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
MALUKA IAS
• The islands attain special significance in this as they facilitate monitoring of these
developments.
• In India, there are detection radars along both the coasts.
• Monitoring is also done by aircraft which carry a number of instruments
including a weather radar.
• Cyclone monitoring by satellites is done through very high resolution radiometers,
working in the visual and infra-red regions (for night view) of the spectrum to obtain
an image of the cloud cover and its structure.
• Remote sensing by radars, aircraft and satellites helps predict where exactly the
cyclone is going to strike. It helps in taking advance steps in the following areas:
• closing of ports and harbours,
• suspension of fishing activities,
• evacuation of population,
• stocking of food and drinking water, and
• provision of shelter with sanitation facilities (safety homes).
• Today, it is possible to detect a cyclone right from its genesis in the high seas and
follow its course, giving a warning at least 48 hours prior to a cyclone strike.
• However, the predictions of a storm course made only 12 hours in advance do not
have a very high rate of precision.
Storm Surge:
• Storm Surge is an abnormal rise of sea level as the cyclone crosses the coast.
• Sea water inundates the coastal strip causing loss of life, large scale destruction to
property & crop.
• Increased salinity in the soil over affected area makes the land unfit for agricultural
use for two or three seasons.
• Storm surge depends on intensity of the cyclone (Maximum winds and lowest
pressure associated with it and Coastal bathymetry (shallower coastline generates
surges of greater heights).
• The storm tide is the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide.
•
disaster potential of storm surge:
• Disaster potential due to cyclones is due to high storm surges occurring at the time of
landfall.
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• The storm surges are by far the greatest killers in a cyclone. as sea water inundates low
lying areas of the coastal regions causing heavy floods, erosion of beaches and
embankments, damage to vegetation and reducing soil fertility.
• Flooding due to storm surges pollute drinking water sources resulting in shortage of
drinking water and causing out-break of epidemics, mostly water borne diseases Very
strong winds (Gales) may cause uprooting of trees, damage to dwellings, overhead
installations, communication lines etc., resulting in loss of life and property.
• Past records show that very heavy loss of life due to tropical cyclones have occurred in
the coastal areas surrounding the Bay of Bengal.
• Cyclones are also often accompanied by very intense & heavy precipitation (exceeding
40-50 cm in a day or about 10cm or more per hour in some places).
Rotation of the cyclone:
• As the earth’s rotation sets up an apparent force (called the Coriolis force) that pulls
the winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere (and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere).
• So, when a low pressure starts to form over north of the equator, the surface winds
will flow inward trying to fill in the low and will be deflected to the right and a
counter-clockwise rotation will be initiated.
• The opposite (a deflection to the left and a clockwise rotation) will occur south of the
equator.
• This Coriolis force is too tiny to effect rotation in, for example, water that is going
down the drains of sinks and toilets.
• The rotation in those will be determined by the geometry of the container and the
original motion of the water.
• Thus, one can find both clockwise and counter-clockwise flowing drains no matter
what hemisphere you are located.
REASON FOR THE FEWER CYCLONES OVER THE ARABIAN SEA

AS COMPARED TO THE BAY OF BENGAL:
MALUKA IAS
• Cyclones that form over the Bay of Bengal are either those develop inside over
southeast Bay of Bengal and adjoining Andaman Sea or remnants of typhoons over
Northwest Pacific and move across south China sea to Indian Seas.
• As the frequency of typhoons over Northwest Pacific is quite high (about 35 % of the
global annual average), the Bay of Bengal also gets its increased quota.
• The cyclones over the Arabian Sea either originate insitu over southeast
Arabian Sea (which includes Lakshadweep area also) or remnants of
cyclones from the Bay of Bengal that move across south peninsula.
• As the majority of Cyclones over the Bay of Bengal weaken over land after landfall,
the frequency of migration into Arabian Sea is low.
• In addition to all the above the Arabian Sea is relatively colder (mosnsoon winds)
than Bay of Bengal and hence inhibits the formation and intensification of the
system.
• The southwest monsoon is characterized by the presence of strong westerly
winds in the lower troposphere (below 5 km) and very strong easterly winds in the
upper troposphere (above 9 km).
• This results in large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical wind shear inhibits
cyclone development.
• Also the potential zone for the development of cyclones shifts to North Bay of Bengal
during southwest monsoon season.
• During this season, the low pressure system upto the intensity of depressions form
along the monsoon trough (ITCZ), which extends from northwest India to the north
Bay of Bengal.
• The Depression forming over this area crosses Orissa – West Bengal coast in a day or
two.
• These systems have shorter oceanic stay (they make landfall very quickly) which is
also one of the reasons for their non-intensification into intense cyclones.
system of uniformity in naming a cyclone in the region:
• Tropical cyclones are named to provide ease of communication between forecasters and
the general public regarding forecasts and warnings.
• Since the storms can often last a week or even longer and more than one cyclone can be
occurring in the same region at the same time, names can reduce the confusion about
what storm is being described
• Naming them after a person/flower/animal etc. makes it easier for the media to report
on tropical cyclones, increases community preparedness, also helps in quick
information exchange between faraway stations, ships etc.
• A good network of meteorological observatories (both surface and upper air) is operated
by IMD, covering the entire coastline and islands.
• The conventional observations are supplemented by observational data from automatic
weather stations (AWS), radar and satellite systems.
• INSAT imagery obtained at hourly intervals during cyclone situations has proved to be
immensely useful in monitoring the development and movement of cyclones.
• The names of cyclones in Indian Seas are not allocated in alphabetical order, but
are arranged by the name of the country which contributed the name.
• It is usual practice for a storm to be named when it reaches tropical storm strength
(winds of 34 knots).
Knot:
• The knot (pronounced not) is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km)
per hour, approximately 1.151 mph
MALUKA IAS
• Worldwide, the knot is used in meteorology, and in maritime and air navigation—
for example, a vessel travelling at 1 knot along a meridian travels approximately
one minute of geographic latitude in one hour.
1 international knot = 1 nautical mile per hour (exactly) = 1.852 kilometres per
hour (exactly) = 0.514 metres per second (approximately)
• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) which issues cyclone advisors to eight
countries has a list of names contributed by each of them.
• Every time a cyclone occurs, a name is picked in the order of the names that are
already submitted.
• Each country gets a chance to name a cyclone. After all the countries get their turn,
the next list of names is followed.
TEMPERATE CYCLONES (MID LATITUDE CYCLONE OR

EXTRA TROPICAL CYCLONES OR FRONTAL CYCLONES)
Temperate cyclones are also known as Extra-tropical cyclones where the term “Extra-
tropical” signifies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside the tropics with a latitude
range between 30° and 60°.
MALUKA IAS
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclone (Extra-Tropical
Cyclones):
• The Extra-Tropical Cyclones are storm systems emerging in the mid and high
latitudes, away from the tropics.
• They are low-pressure systems with associated cold fronts, warm fronts, and
occluded fronts.
• These cyclones are formed along the polar front.
• In the beginning, the front is stationary.
• Extra-tropical cyclones are also known as mid-latitude storms or baroclinic storms.
• In the Northern hemisphere, cold air blows from the north of the front and warm air
blows from the south.
• When the pressure descents along the front, the cold air move towards
the south, and the warm air moves northwards setting in motion an
anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.
• The cyclonic circulation results in a well-built extratropical cyclone, with a cold front
and a warm front.
• There are pockets of warm air compressed between the forward and the rear cold air.
• The warm air climbs over the cold air and a series of clouds appear over the sky
ahead of the warm front and cause rainfall.
• The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air up.
• As an outcome, cumulus clouds develop along the cold front.
• The cold front moves faster than the warm front eventually surpassing the warm
front.
• The warm air is entirely lifted and the front is occluded and the cyclone dissipates.
• They can originate over the land and sea and cover a larger area.
• The approach of a temperate cyclone is marked by fall in temperature, fall in the
mercury level, wind shifts and a halo around the sun and the moon, and a thin veil of
cirrus clouds.
• A light drizzle follows which turns into a heavy downpour. These conditions
change with the arrival of the warm front which halts the fall in mercury level and the
rising temperature.
• Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails until the cold front of an anticyclonic
character arrives which causes a fall in temperature, brings cloudiness and rainfall
with thunder. After this, once again clear weather is established.
• The temperate cyclones experience more rainfall when there is slower movement and
a marked difference in rainfall and temperature between the front and rear of the
cyclone. These cyclones are generally accompanied by anticyclones.
Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones:
MALUKA IAS
Polar Front Theory

• According to this theory, the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-
cold air masses from the poles and thus a polar front is formed as a surface of
discontinuity.
• Such conditions occur over sub-tropical high, sub-polar low pressure belts and along
the Tropopause.
• The cold air pushes the warm air upwards from underneath. Thus a void is created
because of lessening of pressure. The surrounding air rushed in to occupy this void
and coupled with the earth’s rotation, a cyclone is formed which advances with the
westerlies (Jet Streams).
• In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the
north of the front.
• When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the
cold air move towards south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic
circulation (northern hemisphere). This is due to Coriolis Force.
• The cyclonic circulation leads to a well-developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm
front and a cold front.
• There are pockets of warm air or warm sector wedged between the forward and the
rear cold air or cold sector. The warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of
clouds appear over the sky ahead of the warm front and cause precipitation.
• The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air up. As
a result, cumulus clouds develop along the cold front. The cold front moves
faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front. The warm air is
completely lifted up and the front is occluded (occluded front) and the cyclone
dissipates.
• The processes of wind circulation both at the surface and aloft are closely interlinked.
• So temperate cyclone is intense frontogenesis involving mainly occlusion type
front. (Occluded front explained in detail in previous posts).
• Normally, individual frontal cyclones exist for about 3 to 10 days moving in a
generally west to east direction.
• Precise movement of this weather system is controlled by the orientation of the polar
jet stream in the upper troposphere.
Distribution of Temperate Cyclones:

• USA and Canada – extend over Sierra Nevada, Colorado, Eastern Canadian Rockies
and the Great Lakes region,
• The belt extending from Iceland to Barents Sea and continuing over Russia and
Siberia,
• Winter storms over Baltic Sea.
• Mediterranean basin extending up to Russia and even up to India in winters (called
western disturbances) and the Antarctic frontal zone.
MALUKA IAS
Major Differences between Temperate Cyclone and Tropical
Cyclone:
Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone

tropical cyclones, move from east to west. These cyclones move from west to east
A tropical cyclone has an effect on a Temperate cyclone affect a much larger area
comparatively smaller area than a
Temperate cyclone.
The velocity of wind in a tropical cyclone is The velocity of air is comparatively lower
much higher and it is more damaging.
Tropical Cyclone forms only on seas with Temperate cyclones can be formed on both
temperature more than 26-27degree C and land and sea
dissipate on reaching the land.
A tropical cyclone doesn’t last for more than Temperate cyclone can last for a duration of 15
7 days to 20 days

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M MALUKA IAS

What is Daylight Savings Time (DST)?

1.2 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE:

Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth:

Example 1 : Determine the local time of Thimpu (Bhutan) located at 90°

Statement : The time increases at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of

Solution :Difference between Greenwich and New Orleans = 90° of longitudes.

What is the International Date Line?

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Composition of the atmosphere:

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Important trace gases or major Green House Gases:

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The Mesosphere and Thermosphere:

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• The aurora are caused by energetic particles emitted by the sun.

The past and future of the atmosphere:

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2.2: TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

Factors influencing Insolation:

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I. Rotation of the earth on its axis

Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

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i) All objects whether hot or cold emit radiant energy continuously.

iii) The temperature of an object determines the wavelength of radiation.

2. Conduction (transfer of heat by contact):

3. Convection (vertical transfer of heat)

4. Advection (horizontal transfer of heat)

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2.3 : EARTH’S HEAT BUDGET AND ADIABETIC LAPSE

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Differential heating on the Earth surface:

Differential Heating of Earth’s Surface

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Seasonal Temperature Distribution

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January

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Seasonal Temperature Distribution – July

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Lapse Rate And Adiabatic Lapse Rate:

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Adiabatic Lapse Rate:

where x is a constant depending on amount of gas at a given temperature.

Adiabatic Process: A Parcel of Rising or Falling Air

A Parcel of Rising Air:

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A Parcel of Falling Air:

Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate:

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Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate:

Weather conditions at different adiabatic lapse rates:

LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION:

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Pressure Belts of Earth:

(i) Equatorial Low-Pressure Belts: