UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,

DHARWAD

Lecture Notes
for
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENTOMOLOGY
AET-101 (2+1)

COURSE TEACHERS

Dr. Dr. P.S. Hugar, AC, Dharwad

Dr. Guruprasad G.S., AC, Dharwad
Dr. D.N. Kambrekar, AC, Dharwad
Dr. Rohini Sugandi, AC, Dharwad
Ms. Kalavathi Kambli, AC, Dharwad
Dr. Prakash H.T., AC, Vijaypura
Dr.Prasanna, AC, Hanumanamatti

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

 CONTENT
Week Theory Practicals
1 Classification of phylum Arthropoda up to Distinguishing characteristics of the
classes. Relationship of class Hexapoda with phylum Arthropoda.
other classes of Arthropoda. Factors
responsible for dominance of insects.
2 Morphology: Structure and functions of Collection and preservation of insects
insect cuticle and moulting. Body and immature stages.
segmentation.
3 Structure of head, thorax and abdomen. External morphology of cockroach
4 Structure and modifications of insect Types of insect antennae and mouth
antennae, mouthparts and legs. parts.
5 Wing venation and modifications. Sound and Modifications of legs, wings and wing
light producing organs. coupling mechanisms
6 Metamorphosis and diapause in insects. Types of insect eggs, larvae and pupae.
Types of eggs, larvae and pupae.
7 Structure and functions of digestive, Study of cockroach for digestive,
circulatory, excretory, respiratory, nervous excretory, circulatory and respiratory
and reproductive systems. systems.
8 Systematics- importance, history, Study of cockroach female and male
development and binomial nomenclature. reproductive and nervous systems.
9 Definitions of Biotype, sub-species, species, Characteristics of Odonata, Orthoptera
genus, family and order. and its families.
10 Classification of class Hexapoda up to Characteristics of Blatteria, Mantodea,
Orders of agricultural importance. Isoptera and its families.
11 Odonata, Orthoptera – Acrididae, Blatteria, Characteristics of Hemiptera and its
Mantodea - Mantidae, Isoptera – Termitidae. families.
12 Thysanoptera- Thripidae; Hemiptera- Characteristics of Homoptera and its
Pentatomidae, Coreidae, Pyrrhocoridae, families.
Lygaeidae, Reduvidae, Miridae.
13 Homoptera- Cicadellidae, Delphacidae, Characteristics of Thysanoptera,
Aphididae, Coccidae, Aleurodidae, Neuroptera and its families.
Lophopidae and pseudococcidae.
14 Neuroptera – Chrysopidae and Hemirobiidae. Characteristics Lepidoptera (butterflies)
Lepidoptera – Papilionidae, Lycaenidae, and its families.
Nymphalidae.
15 Hesperiidae, Pieridae, Tortricidae, Characteristics Lepidoptera (moths) and
Yponomeutidae, Noctuidae, Sphingidae, its families.
Lymantridae, Bombycidae, Saturniidae,
Gelechiidae and Arctiidae.
16 Coleoptera – Coccinellidae, Chysomelidae, Characteristics Coleoptera and its
Cerambycidae, Scolytidae, Carabidae, families.
Curculionidae, Bruchidae, Scarabaeidae,
Dermestidae, Tenebrionidae and Meloidae.
17 Hymenoptera – Tenthridinidae, Aphidae, Characteristics Hymenoptera and its
Trichogrammatidae, Eulophidae, families.
Chalcididae, Formicidae, Vespidae,
Ichneumonidae and Braconidae.
18 Diptera – Culicidae, Muscidae, Characteristics Diptera and its families.
Cecidomyiidae, Tephritidae, Tachinidae,
Agromyziidae, Anthomyiidae and Syrphidae.
 AET 101 - FUNDAMENTALS OF ENTOMOLOGY (2+1)
Entomology is Greek word, Entomon (cut in pieces/segmented)- Insect
Logia/logus – To study (Scientific study).
Entomology is a branch of zoology/Arthopdology which deals with scientific study
of all aspects of insects (both basic & applied). Entomology is both fundamental and applied
science which deals with study of insects in relation to man welfare.
Insect is derived from Latin word “insectum” means cut into, which refers to
segmented body. Insect is small invertebrate organism with hard, segmented body with 3
pairs of jointed legs, 2 pairs of wings, and one pair of antennae.
Main objectives of study of Entomology
1) Insect as pollinator – Insect pollinate many crops and increases the yield.
2) In sect serve as productive insects.
3) Insects serve as food for birds, fish and other useful animals.
4) Insect serve as scavengers.
5) Insect as beneficial insects like Natural enemies.
6) For management of harmful insects.
Hence, it is important to understand about the insects, their biology, classification
and management.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY
 Insects appeared 350 million years ago, much earlier than human beings who appeared on
earth only 150000 years ago.
 Insects are initially aquatic and later became terrestrial
 Insects are distributed every where from cooler parts to hottest tropics and live in water,
land, air, deserts and high mountains etc. They can be seen on crop plants, gardens,
museums, stores etc.
 In ancient scripts like Ramayana and Mahabharata some of the terms used were related to
the insects. They are pipilika- ant, pathanga- grasshopper, madhumakshika- honey bees and
umbakapalika- queen termite
 Reference to insects was found in Sanskrit dictionary, Amarakosa and books like Artha
sastra and Chanakya sutra etc.
 Aristotle made investigation about flies, honey bees, ants etc.
J.C. Fabricius made an extensive study of Indian insects for the first time
1745- 1808
and classified insects into 3 orders based on the type of mouth parts
The beginning of the modern Indian entomology with the publication of 10 th
1758 edition of ‘Systema Nature’ by Carolus Linnaeus where only 12 Indian
insects were included and it forms the first record
JG Koenig initiated the first regular scientific work on Indian insects and
supplied the insect specimens to systematists like Linnaeus, Fabricius,
1767- 1779
Cramer and Dury. He also published a special account of the termites of
Thanjavur District
1782 Dr. Kerr published an account of Lac insects
Asiatic Society of Bengal started in Calcutta and many papers were published
1785
in the Societies publications
1790 Roxburgh (Botanist) published a detailed account of lac insect
1791 Dr. J. Anderson issued a monograph on Cochineal scale insects
 Buchanan (Traveler) wrote on the cultivation of lac in India and on sericulture
in some parts of South India. Denovan published Natural History of Insects
1800
which was the first contribution on the insects of Asia and was revised in 1842
by West Wood
1840 ‘Rev Hope’ published a paper on Entomology of the Himalayas and India
1875 Foundation of the Indian Museum at Calcutta
Bombay Natural History Society was started. After the foundation of these
two organizations scientific studies received greater attention in India.
1883
Numerous contributions of Indian insects were published in the Journal of
the Bombay Natural History
1892 Hampson issued four volumes on moths of India
Rothney published on Indian Ants (earliest record of biological pest control in
India) i.e. White ant’s damage to stationary items was kept free by red ants.
1893
Government of India commenced the publication of the Fauna of British
India series
Sir Ronald Ross, an IMS officer, in charge of a Madras regiment stationed in
1897 Begumpet (Secunderabad) made the discovery of the malarial parasite in a
dissected Anopheles mosquito
Bingham's issued volumes on ‘Hymenoptera' (Ants, bees and wasps). Since
1897 then volumes on other groups of insects like Coleoptera (beetles), Hemiptera
(bugs), Odonata (dragonfly and damselfly), etc., were published
1889 Indian Museum, Calcutta published the Indian Museum Notes in five volumes
Lionel de Niceville was appointed as first entomologist to the Government of
1901
India
1903 Maxwell Lefroy succeeded as the second entomologist
1906 Publication of Indian insect pests by Maxwell Lefroy
1909 Publication of Indian insect life by Maxwell Lefroy
T.B. Fletcher, the first Government Entomologist of Madras State, published a
1914
book "Some South Indian Insects"
EP Stebbing, the first imperial forest entomologist published Indian forest
1914
insects of economic importance- Coleoptera
The Natural History Section of the Indian Museum was formed as the
1916
Zoological Survey of India
1921 Indian Central Cotton Committee to investigate on pests of cotton
1925 Indian Lac Research Institute
1937 A laboratory for storage pests was started at Hapur, UP
1937 Entomology division was started in IARI, New Delhi
Establishment of locust warning organization after the locust plague during
1939
1926-32
Dr. T.V. Ramakrishna Ayyar published the book "Handbook of Economic
1940
Entomology for South India".
1946 Government of India started the "Directorate of plant protection".
1953 National Malaria eradication programme was launched
1960 The desert locust in India monograph by Y. Ramachandra Rao
1963 Text book of Agricultural Entomology – HS Pruthi
1968 General Entomology – MS Mani
1969 Insects Pests of Crops- S Pradhan
1969 "The monograph on Indian Thysanoptera" by Dr. T.N. Ananthakrishnan
Elements of Economic Entomology- B Vasantharaj David and T
1975
Kumaraswami
 1975 Insects and Mites of crops in India- MRG Nair
General and Applied Entomology- Nayar, KK, N Ananthakrishnan and B
1976
Vasantharaj David

Establishment of Entomological Institutes

Sl. No. Year Institutes Location
Establishment of “Agricultural research institute”
1 1905 by lord Curzon. The land was donated by Mr.Phiffs Pusa, Bihar
of USA after whom the place was named as Pusa
2 1906 Forest research institute Dehradun
“Agricultural research institute” Pusa renamed as
3 1911 Pusa, Bihar
Imperial Agricultural Research Institute
4 1914 Zoological survey of India Kolkata
Indian institute of natural resins and gums(IINRG)
1925
5 formerly known as Indian lac research research Numkam,Ranchi
institute
Imperial Agricultural Research Institute , Pusa
6 1936 shifted to New Delhi New Delhi

7 1937 Establishment of Entomology division at IARI New Delhi

Directorate of plant protection Quarantine and
8 1946 Storage (DPPQS) Faridabad

National institute of plant health management

(formerly known as central plant protection
9 1946 Hyderabad
training institute, later national plant protection
training institute
Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, renamed
10 1947 as Indian Agricultural Research New Delhi
Institute
National bureau of agricultural important insects
11 2009 (NBAII) (formerly known as Project Directorate Bangalore
on Biological Control)
12 1986 National institute of Integrated Pest Management New Delhi
 Status/Position of Insects
Living things Nonliving things

5 Kingdoms

Animals Plant Protista Fungi Monera (Bacteria)

Kingdom: Animal (Animalia) (> 38 phylla in animal Kingdom)

Vertebrate Invertebrate

(Singular : Phyllum, Pleura : Phylla)

Phylum Porifera Protozoa Chordata Platyhelminthis Aschelminthis Annalids Arthropod Mollusca Echinodermata

Phyllum – Protozoa (Amoeba)

Phyllum – Protozoa (Sponges)
Phyllum – Chordata (Jelly fish, Corals)
Phyllum – Platyhelminthis(Tapeworms)
Phyllum – Aschelminthis (Roundworms)
Phyllum – Annalids (Earthworms, Leaches)
Phyllum – Arthropoda (Insect, Spiders)
Phyllum – Mollusca (Snails, Oysters)
Phyllum – Echinodermata (Starfish)
Phylum: Arthropoda: It is derived from Greek word. It has two words. Arthron – Jointed
Podus- Foot. Arthropoda contains the hard shelled, jointed legged animals. This phylum
contains 75% of animals described.
Characters of Phyllum Arthropoda:
1. Segmented body: Body of animals have segmented appendages.
2. Segments grouped into 2 or 3 regions (tagma).
3. Paired jointed appendages.
4. Chitinous exoskeleton:Renewable exoskeleton ie. they have hard chitinous external
skeletons or exoskeletons that are shed and regenerated as animal grow.
5. Grow by moulting.
6. Bilateral symmetry of body.
7. Body cavity filled with bold and called as haemocoel.
8. Open circulatory system.
9. Tubular alimentary canal with mouth and anus at anterior and
posterior end, respectively.
10. Dorsal heart with valve like ostia.
11. Ventral nervous system: Nervous system comprised of a brain and ventral nerve
chord.
12. Striated muscles (Multinucleated fibres which attached to cuticle)
13. Respiration by gills, tracheae or spiracles.
 Phylum Arthropoda includes insects, spiders, lobsters and related animals. Arthropoda
can be divided into 18 classes and major 7 classes are listed here under

1. Onychophora(claw bearing) eg: Peripatus

2. Crustacea (crusta-shell) eg: Prawn, Crab
3. Arachnida (Arachne-Spider) eg: Scorpion, Spider, Tick, Mite
4. Chilopoda(Chilo-lip: Poda-appendages) eg: Centipedes
5. Diplopoda (Diplo – two : Poda – appendages) eg: Millipedes
6. Trilobita (an extinct group)
7. Hexapoda (Hexa – six poda; legs) or Insecta – (In : Internal sect : cut) eg: Insects.
Characters of important classes under phylum Arthropoda.

1. Onychophora:
* Body regions: Not distinct, look like worms
*Antennae : 1 pair
* Visual organs: Not distinct
* Locomotor organs: Many pairs of unjointed legs
* Mouth part: Non mandibulate
* Respiration: Cutaneous
* Development: Anamorphosis
* Special feature: Link between Annelida and Arthropoda eg: Peripatus
* Habitate: Terristrial

2. Crustacea
Habit: Most of them are aquatic and few terrestrial
BD: Body divided into 2 regions (cephalothorax & abdomen)
Antennae: 2 pair (Antennule & Antennae)
Visual organ: One pair (Stalked compound eyes)
Locomotory organ: 5 pairs of legs (Biramous forked segmentation)
Respiration:Gill breathing
Development: Anamorphosis
Eg: Crag, Lobsters, Shrimp, Wates fleas, Cope pod etc.

3. Arachnida
BD: 3 (Prosoma – Cephalothorax, Mesosoma = Abdomen, Tail – Metosoma) eg: Scorpion
or 2 region (Prosoma &Qpisthosomaeg: Spiders)
Antennae: No antennae
Visual organ: One pair (simple eyes)
Locomotor organ: Four pairs
Respiration: Booklugs (Scorpion) & tracheal (spiders)
Development: Metamorphosis– absent (scorpion), present (spiders)
Special feature: Egg – larva – nymph – adult, Larvae – 3 pairs of legs, Nymph 4& 8 legs, eg:
Scorpions, spiders, mites, ticks

4. Diplopoda
BD: 2 (Head and multi segmented trunk)
Antennae: One pair
Visual organ: One pair (simple eyes)
Locomotor organ: Two pair per segment (No poison claws)
Respiration: Tracheal
Development: Metamorphosis
Habitate: Herbivores
Special feature: Gonopore present in 3rd segment (Progenital) eg: Millipedes

5. Chilopoda
BD: 2 region (Head and multi segmented trunk)
Antennae: One pair
Visual organ: One pair (simple eyes)
Locomotor organ: One pair per segment (First pair of legs modified as poison claw)
Respiration: Tracheal
Development: Metamorphosis
Habitate: Carnivores
Special feature: Gonopore present in terminal segment (Opisthogenital) eg: Centipedes

6. Insect/Hexapoda
BD: Three divisions – Head, thorax and abdomen
Antennae: One pair
Visual organ: On Both simple eyes and compound eyes (one pair)
Locomotor organ: Three pairs of legs and 2 pairs of wings
Respiration: Tracheal
Development: Metamorphosis
Habitate: Carnivores
Special feature: Genital structure on 8 & 9th abdominal segment eg: Insect
Insect is tracheated arthropod in which body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen
with a pair of antennae, compound eyes and one/two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs on
thorax.
The origin of the arthropod is from an annelid like ancestor with body bearing a series
of ring segments. In the course of evolution each body segment, except the last, acquired a pair
of ventral appendages. To serve in efficient locomotion, these appendages become jointed. First
apterygotan insects developed about 400 million year ago (Devonian period) and first winged
insects originated in carboniferous period about 350 billion years ago.
Insect dominance
Insects are dominant group in the animal kingdom with an account of 85%. The insects
are also contributing >90% to the arthropod group. Insects are dominant group. Since, insect
came on scene of existence according to various estimates from 250 to 500 million year ago.
Human beings have come on existence only one million year ago. So insect constitute most
dominant class of animal kingdom.
Measures of dominance
1. More number of species: It constitute for > 90% of population under phylum arthropods.
Total number of insects described so far > 9 lakh. (At some 1.3 m described species insect
account for > 2/3 of all organisms.
2. Large number of individuals of 109 number of individuals occupying large area.
3. Great variety of habitats: Insects thrive well under varied condition.
4. Long geological history: Insect were known to occupy this earth for > 400 million years
(Devonian period) which is good track record. This has given the insects a great variety of
adoption under different.
Reasons for dominance/Factor for dominance
There are several morphological, structural and physiological factors responsible for
insect dominance.
1) Locomotory organ: Insect have well developed locomotory organ like legs and wings.
a) Capacity to flight: Insects are the earliest animals and only flying invertebrates. Flight is
used for following purpose.
i) To seek food, mate, shelter and oviposition site.
ii) To colonise in a new habitat and also to exchange habitate.
iii) To escape from enemies and unfourable condition.
iv) To migrate (International migration as in case of locusts and butter fly). Honey bee can
fly at rate of 5.7 miles/hour, a hoverfly – 7-8 miles/hr. hawk moth about 11 miles per hr.
Butterfly even can fly 57 miles per hour.
b) Legs: Insect uses 3 legs at a time during locomotion while remaining’s are static which
gives greater stability.
2) More adaptability or University: Insects arte earliest group on the earth and have
ability to live in extreme environmental conditions which made them possible to invade and
colonise almost every nook and corner of the world. (Bed bug can live without food upto 6
month).
a) Wide range of climatic condition from – 50oC to 40oC
b) Petroleum fly found in crude petroleum well.
Ephydra fly living in great salt lake.
3) Smaller size: Majority of insects are small in their size conferring following
physiological and ecological advantages. In general they range from 0.2 to 120 mm in size.
i) Exploiting ecological niche which is inaccessible for other animals.
ii) Less space, food, time and energy requirement for development and sustainable life.
iii) Energy utilization is maximum.
iv) Eassy escape from enemies.
v)
4) Presence of Exoskeleton: Insect body is covered with an outer cover called as
exoskeleton which is made up of cuticular protein called chitin. Chitin is light weight, and gives
strength, rigidity and flexibility to the insect body. Exoskeleton gives protection against
external factors.
5) Resistance to desiccation: Insect minimizes the water loss from their body surface
through prevention of water loss (wax layer of epicuticle, closable spiracles, egg shell)
conservation of water (capable of utilizing metabolic water, resorption of water from fecal
matter, use of less quantity of water to remove the nitrogenous waste).
6) Tracheal system of respiration: This system ensures direct transfer of adequate
oxygen to actively breathing tissues. Spiracles through their closing mechanism admit air and
restrict water loss.
7) Higher reproductive potential: Reproductive potential of insect is high.
a) Higher fecundity (egg laying capacity) eg: Queen termite can lay – 6000-7000 eggs/day
for 15 long years
b) Short development period: eg: Corn aphid produces 16 nymph per female completes one
generation in 16 days.
Presence of special type of reproduction other than oviparity, viviparity like polyembryony,
parthenogenesis and paedogenesis.
Polyembryony: Development of many individuals from a single egg.
Parthenogenesis – Reproduction without mate or without fertilization.
Paedogensis: reproduction by immature stage.
c) Careful selection of oviposition site.
d) Exhibits parental care
8) Presence of metamorphosis: Changes occur during growth and development of an
insect during its lifecycle from birth to maturity. Egg-Larva-Pupa-Adult. More than 82% of
insect undergo complete metamorphosis. As the larval and adult food sources are different
competition for food is less.
9) Presence of defense mechanisms: Insects escapes from enemies with different defense
mechanism to increase their survival rate. Eg: Thanatosis – Insects pretends as if dead. Eg:
Beetles.
 Hard fore wings – eg: Beetles
 Mimic to nature – eg: Stick insects
 Presence of defensive chemicals – eg: Bee venome
10) Food habit: Insects have different food habit in same group of insects, like majority are
phytophagous, some are carnivores, omnivores, many are oligophagous and polyphagous.
11) Decentralized nervous system: Response to stimuli is very quick. This system despite
the highly evolved stage of insects as a class. It is so decentralized that brainless insect can be
artificially stimulated to walk, fly or even feed and bread.
12) Good communication skill

Insect Body wall

Insect body wall is called as Integument or exoskeleton which is ectodermal in origin
and covers entire body and its appendages. It is rigid, flexible, lighter, stronger and various
modified in different body parts to suit different needs of life.
Structure: Body wall consists of inner cellular layer is called as epidermis and outer non-
cellular part is called as cuticle.
Structure cuticle: Inner region containing chitin is called procuticle and outer region without
chitin is called epicuticle.
Integument
3 layers:
1. Cuticle Procuticle Exocuticle
Endocuticle

Epicuticle Cement layer

Wax layer
Cuticulin (Protein)

2. Epidermis(hypodermis)

3. Basementmembrane

I) Cuticle: It is outer non-cellular layer. Epidermal cells secrete chemicals which contains
chitin, protein and lipid all together forms cuticle.
Cuticle – 2 sub divisions
1) Epicuticle 2) Procuticle
1) Epicuticle: It is a very thin layer consists of 3 layers depending on insect species.
a) Cement layer – outer must component. It contains tanned proteins with lipids
b) Wax layer – contains lipids (Inner epicuticle)
c) Cuticulin layer – proteins + polyphenols
Function: Cement layer protects the wax layer
Wax layer prevents desiccation or water loss

2) Procuticle: (Chitinous) – consists 25-60% of chitin. It is much thicker compared to

the epicuticle layer and composed of chitin proteins and other substances.
It consists of 2 layers
a) Exocuticle: Outer layer or procuticle, thicker and harden with composition of chitin and
sclerotin – This layer is dark in colour and rigid. (Pore canals are present in this layer which
 helps in the deposition of epicuticle)
b) Endocuticle: It is innermost and thickest layer. This layer is made up of chitin and
arthropodin which is colourless, soft and flexible.
Pore canals: Number of verticle tube like structures transversing procuticle are called as pore
canals. Pore canals carry oxydised enzyme used in sclerotization of epicuticle or transport the
material required for formation of epicuticle and while heals up the wound.
Size of pore canal - < 1µ in diameter
Chemical composition of cuticle:
Two major components:
A) Chitin B) Protein
A) Chitin: Absent in epicuticle. It is nitrogenous polysacchorine and polymer of N-
acetylglycoseamine (C8H15NO6). Insoluble in water, diluted acid and organic solvents but
dissolves in concentrated mineral acids and sodium hypochlorite.

On hydrolysis it yields Glucose amine and acetic acid.

Presence of chitin can be demonstrated by chitosan test. i.e. on heating with coni converted into
chitosan that gives violet colour with iodine. This test is known as Van Wisselinas Test.
Proteins:
a. Arthropodin: Chitin is found chemically linked with protein which is called as
arthropodin. It is main structural protein of the insect cuticle. It is untanned protein. Soluble
in water and lacks sulphure containing aminoacids. It constitutes nearly 25-37% of cuticle
on dry basis.
b. Sclerotin: Protein is tanned with tanning agents like phenolic substances. Water soluble.
Tanning has been attributed by peptide hormone called Burcicone which is produced by
neurosecretory cells of the brain.
c. Resilin: A elastic protein responsible for the flexibility. It forms mechanical spring and
occurs in localized areas like wing sclerites and leg joints.
3) Epidermis: It is innerlayer lies below cuticle and resting on basement membrane. Some of
the cells are modified to form sense organs, peristigmatic glands. These are also
surrounding the spiracles with specialized cells and secretions are responsible for hydrofuge
properties of cuticle (Much essential aquatic insects), which prevents the entry of water into
the body.
Functions: a) Secretion of moulting fluids
b) Producing cuticular materials
c) Digestion and absorption of old cuticle
d) Wound repairing
 Oenocytes: Blood cells arise from epidermal cells and are involved in metabolic synthesis of
new cells. Found near epidermis and found in clusters.
4) Basement membrane: epidermis rests upon undifferentiated basement membrane which is
about 0.5 µ thickness.
Functions: a) Provides the area for attachments of muscles.
b) Act as wall between body wall and internal organ.
Endoskeleton: Cuticular in growth of body wall providing space for muscle attachment.
2 types :a) Apodeme: Hallow invagination of body wall (ridge like)
b) Apophysis: Solid invagination of body wall (spine like)
Cuticular Appendages/Integumentary Appendages:
Generally surface of the integument shows various types of specialized outgrowths like
setae, spines, spur etc. Cuticular appendages/Integumentary process are divided into 2 types.
1) Non cellular 2) Cellular appendages
1) Noncellular appendages: Noncellular appendages have no epidermal association but rigidly
attached. i.e. Noncellular processes are composed entirely of cuticle and may take any forms
such as spines, ridges or nodules. Some non-cellular processes in the form of microtrichia
(Minute hair).
2) Cellular appendages: Cellular appendages are hallow out growth or integument and lined
with epidermal layer. Eg: Spur.
Cellular appendages further divided into 2 types.
a) Unicellular b) Multicellular
Unicellular: These are commonly referred as setae. They are commonly hair like but may be
flattened into scales, may be branched and appear plumose.
I. Setae: These are hair like projections arised from specialized epidermal cell called trichogen
or hair like outgrowth from epidermis.
Trichogen cells: The epidermal cells forming seta
Tormogen cells: The epidermal cell forming setal socket housing trichogen
Principle types of setae/Unicellular structures
1. Clothing hair: They cover generally surface of the body and appendages. They may be
branched (plumose) as in case of bees and stiff bristles in case of Tachinids.
2. Scales:Flattened outgrowth of body wall. Eg: Moths and butterflies.
3. Glandular setae: These serve as outlets for secretions of epidermal glands. Eg: Caterpillars
4. Sensory setae: These are more/less specialized in structure having association with one or more
nerve cells (neuron). Sensory in function.
5. Bristle:eg: flies
Study of arrangement of seta is known as “Chaetotoxy”
b) Multicellular: These are thick welled and multicellular structure and occurs more especially
on tibia of legs. Eg: Spur – Morable, Spines –Immovable
Integumentary processes: Permanently fixed
These are the outgrowth and integral part of the cuticle which are originally connected with
cuticle having no membraneous articulation.
A) Microtrichia: Fixed hairs/acules
These are minute hairs like structures found on wings of some insects like Mechoptera
(Scorpion flies) and Diptera (House flies).
B) Horns: Found on Coleoptera
Dermal glands: Group of specialized cells of epidermis. They discharge their secretion
extremely. Some of common ectodermal glands are wax glands, lac glands, scent glands,
Pearson gland etc.
Function of body wall:
1. Acts as protective shield for internal organs against physical or mechanical injury or entry of
pathogens, parasitoids, etc.
2. Prevents water loss from body
3. Frame work for muscle attachment
4. Absorption, secretion, excretion and sensory reception (cuticular appendages)
5. Cuticular sensory organs helps in sensing the environment.
Body segmentation and Body regions:
Segmented body of Hexapods is divided into three distinct regions /tagmata viz., Head,
thorax and abdomen.
Body surface divides into three regions:
Dorsum: Dorsal region lying above the base of limbs including spiracles.
Ventral: Lying between the limb bases of opposite sides.
Pleural/Podial regions: Ventrolateral region containing limb basis.
Segmentations: At regular intervals body wall remains soft or membraneous across the body.
The portion which is remained soft in between segment is invaginated or folded inside the
body. This folded part is called intersegmental membrane or technically sutures. Rigid and
flexible.
Suture: is a grove making the line of fusion of two formally distinct plates.
Sclerites: Integument may remain soft flexible in all parts as in larvae but usually hardened or
sclerotized in definite areas faring sclerites.
Body regions:

Abdomen

1. A major segmental plate/sclerites on dorsal surface is called Tergum (Notum on thorax).

2. A major segmental plates/sclerites on ventral surface are called sternum.
3. Sclerites/segmental plates on either sides/pluron – pleural sclerites
Subdivision on Tergum – Tergites
Subdivision on Sternum – Sternites
Subdivision on Pleural sclerites –Pleurites
Body division: A group of segments are called division. A total segments in any insect is 20,
which are clear and distinct in embryonic stage with a pair of jointed appendages. But in
post embryonic stages either they are modified/reduce/fuse to from the body due to
adaptation to the condition and it leads to give clearly visible segments which are less than
20.
During this process, some of the segments grouped together and divided into 3 divisions
which are referred as Head, thorax and abdomen. Head with 6 segments, thorax with 3
segments and abdomen with 11 seg.
Moulting – Ecdysis, Apolysis and Sclerotisation
One of the general characteristics of phylum Arthropoda is an external skeleton, also
called as “exoskeleton”. The arthropoda exoskeleton completely covers the outside the body
and muscles inside attached to it. Exoskletons are hard and protect the body. Because of
hard and rigid exoskleten, arthropod cannot grow periodically unless it sheds its old
skeleton and secretes the new one. This process is called moulting. Arthropod growth is
limited to moulting so growth happens in steps rather than continuously. The extent of an
individual’s growth between moults and length of time between moults are related to the
temperature as well as to the amount of food and water an individual gets. The whole of the
life history of insect is geared to the moulting involves number of hormones.
Moulting: It is periodical process of shedding the old cuticle accompanied by formation of new
cuticle is known as moulting.
Ecdysis: Process of shedding the cuticle is ecdysis.
Exuvia: The time internal between two subsequent moulting is called as stadium.
Instar: The form assumed by an insect in any stadium is called as instar.
Apolysis: Separation of epidermis from cuticle giving narrow space in between and this process
 is called as Apolysis.
Sclerotization: The process by which the cuticle is hardened by substances other than chitin.
Tanning: The process by which the cuticle is darkened.
The cuticle is hard and forms unstretchable exoskeleton in insect and it must be shed from
time to time to permit insect to grow and increase size. Before the old cuticle is shed, the
new one has to form underneath it. The process of moulting ends by the accomplishment of
ecdysis when the old cuticle splits to liberate the new instar of the insect. Pterygote
(winged) insects cease moulting after attaining adult hood, but apterygote (wingeless)
insects (sliver fish) undergo moulting even after attaining adulthood.
The moulting process is triggered by hormones released when an insects growth reaches the
physical limits of its exoskeleton. Each moult represents the end of one growth stage (instar)
and beginning of another. In some insects species the number of instars is constant
(typically from 3 to 15) but in others it may very in response to temperature, food
availability of other environmental factors. An insect is known as an imago (adult) when it
becomes sexually mature. At this point, moulting stops and energy for the growth is
channeled into production of eggs or sperms.
An insect cannot survive without support and protection, so a new larger replacement must
be constructed inside the ole one – much like a putting an overcoat under sweater
Process of moulting:
1. Behavioural changes: Larva stop feeding and became inactive.
2. Hormonal changes: Triggering of moulting is under hormonal control. Ecdysone is secreted
from prothoracic glands behind the brain. Once it is released the moulting process begins.
Edysone – Steroidal pheromone is secreateds under influence pro thoracic tropic of hormone
(PTTH) and is generally called ecdysteroids
1. Changes in epidermis: As a result of mitosis at the onset of moulting cycle: the total number
of cells will increase per unit area and also epidermis cell size, its activity protein content and
enzyme level increases. Ultimately it increases the tension, which results in loosening of cells
of cuticle.
2. Apolysis: Separation of old exocuticle from the epidermis. As a result of changes in cell
shape, a thin, homogenous, transparent – exuvial membrane appear between the epidermis.
3. Secretion of moulting gel in sub cuticular space: The epidermal cells secrete the moulting
fluid or exuvial fluid. Which is filled in space/gap. The fluid contains enzyme chiefly proteinase
and chitinase which digest the entire endcuticle but does not attack the epiculticle.
4. New epicuticle formation: The first layer secreted over the surface of separated epidermis in
the formation of the new cuticle is protein epicuticle or cuticulin.
 Production of cuticulin layer(Outer epicuticle –consisting of protein and polyphenols
highly resistance to acids and organic solvents) for new exoskeleton.
 Premoult – new cuticle is secreted underneath (inside) old cuticle.
1) Activation of moulting fluid:
 The enzymes in the moulting fluid are activated only after completion of the epicuticular
layer.
 The moulting fluid due to presence of unknown phenomenon has no effect on
exocuticle, nerve and muscle connections to old cuticle and a very thin portion of
endocuticle.
 The latter forms ecdysial membrane
2) Epidermis secretes new procuticle: Beneath epicuticle, procuticle is formed, which
 after the tanning process, gets differentiated into exo and endoccuticle.
3) Digestion and absorption of old endocuticle: After digestion of old cuticle and re-
absorption of moulting fluid, the wax layer is laid on the surface of cuticle.
4) Wax layer and cement layer formation: A waxy material is produced by epidermal
cells and is transported by pore canals through procuticle and deposited over the protein
epicuticle in the form of lipid epicuticle
5) Ecdysis: Ecdysis – shedding of old exo and epicuticle.
2 steps: 1) Rupturing of old cuticle: Insect increases its body volume through intake of air
or water which enhances the blood flow to head and thorax. There by old cuticle
ruptures along the predetermined line of weakness known as ecdysial line.
2) Removal of old cuticle: Peristaltic movement of body and lubricant action of moulting
fluid helps in the removal of old cuticle. During each moulting fluid helps in the
removal of old cuticle. During each moulting the cuticular covering of body, legs,
internal lining of foregut, hindgut and trachea are discarded.
At this stage cement layer is laid over the wax layer
6) Formation of exocuticle: Upper layer of procuticle develops as exocuticle through
addition of protein and tanning.
7) Formation of endocuticle: Lower layer of procuticle develops as endocuticle through
addition of chitin and protein.
8) Hardening of cuticle: The cuticular protein arthropodin is water soluble and it becomes
water insoluble as a result of tanning reaction.
The tanned exocuticle become hard and brittle, it loses considerable amount of water and
arthropodin changes into sclerotin and hence process is called as sclerotization.
 Organisation of Insect body

The segmented body of an insect can be grouped into three well defined regions/tagmata : a
head, thorax, abdomen.
Each segments in insects is referred as somite or metameters.
In adult insect some of segments are more or less united into a group forming
region/tagmata. The type of grouping of body regions is called tagmosis.

Head: The head is sclerotized hard capsule bears a mouthparts, compound eyes, simple eyes /
ocelli and a pair of antennae.
Thorax: It is locomotorycentre. Composed of three segments: antherior prothorax, a middle
mesothorax, and posterior metathorax. It bears legs and wings so called it is called as
locomotory tagamata.
The prothorax is connected to a head by membraneous neck or cervix.
Wings are borne meso and metathorax which are often referred collectively as
pterothorax.
A dorsal seriters – tergum/notum
Ventral sclerites – sterum
Lateral sclerites – pleural sclerites
Abdomen: It is metabolic and reproductive centre, where digestion, excreation and
reproduction take places. It consists of 11 segments. No pleuron region.

ENDOSKELETON
In certain regions of the body the integument becomes invaginated and greatly hardened
forming a rigid processes which serves for the attachment of muscles and the support for certain
other organs. This internal frame work is termed as Endoskeleton.
The individual parts of endoskeleton are called Phragmata or Apodemes which arises as
invagination of the body wall between adjacent sclerites or at the edge of the sclerite or
segment. This invagination remains open in some insects but in majority they will become solid
due to deposition of cuticular materials called Apophyis (spine like). The endoskeleton is
developed in all parts of the body where muscles are present and named based on the body
region as-
1. Endoskeleton of head is- Tentorium
2. Endoskeleton of thorax is- Endothorax
3. Endoskeleton of abdomen is- Abdominal endoskeleton
A) Tentorium: It is more common in pterygotan insects having two or three apodems which
are anterior, posterior and dorsal arms depending on the position. All these arms fuse each
other and with median skeletol to form body of the tenterium.
 Function of Tentorium-
1. To offer a basis for the attachment of many of the cephalic muscles and provide rigidity to
head.
2. To lead support to the brain and for intestine
3. To strengthen the points of articulation of certain mouth pars.

Head: The head is completely sclerotized capsule formed due to fusion of six segments.
1st segment: Pre antennary – It bears compound eyes and no other appendages
2nd segment: Antennary – A pair of antennae is present
3rd segment: Intercalary – Segments inserts between without any appendages
4th segment: Mandibular – bears a pair of mandible
5th segment: Maxillary – A pair of maxillae is present
6th segment: Labial – Labium is present
a) Anterior b) Lateral

Head capsule is sclerotized and formed by the fusion of several sclerites is known as cranium
(Excluding appendages).
Sclerites of Insect head capsule:
1. Vertex (Epicranium): The top or dorsal side of head is known as vertex. It is situated in
between compound eyes. Ocelli and antennae are present
2. Frons: It is present on anterior face/Facial area which lies between or below epicranial arms
and above the clypeus. Median ocelli is located on it. It is bounded by frontoclypeal suture.
3. Clypeus: It is located between frontoclypeal suture and labrum. It is attached to frons and
labrum hangs below it.
4. Gena (lateralside): It is the lower part of head beneath the eyes and lies posterior to frons.
The area directly posterior to eyes is termed as post gena.
5. Post gena: Sclerite below genae and above mandibles.
6. Occiput: It is area comprising most of the back of head i.e. cranial area between occipital
and post occipital sutures or area between vertex and cervix.
7. Post occiput: It forms margin of occipital foramen and narrow ring like in shape.
8. Occipital foramen – Connects the back of head with body
The linear invaginations/intersegmental membranous joints of exoskeleton between two
sclerites are called as sutures (sulcus/sulci).
1. Epicranial suture/Ecdysial line/Suture: It is inverted ‘Y’ shaped suture separating
vertex and frons.
Stem portion is called as coronal suture (Median suture)
 Arms portions are called as frontal suture (Lateral suture)
2. Fronto – clypeal suture (Epistomal suture): A line between frons and clypeus.
3. Clypeo – Labral suture: A line between clypeus and labrum.
4. Genal suture: Lies on either side of the head below the compound eyes separating
facial part of gena.
5. Sub genal suture: A line below the gena on either side of head.
6. Occipital suture: A line between occiput and post occiput.
7. Post occipital suture: A line between separating maxillary and labial segments
Types of Head:
Based on position of mouth parts and inclination of long axis of head Hypognathous
1. Hypognathous (Hypo-below, Gnathous – Mouth part)
 Orthopteroid type/Primitive types
 The long axis of head is vertical and it is right angle to the axis of body
 Mouth part are located ventrally/directed downward. Eg: Grasshopper, Cockroaches

2. Prognathous: (Pro Forward Gnathous – Mouth parts)

Prognathous
 Coleopteroid type
 Long axis of the head is horizontal and it is in line with long axis of the body
 Mouth parts is directed forwarded. Eg: Ground beetles, termites

Ophisthorhynchous
3. Ophisthorhynchous: Opistho behind Gnathus – Mouth parts
 Hemipteroid type/Opisthrhynchus type
 Head is deflexed
 Mouth parts is directed backward and held in between the fore legs. Eg: Plant bugs,
Hemiptera and Homoptera
Function of head:
a) Food ingestion
b) Sensory perception
c) Cordination of body activity
d) Protection of Co-ordinating centres
Appendages/Structures found on head capsule
a) Eyes b) Antennae c) Mouthparts
a) Eyes: Two types of eyes: 1) Compound eyes 2) Simple eyes (Ocelli)

Antennae:
 Antennae are mobile sensory appendages of the head
 Located between and below the compound eyes
 They are 1st pair of appendages of head
 They usually larger in males (sexual dimorphism) and character can be used for
identification of sex in some insects and also taxonomic purpose
  They are well developed in almost all adult and nymphs.
 Antennae are absent in protura and reduced in endopterygota larvae
 Antennae function almost exclusively sensory perception (Motion, orientation, odour,
sound, humidity and variety of chemical cues).
Structure of antennae
Antennae consists of 3 parts
a) Scape b) Pedicel c) Flagellum

a) Scape:It is first basal segment of the antennae which is attached to the head. It is often
distinctly larger than any other/succeeding joints. It articulate with antennual ridge.
b) Pedicel: The joint immediately followed the scape is called as pedicel. It is second
segment and small segment and contains special sensory structure called as Jhonston’s
organ.Johnston’s organ absent in Diptura and Collembola
c) Flagellum:It is also known as clavola. It is 3rd part of antennae. It is largest and multi
segmented structure. Number, size of segment vary from insect to insect or species to
species. Hence it has taxonomic importance. Flagellum segments are referred as
flagellomere.
Function of antennae:
1. Primary function is sense organs and bears large number of sensilla.
2. Various type of sensilla function as tactile and odour receptor, contact chemoreceptors,
Hygro receptors and temperature receptors.
3. Olfactory receptors (Odour receptors) on antennae useful for to bind odour molecules
particularly in males very useful for pheromone. Perception of sound eg: male
mosquitoes and other insects.
4. In fleas and collembolan – antennae are used for mating. Male fleas use antennae to
clasp the female.
Typed of antennae
1) Setaceous: Segments gradually decrease from base to apex presenting a ship like/bristle
eg: Cockroach, Dragan and damsel flies.
2) Filliform: All segments are uniform in size, cylindrical in shape (thread like) eg: plant
bugs/bugs eg: Grosshopper, longhorn beetle, groundnut beetle.
3) Moniliform: Segments are equal in size but globular/oval/spherical in shape with well
developed constriction between segment. Eg: Termites.

4) Serrate: Segments of flagellum are triangular with projecting point on one side giving a
saw like appearance. Eg: Pluse beetle, Jewel beetle

5) Pectinate type: Each of flagellum segments possess a lateral processes on side giving
comb like appearance. Eg: Female arctiid, moth.

6) Clavate(club like): segments gradually increase in size from base to tip. Eg: Blister
beetle.

7) Capitate (Knobbed):Terminal segments (3 to 5) suddenly enlarge to form a knob line

structure. Capitate antennae abruptly clubbed at end. Eg: Butterflies, Red flour beetle.

8) Hook type: Last segment bears hook like structure. Eg: Skipper butterflies.

Skipper Butterfly

9) Lamellate: The terminal segments expand to one side into lateral oval lobes and appear
leaf like. Eg: Rhinocerous, Dung rollers
10) Flabeellate: Terminal segments expand to one side into lateral lobes. The sides of lobes
are parallel. Eg: Stylopids.

11) Geniculate: Scape is elongated, pedicel is short and remaining flagellar segments are
right angle to scape, giving a elbow appearance. Eg: Ants, Honey bee, weevils.

12) Plumose (Feathery): Segments are having long hairs and arranged systematically in
whorls. The hairs are more. Eg: Male mosquito, Lepidoptera (Moths)

13) Pilose (Feathery): Segments are having sparse long hairs, arranged haphazardly on
body of antennae. Eg: Female mosquito.

14) Aristate: Antennae are small, microscopic, three segmented. Flagellum is single
segmented and enlarged which bears bristle called arista on its dorsal side.Eg: House
fly.

15) Stylate (antennae with style): Antennae small 3 to 4 segmented, terminal segment
elongated into a finger like process or probe like or bristle like structure is called style.
Eg: Robber fly
Mouthparts:
 Organs concerned with feeding.
 Mouth parts are organs involved in the intake, cutting and grinding of food particles and
are being referred as gnathal appendages (Gnatha – Mouth).
A typical mouth parts contains, labrum, mandible, Maxillae, labium and hypopharynx. All
there 5 structure forms a mouth parts. These structures either modified or reduced or non-
functional or totally missing based on requirements of given group of insects. Hence,
different types of mouth parts are come across.
Two basic types of mouthparts
A) Mandibulate type
B) Haustellate type With stylets
Without stylets
A. Mandibulate type of mouth part/Biting and Chewing/Orthopteroid type
 It is primitive type of mouth part
 Example: Grass hopper, cockroaches, termites, beetles, ants, crickets and caterpillars.
 It consists of following parts
* Labrum – upper lip
* Mandible – 1st pair of jaw
* Maxillary – Acessory jaw/2nd pair of jaw
* Labium – Lower lip
* Hypopharynx

Labrum : It is simple plate like structure situated below the clypeus on anterior side of
head/upper side of head.
 It has limited longitudinal movement (up and down moved)
 It over laps the bases of mandible and forms a roof over the remaining parts of mouth
cavity.
 On its inner surface a small lobe like structure is refereed as labrum epipharynx which acts
a gustatory organ (taste organ) with chemoreceptors
 It helps to pull the food into mouth

Mandible
 First of pairs of jaws
 They are also called as primary jaws or true jaws
 Mandibles are
 Paired heavily sclerotized, un segmented haws laying immediately
behind the labrum located on either side of the head capsule.
 Each mandible articulate with head capsule paints namely ginglymus and candyle
  These mandibles will have their movements with help of 2 sets of muscle called Aductor
and Abducter muscle
 Ginglymus : Is a grove/cavity which articulates with clypeus
 Condyle – Is a round head adopted to fit into socket placed at lower end of gena or post
gena
 Mandibles possess two types of teeths
a. Incisors b. Molars
a. Incisors : Distal part and sharply pointed or cutting teeth. It is useful for cutting
b. Morals : Proximal teeth/Grinding purpose
Functions : 1. Cutting or crushing of food
2. Frequently used for defense
Maxillae :

 Secondary jaws/accessory jaws

 They are paired and complicated than mandible
 Maxillae are prominent structure in the mouthpart
attached on either side of head just below the mandible
through a structure called Cardo (Basal part of
maxillae)

Cardo : Basal segment or first sclerite/segment joins the maxillae to head

Stipes : Second segment/sclerite which articulates with cardo
Palpifer/Maxillary palp : Five segment lateral sclerites on stipes carries a lateral sclerite called
palpifer which bears a 5 segment antennae like maxillary palp.
On the distal end of stipes there are two lobes
Outer lobe – Galea , Inner lobe – Lacinia
Lacinia – is a elongated jaw like structure with spined or tooth on its inner border
Galea – Lobe like structure
In some insects stipes bears a single lobe called “male”
Function of maxillae
 Directs the food into mouth
 Support/aiding the mandibles in holding the food
 Helps in mastication in later stage
 Helps in cleaning of antennae

Labium :

 Lower lip behind the maxillae

 It is composite structure formed by the fusion of two prioritive segmented
appendages
 It bounds the mouth cavity from below/behind
 It forms base of pre oral cavity
 Labium is divided by transverse structure/labrial structure into two portions, a basal post-
mentum, distal pre-mentum
 Post mentum – usually divides into basal submentum and distal mentum
 On the lateral side of pre-mentum these 2 small lateral sclerites called palpiger bearing a 3
segmented labial palp
 Group of apical lobes on pre mentum is called as ligula or it is complex of glossae and
paraglosae
 Ligula consists of a pair of small lobes in middles the glossae (Inner lobes)
 Outer larger lobes laterally are called as paraglossae
Functions : Labial palpi function as sense organ
 Forms bottom of mouth cavity
Hypopharynx (Tongue)
 It is located centrally in the preoral cavity or it is a short tongue like structure located above
labium and between maxillae
 Salivary glands don’t opens through it
 Normally it is a single lobed but in few insects it is divided into different lobes and is
referred as lingua Eg: Dipterans
 Function : 1. Provides an area for opening of salivary duct
2. Guides food particles in the mouth cavity
II. Haustellate type
 Hanstellate mouth parts are primarily used for sucking liquids
 Grouped into sub groups a) with staylate b) without stylate
 Stylets are needle like projections used to penetrate plant and animal tissue
 Some haustellate mouth parts lacks stylets
II (a) Haustellate with stylate
 All or most mouth parts are being either modified or reduced or totally missing based on
food habit
a) Piercing and sucking type / Hemipterans/bug type
Eg : Plant bug

Labrum : It is triangular flap like structure at the base of labium It forms a cover over grooved
labium and act as protective cover to the stylet bundle
Labium : Labium projects down words from anterior part of the head like a beak. It is 4
segmented and grooved throughout its entire length. Labium is neither involved in piercing nor
sucking. It functions as protective covering for four stylets found within the groove.
Mandible and Maxillae
Both mandible and maxillae are modified into long slender sclerotized hair like structure
called stylets, hence, totally 4 stylets.
4 Stylets - 2 derived from mandible : Hard stronger with sharp tip
- 2 Derived from maxillae : Smooth, no sharp edge at tip. Palps are absent
 They are lying close together and suited for piercing and sucking
 The tips of the stylets may have minute teeth per piercing plant tissues
 The inner maxillary stylets are doubly grooved on their inner faces. When these are closely
apposed they form a two channels/canals viz., food channel/canal and salivary canal,
through sap and salivary are conducted respectively
During feeding mandibular stylets cut small opening into the plant tissue and maxillary
stylets inserted into the opening. During feeding salvia is pumped into plant tissue through
salivary channel. Salvia contains enzymes or toxins that can distort plant cell wall to permit
the stylets to penetrate down and reach phloem for sucking the sap.
b. Dipterans sub type/mosquitoes type Eg: Mosquitoes
Mouth parts of female mosquito consists of an elongated labrum which is modified into rostum
and lodges 6 stylets

Stylets
1. Labrum – Epipharynx (Enclosing food canal)
2. Hypopharynx (containing salinary canal)
3. Maxillae – 2
4. Mandible – 2

 Both the ends of maxillary stylets and mandibular styles are saw like and suited for piercing
flesh.
 The stylets are inserted into hosts skin by a strong downward and forward thrust of body.
 Both mandibles and maxillae are reduced in male and they feed on plant nectar and juice of
decaying fruit.
 Female pierces the skin of human beings into which it injects and aliva containing an
anticoagulant (to keep blood flowing without clothing and an anesthetic (to keep the victim
unaware of bite) and suck up the blood.
 Labium does not pierce but bolds up or back as stylets pierce or supports the stylets and
Guides the stylet bundle.
 Maxillary palpi are well developed.
c. Rasping and sucking / Lacerating and sucking / Thysanoptera
Sub type eg: Thrips
 Labrum, Labium, bases of maxillae are modified to
form a small tbular cone called mouth cone.
 There are 3 stylets
2 stylets derived from maxillae
1 stylets derived from Left mandible
 Right mandible is absent, only one mandible (left) is
present so it is asymmetrical type of M.P.
 Stylets are useful to lacerate the plant tissue and
oozing sap is sucked up by the mouth cone.
 Both labial and maxillary palpi are present.
d. Anoplura subtype: Eg. Sucking louse
 The labrum forms the dorsal wall of a small snout like proboscis and (Beak) and internally
lined with small teeth-like projections which are used for gripping the host during feeding.
 There are 3 stylets dorsal stylet - maxillae
Middle stylet - Hypopharynx
 Ventral stylet – labium (Principal piercing organ)
 Stylets when not in use are with drawn into a long sac like structure lying below alimentary
canal/oesophagus (Baloon).
 Salivary channel – Hypopharynx
Food channel – Maxillae
 Mandibles are absent
e. Siphanopterous sub type: Eg. Fleas
 M.P. contains 3 piercing stylets Epiphorynx and 2 from lacinea of maxillae.
 Lacinea is blade like and serrated along the distal 2/3 of their length.
 Epipharynx is long and slender and it is ventrally grooved and closely approximated to the
lacina forming a food channel through which blood is sucked.
 Labium is short and slender, bears short palps.
 A salivary channel extends along the inside of each maxilla which is also forms the piercing
organ.
 Both maxillary and labial palps are present.
 Mandibles are absent
(2) Haustellate without stylets
a) Chewing and lapping type:
 M.P. are modified for collecting nectar and the pollen.
 Mandibles are smooth, spade like blunt and are situated on either
side of the labrum.
 Mandibles are used in moulding was and maiking the honey
comb.
 Both maxillae and labium are modified to form a lapping tongue
and structure is called as maxilla labial structure.
 The tongue unit consists of two glea of maxillae, two labial palpi and elongated flexible
hairy glossa of labium
Maxilla: Cardo is same, maxillary palp on stipes are highly redeuced and represented by small
rudimentary structure. Lacinia is absent but galea is well developed and elongated.
Lalnium: The submentum is modified into narrow stipes or plate called Lorum. Lorum
connects the maxillae on either side at the junction of cardo and stipes. Hence structure is called
maxillolabial or Labio – maxillary structure. Mentum is reduced and represent in the form of
conical shape followed by slightly elongated prementum on which glossae are fused together
and elongated into a long plate like structure which carries a soft bubbles like structure at the tip
called as flabellum. At the base of glossae small plate or cup like structure is called para
glossae.
All along the glossae there is a groone which acts as a salivary canal and on either side a 4
segmented labial palps are present which avoids the leakage.
Flabellum: Glossa terminates into a small circular spoon shaped lobe called flabellum/bouton/
spoon which is useful for lick the nectar.

c) Siphoning type: Eg. Adult Butterfly and Moths

 Mandibles are totally absent.
  All mouth parts are highly reduced except galea of maxillae.
 Each galea is elongated into a hallow structure and semicircular.
 When both galea come close together they form a sucking tube or proboscis. It is
formed by two greatly elongated galea of maxillae which zipped together by
interlacking spines and hooks.
 Galea are grooved on their inner surface and when they are fitting together closely they
form a suctorial food canal through which nectar is sucked up.
 Labrum is reduced.
 Mandibles are absent.
 Labium is reduced.
d) Sponging type: Eg: House fly
 Sponging mouthpart are used to sponge and
suck the liquid.
 Mandibles are absent
 Labrum is reduced
 Labium is elongated highly modified into a
long sheath like structure called proboscis.
 Proboscis is divided into 2 parts a) Basal
Rostrum b) Distal – Haustellum
Rostrum: It is simple cone shaped a it a rudimentary/reduced structure is maxillary palp which
is single segmented. It does not bear any additional organs.
Haustellum: It is longer than rostrum. It posses two triangular plates; Labrum epipharynx and
Hypopharynx.
 Front side of Haustellum has deep oral groove, enclosing labrum – epipharynx,
hypopharynx has a salivary duct. The labrum epipharynx is grooved and groove is
closed by hypopharynx to form a food canal.
 Mandible are absent maxillae is represented by single segment maxillary palpi.
 The end of proboscis/Haustellum is enlarged sponge like and 2 lobed which acts as
suction pads. They are called as oral dises/labella.
 The surfaces of labella are transvered by capillary canals called pseudotracheae which
collect the liquid food and convey it to the canal.
 Labella function as sponging organ and are capable of taking exposed fluids.
 These insects often spit enzyme containing saliva onto solid foods to liquifly them.
1) Mandibulosuctoria type: Grubs of antlion
 Mandibles are elongated sickle shaped and grooved on the inner surface.
 Lacinia of each maxilla is elongated and fit against the mandibular groove to form a
closed food canal while feeding mandibles are pierced and suck the fluid.
Thorax
 Thorax is the locomotory tagma of body bears legs and wings.
 An insect thorax is dived into three parts
a) Prothorax (Pro-First) b) Mesothorax (Middle) c) Meta thorax (Meta-last)
 Each segment consists of hardened plates or sclerites.
Dorsal sclerite are called nota (singular notum)
Lateral sclerite are called pleura (singular pleuron)
Ventral sclerite are called sterna (singular sternum)
 The terga of thoracic segments are called notum.
Dorsal sclerite on prothorax – Pronotum
Dorsal sclerite on Mesothorax – Mesonotum
Dorsal sclerite on Metathorax – Metanotum
  Each thoracic segment contains one pair of legs.
 Prothorax is connected to head by a membraneous neck like region called cervix.
 Wings are found only on meso and meta thoracic segments and are together called as
Pterothorax. Prothorax never bears a wings.
 The legs arise on the pleura, the wings articulates between the notal and pleural region.
Insect legs

 Legs are the primary locomotory organ which are present in all insect except few.
 Legs are present in 3 thoracic region of body.
Legs on prothorax – Forelegs
Legs on Mesothorax – niddle leg
Legs on Metathorax – Hind leg
 In the legs of an insect, cuticle may contain unicellular hair like outgrowth – Setae
Multicular out growth are two types
a) Spine – Immorable
b) Spur – Morable and articulated
 Legs are meant waling and running purpose or locomotory but based on habit and
habitate of insects they are doing different functions.
 In case of young ones, 2 types of legs.
a) Legs on thorax – True legs (e pair of legs)
b) Legs on abdomen – Prolegs pseudo legs / false legs (Vary in number)
 These prologs are provided with a series of hook like structure at their tips are called as
Crochets, which helps for holding the substances.
 Each legs are consists of 5 segments viz., coxa, trochanter, femura, tibia and tarsus.
Coxa: It is first functional basal segment of leg. It articulates with insect body at pleuron
region. It is generally free morable. (Oxa (singular); pleural – coxae . It is proximal or basal leg
segment.
Trochanter
 It is second segment. It is usually small and single segmented. Trochaneter seems to be
two segmented in dragon fly, damsel fly and ichenumonid wasp. The apparent of second
trochancter is in fact a part of femur which is called trochantellus.
 It acts as link between coxa and femura. It articulates with coxa and fixed rigidly to
Femur.
Femur (Femora – Pleural): It is a largest and stoutest part of leg and is closely attached to the
trochancter.
Tibia (Tibiae – Pleural): It is usually long and provided with downward projecting spines
which aid in climbing and footing. Tibia of many insects are armed with large morable spur war
the apex. It is 4th segment. Frequently equal or exceeds the femur in length.
Tarsus (Tarsi – Pleural) : It is last segment of leg
 Each individual segments are called tarsomeres (5 segment – usually). Number of
tarsomere vary from 1 to 5.
 Some insects it bears single segment (Protura, Diplura, Human louse) and multi
segmented in higher insects.
 The basal tarsal segment is often larger than others and is named as basitarsus.
  Last segment is called pretarus.
 None of the segment carry their own muscles. They depend on the muscle called
Levator and Depressor from tibia for the movement.
Pretarus: It is complex structure. The terminal segment terminates with one or two hook like
structure called as claws.
Single claw - Collembola, Protura.
Some insects claws are paired.
 In between two claws on ventral side a median lobe like structure called “Arolium” Eg:
Housefly.
 Two lobes lying below the claws are called as “Pupvilli” (Pulvillus – Singular)
 In place of arolium pretarsus is sometimes prolonged into a medium bristle called
Empodium.

Types of legs:
1. Walking type/Ambulatorial: (Ambulate – to walk)

 Femura and tibia are long

 Legs are suited for walking type.
 Fore and middle leg of gross hopper, Bugs, Leaf beetles.

2. Running type/Cursorial type: (Carsorial – running)

 Legs are equal in size, longer in size

 All spairs of legs of cockroaches
 Femura is not swollen. Eg: Cockroaches, Ground and tiger beetles, wasp.

3. Jumping/Leaping type/Salatorial type (Salatorial – Leaping)

 Trochancter is fused with fumura

 Hind fumura is enlarged and accomudate the powerful muscle of the tibia for leaping
purpose.
 Tibia long and slender, 2 rows of spines are present along the ventral sice.
 At end of tibia, 4 spurs are present for griping. Eg: Hind leg of GH, crickets.
4. Digging type / Fossoria / type (Fossorial = Digging/burrowing)

 Fore legs are well developed with flattened well developed tibia which is digited /
pointed. Eg: Mole cricket

5. Clinging/Scansoral type (Scansorial – climbing/clinging)

 All pair of legs

 Tarsi are single segmented and terminate in a single large claw that usually fits against
thumb like at the end of tibia. This forms an efficient mechanism for clinging to the
hairs of the host. Eg: Head louse.

6. Sticking leg / Climbing type

The pretarsus bears 2 claws. Pad/lobe like structure lying below the claw are called
Pulvilli. In between the pulvilli there is a bristle like structure called as empodium. The
pulvilli and empodium are pad like organs enabling the insect to climb on smooth or steep
surface. Eg: Housefly
7. Natatorial or swimming type (Natatorial : Swimming)

 Long setae on the tarsi

 Tibia and tarsus short and broad and are provided with dense long marginal hairs.
 Coxa flattens out on the body wall
 Tibia and tarsus are flat

8. Raptorial / Grasping / Prehensile / Swimming (Raptorial – Predatory), eg: Preying

mantis

 Fore legs are modified

  Femur is spiny and grooved along the lower side tibia is also spiny and fit into the
groove along the femur
9. Basket like: eg: Legs of Dragon fly and Damsel fly
 Thorasic segments are obliquely arranged
 Tergal plates pushed backward, where as sterna plates pulled forward. As s result all the
legs which are attached to sterna plates came forwards and are seen below the head.
All legs together form a basket like structure useful for catching the prey.
10. Antennae cleaner or strigillis, eg: Fore legs of Honey bee

 First tarsal seg (Boxitarsi) has a notch through which antennae is drawn and held by a
morable process of the tibia called fibula.

11. Wax picking / Comb shaper: Eg: Middle leg of Honey bee

 Long bristles on the tarsus of mesothoracic leg form a pollen brunch for removing
pollen from the front part of the body.
 End of tibia has spur like spine for removing pollen from pollen basket of hind leg and
wax from abdomen and shape the comb while constructive. So it is called as wax picker
or comb shaper.

12. Pollen basket – Hind leg of Honey bee

 Hind legs has three important structures.

a) Pollen basket (It is also called as corbicula): The outer surface of the hind tibia
contains a shallow cavity. The edges of the cavity are fringed with long hairs.
The pollen basket enables the bee to carry a large load of pollen and propolis from the field
to the hive.
b) Pollen packer: It is also called as pollen press. It contains a pectin and auricle.
Pecten – is a row of stout bristles at distal end of tibia
 Auricle – is a small plate fringed with hairs at basal end of basitarrsus
Pollen packer is useful to load pollen in corbicula
c) Pollen comb: About ten rows of stiff spines are present on the inner side of hind
basitarsus. The pollen comb is used to collect pollen from middle legs and from posterior
part of the body.

13. Proletgs/False legs/Pseudolegs

 Caterpillars posses three pairs of thoracic legs (True legs) and five pairs of abdominal
legs are called as prolegs. Which are located on 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and last abdominal
segments.
 In some semilooper larvae.
Prolegs on 3rd and 4th abdominal segments absent.
Looper – 6th and last abdominal segments are present.
 Abdominal legs are called as prolegs. These are unjointed, short, fleshy with a flat
surface at the bottem called planta. On the surface of planta number of hook like
structure either circular or semi circular are called as crochets.
 In sawflies of Hymenoptera, the larvae have 3 pair of true legs in thorax and 6 or > 6
pair of prolegs in abdomen. This is the unique feature of sawfly larva but these prolegs
do not bear crochets unlike lepidopteran larva.
Insect wing:
 Wings, their modifications and characters of wings are primary tools for taxonomic
studies.
 Among the nvertebrates, only insect bosses a wings.
 Generally insect have 2 pair of wings. One pair on mesothorax and another pair on
metathorax. Hence, wing bearing thoracic segments are called as pterothorax. Basically
2 types of wings (Based absence of wings)
 Primarily wingless: Apterygota: Wngs are basically absent. Eg: Sliver flish, Springtail.
 Secondarily wingless: Ectoparasites, head louse, poultry louse and fleas. Basically
winged insect but later wings are lacking.
 Wings are deciduous: Ants and termites : Wings are sheddout after a single nuptial
flight and before begining of their life in soil.
Wings: Wing is a double layered lateral expansion of the integument which is being
strengthened with a network of highly sclerotized tube called as veins. Wings are located at
dorso-lateral position.
Veins: It is network of highly sclerotised tube/nerve which gives strength to the wings.
 Each wing has a two layers i.e. dorsal lamina and ventral lamina. Both dorsal and
ventral laminar grow, meet and fuse except along certain lines. Thus series of channel is
formed. These channels serve for the passage of tracheae, nerve and blood. Wing is
nourished by blood circulating through veins. Later the wall of these channels become
thickened to form veins or nerves.
 Arrangement of veins systematically in a definite pattern is called as wing veination or
wing nuration.
 Veins are classified into 2 types
1) Longitudinat vein: Veins runs from base to tip or veins running along the length of
wings from one end to other end.
2) Covers veins: veins run across the length of wing between the longitudinal vein.
Never run from one end to other end.
Based on type of arrangement / network of veins –
Two types of wings
1. Archedictyon type: Highly primitive type of wing.
  Many cross veins are founded between main longitudinal veins giving a netted
appearance. Eg: Dragon fly, Damsel faly, Neuroptera (Antlion, Green lace wing, Brown
lace, wing).
2. Hypothetical type of wing veination:
 Found in advanced insect where in very few cross veins along with main longitudinal
veins.
6 – Main longitudinal vein – will be present
7 – Cross veins

Longitudinal veins Cross veins

Costa – C Humeral cross vein – h
Sub costa – Sc Radial – r
Radius – R Sectorial – S
Median – M Radio – medial – r-m
Cubitus – Cu Medial – m
And - A Medio – Cubital – m – cu
Cubito anal – Cu - a
Longitudinal veins
1) Costa (c) - It is first main vein which run along the anterior margin of the wing. It is
always unbranched (Convex in nature).
2) Sub costa (Sc) – It runs immediately below costa. It is concave vein runs more or less
straight to the margin. It branches into Sc1 and Sc2.
3) Radius (R) – It is next main vein. It is stout one and connects at base with second
axillary sclerites.
The radius typically branches into anteriorly R1 and posteirorly Rs (Radialsector). Rs further
divides into 4 branches (R2, R3, R4, R5).
4) Media (M): It divides into anterior media (MA and posterior media (MP). MA – It
divides into MA and MA2 (2 branches). MP – further divides into MP to MP4 (4
branches).
5) Cubitus (Cu): Cubitus divided into 2 branches
Cubitus – Cu1 and Cu2 (Posterior).
Cu1 (Anterior cubitus) again forked into Cu1A Cu1B.
Cu2 (Posterior cubitus) is unbranched.
 6) Anal vein: There are 3 anal veins, and named as 1A, 2A, and 3A.
Cross veins:
1. Humeral cross vein: Located near the base of the wing or at humeral angle. It extends
from Sc to C or between costa and subcosta.
2. Radial (R) cross vein: Extending from R1 to Rs.
3. Radio – medial cross vein (r-m): Extending from radius to media.
4. Sectorial (S): Extending from R3 and R4 or some case R2 and R3 or R4 and R5
depending on the species.
5. Medial cross vein (m): Between MA2 and MP
6. Medio – cubital (m-Cu) Between medial and cubitus
7. Cubito – anal (Cu-a): Between posterior branch of cubitus and first and vein.
Wing origin theory:
1. Tracheal gill theory: Proposed by Gigenbhourg. According to this theory, the wings
are developed from thoracic tracheal gills, later as a modification these have lasted their
original function of respiration and adopted for flying.
Earlier this theory was accepted but due to the lack of evidence this theory was not
accepted.
2. Paranotal theory: Proposed by cromptom. According to this theory, the wings are
being developed from lateral targal expansion in the thorax. This theory was supported
by the study of fossils where in such pad like structures were noticed.
Wing margins and angles:
 In outline the wings are often some what triangular shape.
1. Costal margin: The anterior margin strengthened by costal is called costal margin.
2. Apical margin: Lateral margin or outer margin is called as Apical / Apex margin.
3. Anal margin: Posterior margin or inner margin is called as Anal margin.

3 angles:
1. Humeral angle: Angle by which the wing is attached to thorax is called as humeral
angle.
2. Apical angle: The angle between costal and apical margin.
3. Anal angle: The angle between apical and anal margin.
Wing cells: The area on wings enclosed by the vein is called as cell.
2 types: Open cell: Area extends to wings margin x intervening veins.
Closed cell: Area is entirely surround by the veins.
Wing region: The anterior area of the wing supported by veins is usually called remigium. The
flexible posterior area is termed as vannus. The proximal part of the vannus is called Jugum.
Wing modifications or wing types: It is depends on habitat and same extent to habit. Based
on nature of modification.
 1. Tegmina (Singular : Tegmen): Wings are leathery or parchment like. They are
protective in function. They are not used for flight. Eg: Cockroach, GH.
2. Elytra (Singular : Elytron): Fore wings are hardened, heavily sclerotised. Wing
veination is lacking. They are protective during flight. But during flight they are kept an
angle allowing free movement of hindwing. Eg: FW of Beetles and Weevils.
3. Hemielytra (Singular : Hemielytron): Basal portion is thick and hardened, distal
protion is membraneous. Protective in function and not used for flight. Eg: Bugs.
4. Halters (Singular : Haltere): Hind wings are modified into small knobbed/dumble
shaped organs are called as haltere.
 Used for balance and direction during flight (Gyroscopic stabilizers).
 Haltere is divided into 3 regions: Scabellum, pedicel and capitalum.

5. Fringed wing: Wings are usually reduced in size. Wing margins are fringed with big
setae. These insects literally swim through the air eg: Thrips.
6. Scaly wing: Wings are covered with scales are indined to the wing surface and overlap
each other to form a complete covering. Scales are responsible for colour. They are
important in smoothing the air flow overs wings and body. Eg: Butterflies, moths.
7. Membraneous wing: They are thin, transparent wings and supported by system of
tubular veins. These are developed venation. Either FW or HW or both wings. Eg:
Damsel, dragon, lace wings (Green and brown).
FW – True flies
HW – GH, cockroach, beetles and earwig.
Both FW and HW – Wasp, bees, dragon fly and damsel fly.

Elytra Hemieltyra Membranous

Fringed Fissured Halter

Wing coupling: The wings of most insects are moved by distortion of thorax and because they
are so closely associated, hence the movement of each of the thoracic segments must
influence others. So, it is impossible for the fore and hind wings to beat independengly of
each other. The higher pterygotan insects,w ing movement is by virtue joint movement of
both fore and hindwings.
Wing coupling is mechanism in higher pterygotan insect where both fore and
hindwings are linked anatomically with special structures during flight is called as wing
coupling apperatus/Mechanism. It is there in almost all insect except primitive type of
winged insects like odonata and isopteran, neuroptera where both pair of wings vibrate with
 the same frequency and with hindiwng beat consistently more advanced than the forewing
beat.
Advantages:
 Helps for easy movement and more speed.
 It reduces the consumption of energy to travel
 Synchronisation between two wings.
Types of wing coupling:
a) Primitive wing coupling, Eg: Mecoptera

A small lobe/expansion at the base of fore wing is called jugal lobe and a humeral lobe at
the base of the costal margin of the hind wing. Both the lobes are set with setae. Known
as jugal and frenular bristles, respectively. These do not firmly link the wings, but they
overlap sufficiently to prevent the wings moving out of phase.
b) Jugate wing coupling, Eg: Trichoptera, Hepialide (Lepido)

 Anal margin of forewing posses a small lobe called as Jugum/Jugal lobe

 Some case Jugum lies on top of hind wing and coupling mechanism is not efficient
(Trichoptera).
 Some primitive Lepidoptera strong Jugal lobe which lies beneath the costal margin of
the hindwing so that it is held between the Jugum and rest of the forewing.
c) Jugo – frenate wing coupling
The hind wing possesses a bristle like structure called frenulum at its humeral stage. The
FW posses a hook like structure called retinaculum on the anal side. During flight
frenulum is held/hold by the retinaculum. Eg: Micropterygidae (Moth).

d) Frenate type: Lepidoptera (Moth). Fruit sucking moth Hawk moth

 In leipidoptera well developed frenulum which engages with a catch or Petinaculum on
the under side of forewing.
2 types: i) Female Frenate ii) Male Frenate

i) Female Frenate: Hind wing: Hindwing bears a group of stout bristles at humral angle are
called as Frenulum. These frenulum lies beneath the extended forewing and engages the
retinaculum bristles on under side of cubital vein.
ii) Male Frenate: In case of male, the frenular bristles are fused together to form a single stout
like spine and retinaculum is cuticular clasp on radial vein.

e) Hamulate type: Honey bee – A raw of small look like structure present on the costal
margin of hind wing is called as Hamuli. These holds/inter locks with folded posterior edge
of fore wing.

f) Amplexiform: Butterflies: Wings are coupled by virtue of an extensive area of over lap
between two. No coupling structure.
Abdomen

Basic structures
Segmentation is more evident in abdomen. The basic number of abdominal segments in
insect is eleven plus a telson which bears anus. Abdominal segments are called uromeres. On
eighth and nineth segment of female and nineth segment of male, the appendages are modified
as external organs of reproduction or genitalia. These segments are known as genital segments.
Usually eight pairs of small lateral openings (spiracles) are present on the first eight abdominal
segments. In grasshoppers, a pair of tympanum is found one on either side of the first abdominal
segment. It is an auditory organ. It is obliquely placed and connected to the metathoracic ganglia
through auditory nerve.

Modifications:
Reduction in number of abdominal segments has taken place in many insects. In spring tail only six
segments are present. In house fly only segments 2 to 5 are visible and segments 6 to 9 are
telescoped within others. In ants, bees and wasps, the first abdominal segment is fused with the
metathorax and is called propodeum. Often the second segment forms a narrow petiole. The rest
of the abdomen is called gaster. In queen termite after mating the abdomen becomes gradually
swollen due to the enlargement of ovaries. The abdomen becomes bloated and as a result
sclerites are eventually isolated as small islands. Obesity of abdomen of queen termite is called
physogastry.

Abdominal appendages
i . Pregenital abdominal appendages in wingless insects:
1) Styli : (Stylus : Singular) Varying number of paired tube like outgrowths are found on the ventral
side of the abdomen of silverfish. These are reduced abdominal legs which help in locomotion.
2). Collophore or ventral tube or glue peg: It is located on the ventral side of the first abdominal
segment of spring tail. It is cylindrical. It is protruded out by the hydrostatic pressure of
haemolymph. It might serve as an organ of adhesion. It aids in water absorption from the
substratum and also in respiration.
3). Retinaculum or tenaculum or catch: It is present on the ventral side of the third abdominal
segment. It is useful to hold the springing organ when not in use.
4). Furcula or Furca: This is a 'Y' shaped organ. It is present on the venter of fourth abdominal
segment. When it is released from the catch, it exerts a force against the substratum and the
insect is propelled in the air.
ii) Abdominal appendages in immature insects:
1) Tracheal gills: Gills are lateral outgrowths of body wall which are richly supplied with tracheae
to obtain oxygen from water in naiads (aquatic immature stages of hemimetabolous insects).
Seven pairs of filamentous gills are present in the first seven abdominal segments of naiads of
may flyand are called as lateral gills. Three or two leaf like gills (lamellate) are found at the end
of adbomen of naiad of damselfly and are called as caudal gills. In dragonfly the gills are
retained within the abdomen in a pouch like rectum and are called as rectal gills.
2) Anal papillae: A group of four papillae surrounds the anus in mosquito larvae. These papillae
are concerned with salt regulation.
3) Dolichasters: These structures are found on the abdomen of antlion grub. Each dolichaster is a
segmental protuberance fringed with setae.
4) Proloegs: These are present in the larvae of moth, butterfly and sawfly. Two to five pairs are
normally present. They are unsegmented, thick and fleshy. The tip of the proleg is called planta
upon which are borne heavily sclerotised hooks called crochets. They aid in crawling and
clinging to surface.
iii) Abdominal appendages in winged adults :
1) Cornicles: Aphids have a pair of short tubes known as cornicles or siphonculi projecting from
dorsum of fifth or sixth abdominal segment. They permit the escape of waxy fluid which
perhaps serves for protection against predators.
2) Caudal breathing tube: It consists of two grooved filaments closely applied to each other
forming a hollow tube at the apex of abdomen. e.g. water scorpion.
3) Cerci : (Cercus - Singular) They are the most conspicuous appendages associated normally with
the eleventh abdominal segment. They are sensory in function. They exhibit wide diversity and
form.
 Long and many segmented :- e.g. Mayfly
Long and unsegmented :- e.g. Cricket
Short and many segmented :- e.g. Cockroach
Short and unsegmented :- e.g. Grasshopper
Sclerotised and forceps like : e.g. Earwig. Cerci are useful in defense, prey capture, unfolding
wings and courtship.
Asymmetrical cerci :- Male embiid. Left cercus is longer than right and functions as clasping
organ during copulation.
4) Median caudal filament: In mayfly (and also in a wingless insect silverfish) the epiproct is
elongated into cercus like median caudal filament.
5) Pygostyles: A pair of unsegmented cerci like structures are found in the last abdominal segment
of scoliid wasp.
6) Anal styli: A pair of short unsegmented structure found at the end of the abdomen of male
cockroach. They are used to hold the female during copulation.
7) Ovipositor: The egg laying organ found in female insect is called ovipositor. It is suited to lay
eggs in precise microhabitats. It exhibits wide diversity and form. Short and horny : e.g. Short
horned grasshopper
Long and sword like : e.g. Katydid, long horned grasshopper
Needle like : e.g. Cricket
Ovipositor modified into sting : e.g. Worker honey bee.
Pseudoovipositor: An appendicular ovipositor is lacking in fruit flies and house flies. In fruit flies,
the elongated abdomen terminates into a sharp point with which the fly pierces the rind of the
fruit before depositing the eggs. In the house fly the terminal abdominal segments are telescopic
and these telescopic segments aid in oviposition. The ovipositor of house fly is called
pseudoovipositor or ovitubus or oviscapt.
Male genitalia: External sexual organs of male insects are confined to ninth abdominal segment. In
damselfly, the functional copulatory organ is present on the venter of second abdominal
segment
 Insect sense organs

The sense organs in an insect body are distributed on different parts and respond to a given
stimulus such as light, sound, touch, chemicals etc.
The sense organs may be classified as
1. Visual organs (or) photoreceptors- compound eye, ocelii and stemmata
2. Auditory organs (or) organs of hearing
3. Chemoreceptors which respond to chemicals
4. Mechanorecepotrs or Tacticle receptors which respond to touch
5. Gustatory receptors which respond to taste.
2. Auditory organs- Insects are provided with structures (or) organs that are able to perceive
the sound waves (or) the aquatic water currents. Among the organs of hearing, the auditory
hairs, tympanal organ and Jhonston’s organ are important.
a. Auditory hairs: These are present on the body of insects such as larvae of Lepidoptera
which are developed from the modified epidermal cells. These respond to the sounds of air
(or) water currents mediated by the hair sensillae (or) trichoid.
b. Tympanal organ: This is a delicate organ (or) structure seen in the form of a cuticular
membrane which internally consists of a ‘mullers’ organ. Tympanum is present one on
either side of the 1st abdominal segment of short horned grasshoppers, on the base of
foretibia in long horned grasshoppers and crickets and on thorax or abdomen in
Lepidoptera.
c. Jhonston’s organ: It is present on the pedicel of antennae and functions as an auditory organ
responding to air (or) water currents. They are absent in Collembola.
d. Pilifer of hawk moths (sphingid moths): A unique auditory organ, sensitive to ultrasonic
frequencies is found in the head of several species of Sphingidae.
3. Chemo and Mechanoreceptors- sensory hairs (setae) widely distributed over insect body
(antennae, tarsi, cerci and wings).
Sound producing organs (Stridulatory organ)
Sound producing organ: Sounds of different kinds and intensities are produced by a number
of insects. The biological significance of the sound is not clear but in some species they
facilitate mating by attracting the sexes, sub serve recognition, communicates warnings of
danger or to have a defensive function. A single species may make several sounds each with
its own function. The actual part of the body concerned with sound production is known as
‘stridulating organ’.
1. Tapping body parts against external object-
a. Death watch beetle (Xestobium rufavillosum)- Tap the head against walls of wooden burrow.
b. Male Plecopter/Pscopter- Rap the end of abdomen against substrate.
c. Pupa of Hespiridae & Lcaenidae- Knock the body against the walls of cells as defense.
d. Soldier termite- Hammer the head to the nest when the colony is disturbed.

2. Friction of one body part against another part-

a. Acrididae- Row of pegs on inner side of the hind femur being worked against the outer
surface of tegmina.
b. Tettigonidae/ Gryllidae- Row of teeth on the tegminal vein is scraped by a sclerotized part of
the margin of the opposite tegmina.
3. Sound produced by the vibration of wings-
a. Many insects during flight make a humming sound
4. Sound produced by the vibration of special membrane exerted by muscular membrane-
a. Cicad bug- Produce the vibration of drum or tymbals situated at the base of 2 nd abdominal
segment and vibrate by the action of powerful muscles.
Light producing organs
The light producing insects are almost confined to Coleoptera. The organs are located
beneath the areas of transparent cuticle where the large independent photogenic cells similar
to Oenocyts. The organ is composed of a masses of photogenic cells arranged in rosette like
fashion around the trachea from which short trunk run into tracheal end cells. Numerous
tracheoles arise and penetrate between the photogenic cells, while the inner surface of the
organ is covered by a layer of urate containing cells.
The light is emitted when a substance, luciferin is oxidized by free oxygen in presence of
water and an enzyme, luciferase. The energy is obtained through reactions involving ATP
and very little heat accompanies the emission of light. In the luminous organ the regulation
of flashing depends on a nervously controlled valve like action of the tracheal end cell in
admitting the oxygen to the photogenic tissue.
Ex: 1. Collembolla- Onychiurus armatus (whole body)
2. Diptera (Platyuridae and Bolitophilidae) - Larva
3. Coleoptera – Lampyridae (fire fly), Elateridae and Phengolidae (larvae)

Luciferin
Activated by ATP and Mg

Adenyl luciferin
Oxidized in presence of Luciferase and Oxygen

Adenlyoxy luciferin

Oxyluciferin

Light

Metamorphosis and diapause in insects

Series of changes that takes place during the development of an insect from egg to adult are
collectively known as metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis is derived from Greek word ‘Meta’ = Change, ‘morph’ = form or structure.
Metamorphosis include three developmental processes namely growth, differentiation and
reproduction which takes place in larval, pupal and adult stages respectively.
The presence of hard exoskeleton on the body prevents the growth of larva. The series of
moults during larval stage allow them to increase their body size/growth. The number of moults
in general may vary from 5-6.
Instar: It is the form of the body during two inter moults. The larva is known as first instar,
immediately after hatching from egg and as second instar after first moult and so on.
Stadium: The interval or time period between two moults is known as stadium.
Exuviae: The skin shed during moulting process is known as exuviae.
Imago (or) Adult: It is the final stage of insect with well developed organs for reproduction,
which emerges out from pupal body.
Sub-imago: It is a pre adult stage with fully developed wings but without reproductive organs.
Ex: mayflies (Ephemeroptera)
Types of metamorphosis:
1. Ametamorphosis
2. Incomplete metamorphosis
3. Complete metamorphosis
4. Intermediate metamorphosis
5. Hyer metamorphosis
1. Ametamorphosis:
Insects do not undergo any metamorphosis. When the insect hatches from the egg, it
resembles the adult in all the characters except the small body size, which later increases,
until they reach sexual maturity with well developed reproductive organs.
Ex: Apterygotes - silver fish, springtails.

2. Incomplete metamorphosis or hemimetamorphosis or direct development or simple

metamorphosis:
The life cycle includes egg, nymph and adult stages. The nymph resembles the adult in all
the characters except wings. Nymphs possess wing buds which transform in to fully
developed wings in adult stage. In these insects, wings develop externally and hence are
also called as Exopterygota. Pupal stage is absent hence, development is said to be direct
and simple. In some insects (dragon and damselfly) the nymphs have aquatic life and are
called as ‘naiads’.
3. Complete (or) holometamorphosis or indirect development:
The life cycle includes four stages; egg, larva, pupa and adult. Larva differs from the adult
both in body structure and habits. Larva has both thoracic and abdominal legs, sometimes
legs may be absent in larva, where as adult has only thoracic legs. Compound eyes are
absent in larva. Larva undergoes moulting to enter in to pupal stage from which the adult
insect emerges. Wings develop internally during the pupal stage and hence, they are called
Endoptreygotes.

4. Intermediate metamorphosis: In this case, insects may undergo either hemi or

holometamorphosis. If they undergo holometamorphosis, there is a short pupal stage.
Ex: coccids, thrips etc.
5. Hypermetamorphosis: This is a peculiar type of development which consists of two or more
types or forms of larvae in the life cycle of insects. In majority of the cases the first larval
instar is campodeiform and the subsequent larval forms depends on type and mode of life
of the larva.
Ex: In blister beetle (Meloidae; Coleoptera), the first larval instar is campodeiform followed by
scarabeiform larval type.
Diapause
It is the period of arrested growth or development in the life cycle of the insects during
which the physiological processes like differentiation and reproduction are suspended.
Diapause is represented by low rate of metabolism, low O2 consumption, low body weight,
low body water content and vitamin deficiency in the blood. Diapause may occur in egg,
larva, nymph, pupa or adult stage.
For example:
Egg diapause - Bombyx mori
Larval diapause- Euproctis sp., Pectinophora gossypiella;
Pupal diapause- Redhairy Caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga)
Adult diapause- Mango nut weevil (Sternochaetus mangiferae)
Types of Diapause:
1. Obligatory diapause: It refers to the stage of suspended activity of the insect which is a
hereditary character controlled by genes and is species specific.
Ex: egg diapause in silkworm
2. Facultative diapause: It is the stage of suspended activity of the insect due to unfavourable
conditions and with the onset of favourable condition, the insect regains its original activity.
Ex: Cotton pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella.
The unfavourable conditions may be biotic or abiotic. Biotic conditions are natural enemies,
population density etc. Whereas abiotic conditions are temperature, rainfall, humidity,
photoperiod, type of food material etc.
The occurrence of diapause during summer due to high temperatures is known as
“aestivation” where as the period of inactivity during winter due to low temperatures
known as “hibernation”.

Types of eggs
a) Singly laid
1) Sculptured egg: Chorion with reticulate markings and ridges. Ex: castor butterfly

2) Elongate egg: Eggs are cigar shaped. Ex: Sorghum shoot fly.

3) Rounded egg: Eggs are either spherical or globular. Eg: Citrus butterfly.

4) Nit: Egg of head louse is called nit. It is cemented to the base of the hair. There is an egg
stigma at the posterior end, which assists in attachment. At the anterior end, there is an oval
lid which is lifted at time of hatching.
5) Egg with float: Egg is boat shaped with a conspicuous float on either side. The lateral sides
are expanded. The expansions serve as floats. Ex: Anopheles mosquito.

b) LAID IN GROUPS-
1) Pedicellate eggs: Eggs are laid in silken stalks of about 1.25 mm length in on groups plants.
Ex: Green lace wing fly.

2) Barrel shaped eggs: Eggs are barrel shaped. They look like miniature batteries. They are
deposited in compactly arranged masses. Ex: Stink bug.

3) Ootheca: Eggs are deposited by cockroach in a brown bean like chitinous capsule. Each
ootheca consists of a double layered wrapper protecting two parallel rows of eggs. Each
ootheca has 16 eggs arranged in two rows. Oothecae are carried for several days protruding
from the abdomen of female prior to oviposition in a secluded spot. Along the top, there is a
crest which has small spores which permit gaseous exchange without undue water loss.
Chitinous egg case is produced out of the secretions of collaterial glands.

4) Egg pod: Grass hoppers secrete a frothy material that encases an egg mass which is
deposited in the ground. The egg mass lacks a definite covering. On the top of the egg, the
frothy substance hardens to form a plug which prevents the drying of eggs.

5) Egg case: Mantids deposit their eggs on twigs in a foamy secretion called spumaline which
eventually hardens to produce an egg case or ootheca. Inside the egg case, eggs are aligned
in rows inside the egg chambers.
6) Egg mass: Moths lay eggs in groups in a mass of its body hairs. Anal tuft of hairs found at
the end of the abdomen is mainly used for this purpose. Eg: Rice stem borer. Female silk
worm moth under captivity lays eggs on egg card. Each egg mass is called a dfl (disease free
laying).

7) Egg raft: In culex mosquitoes, the eggs are laid in a compact mass consisting of 200 – 300
eggs are called egg raft in water.

Types of larvae
Immature stages of exopterygote insects are known as Nymphs and endopterygote insects are
known as Larvae.
S. No. Larva Nymph
1 Is an immature stage of endopterygota Immature stage of exopterygota
2 Undergoes holometamorphosis Undergoes hemimetamorphosis
Body is vermiform which differs from the
Body resembles the adult in all the
3 adult both in structure and feeding
characters except wings
habits
4 Consists of ocelli and reduced antennae Have compound eyes and antennae
5 Possess both thoracic and abdominal legs Possess only thoracic legs
Larva id different from adult in feeding Nymph resembles the adult in
6
habits and behaviour feeding habits and behaviour
7 Larva enters to pupal stage No nymphal stage
Ex Lepidopter, Coleoptera Hemiptera, Orthoptera

Types of larva:
1. Protopod larva: Ex: endoparasitic hymenoptera.
The larva emerge (hatch) from egg which is still in an early embryonic phase as the egg
contain less yolk material. The larvae are partially developed. They possess well developed
head and thoracic segments but lack segmentation in the abdomen. They possess
rudimentary cephalic and thoracic appendages but no abdominal appendages. They have
partially developed digestive system and underdeveloped respiratory and nervous systems.
2. Oligopod larva:
These are characterized by the presence of well developed thoracic legs, head capsule and
without any abdominal legs. These are classified in to two types viz., campodeiform and
scarabaeiform.
s.no. Campodeiform Scarabaeiform
Body shape is long and fusiform in
1 Body is ‘C’shaped
shape
Body is dorso ventrally compressed Body is cylindrical or sub cylindrical, stout
2
with sclerotized cuticle and fleshy in nature
3 Prognathous type of head Hypgnathous type of head
4 Long thoracic legs Short thoracic legs
A pair of terminal abdominal
5 Absent
processes(anal cerci) are present
6 Active Inactive
7 Predatory in nature Phytophagous
Ex Neuroptera, Trichoptera Scarabidae of Coleoptera

3. Polypod larva (Eruciform larva): The larva possess well defined segmentation of the body
with three pairs of thoracic legs, 2-5 pairs of abdominal legs (3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 10th
abdominal segment. They are phytophagous and destructive.

Different types of polypod larvae:

A. Hairy caterpillar- Larval body is fully covered with hairs
Ex: Redhairy caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga), Castor hairy caterpillar (Pericalia ricini).
B. Sphingid caterpillar / larva- The larva consists of a horn (or) hook on the dorsal surface of
8th abdominal segment. Ex: Acherontia styx (Gingelly death’s head moth)
C. Looper: Only two pairs of abdominal legs present on 6 th and last abdominal segment
.During walking the insect body forms a complete loop like structure hence, the name
looper. Ex: Mango looper, Thalassodes quadraria
D. Semilooper: First two pairs of abdominal legs (on 3 rd and 4 th segments) are reduced,
hence a part of the insect body forms a small loop during its movement. Ex:
Castor semilooper (Achoea janata).
4. Apodous larva: These are characterized by the absence of trunk appendages (or) legs. They
possesses 3 pairs of sensory papillae in the place of thoracic legs. They are usually derived
from Oligopod type.
Based on the degree of development of the head capsule and its appendages, these larva
are divided in to 3 types.
a. Eucephalous: The larva consists of a well sclerotized head capsule. Mandibles act
transversely. Ex: Sub order Nematocera of Diptera, Mosquito (Culcidae)
b. Hemicephalous: Larva possess partially developed head capsule. Mandibles act vertically.
Ex: Brachycera of Diptera, Robberflies (Asilidae)
C. Acephalous: The larvae are characterized by the absence of head capsule and mouth parts
are represented by mouth hooks. They are also called as vermiform larvae. Ex:
Cyclorrhapa of Diptera, Muscidae (houseflies)

Looper larva

Types of Pupa
It is resting, inactive stage of the holometabolous insects anf transitional phase during which
the wings are developed and the insect attain matured sexual organs. The pupa is incapable
of feeding, locomotion except in some cases where they crawl (Neuroptera) (Aphid lion),
can swim e.g.: mosquitoes. Pupa represents a Looper larva pharate adult stage and later it
emerges as adult, pupation may takes place either in soil, or on the plant surface or within
the webs.
Pupae is divided on the following bases-
1. Based on the presence or absence of powerful mandibles:
Decticous pupae Adecticous pupae
Possess relatively powerful mandibles Do not possess the mandibles but with the
which are used for escapig of the adult help of other appendages, adults escape
from the coccon i.e. to break the cocoon from the cocoon.
Ex: Nerupotera Ex: Lepidoptera and Diptera.

2. Based on the attachment of the appendages or shape of the puape:

a. Exarate pupa: The pupae have appendages which are free without any secondary
attachment to the body. Ex: most of the Coleoptera
b. Obtect pupa: The pupae have appendages which are firmly pressed against the body and
the pupa is highly chitinized. Ex: Lepidoptera (moths)
i. Chrysalis: It is an obtect type of pupa which has golden colouration and a stalk
Ex: butterflies.
ii. Tumbler: Pupa of mosquito is called as tumbler. It is an obtect pupa.
a. Coarctate: The pupa remains enclosed in a puparium formed by the last larval skin
and the pupa looks like a capsule or barrel. Ex: Cyclorrhapha of Diptera (housefly)

Exarate Obtect Coarctate Chrysalis

Tumbler
 Insect digestive system

Insects may be phytophagous, entomophagous, wood borers, wool feeders (or) saprophytic,
mainly feeding on the solid food material which may be a plant part (or) host tissue (or)
wood etc.
 If the food ingested in a liquid form, it may be a plant sap (or) nectar (or) blood
 Based on the food material ingested, there are structural modifications in the digestive
system of insects.
 Insects having the habit of feeding on the solid food material, possess the biting and
chewing type of mouth parts where as sap feeding ones have sucking type. Sap suckers
possess a filter chamber and solid feeders have well developed gizzard.
 The alimentary canal in insects extends from mouth to anus which is divided in to an
anterior stomodaeum (foregut), middle midgut (mesenteron or stomach or ventriculus)
and posterior hindgut (proctodaeum).
 The foregut and hindgut are ectodermal in origin where as the midgut is endodermal in
origin.
 Compared to the carnivores (or) sap suckers, the phytophagous solid feeders possess longer
alimentary canal.

Alimentary canal is divided into 3 parts.

1) Foregut: It is the anterior part of the alimentary canal which starts with the mouth cavity
and ends with the gizzard (or) proventriculus. It is divided in to pharynx, oesophagus,
crop and gizzard. The mouth cavity is formed by the labrum as upper lip, labium as lower
lip with mandibles and maxillae laterally and hypopharynx at the centre. At the base of
the hypopharynx, salivary glands open into the mouth cavity.
Pharynx: It is the region between the mouth and oesophagus.
Oesophagus: it is a narrow part of the foregut through which the food get transported from
pharynx into the crop.
Crop: It is a sac like structure which is a dilated form and mainly serves the purpose of storage
of food material.
Gizzard: It is a small constricted part of the alimentary canal which consists of the cuticular
intima layer modified into a tooth like denticles that help for grinding the food material. In
some insects such as honey bees, the gizzard functions as honey stopper (or) stainer
separating the pollen from the nectar. After gizzard the foregut forms into a stomodeal
 valve which is surrounded by gastric (or) hepatic caecae, which may vary from 5-6 in
number.
Internally foregut consists of the following layers.
(i) Inner most intima layer
(ii) Epithelial cells
(iii) Basement membrane
(iv) Longitudinal muscles
(v) Circular muscles

Proventriculus (Foregut)
2) Midgut
It is also known as mesenteron or stomach. Foregut opens in to midgut through stomodael
/ cardiac valve. Midgut is a short, straight tube in case of primitive insects or a sac or may
be pyriform or fusiform in shape in caterpillars. In some insects midgut appears as a
completely separated sac like structure that gets connected with the hindgut. Structurally
midgut consists of
(i) Inner peritrophic membrane
(ii) A layer of epithelial cells
(iii) Basement membrane
(iv) Circular muscles
(v) Longitudinal muscles
Midgut consists of an inner delicate layer called peritrophic membrane secreted by the
epithelial cells. The peritrophic membrane protects the tender epithelial cells of the midgut
from abrasion by hard food particles as no mucous is secreted in insects that feed on the
solid food material. The peritrophic membrane forms a coat over the food particles and no
damage will occur to epithelial cells of midgut. This layer is said to be permeable to the
digestive enzymes and the products of digestion. It is absent in case of sap sucking insects.
The epithelial layer of midgut consists of 3 types of cells
1) Columnar cells: These are columnar in shape, vary in size and release enzymes through a
series of microvilli arranged in a brush border (or) honey comb border.
2) Regenerative cells: These epithelial cells are involved in the production (or) formation of
new cells to replace the whole columnar cells involved in holocrine secretion of enzymes.
These regenerative cells may be arranged either in groups (or) may remain scattered (or)
sometimes singly. If they are arranged in groups (or) clusters they are called Nidhi.
3) Goblet cells: Mainly serve for storage and excretion.
A) Gastric caecae (Enteric caecae or Hepatic caecae): Finger like outgrowths found in anterior
or posterior ends of midgut. This structure increases the functional area of midgut and shelter
symbiotic bacteria in some insects.
B) Filter chamber: This is a characteristic arrangement of the midgut in hemipteran insects
(fluid feeders). Anterior part of midgut forms a thin-walled bladder i.e filter chamber
which is closely bound to either posterior part of midgut or the anterior hindgut and
Malpighian tubules. Filter chamber enables the excess fluids including sugar in the food to
pass directly from the anterior part of the midgut to the hindgut without passing through
the middle portion of midgut thus preventing excessive dilution of haemolymph, enzymes
and facilitate better enzyme activity. In aphids, the honey dew (rich in sugars) is the
substance that is being excreted after passing through the filter chamber.

3. Hindgut: It is also known as proctodaeum which is lined inside by intima. It is more

permeable than that of the foregut. Anterior end of the hindgut can be marked by the presence
of a set of malpighian tubules and a pyloric valve. Internally hindgut has same structure as that
of the foregut. Hindgut is divided into 3 regions namely ileum, colon and rectum.
Ileum- is a small intestine (or) tube like structure and appears as a pouch in scarabids.
Colon- may (or) may not be present and if present, it leads to rectum. The epithelial cells of
Rectum- The epithelial cells of the rectum may sometimes get differentiated into rectal
papillae (or) pads which vary in number from 3-6. These are involved in reabsorption of
water, salts from the faecal matter.
Gut physiology-
Salivary glands: These are a pair of glands involved in the secretion of salivary juices. These
glands open at the base of the hypopharynx through small salivary ducts. The secretion of the
glands contain the enzymes such as amylases, lipases, proteases, but never cellulase. In case of
silkworm (or) lepidopteran larvae, the salivary glands produce silk which contains two proteins
fibroin and sericin and anti coagulants in blood suckers like mosquitoes.
(b) Hepatic caecae and midgut epithelial cells: It secretes most of the digestive Juices. Two types of
cells were involved in the enzyme secretion.
(i) Holocrine: Epithelial cells disintegrate in the process of enzyme secretion.
(ii) Merocrine: Enzyme secretion occurs without cell break down.

C. Microbes in digestion: In the insect body few cells were housing symbiotic microorganisms
called as mycetocyte. These mycetocytes aggregate to form an organ called mycetome.
(i) Flagellate protozoa - It produces cellulase for cellulose digestion in termites and wood
cockroach.
(ii) Bacteria - It helps in wax digestion in wax moth.
(iii) Bed bug and cockroach obtain vitamin and aminoacids from microbes. These microbes were
transmitted between individuals through food exchange (mouth to mouth feeding) called
trophallaxis and through egg called as transovarial transmission. In plant bug and ant lion grub
partial digestion occurs in the host body prior to food ingestion called as extra intestinal
digestion. In most of the insects digestion occurs in mid gut.
Process of digestion
The food ingested by the insects through the mouth cavity enters into the alimentary canal, get
digested and the undigested waste material is excreted through anus. During this process, food
material is broken down into small particles (or) in to a form that can be readily absorbed by the
cells of the midgut and hindgut.
Digestion mainly takes place in 5 steps.
1. Ingestion: Food is partially digested in the oral cavity with the help of salivary enzymes. In
insects like fluid feeders, carnivorous hemiptera, blowfly larvae etc, digestion occurs outside the
intestine by a process called extra intestinal (or) extra oral digestion.
2. Transportation: The food material entered in to the oesophagus is transported in to the crop by
muscular activity i.e. by peristatic movements. Food moves continuously from oesophagus in
to the crop where it is stored. From the crop, food enters in to the gizzard where it is still broken
in to very minute particles with the help of denticles or the cuticular teeth.
3. Digestion: From the gizzard through the stomodeal valve, food passes in to the midgut where
actually digestion starts. The epithelial cells produce enzymes i.e. proteases which break
proteins in to aminoacids, carbohydrases breaking carbohydrates in to mono & disaccharides,
lipases breaking lipids in to fatty acids and glycerol. In termites, digestion takes place in colon
of hindgut where mycetomes (group of cells which harbour the micro organisms like
protozoans) secrete the enzyme cellulase which can digest the wood material rich in cellulose.
In scarabid beetle larvae, bacteria are involved in digestion. In wood feeders, keratin digestion
is facilitated by alkaline pH of midgut. In Tineola (cloths moth), keratinase secreted by
protozoans.
4. Absorption: Midgut epithelial cells absorb the nutrients from the digested food and pass on the
faecal matter and undigested food material in to the hindgut. The Malpighian tubules maintain
ionic balance by absorbing Na and K salts from the blood. The cells of the hindgut are also
involved in the re absorption of water, salts and other metabolites from the faecal matter.
5. Egestion: The waste food material is discharged through the anus due to the action of the anal
muscles.

Circulatory system
There are two types of circulatory systems in the animal kingdom. In many animals, the blood
travels through vessels like arteries, capillaries and veins. This is known as closed type of
circulatory system. In insects the blood flows through the body cavity (i.e, heamocoel)
irrigating various tissues and organs. It is known as open type of circulatory system.
Haemocoel of the insects is divided into 3 sinuses (or) regions due to the presence of two fibro
muscular septa (or) diaphragms composed of connective tissues.
Dorsal or Pericardial Sinus: The area lying in between the tergum and dorsal diaphragm . It
contains heart.
Ventral or Perineural Sinus: The area lying in between the sternum and ventral diaphragm .It
contains nerve cord.
Visceral Sinus: The area in between dorsal and ventral diaphragms. It harbour the visceral
organs like alimentary canal and gonads.
 Main sinuses of haemocoel
Dorsal blood vessel: It is the principal blood conducting organ in insects which remain closed
at the posterior end and opens anteriorly in to the head. It is divided into an anterior aorta and
posterior heart extending throughout the length of the body.

1. Aorta: It is the anterior part of the dorsal blood vessel and functions as principal artery. It is
present in the thoracic region and opens in to the head near the brain. Its attachment with the
heart posteriorly is marked by a aortic valve. Anteriorly sometimes it gets divided into 2 (or)
more cephalic arteries in the head.
2. Heart: It is the posterior part of dorsal blood vessel extending up to the terminal end of the
abdomen. Heart remains in position with the help of alary muscles that are attached to the
tergum of the abdomen on one side and to the dorsal diaphragm on other side. These alary
muscles appear to be distributed fan like over the heart. Heart consists of number of
chambers marked by constrictions and the presence of the opening called the incurrent
‘ostia’ which allow the entry of blood from pericardial sinus in to the heart. The number of
ostia depends upon the number of heart chambers which will be usually 9. The wall of heart
also consists of muscles. Heart mainly functions as the pumping organ into the aorta.
Accessory pulsatile organs: Insects consists of sac like structures called accessory pulsatile
organs, which are present at the base of the appendages such as wings, legs and antenna.
They pulsate independently and supply adequate blood to the appendages.

Process of blood circulation: Heart mainly function as a pulsatile organ whose expansion and
contraction leads to blood circulation. It takes place generally in an anti clock manner
starting from posterior end to the anterior end in a forward direction. Circulation of blood
takes place in two phases due to the action of the alary muscles as well as the muscles of the
walls of the heart.
The two phases are
1. Diastole: During which expansion of heart takes place.
2. Systole: Contraction of heart takes place.
1. Diastole: Expansion of heart (diastole) occurs, when the alary muscles that are spread fan
like over the heart and connected to the tergum get contracted. It results in increase of
volume of heart and decrease in the area of pericardial sinus. This creates a pressure on the
blood in pericardial sinus forcing the blood to enter into the heart through the incurrent
ostia. This incurrent ostium allows only the entry of blood from the sinus in to the heart and
prevents its backflow from the heart to the sinus.
2. Systole: Contraction of heart (systole), is brought about by the expansion of the alary
muscles as well as contraction of the muscles of the heart wall. This creates pressure on the
blood within the heart leading to its forward movement in to the aorta. From the aorta
blood enters in to the head and flows back bathing the visceral organs in the visceral sinus
and neural cord in the perineural sinus. In between diastole and systole there will be a short
period of rest which is known as diastasis.
During the process of backward flow of blood, after entering in to the visceral and
perineural sinuses, blood flow to the posterior part of the body and in to the pericardial
sinus, due to the undulating movements of the dorsal and ventral diaphragms. During the
process of circulation throughout the body some part of the blood flows into the accessory
pulsatile organ that are present at the base of appendages like legs, wings and antennae.
The rate of heart beat (diastole) generally vary with the body temperature and
physiological conditions of the body which in turn differs between species (or) between stages
of the insects.
Properties of blood:
1. Blood is colourless (or) green (or) yellowish with different types of haemocytes and plasma.
Green colour is due to chlorophyll dissolved in the plasma and red colour is due to
haemoglobin in Chironomus midge.
2. Blood covers up 5 – 40% of the total body weight that vary with the sex and stage (or) age
of the insect.
3. Insect blood contains proteins, lipids, sugars, organic acids, phosphates, pigments, uric acid
etc.
4. The insect blood of phytophagous insect is rich in ‘K’ where as that of carnivores is rich
in ‘Na’
5. Specific gravity of the blood varies from 1.01 to 1.06.
6. pH of the blood generally varies from 6-7.
7. The blood sugar of insects is trehalose.
8. Blood lacks vitamin ‘K’
Functions of blood:
1. Transport of minerals or food materials: blood transports minerals, digested products,
hormones to different parts of the body.
2. Blood stores water for the tissues.
3. Helps during the process of moulting for splitting up of the old cuticle.
4. Encapsulation: to protect from the large metazoan parasites, the haemocytes of blood,
become aggregated around the foreign body forming a capsule of 2-3 layers. This leads to
the death of the foreign bodies due to lack of O2 supply.
5. Phagocytosis: to get protection from micro organisms like bacteria, viruses and fungi, the
haemocytes completely engulf the foreign body and gets autolysed (this is the principal
function of haemocytes)
6. Immunity: blood gives immunity by producing antibodies to restrict further infections.
7. Connective tissue formation: blood provides lipoproteins that are necessary for the
formation of the connective tissue.
8. Wound healing (or) coagulation : haemocytes extend pseudopodia which forms a cellular
network over the wounded site (or) plasmtocytes coagulate forming a plug over the wound
(or) haemocytes are arranged in to multi layered sheaths over the wounded site, thus
helping in wound healing.
9. Detoxification: as the haemocytes are capable of detoxifying the toxic chemicals, insects
get the ability to resist the toxic effects of chemicals.
10. Reflex bleeding: it is a phenomenon where emission of blood occurs through the pores (or)
slits of the cuticle which mainly helps the insects for getting protection from their natural
enemies.
 Excretory system

The organs of insect body, involved in the elimination of excess or unwanted materials either
toxic or not useful, are together known as excretory system. These toxic materials are
nitrogenous products of metabolism (mainly ammonia), pigments, salts etc. For the efficient
maintenance of water and the ionic balance in the haemolymph, the waste products of the
metabolism are to be removed or eliminated. These waste material may be in solid, semisolid,
liquid or gaseous form. The principal excretory product in gaseous form is CO2, liquid form is
honey dew, solid form is urea/uric acid and semi solid form is allantoin.
The organs that are involved in the process of excretion are
1. Malpighian tubules
2. Integument or body wall
3. Tracheal system
4. Alimentary canal
5. Nephrocytes
6. Urate cells
7. Oenocytes
8. Labial glands and
9. Chloride cells
1. Malpighian tubules: These are discovered by an Italian scientist, Marcello Malpighi in the
year 1669, which were named after him by Heckel in 1820. The Malpighian tubules long,
tubular structures which open proximally in between midgut and hindgut and closed
distally, floating freely in the haemolymph. Malpighian tubules vary in their shape and size.
They may be simple or branched. Their number varies from 2-250 (in coccids – 2; in locust
– 250). The shape of tubules may be sac like, papillae like or branched. Malpighian tubules
are absent in aphids and Collembola.

In some of the insects such as caterpillars and coleopterans, the distal ends of the Malpighian
tubules get reattached to the alimentary canal by opening in to the rectum of hindgut. This
condition is called ‘cryptonephridial condition’. The cryptonephridial arrangement is
concerned with re absorption of water from rectum. The cells of Malpighian tubules also
produce enzymes, acid and alkaline phosphatases, dehydrogenase (succinic), lipases, vitamins like
thiamine, ascorbic acid etc.
Functions of Malpighian tubules:
1. Helps in the process of excretion or removal of waste products in order to regulate the internal
body environment by maintaining ionic and water balance.
2. In case of glow worms, the distal ends of tubules produces light energy.
3. Also helps in the storage of Ca necessary for the processes such as hardening of puparium.
4. In case of aphid lion (chrysoperla), the secretions of the tubules produce stalked eggs.
5. In case of spittle bugs spittle around the immature stages is also a MT secretion.
2. Integument: Through the process of moulting, insects remove the waste nitrogenous products, i.e.
they are deposited in the form of exuviae. In some insects, where respiration occurs through body
wall, CO2 is removed through integument as waste product (cutaneous respiration).
3. Tracheal system: The respiratory tubes, the trachea which are distributed throughout the body,
function in elimination of CO2 through spiracles.
4. Alimentary canal: The gut of the insects also play a major role in excretion by removing the
unwanted material, dead cells formed during enzyme secretion (holocrine) and intima layer during
moulting. Rectum plays an important role in excretion by reabsorbing the water from faeces.
5. Nephrocytes: These are the special cells that are distributed in the body cavity and scattered.
Nephrocytes are cells that take up foreign chemicals of relatively high molecular weight which
Malpighian tubules may be incapable of dealing with.
They are of two types
1. Dorsal or pericardial nephrocytes on either side of the heart in pericardial sinus, present in
immature and adult stages of most of the insects.
2. Ventral nephrocytes, arranged as a chain below the foregut and attached by its two ends to the
salivary glands. e.g.: dipterous larvae.
Nephrocytes helps in the removal of ammonia, chlorides, dyes, colloidal particles etc.
1. Oenocytes: These are large cells and are usually present near the abdominal spiracles. They
arise from the ectoderm or hypodermis. These cells are thought to secrete cuticulin layer of the
epicuticle and in cockroach, surface grease which covers the integument is believed to be
involved in excretion.
7. Urate cells: Some of the fat body cells which store urea or uric acid in the form of granules are
known as urate cells. Preserved uric acid can be utilized subsequently. These are present when
Malpighian tubules are absent or may become nonfunctional. In some of the insects such as
cockroach, the waste material in the form of urea or uric acid is stored throughout its life in the fat
body cells without any harmful effect. This phenomenon of storage of urea / uric acid in the fat body
cells is called ‘storage excretion’ which is useful for supply of nitrogen, when insect feeds on
nitrogen deficient food.
8. Labial glands: These are seen in Collembola, Diplura, Thysanura. They consists of a sac like
structures called ampulla that leads to a long coiled labyrinth that open at the base of labium in the
head. These glands help to remove ammonia.
9. Chloride cells: These are the cells distributed on the body of aquatic insects such as larva of
mayfly or stone fly. They absorb ions from salt water (body) and then excrete in to surrounding
medium to compensate the changes in the ionic concentration of haemolymph.
 Respiratory system

Tracheal system: In insects, exchange of gases takes place through tubular structures, called
trachea. They are distributed throughout the body collectively forming tracheal system. These
trachea open outside on the body wall through small openings called spiracles. Spiracles
occur on the pleural surfaces of the body, one on either side of each segment.
The tracheae are divided in to very fine branches known as tracheoles. They supply oxygen
to the body tissues.
The tracheal system with functional spiracles is called the open tracheal system and with
non-functional spiracles is called closed tracheal system.
Tracheae are fine elastic tubular structures which are ectodermal in origin. They consist of
cuticle, epidermis, basement membrane as in case of general body wall but arranged in
reverse manner, i.e. basement membrane forms the outermost coat of trachea. The inner
cuticular lining forms the intima inside.
Tracheae are circular or elliptical in their cross section.
The cuticular lining (intima) appear as a spiral thickening throughout the length of the tube
of trachea. These spiral thickenings are known as ‘taenidia’ which give support to the
trachea without being collapsed when there is no air. It consists of chitin, resilin in protein-
chitin matrix.
The trachea ramify into very fine branches known as ‘tracheoles’ which are about 0.1 – 1
μm in diameter (Fig. 32). These tracheoles are formed in to cells called ‘tracheoblast’ or
tracheolar end cell, which are derived from epidermal cells, lining the trachea. Tracheoles
form a network over the visceral organs including the alimentary canal as well as the gonads
(ovaries, testis) and penetrate in to the tissues of the organs and become intracellular and
supply oxygen directly to the tissues.

Differences between trachea and tracheoles

S.No. Trachea Tracheoles
These are large tubes running from
1 Fine tubes arising distally from trachea
spiracles
2 Taenidia present Absent
Intima layer is retained, unchanged
3 Intima layer is shed during moulting
during moulting
4 Never become intracellular Intracellular
The intima layer consist of protein – Chitin – protein matrix present, resilin
5
chitin matrix with resilin absent

Tracheal trunks: The trachea coming from spiracles through out the body join with those of
neighbouring spiracles forming ‘longitudinal trunks’. Likewise, these tracheae by combining
with those coming from dorsal, lateral and ventral sides of the body fuse to form transverse
commissures and longitudinal connectives. All these in total form into dorsal trunk, lateral
trunks which are two in number and one ventral trunk. The dorsal trunk supply oxygen to
proximal part of the body as well as to heart where as the ventral supplies to the central nervous
system. The two lateral longitudinal trunks spread tracheoles to alimentary canal, legs, gonads
and wings.
As the head do not contain spiracles, air is supplied through the first pair spiracles by means of
two main branches of the dorsal longitudinal trunk, where one branch supply O2 to eyes,
antenna, brain; other branch to mouthparts and muscles of the head.

Tracheal system (dorsal tracheal trunks)

Spiracles: They are the openings of the internal tubular trachea. Except in Diplura, in all the
orders, spiracles are absent in prothorax and distributed in meso, metathorax and abdomen.
A total of 10 pairs are present in general, 2 pairs in thorax and 8 pairs in abdomen. Spiracles are
situated on pleural surface. They consist of a small ring like sclerite at opening called
‘peritreme’ leading to a cavity known as ‘atrium’. The closing and opening of spiracles is
accompanied by atrial valve lined with fibrous processes and form so called felt chamber
which reduces water loss in the absence of closing mechanism.

In some dipterans, coleopterans, lepidopterans, spiracles consists of sieve plate containing large
number of small apertures through which gas exchange takes place. This modification is to
prevent entry of water especially in acquatic forms.
 In most of the terrestrial insects, water loss through spiracles is controlled by the closing
mechanism which consists of one or two valves or a constriction from the trachea or by
muscular activity. The hydrophobic nature of spiracles is also due to the presence of
modified epidermal glands known as peristigmatic glands which secrete a hydrophobe
material preventing the wetting of these organs.

Classification of tracheal system based on number and arrangement of functional

spiracles
In most of the insects, 10 pairs of spiracles are present. Some of the modifications are as
follows
I. Holopneustic: These are primitive type with 2 pairs of spiracles on thorax and 8 pairs on
abdomen. All the spiracles are functional. 1 + 1 + 8.
Ex: Dragonflies, Grasshoppers and Cockroach
II. Hemipneustic: One or more pairs of spiracles become non-functional. They are
a) Peripneustic: Metathoracic spiracle is closed. 1 + 0 + 8.
Ex: larvae of Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera.
b) Amphipneustic: Only mesothoracic and last pair of abdominal spiracles are open. 1+0+
1.
Ex: larva of cyclorrhaphan Diptera.
c) Propneustic: Only one pair i.e. mesothoracic spiracles are open, 1 + 0 + 0
Ex: mosquito pupa
d) Metapneustic: Only last pair of abdominal spiracles are open. 0 + 0 + 1.
Ex: mosquito larvae
e) Apneustic: No functional spiracles.
Ex: mayfly larva, nymph of Odonata
III. Hypopneustic: 1 or 2 pairs of spiracles may completely disappear or absent
Ex: Siphunculata, Mallophaga
IV. Hyperpneustic: More than 10 pairs of spiracles are present
Ex: Japyx sps. (dipluran)

Other types of respiration:

1. Cutaneous respiration: When the spiracles are absent, respiration occurs through body
wall which forms main source for gaseous exchange.
Ex: Protura, Collembola and endoparasitic insects.
2. Tracheal gills: Also called as abdominal gills which occur as the outgrowths of the trachea
in the form of gills distributed on the lateral sides of the body. They are useful for
absorption of dissolved oxygen. They may vary in shape as lamellate or filamentous.
Ex: larva of Trichoptera, nymphs of Ephemeroptera
3. Spiracular gills: Peritreme or atrium of spiracles is drawn out in to a long filament like
structure known as spiracular gills. These gills are adapted for both aquatic and aerial
respiration, enabling the insect to live in air and moist places or completely in water or at
the edges of water structures.
Ex: In some aquatic pupae,
4. Blood gills: These are tubular or digitiform or eversible structures present at the anal end of
body ranging from 4-6 in larva of Trichoptera. In chironomid larva of Diptera, 2 pairs of
blood gills are present on penultimate segment and a group of 4 shorter anal gills are
present. These are called blood gills as they contain blood but some times have trachea.
Function of these structures is the absorption of water and inorganic ions rather than
respiration.
5. Rectal gills: In dragonfly nymphs (naids), the rectum modifies in to a barrel like chamber
where the rectal wall forms in to basal thick pads and distal gill filaments which are richly
supplied with tracheoles. They help in respiration.
6. Air sacs: In many winged insects, the trachea get dilated at some points to form thin walled
air sacs which do not contain the taenidia. These can be seen as glistening sac like structures
mainly function as storage structures of air which change their volume with respiratory
movement.
7. Plastron respiration: The plastron is a special type of air store in the form of a thin film
held by a system of hydrofuge hairs, scales or other cuticular processes whose volume
remains constant. If there is adequate oxygen dissolved in water, the plastron can act as a
permanent physical gill. The trachea opens in to plastron.
Ex: aquatic beetles.
 Nervous system
Insects show co-ordination in behaviour, memory and possess intelligence due to well
distributed nervous system. The nervous system functions as a link between the sense organs
which respond to various external and internal stimuli and the effector organs such as muscles,
glands etc, the sense organs include the structures with various sensilla that respond to sounds,
weather factors, smell etc. Nervous system consists of elongated cells which form the
physiologically functional elements that are known as neurons. These neurons carry the
information in the form of electrical impulses.
Structure of a neuron: The nerve cells are called neurons which are derived from ectoderm.
Each neuron consists of a prominent nucleated cell body known as perikaryon (or) soma and
an elongated cytoplasmic thin fibre called the ‘axon’ and group of small branches called the
‘dendrites’. The axon gives lateral branches called collaterals. Both the axon and collaterals
end in fine fibrils known as terminal arborizations. The neurons get connected with each
other by having a link between the terminal arborizations of the axon of one neuron and
dendrites of the soma of other neuron through a ‘synapse’.
Classification of neurons
I. Based on their structure:
1. Unipolar / monopolar: Have a single axon without collaterals and dendrites
2. Biopolar: Have either collaterals and dendrites in addition to axon
3. Multipolar: Neurons have an axon with several collaterals and dendrites.
(Most of insect neurons are monoploar)

II. Based on function: 3 kinds of neurons.

1. Sensory / afferent: Present just beneath the integument and associated with sensory organs.
Carry impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.
2. Motor / efferent neurons: Always unipolar / monopolar carry impulses from central
nervous system to the organs.
3. Association / internuntial neurons: Associated in between sensory and motor neurons,
usually present in ganglia, consists of axons of sensory neurons and soma of motor neurons.
The transverse commissures are also formed with these neurons.
 The points at which neurons receive information from or convey to another neuron is
known as synapse. Synaptic gap is approximately 1000A.
Nervous system can be grouped in to three
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
2. Visceral or sympathetic nervous system:
3. Peripheral nervous system:
1. Central nervous system: consists of brain, sub-oesophageal ganglion and ventral nerve
cord.
Brain: It is the dorsal ganglionic centre of the head supported by the tentorium. It is formed by
the union of the ganglia of first 3 segments of the head. Brain is divided into protocerebrum,
deutocerebrum and tritocerebrum.
Protocerebrum: It is formed by the union of the ganglia of pre-antennary segment and forms
the greater part of the brain. It gives nerve connection to the compound eyes and ocelli.
Deutocerebrum: It is formed from the ganglia of antennary segment and innervates antenna.
Tritocerebrum: It is formed by the union of ganglia of third / intercalary segment and is
relatively small. The lobes of it are attached anteriorly to deutocerebrum and posteriorly to
suboesophageal ganglion.

Sub-oesophageal ganglion: It is the ventral ganglionic centre of the head formed by the union
of ganglia of the gnathocephalic segments. It gives nerves to mandibular, maxillary, labial
segment, labrum, salivary ducts, part of cervical muscles in the neck region and corpora allata.
Aggregation of neurons is called ganglion.
Ventral nerve card (VNC): Ventral nerve card consists of a chain of segmented ganglia
connected by means of longitudinal connectives and transverse commissures. In thorax,
there are 3 ganglia, with nerve connections for legs, wings and general muscles. In the
abdomen, there are about 8 ganglia. The first abdominal ganglia remain closed with that of the
metathoracic ganglia and those ganglia from 9th, 10th, & 11th abdominal segment form a
composite ganglion. The abdominal ganglia give off nerves to the muscles of its segment. The
ultimate ganglia also pass nerves to anal cerci and ovipositor.
 1. Visceral / sympathetic nervous system: It is divided in to three systems
(i) Oesophageal sympathetic / stomatogastric nervous system- It is directly connected
with the brain which supplies nerves for the anterior part of the alimentary canal
(foregut and midgut), heart and certain other parts. It is dorsal in position.
(ii) Ventral sympathetic nervous system- Consist of a pair of transverse nerves that are
connected with each ganglia of VNC. The transverse nerves pass to the spiracles of that
particular segment.
(iii) Caudal sympathetic nervous system- Some additional nerves arises from posterior
compound ganglion of VNC which supply nerves for the posterior part of the gut and the
reproductive system.
3. Peripheral nervous system: It includes all the nerves coming from the ganglia of CNS and
that of the visceral nervous system.
Synapse: The neurons are not continuous with each other. The branched terminations of axon
of one neuron come in intimate association with dendrites, the cells body or terminal
arborisation of the collateral or the axon of another neuron to form a synapse. The terminal
arborisation of sensory axon ends up into a tiny swelling called synaptic knob. The synaptic
gap is around 1000A distance.

Mechanism of impulse conduction

Impulses are conducted by the neurones by two means.
A. Axonic conduction: Ionic composition varies between inside and outside of axon resulting in
excitable conditions, which leads to impulse conduction as electrical response.
B. Synaptic conduction: Neuro chemical transmitters are involved in the impulse conduction
through the synaptic gap. Neuro transmitters and the type of reactions helping in the impulse
conduction is as follows.
Acetyl CO-A + Choline (choline acetylase)  Acetyl choline
Acetyl choline + Water (Acetyl choline esterase)  Choline + Acetic acid
 Reproduction in insects

Usually Insects are bisexual. But sometimes reproduction also occurs by Parthenogenesis
and hermaphroditism (Cotton cushion scale).
The reproductive system is divided in to two parts namely internal genitalia and external
genitalia. The internal genitalia serve to the development of germ cells.
The external genitalia accomplish the union of two sexes and enable the female to deposit
eggs.
Female reproductive system: It consists of
- a pair of ovaries which possess number of ovarioles,
- a pair of oviducts,
- Common oviduct / Median oviduct,
- Spermatheca,
- a pair of accessory glands and
- Bursa copulatrix or copulatory pouch or genital chamber or vagina

1. Ovaries: These are the prominent visceral organs present on the either side of alimentary
canal. Anteriorly the ovaries get connected with the body wall by means of thread like
suspensory ligaments. The ovaries are covered with fat body and are richly covered with
trachea. Each ovary consists of a no of ovarioles or egg tubes.
Ovarioles: Each ovariole is enveloped by a double layered cellular wall. The outer wall is
called ovarial sheath which has an abundant supply of tracheae. The inner layer called tunica
propria is elastic in nature. Each ovariole at its terminal has a filament which unites with other
filaments to form a suspensary ligament. The ligament is attached to the body wall or dorsal
diaphragm and thus helps the ovaries to remain suspended at a proper place . The eggs are
discharged in to the lateral oviducts.
Lateral oviducts: Proximal end of the ovarioles of each ovary join to form a lateral oviduct on
each side.The wall of oviduct is glandular and muscular.
Median Oviduct: Two lateral oviducts combine to form a median oviduct.
Vagina: In most of the insects median oviduct doesnot open directly to outside. It opens in to a
tubular genital chamber or vagina formed by invagination of bodywall from VIII segment. The
vagina opens outside and the opening is called vulva. Vulva serves both purposes of receiving
the sperms and discharging the eggs.
Bursa Copulatrix: In some insects the genital chamber or vagina develops a separate pouch
called Bursa Copulatrix in to which insects have two reproductive openings. One is vulva for
receiving the sperms open on VIII sternum and another one is ovipore or gonopore on IX
segment for discharging eggs.
Ex: Lepidoptera and water beetles
Spermathea: It is a sac like structure consisting of a spermathecal gland and opens in to vagina
through spermathecal duct. This is mainly used for storing the sperms. It also produces some
fluids responsible for longevity of cells for several hours.
Accessory glands: These are a pair of collateral glands which open in to the distal portion of
vagina and secrete the substance responsible for the formation of ootheca of cockroach, preying
mantid and poisonous secretions in case of Hymenoptera. This sticky substance is useful for
attachment of egg to the substrate on which they are laid.
Each ovariole in insects consists of a group of tapering units called ovarioles. The number
of ovarioles in an ovary varies greatly in different insects, usually 4 to 8. In Isoptera more
than 2000.
Typical ovariole or egg tube consists of 3 parts namely
1. Terminal filament
2. Egg tube
3. Supporting stalk or pedicel

1. Terminal filament: of all the ovarioles in a ovary unite distally with one another in a
suspensory ligament. The ligaments from the two ovaries are combined in a single median
ligament which is attached to the tergal plated of thorax.
The Egg tube is divided in to two parts
1. Egg chamber or Germarium
2. Zone of growth or vitellarium
1. Germarium: Also called as egg chamber which contain the primordial germ cells or
undifferentiated cells. These cells give rise to three types of cells.
1. Germ cells developing in to oogonia and dinally oocytes
2. Nutritive cells or nurse cells trophocytes.
3. Follicle cells
2. Vitellarium or Zone of growth: It occupies the major part of the ovariole and contains
large number of oocytes and eggs in different stages of development. The egg cells grow
and attain their mature stage. In the anterior region of vitellarium the nurse cells and oocytes
 remain mixed up and assume the central position while follicle cells take peripheral
position. In posterior end oocytes are enclosed by follicle cells to form follicular layer.
The nurse cells absorb nutrients from haemolymph through follicular cells and transmit
them to oocytes. In some case follicle cells provide nutrients to the oocytes where nurse
cells are absent.
Types of ovarioles: Based on the presence or absence of nutritive cells and their location
ovarioles are categorized in to two.
1. Panoistic ovarioles: In these, the nutritive cells are absent and the development of oocytes
takes place with the help of follicular epithelial cells.
Ex: Odonata, Dictyoptera, Orthoptera and Ephemeroptera
2. Meriostic ovarioles: They contain trophocytes / nutritive cells which vary in their position.
Based on the position of trophocytes Meriostic ovarioles are classified into
(i) Polytrophic ovarioles: where developing oocyte and trophocytes arranged alternatively
within the vitellarium.
Ex: Mecoptera, Dermaptera, Psocoptera
(ii) Acrotrophic ovarioles: Also called teletrophic ovarioles where the trophocytes are present
in the germarium (apex) and are connected with the growing or developing oocytes by
cytoplasmic strands. Ex: Hemiptera and Coleoptera.

A B C

A = Panoistic; B = Polytrophic; C = Acrotrophic

Male reproductive system

Internal male reproductive organs consists of
- a pair of testis,
- a pair of vasa deferens,
- seminal vesicle
- ejaculatory duct
- accessory glands a) mesodenia b) ectodenia and
- Genitalia

Testis: The size of testis is practically same as that of ovaries in Apterygota and very much
smaller in Pterygota . They lie in visceral cavity above the alimentary canal and are connected
to the body wall through translucent ducts and are well supplied with trachea and fat body
tissues. Each testis consists of number of oval shaped structures known as follicles or sperm
tubes. Each follicle has a layer of epithelial cells. The entire follicle is covered by a peritoneal
membrane where as the testis is completely enveloped within a coat known as scrotum.
Structure of follicle- Each individual follicle is divided into a series of zones (or) areas
characterized by the presence of the sex cells i.e. sperms in different stages of development.
These zones are zone of germarium, zone of growth, zone of division and reduction and zone of
transformation.
i. Germarium: It is the region containing primordial germ cells or spermatogonia which
undergo multiplication (Zone of spermatogonia).
ii. Zone of growth: It is the area where spermatogonia increase in size, undergo repeated
mitosis and develop in to spermatocytes (Zone of spermatocytes)
iii. Zone of division and reduction: It is the area where spermatocytes undergo meiosis and
give rise to spermatids (Zone of spermatids)
iv. Zone of transformation: It is the area where spermatids get transformed in to spermatozoa
(Zone of spermatozoa). Spermatozoa are a group of cells which are enclosed in testicular
cyst cells from which they are released in to vasa efferens, the tubular connections of the
follicles which combine together to form the vasa deferens.
2. Vasa deferens: These are the long tubes formed by the union of vasa efferens which
receives the sperms from testis and allow their transport to the ejaculatory duct.
4. Seminal vesicles: Each vasa deferens becomes enlarged posteriorly to form a sac like
structure called seminal vesicle for storage of spermatozoa for some time.
4. Ejaculatory duct: Both the vasa deferens of the two testes unite posteriorly to form a
common median ejaculatory duct. The terminal section of ejaculatory duct is enclosed in a
finger like evagination of body wall, male copulatory organ or aedeagus or penis.
5. Accessory glands: These are 1-3 pairs of glands which open in to the ejaculatory duct. In
most cases their secretion mix with spermatozoa. These glands are called mushroom
glands in cockroaches and mantids because of their appearance as mushrooms. This
secretion facilitates sperm transmission from male to female.
Types of Reproduction: Insects are bisexual, they can undergo sexual reproduction for
producing either the eggs (or) the young ones. However they also reproduce by other means.
Different types of reproduction in insects are:
1. Oviparity: Insects reproduce by laying eggs by the female on any substrate either singly
(or) in mass (or) in groups which later hatch and produce the young ones.
Ex: moths and butterflies.
2. Viviparity: It is the phenomenon of reproduction where the female gives birth to the young
ones instead of laying eggs. Embryonic development is completed within the female and the
embryo gets nourishment from the mother and produces the larva/young ones within the
haemocoel. These young ones after some time emerges out from the mother, based on the
source of nourishment. Viviparity is classified in to 4 types.
i. Ovo-viviparity: Insects retain the eggs within the genital track until the eggs are ready to
hatch (or) giving birth to young ones. However immediately after hatching , the young ones
will be released outside. Hence, no special structures are developed for nourishment.
Ex: Thysanoptera
ii. Adenoparous viviparity: It is a type of viviparity where the eggs have sufficient yolk,
complete their embryonic development and retain in the uterus. Eggs hatch and the young
ones get nourishment from special nourishment glands called milk glands which contains
milk that have lipids and proteins. When young ones are fully developed, it emerges from
the mother and forms in to a pupa within short time and no feeding phase is seen. Ex:
Glossina pupipara of Diptera.
iii. Pseudoplacental viviparity: It is a phenomenon where insect have eggs with little (or) no
yolk. Hatching takes place within the mother and the nourishment for the young one is
received through embryonic maternal structure called pseudoplacenta.
Ex: Psocoptera, Dermaptera, aphids etc.
iv. Haemocoelous viviparity: It is a type of reproduction where the eggs are retained within
the haemocoel and the embryonic development as well as the nourishment of young one
takes place through the transfer of nutrients from the haemolymph of mother. After
development, young one comes out either through genital canal or by the rupture in the
walls of the parent. Eggs have no chorion but become surrounded from an early stage by a
trophic membrane through which nutrient material are supplied from the maternal tissues.
Ex: strepsipterans & some larvae of cecidomyids (Diptera)
3. Parthenogenesis: It is the ability of the females to reproduce without fertilization /
copulation with males. This usually occurs due to the genetic characters, due to heredity,
failure in finding a mate, hormonal changes within the body and weather factors. This
parthenogenesis is classified as
I. Based on the occurrence-
i. Sporadic parthenogenesis: occurs occasionally. Ex: silkworm.
ii. Constant parthenogenesis: occurs regularly. Ex: thrips
iii. Cyclic parthenogenesis: it is nothing but the alternation of generations where
parthenogenesis occurs in alternation with the sexual reproduction. Ex: aphids.
II. Based on the sexes of the off springs produced-
i. Arrhenotoky: only males are produced e.g.: Hymenoptera
ii. Thelytoky: only females are produced e.g.: acridids
iii. Amphytoky: both females and males are produced e.g.: hymenopterans
4. Paedogenesis (or) Neoteny: It is a phenomenon where the immature insects or stages give
birth to young ones. This usually occurs due to the hormonal imbalance. Most of the insects
which reproduce by paedogenesis also reproduce by parthenogenesis. Ex:
cecidomyids.
5. Polyembryony: It is a type of reproduction where insects reproduce by giving birth to two or
more young ones instead of a single one, as two or more embryos are produced from a
single egg. Ex: endo parasitic Hymenoptera like platygaster
6. Hermaphroditism: It is a type of reproduction where both male and female gonads are
present in the same individual. It may be a functional hermaphroditism as in case of Icerya
purchsi (or) non functional as in case of stonefly, Perla marginata.
7. Castration: It is a type of reproduction where the separation of the individuals occurs mainly
due to the development of the reproductive organs. The insects with well developed ovaries
develop in to females (queens), the insects with well developed testis develop in to males
(drones) and insects with underdeveloped ovaries develop in to workers. Ex: social insects
such as honey bees.
8. Alternation of generation: Insects reproduce by parthenogenesis and bisexual reproduction
by alteration of generations. Ex: aphids which reproduce by parthenogenesis in summer and
undergo sexual reproduction in winter.
 Glandular system

Glandular system is otherwise called as secretary system and is divided in to two major groups
based on the presence or absence of ducts.
A. Exocrine glands (glands with duct)
1. Salivary glands: Salivary glands are modified labial glands which secrete saliva and open
beneath hypopharynx.
2. Mandibular glands: Secrete saliva in caterpillars when salivary glands are modified into silk
glands. In queen bee it secretes queen substance.
3. Maxillary glands: Secretions are useful to lubricate mouth parts.
4. Pharyngeal glands: Secrete bee milk or royal jelly in nurse bee.
5. Frontal glands: Secrete sticky defensive fluid in nasute termites.
6. Setal glands: Glandular seta (Scoli) secretes irritant fluid in hairy/slug caterpillar.
7. Tenant hairs: Secrete sticky fluid found in pulvilli of legs & helps in ceiling walking in house
flies.
8. Moulting glands: Modified glandular epidermal cells, secrete moulting fluid necessary for
moulting.
9. Stink glands (Repugnatorial glands): Secrete bad smelling substance. e.g. Stink bugs, bed
bugs.
10. Osmeteria (Forked gland): Eversible gland in the thorax of papilionid larva with defense
function. e.g. Citrus butterfly larva.
11. Androconia (Scented scales): Secretions of glandular scales of male pierid butterflies to
attract the opposite sex.
12. Pheromone glands: Found in abdominal terminalia of one sex and its secretions are released
outside to attract opposite sex of the same species.
13. Wax glands: Dermal glands producing wax in bees and mealy bugs.
14. Sting glands: Modified accessory glands secreting venom in worker bees and wasps.
15. Lac glands: Dermal glands secreting resinous substances in lac insect.
16. Milk glands: Modified accessory gland nourishing larva developing in uterus. e.g. Sheep
ked.
 Endocrine system
Insect endocrine system is structurally and functionally integrated with nervous system
1. They secrete hormones which travel in the blood to various organs of the body coordinating
their long term activities.
2. Endocrine organs are of two types.
a) Neuro-secretory cells in the central nervous system
b) Specialized endocrine glands such as
i) Corpora cardiaca
ii) Corpora allata
iii) Prothoracic glands
1. Neurosecretory cells: These are typical neurons with secretory activity. They produce
harmones which act directly on effector organs or they may act on other endocrine glands
which in turn are stimulated to secrete harmones. They occur in the mid region of brain and
central nervous system. Their axons lead out from the brain, posteriorly, most often cross
each other and emerge out of the brain to enter in to or lie apposed to the corpora cardiaca.
The secretions of neurosecretory cells are called brain hormone or activator hormones.
Large number of neuro-secretory cells may be present in the nervous system and are three
types.
A. Median NSC of the brain (PTTH hormone)
B. Lateral NSC of the brain-
- They Promote function of prothoracic glands
- Stimulate protein synthesis
- Possibly control water loss and
- Oocyte development and activity and
C. Ventral NSC of the other ganglia (ventral nerve cord): these secretions are known to
concern with activity, water regulation.
2. Corpora cardiaca: They are paired structures, lying in close association with neurosecretory
cells of brain. Each corpus cardiacum is transversed by neurosecretory axons from the brain.
Neurosecretions from brain, on reaching corpus cardiacum, is stored and periodically
released into the blood.
3. Corpora allata: They are glandular bodies, usually situated one on either side of the
Oesophagous. They may be fused to a single median organ as in higher Diptera. Each is
connected with Corpus cardiac of the same side by a nerve which carries fibres from NSC.
Under the influence of brain hormone, corpora allata secretes Juvenile hormone (JH) or
neotenin which regulates metamorphosis on yolk deposition on eggs.. JH helps to keep the
insect in young stage only.
4. Prothoracic glands: They are two in number and placed mostly in thoracic region.
Prothoracic glands secrete moulting hormone (MH), called Ecdysone under the influence
of brain hormone. Moulting hormone helps in insects in the initiation and process of
moulting. Except in Thysanura (which moult as adults) and solitary locusts, the prothoracic
glands break down soon after final moult to adults, so they are seen only in immature forms
but not in adults.
 Insect Diapause

It is the period of arrested growth or development in the life cycle of the insects during
which the physiological processes like differentiation and reproduction are suspended. Diapause
is represented by low rate of metabolism, low O2 consumption, low body weight, low body
water content and vitamin deficiency in the blood. Diapause may occur in egg, larva, nymph,
pupa or adult stage.
Ex:
Egg diapause - Bombyx mori;
Larval diapause- Euproctis sp., Pectinophora gossypiella;
Pupal diapause- Redhairy Caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga) and
Adult diapause- Mango nut weevil (Sternochaetus mangiferae)
Diapause is of two types:
1. Obligatory diapause: It refers to the stage of suspended activity of the insect which is a
hereditary character controlled by genes and is species specific.
e.g. egg diapause in silkworm
2. Facultative diapause: It is the stage of suspended activity of the insect due to unfavourable
conditions and with the onset of favourable condition, the insect regains its original activity.
e.g. Cotton pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella.
The unfavourable conditions may be biotic or abiotic. Biotic conditions are
natural enemies, population density etc. Whereas abiotic conditions are temperature,
rainfall, humidity, photoperiod, type of food material etc.
a. Aestivation: The occurrence of diapause during summer due to high temperatures
b. Hibernation: where as the period of inactivity during winter due to low temperatures.
 Insect Systematics

Systematics: It is the theoretical study of classification including the principles, procedures and
governing rules. The term taxonomy is now being replaced by systematics.
Systematics- Is the scientific study of insects and the diversity of organisms including the study
of evolutionary affinities.
Importance of systematics study-
1. To know the common structural characters of a group
2. It facilitates to study insects systematically
3. Evolutionary sequences of different group of insects will be learnt
4. Economically important group of insects will be known
History- Caroles Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) in his tenth edition of systema nature published in
1758 used the binomial system of nomenclatuture for the first time for both plants and animals.
This double naming in latin one for the genus and the second for the species has been
universally accepted and followed subsequently but before such an universal acceptance,
several scientists started their own codes of nomenclature.
In 1842, Strickland published a code of nomenclature in English and it was called Strickland
code. Another code called ‘Dall code” was evolved by the Americans in 1877. Similarly some
more codes of nomenclature were evolved in France and Germany. In order to promote stability
and universality in the scientific names of animals, an international code of zoological
nomenclature was evolved in 1901 at Berlin. At the 16th session of International congress of
Zoology in Washington, the latest international code of Zoological nomenclature was approved
and the same was revised and published in 1964.
According to it, the descriptions of unrecorded species should be based on a single specimen
whether it be a male or female and the specimen is to be referred as ‘holotype’. The opposite
sex specimen which is described along with the holotype is termed as allotype. The other
specimens of the species kept along with the holotype and allotype are called paratypes. The
names are to be given in Latin. The authors name in full should be written at the end of species
name without any punctuation.
The generic name has to be a simple or compound word. The supraspecific categories like tribe,
sub family, family and superfamily are denoted by the endings -ni, -inae, -idea and –oides
respectively.
The underlying principle of International code of Zoological nomenclature is law of priority. i.e
the first published name remains in official records while all the subsequently published names
go as synonyms. If the same name is given by the different scientists to the different organisms,
it is called Homonymy. All such cases are referred to International commission on Zoological
nomenclature which settles such confusion.
Scientific Nomenclature:
Nomenclature- It is the scientific naming of living things based on the guidelines and rules of
International code of zoological nomenclature (ICZN). (Nomen= name, Calare= to call) means
call by name.
Bionomial Nomenclature (1758) - Naming of living beings including insects in their
classification by two names. Carl Van Linneaus was the first to use this system of naming of
insects and is called as father of binomial nomenclature.
Ex: Helicoverpa armigera, Bombyx mori
Trinomial nomenclature - Using three names for a single organism is called as trinomial
nomenclature. Wherein sub species name is also added to the genus and species name.
Ex: Apis cerana indica, Atherigona varia soccata, Amrasca biguttella biguttella.
Basis for naming the species / genera-
1. Based on the host plant:
Ex: Sitophilus oryzae – rice weevil
Thrips tabaci – Tobacoo
2. Based on the locality:
Ex: Callasobruchus chinensis – pulse beetle
Antheraea assamensis – Muga silkworm
3. Based on the morphological characters of insect:
Ex: Oryctus rhinoceros – coconut rhinoceros beetle
4. Based on the authors:
Ex: Aceria channabasanne
Colemenia spheneroids
BIOTYPE: A group of organisms having the same or nearly the same genotype, such as a
particular strain of an insect species.
Taxonomic Units: Linneaus published a series of books containing the names of the plants and
animals. Among them 10th Edition “Systema Nature” published during 1758 in which he has
recognized seven taxonomic units. The hierarchy or the systematic arrangement of these
units in the order is called Linneaus hierarchy.
The units of Linneaus hierarchy are-
1. Kingdom
2. Phyllum – subphylum
3. Class – sub class
4. Order – sub order
5. Family – super family – sub family – Tribe
6. Genus – sub genus
7. Species – sub species
Guidelines for Binomial Nomenclature of insects based on International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature:
1. Scientific name of the organisim should be in Latinized or Italicized
2. The taxznomic units should have specific ending
a) Super family- oidea (Apoidea)
b) Family – idea (Noctuidae)
c) sub family – inae (Apinae)
d) Tribe – ini (Xylocopini)
e) sub tribe- ina (Musina)

Ex: Muscaoidea –super family

Muscidae – family
 Muscinae – sub family
Muscini – tribe
Musina – sub tribe
Musca - genus
3. The procedure scientific naming of insects should be same throughout the world.
4. The genus name should start with a capital letter and a species name with a small letter.
Ex: Helicoverpa armigera, Bombyx mori
5. The person who described the species for the first time would be the author and his or her
name should be written at the end of the scientific name and should not be underlined or
italicized.
Ex: Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehntner
6. Genus name and species name should be underlined while writing or typing and should be
italicized while printing.
7. The author name should be placed in bracket when the name is revised by another author and
his name should be written without bracket.
Ex: Taeniothrips cardamami Ramk
Scirtothrips cardamami (Ramk) Hood
8. If the author name is abbreviated, then should have a full stop.
Ex: Spodoptera litura F.; Bombyx mori L.
Synonym: Two or more names used for the same taxa or insect species. The later name will be
the valid name and other names will become synonym to each other.
Ex: 1. Tryporyza novella = (Scirpophaga novella)
2. Opisina arenosella = ( Nephantis sernopa)
3. Spilarctia obliqua = (Spilosoma obliqua) = (Diacrisia obliqua)
Homonym: The same name is used for two or more taxa or family, tribe or genera or species.
This occurs due to lack of proper publication. The one that is published latter will be the
homonym and it is not valid and should be given a new name to the latter specimen.
Holotype- Those specimens which are collected and described from a locality for the first time
and deposited in the same place. Holotype is the key to the name of species and settles
questions in connection with the name. The insect specimens from which the published
description of species are drawn are called as types, they are of various catageries and have
special names.
Monotype- A holotype based on a single specimen
Paratype- All other specimens of his species before him at the time of his original publication of
the name become paratype. Paratype will have little importance to nomenclature.
Locotype- when original collection becomes old or lost then a fresh collection is made from the
same original locality is called as locotype.
Syntype / cotype- Every specimen in a type series in which no holotype was designated
Lecotype- One of the series of syntypes which subsequent to the publication of original
description selected and designated through publication to serve as the type.
Neotype- A specimen selected as type subsequent to the original description in cases where the
original types are known to be destroyed or were suppressed by the commission.
Allotype- A paratype of the opposite sex to the holotype.
Insect classification:
At present around 1.5 million insects have been described out of the estimated population of 3.0
million. It is estimated that > 75% of the known animal species are up to Arthropods and > 90%
by class Insecta and > 88% species belongs to Endopterygota. This vast group of insects were
classified in many ways by various authors. The main characters that were used for the
classification are Tarsi, Mouth parts, wings, antenna, eyes, metamorphosis, malpighian tubules,
chaetotaxy and abdominal appendages.
However, the modern classification of insects is based on the wing characters and is termed as
alary system of classification.
Linnaeus (1758) in his 10th Edition grouped the insects into 7 orders.
1. Aptera
2. Hemiptera
3. Neuroptera
4. Coleoptera
5. Lepidoptera
6. Diptera
7. Hymenoptera
Later, Linnaeus in his 12th Edition of ‘Systema Nature’ added two more orders i.e. Orthoptera
and Thysanoptera
Draw backs of Linnaeus classification
1. Failed to separate insects from other Arthropods
2. Aptera of Linnaeus not only included apterygotan orders but also included Myriapoda,
Crustacea (Scorpion and Spiders etc)
3. Included Dragon flies and Damsel flies in Neuroptera
4. Included Dermaptera in Coleoptera order
In 1831, Latreilla recognised 3 more new orders in addition to the earlier 9 orders with slight
modification and he grouped the insects in two broad headings viz., Aptera and Alata.
Aptera – Thysanura, Parasita (Mallophaga), Siphonaptera
Alata- Coleoptera, Dermaptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Neruoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera,
Diptera, Rhipiptera (Strepsiptera)
In 1885, Brauer recognised 16 orders under two divisions i.e. Apterygota and Pterygota. He
emphasised the need for the natural system of classification by considering nature of wings,
mouth parts, degree of metamorphosis and number of malpighian tubules.
Handlirsch (1908) introduced better system of classification and presently it is being followed by
many taxonomists including A.D.Imms. He classified the insects based on the fossils
(Paleontlolgical) evidences and their structure. Accordingly he grouped the insects in 29 orders.
Later, insect’s orders were modified by many taxonomists, Essig and Comstock classified to 33
orders, Borror and Delong classified to 27 orders, Imms classified to 29 orders. Later, Borror and
Delong included Phasmida and Dictyoptera in Orthoptera.
Classification of insects: The basic biological unit in the classification is species.
Species: These are a group of individuals which are similar in their structure, capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile off spring, but at the same time reproductively isolated from
other groups.
Subspecies: is an aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species, inhabiting a
geographic subdivision of the range of a species and differing taxonomically from other
populations of the species.
Genus: A group of species having some definite similar characters or relationships is called a
geneus.
Subfamily: is a group of allied genera to form a subfamily
Family is a taxonomic category containing a single genus or a group of genera of common
phylogenetic origin which is separated from related families by a decided gap. Such families
showing similar characters form order.
The classification of animals was first started by Aristotle (384-322BC). Later by Linnaeus who
is considered as the father of the classification of animals and plants, classified insects into only
seven orders viz., Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and
Aptera.
Jeannel recognized 40 orders
Brues, Melander and carpenter recognized 27 orders
Imms and pruthi gave 29 orders
Essig and Mani listed 33 orders
Ross 28 orders
The following is the classification given by Imms which is being followed by most of the
taxonomists.
The class Insecta has two subclasses viz., Apterygota and Pterygota.

Apterygota Pterygota
Winged or secondarily wingless- evolved
Primarily wingless-evolved from wingless
1. from winged ancestors. e.g. Flea, head
ancestors
louse, bed bug.
2. Metamorphosis is totally absent or slight. Present.
Mandibular articulation in head is
3. Dicondylic i.e., double.
monocondylic i.e., single
4. Pleural sulcus in thorax is absent. Present.
5. Pregenital abdominal appen- dages present. Absent.
Sub class 1. Apterygota - orders
1. Thysanura – Thysan = fringed; ura = tail (Bristle tails, Silverfish, firebrats)
2. Diplura- Di = two; ura = tail (Diplurans)
3: Protura- Pro = first; ura = tail (Telson tails or proturans)
4: Collembola – coll = glue; embol = peg/wedge ie. collophore (Spring tails, snow fleas)
Sub class 2: Pterygota – is divided into two division based on the wing development
1. Exopterygota 2. Endopterygota
Character Exopterygota Endopterygota
1. Wing development External Internal
Incomplete(Hemimetabola) or Complete (Holome-
2. Type of metamorphosis
gradual (Pau- rametabola) tabola)
3. Pupal stage Absent Present
 4. Immature stage Naiad or Nymph Larva
5. No. of orders 16 9
Exopterygota (Insects having simple metamorphosis)
Group I: Paleopteran orders (order 5 and 6)
5. Ephemeroptera – Ephmera = living for a day; ptera = wings (May flies)
6: Odonata – Odon = tooth i.e. teeth like mandibles (Dragon flies & damsel flies)
Group II: Orthopteriod orders (orders 7 to 15)
7: Plecoptera – Pleco = folded wings; ptera = wings (Stone flies) i.e. anal region of the wings
are folded at rest
8: Grylloblattodea – Gryll = cricket; blattodea = cockroach (Grylloblattids or rock crawllers)
9: Orthoptera –Ortho = straight; ptera = wings (Locusts, grass hoppers, crickets, mole cricket)
10: Phasmida – Phasama = an appreciation (Walking sticks, leaf insects & stick insects)
11: Dermaptera – Derma = skin; ptera = wings (Ear wigs)
12: Embioptera – Embio = lively; ptera = wings (Web spinners)
13 Dictyoptera – Dictyo = net; ptera= wings (Cockroaches and mantids)
14: Isoptera – Iso = equal; ptera = wings (White ants or termites)
15: Zoraptera – Zor = pure; aptera =wingless (Zorapterans or angel insects)
Group III: Hemipteriod orders ( order 16 to 20)
16: Psocoptera – Psco = rub small; ptera = wings i.e. gnawing habit of insect ( Psocids, book
lice)
17: Mallophaga – Mall = wool, phaga = to eat (Bird lice)
18: Siphunculata or Anoplura – Siphanculus = a little tube (Head and body louse)
19: Hemiptera – Hemi = half; ptera = wings (Plant bugs)
20: Thysanoptera – Thysano = fringe; ptera = wings (Thrips)
Endopterygota (Insects having complex metamorphosis)
Group IV: Neuropteroid orders (order 21 to 23)
21: Neuroptera – Neuro = nerve; ptera = wings (Ant lions, lace wings)
22: Coleoptera – Coleo = sheath; ptera = wings (Beetles, weevils)
23: Strepsiptera – Strepsi = twisted; ptera = wings (Stylopids)
Group V: Panarpoid orders (order 21 to 28)
24: Mecoptera – Meco = long; ptera = wings (Scorpion flies)
25. Lepidoptera- Lepido = scales; ptera = wings (Moths and butterflies)
26. Trichoptera – Tricho = hairs; ptera = wings (Caddis flies)
27. Diptera – Di = two; ptera = wings (Flies, midges, mosquitoes)
28. Siphonoptera – Siphon = tube; aptera = wingless (Fleas)
Group VI: Hymenopteroid orders
29: Hymenoptera – Hymen = membranous or Hymeno = god of marriage i.e. union of fore
and hind wings by hamuli (Ants, bees, wasps)
Earlier, Hemiptera was divied in to two suborders - homoptera and heteroptera but recent
workers are treating homoptera as a separate order due to definite characters by which it is
differing from hemiptera. Thus the study of insects comes to 30 orders.
Recently a new order Mantophasmida (Mantis= Mantodea; Phasma= Phasmatodea – Gladiator)
is added to the insect order.
I) Palaeopteran orders (Neoptera):
1. Wings are stretched side way both at flight and at rest
2. Wings lack jugal area (a lobe like structure at the base of the forewing which overlaps the
hindwings
3. They are incapable of folding their wings over the abdomen
4. Wing coupling mechanism is absent
5. Metamorphosis is incomplete
II) Orthopteroid orders (Polyneoptera):
1. The first pair of wings are modified into tegmina
2. Jugal area is well developed
3. Wings will be folded back easily over the abdomen at rest
4. Wing coupling mechanism is absent
5. Forewings are narrow and hindwings are very much enlarged
6. Metamorphosis is incomplete
7. Mouth parts are mandibulate or chewing and biting type
III) Hemipteroid orders (Paraneoptera):
1. Wings lack jugal areas
2. Wings can be folded back on abdomen
3. Metamorphosis may be hemi or holometabolous type
4. Mouth parts are sucking type
IV) Neuropteroid orders
1. Mouth parts are biting type
2. Pupae is exarate
V) Panorpoid orders
1. Wings arise from a common stalk, hence called as ‘panaorpoid complex’

VI) Hymenopteroid orders

1. Have 2 pairs of membranous wings and wing coupling is present (hamuli)
2. Mouth parts are basically chewing and modified for lapping
3. Most female have well developed ovipositor and in some insects modified for stinging
Organ.
4. Metamorphosis is complete
Order- Odonata
Etymology : Odon - tooth
Common names : Dragonflies and damselflies
Characters:
 Medium to large sized insects
 They are attractively coloured
 Head is globular and constricted behind into a petiolate neck.
 Compound eyes are large.
 Three ocelli are present
 Mouthparts are adapted for biting. Mandibles are strongly toothed Lacinia and galea are fused
to form mala which is also toothed.
 Wings are either equal or sub equal, membraneous; venation is net work like with many cross
veins. Wings have a dark pterostigma towards the costal apex. Sub costa ends in nodus. Wing
flexing mechanism is absent.
 Legs are anteroventrally placed. They are suited for grasping, holding and conveying the prey
to the mouth. Spinose femora and tibiae are useful for holding the prey. Forward shift of leg
attachments allow easy transfer of prey items to mouth in flight. Legs are held in such a way
that a basket is formed into which the food is scooped.
 Abdomen is long and slender. In male gonopore is present on ninth abdominal segment. But
the functional copulatory organ is present on the second abdominal sternite. Before mating
sperms are transferred to the functional penis. Cercus is one segmented.
 Metamorphosis is incomplete with three life stages. The naiad is aquatic. Labium is greatly
elongated, jointed and bears two hooks at apex. It is called mask. It is useful to capture the
prey.
Importance: Adults are aerial predators. They are able to catch hold and devour the prey in
flight. Naiads are aquatic predators. Dragonflies and damselflies can be collected with an
aerial net near streams and ponds especially on a sunny day. Naiads can be collected from
shallow fresh water ponds and rice fields.
Classification: There are two sub-orders. Dragonflies are classified under Anisoptera and
damselflies are grouped under Zygoptera.
ANISOPTERA (Dragonflies) ZYGOPTERA (Damselflies)
ADULTS
1. Strong fliers Weak Fliers
Wings are unequal, Hindwings are basally
2. Equal
broader than forewings

3. Wings are broadly attached to the abdomen Wings are petiolated and narrowly attached

Venation is not similar in both forewings and

4. Venation is identical in both the wings.
hindwings.
5. Wings are spread laterally at rest Wings are held at an angle above the abdomen
Compound eyes are large and meet mid dorsally
6. Compound eyes are button like, wide apart (dichoptic)
(holoptic)
Male has three abdominal appendages. Two
Four terminal abdominal appendages are present. A pair
superior and appendages (cerci) and one
7. of superior anal appendages (cerci) and a pair of
inferior anal appendage (epi- proct) are
inferior anal appendages (paraprocts) are present.
present.
8. Oviposition is exophytic Oviposition is endophytic
 NAIAD
1. Stout and robust Slender and fragile
Gills are internal and found associated with Three caudal gills are present which are visible
2.
rectum axternally.
Able to propel themselves by forcibily ejecting
3. Lack jet propulsion mechanism
water through anus from rectum

Order- Orthoptera
Synonyms: Saltatoria, Saltatoptera
Etymology: Ortno - straight; ptera-wings.
Common names: Grasshoppers, Locust, Katydid, Cricket, Mole cricket
Characters-
 They are medium to large sized insects.
 Antenna is filiform.
 Mouthparts are mandibulate.
 Prothorax is large. Pronotum is curved, ventrally covering the pleural region.
 Legs normally developed, or fore legs modified for digging (fossorial) as in molecrickets or
hind legs modified for jumping (saltatorial) as in grasshopper. Tarsi 3 or 4 segmented.
 Forewings are leathery, thickened and known as tegmina.
 They are capable of bending without breaking.
 Hind wings are membranous with large anal area. They are folded by longitudinal pleats
between veins and kept beneath the tegmina.
 Cerci are short and unsegmented.
 Ovipositor is well developed in female.
 Male genitalia concealed by the boat shaped 9th abdominal sternum.
 Metamorphosis is gradual. In many Orthopterans the newly hatched frist instar nymphs are
covered by loose cuticle and are called pronymphs. Wing pads of nymphs undergo reversal
during development.
 Specialized stridulatory organs are present. Usually males alone can produce sound. Two
types of stridulation is present. Alary type and femoroalary type. In alary type (cricket
sound is produced by rubbing a sharp edge (scraper) at the base of one forewing along a file
like ridge (file) on the ventral side of the other forewing. The bases of forewings at rest lie
one above the other. Both the forewings possess the file and the scraper. But the file is
longer in upper wing and scraper is better developed in lower wing. The forewings are
elevated at about 450 when the sound is produced. In femoro alary type, the femur of hind
legs is rubbed against the tegmina.
 Auditory or tympanal organs are also well developed and are located on either side of the
first abdominal segment or at the base of fore tibiae.
Classification: This order is sub divided into two suborders, viz., Caelifera (short horned
grasshoppers and locusts) and Ensifera (Long horned grasshopper, crickets and Mole
crickets).
Caelifera Ensifera
1. Antenna is short with less than 30 segments.Antenna is long with more than 30 segments.
2. Tympanum is found on the lateral side of Tympanum is fund on the the foretibia.
the first abdominal segment.
3. Vision and hearing acute Tactile respones is well developed.
4. Mandibles are specialized for consuming Feed on dicot plants
monocot foliage.
5. Diurnal Nocturnal
6. Rely on jumping to escape from predators Rely on crypsis

7. Eggs are laid in groups in soil inside Eggs are singly inserted into plant tissue or
shallow burrows. soil.
I. Sub order: Caelifera
1. Acrididae: (short horned grasshopper- Locusts, Grasshoppers)
 Antennae filiform shorter than the body with less than 30 segments
 Hind legs modified for jumping. Tarsus 3 segmented.
 Ovipositor is short and horny
 Tympanum is located one on either side of the first abdominal segment.
 Sound is produced by femoro-alary mechanism. A row of peg like projections found on the
inner side of each hind femur is rubbed against the hard radial vein of the closed tagmina.
 Locusts are a serious threat to tropical agriculture. They swarm under favourable conditions
and mainly feed on grasses, cereals etc.

Ex: 1. Rice grasshopper -Hieroglyphus banian

2. Cotton grass hopper - Cyrtacanthacris ranacea
 Order: Dictyoptera
Synonyms : Oothecaria, Blattiformia
Etymology : Dictyon - net work; ptera - wings
Common names : Cockroaches and Preying mantids.
Characters-
 Head is hypognathous.
 Antenna is filiform.
 Mouthparts are chewing type.
 Tarsus is five segmented.
 Forewings are more on less thickened, leathery with a marginal costal vein. They are called
tegmina.
 Hindwings are large, membranous and folded fanlike and kept beneath the forewings.
 Cerci are short and many segmented.
 Eggs are contained in an ootheca.
Classification: Dictyoptera is divided into two sub orders viz., Blattaria (cockroaches) and
Mantodea (preying mantids).
Sub Order- Blattaria (Cockroaches)
1. Antennae setaceous
2. Mandibulate mouth parts
3. Head nearly or completely covered from above by large shield like pronotum
4. Ocelli 2 in number represented by fenestrae.
5. Forewings are tegmina like with marginal costa
6. Male genitalia complex and concealed by 9th abdominal sternum which bears a pair of styli.
7. Cerci one to many segmented.
8. Eggs are laid in ootheca.
Ex: Blattidae- Periplaneta americana, Blattellidae- Blattella germanica & Blatta orientalis.
Sub Order- Mantodea (Praying Mantis)
1. Antennae filiform or Setaceous
2. Mouth parts are mandibulate
3. Coxae long and closely approximated. Fore legs raptorial.
4. Forewings are tegmina like with marginal costal vein
5. Cerci many segmented.
6. Hemimetabolous and eggs are laid in ootheca.
7. Head is not covered by pronotum and highly mobile
8. Ocelli three in number.
Sl.no Mantidae (Sub order- Mantodea)
1. Head is mobile in all directions
2. Pronotum does not cover the head
3. Three ocelli are present
4. Pronotum is elongate
5. Forelegs are raptorial middle and hind legs suited for walking
 6. Chitinous teeth are absent in gizzard
7. Often (but not always) devours the male during mating
8. Eggs are enclosed in filled solidified foam Ootheca is not chitinous.
9. Nymphs are cannibalistic
10 Mimic leaves and flowers
11. Carnivorous
12. Found mostly outdoors
13. Economic importance: They are predators on moths, flies, grasshoppers, caterpillars,
etc. Hence they are beneficial.
14. Mantis religiosa and Gongylus gongyloides

Order- ISOPTERA
ETYMOLOGY: "iso" meaning equal and "ptera" meaning wings
COMMON NAME: Termites or white ants
Characters:
1. Small, greyish white soft bodied insects.
2. Social and polymorphic species living in large communities composed of reproductive
forms together with numerous apterous, sterile soldiers and workers.
3. Compound eyes are present in alate forms and usually absent in apterous forms.
4. Antennae moniliform, or filiform.
5. Mouth parts typical biting and chewing type.
6. Apterous, brachypterous or winged. In winged forms, the front and hind wings are similar
in size, shape and venation, when at rest the wings are held flat over the body and extend
beyond the tip of abdomen. Wings are membranous with some what reduced venation and
are capable of being shed by means of basal structures.
7. Legs short and stout. Tarsus usually 4 segmented
8. Metamorphosis simple or incomplete
9. Except winged forms others are Photophobic.
10. Frontal gland is a characteristic termite organ which attains its greatest Development in
soldiers. It is formed by a group of hypodermal cells in the median line of frons. It is sac
like gland which communicates to the exterior by frontalpore, which opens in a shallow
depression, on the surface of the head where the cuticle is pale, which is known as
frontanella. It appears to have defensive functions
11. Caste system: Following are the difference castes that are usually seen in a termite colony.
 Special characters:
1. They are ancient polymorphic, socical insects living in colonies.
2. Salivary glands are well developed
3. Rectum is distended forming pouch rectal pouch to accommodate large number of symbionts.
4. Soil inhabiting termites construct earthen mounds called ‘Termitoria’.
5. Have complex relationship with other organisms like Bacteria, Protozoa and Fungi which
help in the digestion of food.
6. Incessant food sharing (trophallaxis) occurs between the members of the community by
mouth to mouth and anus to mouth.
Importance: Termites are the nature’s scavengers. They convert logs, stumps and branches etc to
humus. Many are pests to crops, furniture and wooden buildings.
Termite Castes:
A) Reproductives or Primary reproductives: (King& Queen)- These are the highly
developed individuals sexually. They have fully developed wings and compound eyes and
are usually heavily pigmented. The males are often small. Queens sometimes live for
several years. The kings and queens are usually produced in large numbers at certain
seasons. They leave the colony in a swarm, mate and individual pairs establish new colonies
and wings are shed after mating leaving remnants called stubs. The queen termite attains
enormous size
after mating and the obesity is known as physogastry.
B) Supplementary reproductives: They have short wings and less heavily pigmented, usually
have smaller eyes. They sometimes carry on extensive reproduction in the colony and
supplement the queen in building the colony.
C) Workers: These are sterile wingless adults. They are pale in colour, lack compound eyes.
Mandibles relatively small. They collect food and feed queens, soldiers and newly hatched
young ones. They build up nests, passage ways, tunnels and galleries. They form the bulk of
the colony.
D) Soldiers: These are also sterile wingless adults with greatly enlarged head and mandibles.
Slightly larger than workers, may or may not have compound eyes. They protect the colony.
Two types of soldiers may be seen. (1) Mandibulate type (2) Nasute type (Nasuti). In nasute
type, the individuals have the head prolonged anteriorly into a narrow snout through which a
sticky secretion is exuded. Mandibles are reduced in these. The food of termites is the cast
skins and feaceses of other individuals, dead individuals and plant materials such as wood
and wood products. Termites frequently groom each other with their mouth parts as a result
of the attraction of some secretions available on the body (trophallaxis – Mutual exchange
of food i.e. secretions on the body.

Major Families:
Rhinotermitidae (Subterranean termites)- These insects build nests in the soil and generally
infest wood that is in contact with the ground.
Hodotermitidae (Rottenwood termites) - Generally found inhabiting moist wood. Contact with
the soil is not a requirement.
Kalotermitidae (Drywood and dampwood termites)- These insects nest in the wood itself and
do not require contact with the soil.
Workers are present in all the families except Kalotermitidae. Wherein the full grown
nymphs perform the duty of worker and are called as Pseudergates.
Most of the termites depend on cellulose and it is digested in the body with the help of
symbiotic protozoans. The digested food is regurgigated and feeds the other termites.
The fungus garden is a spongy dark brown comb constructed by the workers. Two genera of
fungus occur in the garden i.e., Termitomyces (Basidiomycets) and Xyleria (Ascomycetes).
Termitophiles- Flies, beetles, silverfish and cockroaches which feed in termitoria are called as
termitophiles.

Family: Termitidae
Included about 2/3rd of recent isopterns
1 Frontanella present
2. Pronotum of workers is narrow with a raised anterior lobe, saddle shaped
3. The scale or stub of the front wing is shorter than pronotum. Wing margin is more or less
hairy. RS is reduced / absent.
4. Cerci with 1 or 2 segmented
5. These are all ground dwelling with wide range of food habits.
Ex: Odontotermes obesus, Microtermes obesi.

Order- HEMIPTERA
Synonym : Rhynchota
Etymology : Hemi - half; ptera - wing
Common name : True bugs
General characters-
 Head is opisthognathous.
 Mouthparts are piercing and sucking type. Two pairs of bristle like stylets which are the
modified mandibles and maxillae are present. Stylets rest in the grooved labium or rostrum.
Both labial palps and maxillary palps are atrophied.
 Mesothorax is represented dorsally by scutellum.
 Forewings are either uniformly thickened throughout or basally coriaceous and distally
membranous.
 Cerci are always absent.
 Metamorphosis usually gradual; rarely complete.
 Alimentary canal is suitably modified to handle liquid food. (filter chamber).
 Salivary glands are universally present.
 Extra-oral digestion is apparently widespread.
 Abdominal ganglia fused with thoracic ganglia.
Classification: There are two sub oders viz., Heteroptera and Homoptera.
 Heteroptera Homoptera
(Hetero-different;ptera-wing) (Homo-uniform; ptera-wing)
1. Head is porrect or horizontal Head is deflexed
2. Bases of the forelegs do not touch the head Bases of the forelegs touch the head
Beak arises from the anterior part of the Beak arises from the posterior part of the
3.
head head
Gular region of the head (midventral
4. sclerotised part between labium and Gular region not clearly defined
foramen magnum) well defined.
Pronotum is almost always small and collar-
5. Pronotum usually greatly enlarged.
like.
Scutellum (triangular plate found between
6. Scutellum not well developed.
the wing bases) well developed
Forewings heavily sclerotized at the base
Forewings are of uniform texture. They are
7. and the apical half is membranous
frequently harder than hind pair.
(Hemelytra)
Wings are held flat over the the back at rest
Wings are held roof-like over the back and
8. and the left and right side overlap on the
wings do not over lap.
abdomen.
9. Honey dew secretion uncommon Honey dew secretion common
Repungnatorial or odori- ferous or scent
10 Wax glands usually present.
glands present.
11. Both terrestrial and aquatic Terrestrial.
12. Herbivorous, predaceous or blood sucking. Herbivorous.
Suborder: Heteroptera includes true bugs ((Hetero-different; ptera-wing)
1. Small to large mostly terrestrial, some are aquatic
2. Head is horizontal
3. Antennae fairly long, 4 or 5 segmented compound eyes well developed. Ocelli when present
are two in number
4. Mouthparts piercing and sucking type and with slender segmented beak (modified labium)
that arises from the front part of the head and usually extends back along the ventral side,
some times as far as the bases of hind coxae. The beak and rostrum serves as a sheath for
the four piercing stylets, two outer mandibular and two inner maxillary stylets. The inner
maxillary stylets fit very close together with central ridge in the groove and form dorsal
food channel and ventral salivary channel. There are no palpi.
5. Pronotum large, the mesonotum exhibits five fold divisions, among which scutellum is very
prominent
6. Winged and wingless. When winged, the fore wings are basally thickened and membranous
apically and are known as Hemelytra. The hemelytron is composed mainly of regions
(corium, clavus and membrane). In some insects, a narrow strip of corium along the costal
margin is set off from the reminder of corium by a suture and is called embolium. In a few
hemiptera, a cuneus is set off by a suture from the apical part of corium. Hind wings are
entirely membranous and are slightly shorter than forewings. At rest the wings are held flat
on the body. Alary polymorphism is seen.
7. Odoriferous glands or repugnatorial glands or scent glands or stink glands are present which
open near hind coxae on the sides by ventral pores giving out unpleasant odour
8. Ovipositor small with two pairs of valves or well developed for inserting their eggs in plant
tissues.
9. Anal cerci absent
10. Metamorphosis simple
11. Honey dew secretion uncommon
12. Herbivorous, predaceous or blood sucking
IMPORTANT FAMILIES OF HETEROPTERA
1. PENTATOMIDAE (Stink bugs or Shield bugs)
Medium to large insects, most common and abundant of bugs that produce disagreeable
odour. Broad shield like.
1. Head with lateral margins concealing bases of antennae
2. Antennae usually 5 – segmented. Ocelli almost always present.
3. Rostrum is 4 segmented.
3. The pronotum broad and shield shaped. Scutellum large triangular some times extends
posteriorly to the extent of covering the wings entirely.
4. In hemelytron, corium large extending to anal margin. Membrane with many longitudinal
veins, arising from a vein which is nearly paralelled to the apical margin of corium.
5. Four pairs of odoriferous glands are present on dorsum of abdomen of the nymphs
6. The eggs are usually barrel shaped with spines on the upper end.
Ex: Green (stink) bug – Nezara viridula,
Red pumpkin bug -Aspongopus janus
Cabbage painted bug – Bagrada cruciferarum

2. COREIDAE (Squash bugs or leaf footed bugs)

1. Antennae 4 segmented sitiuated well upon the sides of the head above a line drawn from the
eyes to the base of the beak. Ocelli present.
2. Head narrower, shorter than pronoutm, scutellum smaller.
3. In hemelytra, richly branched veins are present.
4. The edge of the abdomen is raised and wings lie in a distinct depression
5. Stink glands are found inside the metathorax and glands openings are found on the sides of
the thorax between middle and hind coxae. They emit a bad odour.
6. In most of the species, either or both the hind femora and tibiae may have conspicuous
enlargements or leaf like dilations and hence the name leaf footedbugs.
7. Tarsi – 3 segmented pulvilli present.
 Ex: Rice gundhi bug- Leptocorisa acuta- paddy gundybug
Pod bugs- Clavigralla gibbosa on pulses

3. REDUVIIADE: (Assassin bugs, Kissing bugs or cone nose bugs)

1. Head is narrow and elongate, constricted behind the eye forming a neck.
2. Beak is short, three segmented and fits into a groove in the pro-sternum.
3. Abdomen is widened in the middle.
4. Lateral margins of the abdominal segments are exposed beyond the wing
5. Many are predaceous on other isects. Ex: Platymeris leavicollis is a predator on coconut
rhinoceros beetle. Triatoma sp and Rhodnius prolixus are the vectors of chagas disease caused by
Trypanasoma cruzi which causes human trypanasomiasis.

4. PYRRHOCORIDAE: (Red bugs or Stainers)

1. They exhibit red and black colourations, elongate oval bugs
2. Ocelli absent
3. More branched veins present in hemelytra
4. Coxa is rotatory and tarsi 3 segmented with pulvilli
Ex: Dysdercus cingulatus – red cotton bug
Feeding injury caused by these bugs leads to the contamination by the fungus Nematospora
resulting in yellowish brown discolouration of the lint.

5. LYGAEIDAE: (Seed bugs or Chinch bugs)

1. Antennae 4 segmented inserted down on the sides of the head, apical segment is larger
2. Compound eyes and ocelli are well developed
3. 4 to 5 un branched simple veins in the membrane of hemelytra. Cuneus is lacking, clavus is
elongate
4. Metathoracic gland openings are present.
5. In some, the front femora moderately swollen with 2 rows of teeth beneath
6. Coxa rotator, tarsi 3 segmented, pulvulli present
 Ex: Dusky cotton bug – Oxycarenu shyalinipennis
Nymphs and adults suck the sap from seeds of injured or already opened bolls and reduce
the seed quality.

6. MIRIDAE: (Plant bugs or Leaf bugs).

1. Medium or small, usually delicate insects
2. Ocelli absent
3. Antennae and Rostrum is are 4 segmented
4. Hemelytra with distinct corium, clavus and cuneus (a triangular apical piece of the basal part
of forewing). Forewings are tilted at the distinct angle posterior to abdomen. Loop veins are
found in membrane. Wings are tilted downwards.
5. Empodium is indistinct. Tarsi almost invariably 3 segmented
6. Majority live on plant juices, some prey on small arthropods
Ex. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis antonii (causes cankerous wart like growth on guava
fruits)

IMPORTANT FAMILIES OF HOMOPTERA

This order contains a large and diversified group of insects and is closely related to the
hemiptera.
1. These are minute to small insects and are distributed widely
2. Head is deflexed and not generally constricted behind to form a neck.
3. Compound eyes well developed, ocelli absent in apterous form but 2 to 3 in winged forms
4. Antennae well developed and usually 3 to 10 segmented
5. Mouth parts piercing and sucking type, stylets often exceedingly long, retractile, rostrum
arising from the back of the head, in some cases appearing to arise between anterior coxae.
In some adults like male coccids the mouth parts are vestigial or absent
 6. Thoracic segments generally fused together and not distinguishable from abdomen in
wingless forms. Pronotum small and collar like.
7. Winged or wingless when winged the four wings are uniform in consistency and the wings
are held roof like over the body at rest. Alary polymorphism is prevalent. In male coccids
only one pair i.e. forewings are present.
8. Wax glands or honey tubes usually well developd in most of the members of this order.
9. In most of the species, the life history is very complex involving sexual and parthenogenetic
generations winged and wingless individuals.
10. Usually undergo simple metamorphosis. In some species, the last nymphal instar Is
quiescent and pupa like.
1. CICADELLIDAE (Leaf hoppers or Jassids)
1. Elongate insects with a wedge shaped body.
2. Attractively coloured.
3. Hind tibia is angular with one or two rows of spines which is most important feature.
4. Forewings are somewhat thickened and often brightly coloured
5. Anal veins 1A and 2A do not unite to form ‘Y’ shaped vein
6. Ovipositor is well suited for lacerating the plant tissue.
7. Nymphs and adults have the habit of running sidewise.
8. They suck the plant sap and transmit diseases (vectors).
9. Many excrete honeydew through anus
Ex: Green leaf hopper- Nephotettix virescens transmits tungro disease in rice.
Cotton leafhopper - Amrasca biguttula biguttula
Mango hoppers - Amritodes atkinsoni,Ideoscopus clypealiss

2. DELPHACIDE (Plant hoppers)

This is the largest family among the plant hoppers
1. Most of the species are small with reduced wings
2. The characteristic feature of this family is the presence of large mobile apical spur on hind
tibiae.
3. Antennae bears terminal arista.
4. Costal cell is absent in the winged forms
5. Alary polymorphism is very common winged, wingless and brachypterous forms occur in
the some species.
Ex: Brown plant hopper of paddy (BPH)- Nilaparvata lugens
White backed plant hopper on rice (WBPH) - Sogatella furcifera
3. APHIDIDAE (Aphids or Plant lice or Greenflies)
 Body is pear shaped
 Both apterous and alate forms are found.
 A pair of cornicles or siphonculi or wax tubes is present in the dorsum of fifth or sixth
abdominal segments which secretes wax like substance.
 They excrete copious amount of honey dew on which ants feed and sooty mould fungus
grows.
 Aphids are known for their extraordinary fecundity, short life cycle and parthenogenitic
reproduction. Life cycle is highly complex and it involve alternation of generation.
 They feed on plant sap and disseminate plant diseases.
 Ex: Cotton aphid - Aphis gossypii.

4. COCCIDAE (Scale insects or Soft scales)

 Sexual dimorphism is present.
 Male: They are gnat like, with long antennae, lateral eye and vestigeal mouth parts.
 Mesothorax is enlarged bearing one pair of wings with on or two veins. Hind wings are
reduced to halteres. A quiescent stage is present in the life history.
 Female: Body segmentation is indistinct. Body wall naked and covered with a waxy coating.
They are wingless, legless and suck the plant sap.
 The first instar nymph is active and is known as crawler which moults and becomes legless.
Ex: Coffee green scale- Coccus viridis.

5. ALEYRODIDAE (Whiteflies)
 Minute insects which superficially resemble tiny moths.
 Wings are opaque and dusted with mealy white powdery wax. Wing venation is much
reduced.
 Vasiform orifice is present in the last abdominal tergite. It is a conspicuous opening provided
with an operculum. Beneath the operculum there is a tongue-like organ termed lingula. The
anus opens at the base of the lingula through which honey dew is excreted in large amount.
 Immature instars are sessile, scale like, with waxy covering.
 Metamorphosis approaches the homometabolus type due to the presence of a quiescent stage
prior to the emergence of adults.
 Ex: Cotton whitefly- Bemisia tabaci (transmits vein clearing disease in bhendi).
6. LOPHOPIDAE
 Head is produced into a snout.
 Hind trochanter is directed backward
 Hind basitarsus is moderately long.
 Ex: Sugarcane leaf hopper- Pyrilla perpusilla (nymphs and adults suck the sap and reduce the
quality and quantity of cane juice).

7. PSEUDOCOCCIDAE (Mealy bugs)

 Body is elongate oval in shape.
 Body segmentation is distinct.
 Body is covered by long radiating thread of mealy secretion.
 Functional legs are present in all instars.
 Wings are absent.
 Nymphs and adults suck the sap and affect the growth of spindle leaf.
 Maconellicoccus hirsutus, (also known as the pink, grape or hibiscus mealybug)
 Coconut mealy bug- Pseudococcus longispinus
 Solanum mealy bug Phenacoccus solenopsis (Cotton etc)
 Papaya /cassava mealy bug Paracoccus marginatus

Order- THYSANOPTERA
Synonyms : Physopoda
Etymology : Thysano - fringe; ptera - wings
Common name: Thrips.
Characters-
 They are minute, slender, soft bodied insects.
 Antennae short moniliform, 6-10 segmented, usually with sense cones or sensoria on 3rd or
4th segments
 Compound eyes conspicuous with 3 ocelli in winged forms
 Mouthparts are rasping and sucking. Mouth cone is formed by the labrum and labium together
with basal segments of maxillae. There are three stylets derived from two maxillae and left
mandibles. Right mandible is absent. Hence mouthparts are asymmetrical.
 Winged or wingless. Wings when fully developed are long and narrow with highly reduced
venation (with few no veins). The wings are fringed with long hairs on the margins. They
are weak fliers and passive flight in wind is common.
 Legs short, tarsi 1 or 2 segmented with 1 or 2 claws, with a bladder like terminal protrusable
vesicle (hence known as Physopods previously) which at rest is retracted and invisible.
When walking, it is exerted out by means of blood pressure and enable the insect to walk on
any kind of surface. At the apex of each tarsus a protrusible vesicle is present.
 Abdomen is often pointed. An appendicular ovipositor may be present or absent.
 Cerci absent
 Metamorphosis is accompanied by one or two inactive pupal instars i.e. intermediary
between simple and complete.
 Parthenogenetic type of reproduction is very common and in many species males are rarely
seen.
 Nymphal stage is followed by prepupal and pupal stages which are analogous to the pupae
of endopterygote insects.
Classification: This order is subdivided into two suborders.
Sl. No. Sub-order: Terebrantia Sub-order: Tubulifera
1 Antennae 4 to 9 segmented Antennae 4-8 segmented
2 Fore wings with at least one Fore wings with venation almost absent.
longitudinal vein reaching the Membrane without microscopic hairs
apex. Membrane with
microscopic hairs.
3 Ovipositor saw like Ovipositor is absent
4 Last abdominal segment is more or Last abdominal segment is tubular
less conical or rounded
Ex: Thrips tabaci Ex: Haplothrips sp.

Family- Thripidae (SO: Terebrantia)

1. This is the largest and most important injurious family in thrips.
2. Antennae 6-9 segments not conical with sense cones. Antennae ends in 1 or segmented apical
style. 4th segment usually enlarged.
3. Winged / wingless. If winged, the wings are narrow and pointed at the tip and fringed with
long hairs on the margins.
4. Ovipositor normally well developed and down curved
5. Tarsi sometimes with claw like appendages at apex of 1st or 2nd segment.
Ex: Onion thrips -Thrips tabaci
Chilli thrips - Scirtothrips dorsalis
Order: Neuroptera
Etymology : Neuro-nerve; ptera - wings.
Common names: Lace wings, Ant lions, Mantispidflies, Owlflies.
Characters-
 They are soft bodied insects.
 Antenna is filiform, with or without a terminal club.
 Mouthparts are chewing type in adults.
 Wings are equal, membranous with many cross veins.
 They are held in a roof-like manner over the abdomen.
 They are weak fliers
 Larva is campodeiform with mandibulosuctorial mouthparts.
 Pupa is exarate. Pupation takes place in a silken cocoon. Six out of eight Malpighian tubules
are modified as silk glands. They spin the cocoons through anal spinnerets.
Classification: This order is subdivided into two suborders viz., Megaloptera and Planipennia.
Sub order: PLANIPENNIA
1. Include the terrestrial insects
2. Larvae with suctorial piercing mouth parts
3. All longitudinal veins are forked near the wing margin
4. Pupate in silken cocoon
Important family of sub order- Planipennia
1. CHRYSOPIDAE: (Green lacewings, Golden eyes, Stink flies, Aphid lions)
 Body is pale green in colour.
 Eyes are golden yellow in colour.
 Eggs are mounted on stalks to avoid predation and cannibalism.
 Larvae preys on soft bodied insects, especially on aphids. It often carries a layer of debris on
its body which provides camouflage.
 They emit a stinking fluid when alarmed, from prothoracic stink gland.
 They are mass multiplied and released in fields for controlling aphids.

2. Hemerobiidae: (Brown lacewings)

1. Delicate brown insects with moniliform antennae
2. Ocelli absent, compound eyes are well developed
3. Some coastal cross veins are forked
4. Fore wings with 2 or more radial sectors.
5. Eggs are not supported by stalks
Ex: Hemerobius stigma

Order: Lepidoptera
Synonym : Glossata
Etymology : Lepido - scale; ptera - wings.
Common names : Moths, Butterflies, Skippers
Characters-
 Body, wings, appendages are densely clothed with overlapping scales, which give colour,
rigidity and strength. They insulate the body and smoothen air flow over the body.
  Mouthparts in adults are of siphoning type. Mandibles are absent. The galeae of maxillae are
greatly elongated and are held together by interlocking hooks and spines. The suctorial
proboscis is coiled up like a watch spring and kept beneath the head when not in use.
 Wings are membranous and are covered with overlapping pigmented scales. Forewings are
larger than hind wings. Cross veins are few. Wings are coupled by either frenate or
amplexiform type of wing coupling.
 Larvae are polypod-eruciform type. Mouthparts are adapted for chewing with strong
mandibles. A group of lateral ocelli is found on either side of the head. The antenna is short
and three segmented. There are three pairs of five segmented thoracic legs ending in claws.
Two to five pairs of fleshy un segmented prolegs are found in the abdomen. At the bottom of
the proleg, crochets are present.
 Pupa is generally obtect. It is either naked or enclosed in a cocoon made out of soil, frass,
silk or larval hairs. Butterflies do not make a cocoon and their pupae are called chrysalis.
Classification: Lepidoptera is classified into 3 sub orders
Zeugloptera Monotrysia Ditrysia
Adults have functional mandibleVestigial No functional mandibles
Lacina is well developed Galea is well developed Galea is higly developed and form
probosis
Larvae have 8 pairs of prolegs
Larvae with not more than 7 pairs
Larvae possess not more than 5
ending with single claw of prolegs pairs of prolegs and ends with
crochets
Majority have single genital
Usually possess 2 genital opening
opening and copulatry pore on 8th seg
and egg pore on 9th seg.
Majority of Lepidopteran insects (97%) are grouped under the suborder Ditrysia in which the
female insects have two pores. The copulatory pore is located in eighth abdominal sternite and
the egg pore in ninth abdominal sternite. Remaining insects are grouped under the suborder
Monotrysia in which the female insects have one pore.
Sub order Ditrysia is divided into 2 sub groups-
Characters Rhophalocera (Butterflies) Heterocera (Moths)
Antennae Clubbed Various type
Wings Held vertical at rest Horizantal over abdomen
Colour Brightly coloured Dull coloured
Body Slender Stout
Wing coupling Amlexiform Frenulate type
Frenulum absent present
Ocelli absent present
Cu2 vein of forewing absent present
Activity Diurnal Nocturnal
Pupae chrysalis Obtect pupa within a cocoon
Sub group Rhophalocera (Butterfly families)
1. NYMPHALIDAE: (Brush footed or four footed butterflies)
 Forelegs are short, functionless, hairy and folded on thorax.
 Fore tibia is short and covered with long hairs.
 Larva is with many processes or spines on the body.
 Ex: Castor butterfly- Ergolis merione. It is a defoliator.

3. LYCAENIDAE: (Blues, Coppers, Hair streaks)

 Compound eyes are white rimmed.

 Antennae are with white rings.
 Upper wing surface is either metallic blue or coppery. Lower wing surface is lighter in
colour.
 Hindwings is often with delicate hair like prolongations and two or three black spots.
 Larvae are flattened with retractile head.
 Ex: Pomegranate fruit borer- Virachola isocrates.

3. PAPILIONIDAE: (Swallow tails)

 They are often large and brightly coloured.
 Prothoracic legs have tibial epiphysis.
 In many species hindwings has tail like prolongation.
 Amplexiform type of wing coupling is present.
 Larval body is either smooth or with tubercles.
 Retractile osmeteria are present on the prothoracic tergum of the caterpillar
 Ex: Citrus butterfly- Papilio demoleus.

4. PIERIDAE: (whites or Sulphurs)

 They are white or yellow or orange coloured with black markings.
 Larva is green, elongate and covered with find hairs.
 Larval body segments have annulets.
Ex: Daincha caterpillar- Eurema hecabe.
5. Hesperidae (Skippers)
 Antennae are widely separated at the base. They are dialated apically to form a gradual club.
Each antenna is apically prolonged beyond the club into a hook or small recurved point.
 They are small and stout bodied and got the name from their fast and erratic flight
 They differ from other butterflies in having none of the five R- branches in the front wings
stalked and all arises from the discal cell.
 Wings are comparatively small. They are often held partly open at rest, fore and hind wings
are held at different angle. Flight is erratic and darting.
 Larval head is large. There is a constriction beyond the head. Larva tapers towards both
extremities. Larvae are often concealed in the host foliage.
 Ex: Rice skipper- Pelopidas mathias.
Sugarcane skipper- Telicota augras

Sub group Heterocera (Moth Families)

6. ARCTIIDAE (Tiger moths)
 Stout bodied, medium sized conspicuously and brightly spotted or banded nocturnal moths.
 Wings are conspicuously spotted or banded.
 They are nocturnal and attracted to light.
 Larva is either sparsely hairy or densely hairy (wooly bear).
 Pupation in a cocoon and the cocoons are made of silk and larval body hairs.
 Ex: Black hairy caterpillar, Estigmene lactinea.

7. BOMBYCIDAE (Silk worm moths)

 Antenna is bipectinate.
 Larvae is either with tuft of hairs or glabrous with medio dorsal horn on the eighth
abdominal segment.
 Pupation occurs in dense silken cocoon.
 Ex: Mulberry silk worm- Bombyx mori (important source of natural silk)
 8. GELECHIIDAE
 Labial palpi are long and curved, the terminal segment is long and pointed
 Forewings trapezoidal and narrower than hindwings.
 Anal margin of fore and hind wings are fringed with hairs.
 The veins R4 and R5 in the forewings are stalked at the base
 Hindwings usually have the outer margin, curved and RS and M1 stalked.
Ex: Groundnut leafminer – Aproaerema modicella
Caterpillars bore into the seeds, tubers, and leaves.
Cotton pink boll worm- Pectinophora gossypiella.

9. LYMANTRIDAE (Tussock moths)

 Antenna is bipectinate
 Legs are clothed with wooly hairs.
 Female is provided with a tuft of anal hairs.
 Larvae are densely hairy.
 Ex: Castor hairy caterpillar- Euproctis fraterna.

10. NOCTUIDAE (Noctua moths)

 They are medium sized, stoutly built moths.
 They are nocturnal and attracted to light.
 Labial palpi is well developed.
 Fore wings are cryptic.
 Crochets on the larval prolegs are all of one size and arranged in semi-circle.
 Some larvae are semiloopers. They have either three or four pairs of prolegs.
 Larvae attack the plants during night. Larvae of some species remain concealed beneath the
surface of the ground or litter on the surface during day and feed on plants during night. They
often cut small seedlings close to the ground and hence they are called cut worms.
Ex: Tobacco cut worm- Spodoptera litura.
Gram pod borer- Helicoverpa armigera
Armyworm- Mythimna seperata
11. SATURNIIDAE: (Moon months, giant silkworm moths)
 They are large sized moths.
 Antenna is bipectinate.
 Transparent eye spots are present near the centre of each wing. The spots are either circular
or crescent shaped.
 Larva is stout and smooth with scoli.
 Cocoon is dense and firm.
 Ex: Tussor silkworm- Antherea paphia yields silk.

12. SPHINGIDAE (Hawk moths, Sphinx moths, Horn worms)

 They are large sized stoutly built moths.
 Antenna is thick towards middle and hooked at the tip.
 Proboscis is very long.
 Forewings are elongated and pointed with very oblique outer margin.
 Hindwings are reduced in width fitting into the indented margin of forewings. They are
powerful fliers.
 Larva is smooth with a middorsal horn (anal horn) on the eighth abdominal segment.
 Pupation takes place in earthen cells. In many species the proboscis is enclosed in a separate
sheath.
 Ex: Death's head moth- Acherontia styx is a defoliator on gingelly. Markings present on the
thorax of the adult moth resemble human skull.
13. Yponomeutidae (Diamond back moth)
1. Antennae are projected forward at rest
2. Maxillary palpi are protruded forward
3. In males when the wings are folded shows a series of three yellow diamond shaped markings
along the line.
4. Larvae make the holes in leaves of cruciferous plants.
Ex: Plutella xylostella

14. Pyralidae
1. Small to medium sized moths with well developed antennae and ocelli present
2. Labial palpi well developed and projected forward appearing as a snout in front of the head
and hence are called snout moths.
3. Forewings elongate or triangular with cubitus appearing four branched.
4. Hind wings are usually broad with SC and R usually close together, fused or closely parallel
for a short distance beyond discal cell.
5. Larvae borers into the stem, crown, roots of gramminaceous plants.
6. Legs are long and slender
7. Tympanal organ is present at the base of the abdomen
8. Adult females are generally provided with a tuft of anal hairs at the caudal extremity which
are deposited as a covering on the egg masses
Ex: Wax moth- Galleria melonella
Rice case worm- Nymphula depunctalis

Paddy stem borer- Scirpophaga incertallus

Jowar stem borer- Chilo partellus

Order- COLEOPTERA
Synonym : Elytroptera
Etymology : Coleo - Sheath; ptera-wing
Common names : Beetles, Weevils
Characters-
1. This is the largest order in class insecta comprising about 1/3rd or 40% of the known insect
species.
2. Minute to large sized with leathery or horny integument.
3. Head highly sclerotized free, normal or prolonged in to a snout as in weevils. Ocelli usually
absent.
4. Antennae variable usually 11 segmented
5. Mouth parts are chewing type with well developed mandibles. The mandibles attain their
greatest length in the males of many of the stag beetles (Lycanidae)
6. Prothorax large and freely movable, mesothorax much reduced and fused with metathorax
and the tergum of these segments is divisible in to prescutum, scutum and scutellum.
7. Two pairs of wings present. Forewings are horny or leathery known as elytra which at least
always meet to form a straight mid dorsal suture. Hind wings membranous. The wings are
highly reduced in few beetles.
8. Legs well developed for walking, running and tarsal segments are variable.
9. Abdomen usually 10 segmented. First tergum membranous and one or more of the sterna
from the first to third are aborted in many species, the terminal abdominal segments are
refractile and tubular, thus functioning as an ovipositor (eg: cerambycidae).
10. The larvae are known as grubs and generally thoracic legs are present.
11. Pupa exarate, pale coloured and are invested by a thin soft cuticle.
12. Most of the adults possess stridulatory organs and these are variable.
13. Metamorphosis is complete and complex.
Importance: It is the largest order. It includes predators, scavengers and many crop pests. They
also damage stored products.
Classification: This order is divided into two suborders, viz., Adephaga (devourers) and
Polyphaga (eaters of many things). Adephaga includes Cicindelidae, Carabidae and
Dytiscidae. Other families listed out below come under Polyphaga.
Sl. No. Adephaga Polyphaga
1 Antennae generally filiform Antennae variable in form
2 Tarsal formula is 5-5-5 Tarsal formula is variable
Hind coxa immovably fixed to the Visible abdominal sternum not divided by
3
metasternum hind coxa. Hind coxa is movable
Hind trochanteer is large and off
4 Hind trochanter is small
set towards midline
Noto pleural suture present on
5 Noto pleural suture is lacking
prothorax
6 Predecious Polyphagus
FAMILIES OF ADEHAGA
1. CARABIDAE (Ground beetles)
 Adults are often black in colour and some brightly spotted.
 Some cannot fly because they have fused elytra and atrophied hind wings.
 Antennae arises laterally between the eyes and mandibles.
 Legs are suited for running.
 Larvae have caliper like mandibles, well developed legs and terminal cerci like structures
called urogomphi.
 They are nocturnal. Ground beetles are voracious predators both as adults and larvae.
 They feed on soft bodied caterpillars and other insects.
 Six spotted carabid - Anthia sexguttata

FAMILIES OF POLYPHAGA
FAMILIES OF PREDATORS
2. COCCINELLIDAE (Lady bird beetles)
1. Beetles of moderate size, oval, convex dorsally and horizontal
ventrally, brightly coloured or spotted.
2. Head partly concealed from above by the pronotum.
3. Antennae usually clavate, short and partly concealed.
4. The legs are short and hidden under the body. Tarsi 4 segmented but appear to be 3
segmented since this 3rd segment is small and concealed in the deeply bilobed second
segment. Tarsal formula is 4:4:4 (psedotrimerous). Tarsal claws are teethed at the base.
5. Grubs are compodeiform and usually covered with minute tubercles or spines known as
setose or rugose and are usually flattened.
6. Elytra covers the abdomen completely.
7. Both adults and grubs of most of the species are highly predacious feeding on aphids,
coccids, mites, psyllids and other soft bodied insects.
8. Genus epilachna are phytophagous and others are predoators
Ex: Predator on aphids – Menochilus sexomaculata
Predator on cottony cushion scale-Rodalia cardinalis
Lady bird beetle on brinjal -Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata

FAMILIES OF SCAVENGERS
3. SCARABAEIDAE (Scarabs, Dung beetles)
1. These are heavy bodied oval or elongate usually convex beetles.
2. Head often slender, recurved, sometimes toothed or bilobed frontal horn.
3. Antennae 8-11 segmented and lamellate type.
4. Prothorax large simple or with horny structure.
5. Elytra not usually completely covering the abdomen and abdomen tip is exposed (pygidium)
6. Fore legs are fossorial with broad teeth like tibia.
6. Tarsi 5 segmented, tarsal formula 5:5:5, the hind tibiae more or less dilated with the outer
edge toothed.
7. Adults usually feed on foliage. Grubs typically scraboid and feed on roots known as root
grubs which are very serious pests of most of the crops, while some feed on organic matter
living in manure pits.
8. The grubs are sluggish, stout and usually white in colour and called as white grubs.
Ex: Oryctes rhinoceros – Rhinoceros bettle on coconut
Holotrichia serrata – Root grub on sugarcane
FAMILIES OF STORED PRODUCT PESTS
4. BRUCHIDAE (Pulse beetles, Seed beetles)
1. Short, stout bodied beetles with the body narrowed anteriorly
2. The head is produced anteriorly in to a short and broad snout
3. Antennae serrate or pectinate
4. Prothorax prominent, somewhat triangular wider than long and its notum is greatly
narrowed anteriorly
5. Elytra shortened, never cover the tip of abdomen, abdominal tip bluntly rounded
6. Legs short, tarsi, 5-segmented hind femur more or less thickened and toothed beneath.
Tarsal formula is 5:5:5
7. Larvae usually undergo hypermetamorphosis. First instar with well developed legs and
possess spined or toothed thoracic plates to aid in entering smooth and hard seeds. After
first moult it becomes partially / wholly apodous.
Ex: Pulse beetles- Callsobruchus chinensis,
Callosobruchus maculatus

5. TENEBRIONIDAE (Darkling beetle, Meal worms)

 Body is flat and elongate.
 Elytra is often sculptured.
 Eyes are emarginated
 Antennae is long and moniliform or filiform and first antennal segment is at least 5 times
longer than other segments
 Legs are heteromerous with a tarsal formula of 5-5-4.
 Larvae are called meal worms.
 Red flour beetle: Tribolium castaneum. It is an important pest of milled products.

FAMILIES OF CROP PESTS

6. CERAMBYCIDAE (Longicorn beetles)
1. These are elongate and cylindrical beetles with very long filiform /
serrate antennae at least two thirds as long as the body (scape is longer than pedicel),
capable of being flexed backwards and usually inserted on prominent tubercles.
2. Prothorax is narrow or as wide as mesothorax usually spined or tuberculate
3. Elytra usually cover the body but sometimes may leave the posterior one or two segments
exposed in few cases.
4. Legs well developed tarsi 5 segmented but appear to be 4 segmented since the 4th segment
is small and concealed in the notch of the bilobed 3rd segment. All tibiae with two well
developed spurs. Tarsal formula is 5:5:5
5. Most of the grubs are tree borers. Few are confined to roots with powerful mandibles boring
into deep and hardwood also and are highly destructive.
6. Most of the adults feed on flowers and some of them produce squeaking sound when picked
up.
Ex: Mango stem borer - Batocera rufomaculata
Grapevine stem gridler - Sthenias grisator

7. CURCULIONIDAE (Weevils, snout beetles)

1. Minute to large species characterized by the head prolonged to form a pronounced snout or
rostrum of variable length and shape. In many species, it exhibits sexual dimorphism being
better developed in females acting as a boring instrument for placing the eggs.
2. Antennae geniculate and clubbed arising about the middle of the snout
3. Palpi reduced and rigid, mouth parts small and arranged at the end of the snout
4. Legs are short or very long, tarsi 5-segmented 4th one ofter small.
5. Wings well developed rudimentary or absent
6. Abdomen with 5 visible sternites
7. Adults and larvae are phytophagous and stored grain pests.
8. Larvae usually apodous, curved with developed head.
Ex: Red palm weevil - Rhynchophorus ferrugenius
Sweet potato weevil-Cylas formicarius
Rice weevil - Sitophilus oryzae

9. MELOIDAE: (Blister beetles, Oil beetles)

 They are cylindrical, soft bodied beetles.
 Head is connected to thorax by a distinct neck.
 Legs are heteromerous with a tarsal formula of 5-5-4.
 Claws show longitudinal splitting.
 Forewings are soft and leathery.
 They give off a fluid containing the oily principle catharidin, when disturbed which causes
blisters.
 Development involves hypermetamorphosis. Eggs hatch into active triungulin larvae which
may feed on eggs of grasshoppers.
 Adults feed on foliage and flowers.
Ex: Banded blister beetle- Mylabris pustulata
10. MELOLONTHIDAE (Chafer beetles, June beetles, White grubs)
 They are stout beetles with glossy surface.
 Head is small.
 Labrum is well sclerotised.
 Adults are attracted to light. They feed on tree foliage during night and hide in soil during day
time.
 Larvae are scarabaeiform and root feeders.
 Groundnut white grub: Holotrichia consanguinea. It is a serious pest on groundnut under
rainfed condition.

11. Scolytidae (Bark/ Ambrosia/Timber beetle)

1. Small, cylindrical whit brownish or balckish beetle
2. Fore tibia is serrate
3. Tip of the abdomen is partly uncovered and elytra ends with a characteristic cut manner
4. Grubs phytophagus and adults are predecious (fungus feeder)
Ex: coffe shot hole borer- Xyloborus morstatti

12. Dermestidae (skin beetle or carpet beetle)

1. Small to medium sized oval or hemispherical beetles clothed with hairs
2. Antennae is short and clubbed
3. Hairs on the body form the white and brackish red pattern
4. Ocelli- one present between compound eyes
5. Grubs feed on leather, fur, wool, silk, dired matter and skin of museum speciemens
Ex: Khopra beetle- Trogoderma granerium
Balck carpet beetle- Attaggenus fasciatus

13. Chrysomilidae:
1. Usually small to medium, oval or spherical beetles with the upper surface of the body
generally bare and shining, frequently with metallic colouration
2. Antennae short or of moderate length usually with 11 segments and except in this they
resemble to cerambycids
3. Legs short, hind femora enlarged for jumping in many forms. Tarsi 5 segmented, but appear
to be 4 segmented since the 4th segment is small and concealed in the notch of the bilobed
3rd segment. Tarsal formula is 5:5:5, tibial spurs absent usually.
4. Adults generally feed on leaves causing numerous holes and also on flowers. Some grubs
feed on foliage, some act as leaf miners and some feed on roots and stems also
5. Abdomen short with 5 visible sternites
Eg: Sweet potato tortoise beetle - Metriona circumdata
Rice hispa - Dicladispa armigera
Pumpkin beetles - Raphidopalpa foveicollis.
Mexican beetle- Zygogramma bicolorata

Order- HYMENOPTERA
Etymology: Hymen - membrane; ptera - wings.
Hymeno - god of marriage; ptera - wings, (Marriage on the wings)
(union of fore and hindwings by hamuli)
Common names: Ichneumonflies, Ants, Bees, Wasps.
1. This is the most beneficial order in the class insecta comprising of parasites, predators and
bees involved in poliination and honey production. Most of them are social living.
2. Varied in size and shape. Head is prominent remarkably free with small neck.
3. Compound eyes well developed and ocelli usually 3 or absent.
4. Antennae variable usually exhibit sexual dimorphism being longer in males
5. Mouth parts primarily adopted for biting and often for lapping and sucking also. mandibles
always present
6. Usually two pairs of naked membranous wings are present with reduced venation. Hind
wings are smaller and have a row of tiny hooks on their anterior margin by which they
attach to the front wings. Usually stigma is present in the forewings along the costal margin
near the apex.
7. Legs slender, trochanter 1 or 2 segmented.
8. Abdomen usually basally constricted to form pedicel or petiole. The 1st abdominal segment
fused with metathorax and known as propodaeum. Second segment forms pedicel. The
remaining region of the abdomen is bulged one known as gaster or metasoma.
9. Ovipositor very well developed and modified for sawing, boring, piercing, stinging etc.
10. Larvae are known as grubs with well developed head and usually apodous.
11. Pupa exarate and a cocoon is generally present
12. Metamorphosis complete and complex also
Classification-
This order is subdivided into two suborders.
SYMPHYTA (Chalastogastra) APOCRITA (Clistogastra)
1. Abdomen is broadly joined to the the thorax. Abdomen is petiolated.
2. Larva is a caterpillar and belongs to Larva is a grub and it belongs to
eruciform type apodous eucephalous type
3. Stemmata are present Stemmata are absent.
 4. Both thoracic and abdominal legs are present Legs are absent
5. Ovipositor is saw like and suited for piercing Ovipositor is not saw like and is suited
the plant tissue for piercing in para sitic groups or
for stinging in other groups
6. Behavioural sophistication is less Behavioural sophistication is more.
7. They are phytophagous They are generally parasitic
8 Trochanter- 2 segmented Trochanter is 1 or 2 segmented
9 Hind wings with 3 closed basal cells Hind wings with not more than 2
closed basal cells

I. Suborder: SYMPHYTA
1. TENTHREDINIDAE (Sawflies)
1. Stout wasp like insects without abdominal pedicel. Adults feed on flowers, foliage or while
some feed on small insects (carnivorous). Medium sized and brightly coloured insects.
2. Antennae 3 to 6 or 8 to 11 segmented, filiform or setaceous
3. Fore wings with 1 or 2 marginal cells.
4. Trochanter 2 –segmented, front tibia posses 2 apical spurs.
5. Ovipositor well developed with 2 pairs of flattened plates
6. In many species, the two sexes are different coloured. Parthenogenesis is very common
7. Larvae are eruciform, exclusively phytophagous. The body segments are usually subdivided
by transverse folds in to annulets. Resemble to those of lepidopteran larvae but are provided
with 6 to 8 pairs of abdominal legs which are devoid of crochets. Many larvae are provided
with glands resembling osmoteria which open on the sternum of each of the first seven
abdominal segments.
8. Pupation takes place in an elongated oval silken cocoon or in an earthen cell
Ex: Mustard sawfly - Athalia lugens proxima (defoliator of mustard and cruciferous
vegetables)
.

II. Suborder: APOCRITA

2. ICHNEUMONIDAE ( Ichneumonflies)
1. One of the largest families in the entire class – insecta. They are slender wasp like insects,
diurnal and visit flowers.
2. Antennae longer with more than 16 segments and filiform
3. Trochanter 2 segmented. Legs are provided with conspicuous tibial spurs and strong claws,
tarsus 4 segmented. Hind femur is with trochantellus.
4. In forewings, the costal cell is wanting and has two recurrent veins while braconids have
one or none.
5. Abdomen long and slender, petiolate, petiole usually curved and expanded apically.
6. Ovipositor very long often longer than the body arising anterior to the tip of abdomen
7. Most of the members are endoparasites and undergo complete metramorphosis i.e.
hypermetamophosis. Caudal prolongation of tail is present, in 1st instar larvae
Ex: Xanthopimpla punctata
Campoletis chloridae

3. BRACONIDAE (Braconid wasps)

1. Closely related to Ichneumonids
2. Minute to small parasitic insects
3. Abdomen sessile or sub sessile or petiolate. Petiole is neither curved nor expanded at the
apex.
4. Costal cell is wanting in forewings with one recurrent vein
5. Ovipositor well developed.
6. They are gregarious parasites and parasitizes the larvae of Lepidoptera.
6. Unlike Ichneumonids, many of these pupate in silken cocoons on the outside of the body of
the host
7. Poly embryony occurs in a few species of this family
Ex: Larval parasite on jower stem borer - Apanteles flavipes
Larval parasite on black headed caterpillar of coconut - Bracon brevicornis

4. CHALCIDIDAE
 They are small to medium sized insects.
 Hind coxae are five to six times larger than fore coxae.
 Hind tibial spurs are larger than mid tibial spurs.
 Hind femora are larger with a row of short-teeth beneath.
 Wing venation is reduced to a single anterior vein.
 Ovipositor is short and straight.
 Brachymeria sp - is a pupal parasite on coconut black headed caterpillar.

5. EULOPHIDAE
 They are minute pupal parasites.
 Forewing is narrower with pubescence (microscopic hairs) on the wing lamina.
 Hairs are not arranged in rows.
 Tarsi is 4 segmented
 Antennae of male is pectinate and clavate in female
 Ovipositor is present almost at the tip of the abdomen.
 Tetrastichus israelli is a gregarious pupal parasite commonly used for the control of
coconut black headed caterpillar.

6. TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE
1. Minute insects (0.3 to 1.0 mm long) with three tarsal segments
2. Microscopic hairs on wings arranged in rows
3. Hindwing is reduced and fringed with hairs along the margins.
4. Egg parasitoids on lepidopterans
Ex:Trichogramma sp. is extensively used in the biological control of sugarcane moth borers.
7. VESPIDAE (Yellow jackets, Hornets)
 Lateral extensions of the pronotum reach the point of insertion of wings and do not form rounded
lobes.
 Abdomen is conical
 They construct nest with `wasp paper', a substance made from fragments of chewed wood
mixed with saliva.
 They are either solitary or social wasps.
 They are generally predaceous on Lepidopteran caterpillars. Many paralysed caterpillars are
stored in the cells of their nests. Eggs are suspended by a filament from the top of the nest
and the cell is sealed.
 First discoidal cell in fore wing is very long and has 3 sub marginal cells
 Wings folds longitudinally at rest
 Yellow banded wasp- Vespa cincta is a bee enemy.

8. FORMICIDAE (Ants)
 They are common widespread insects.
 Antennae are geniculate.
 Mandibles are well developed.
 Wings are present only in sexually mature forms.
 Petiole may have one or two spines.
 They are social insects with three castes viz., queen, males and workers. Workers are sterile
females and they form the bulk of the colony. Exchange of food materials between adults and
immature insects is common. After a mating flight queen alone finds a suitable nesting site.
Wings break near the abscission suture near the base are nipped off by mandibles. Egg laying
is started after divesting the wings. Usually the queen does not forage for food. During the
initial phase of nest building it lives entirely on fat body reserves and products of wing muscle
degeneration.
 Many species have established symbiotic relationship with homopteran insects.
Ex: Camponotus compressus, Ocephylla smargdina
9. APIDAE (Honey bees)
 Body is covered with branching or plumose hairs.
 Mouthparts are chewing and lapping type. Mandibles are suited for crushing and shaping wax
for building combs.
 Fore wings have 3 sub marginal veins.
 Legs are specialized for pollen collection. Scopa (pollen basket) is present on hind tibia.
 They are social insects with three castes viz., queen, drone and workers. Temporal separation
of duties is noticed among workers.
Indian honey bee- Apis indica is a productive insect.
 Apis indica Apis dorsata Apis florea

10. Aphelinidae
1. Small to minute insects
2. Antennae is less 8 segmented and geniculate
3. Tarsi is 5 segmented
4. Abdomen is broadly attached to the propedeum
5. Cosmopolitan in distribution
6. Mostly yellow coloured and sometimes black in colour
7. Largely parasitic on aphids, white flies etc.
Ex: Aphelinus mali – parasitic on apple woolly aphid

ORDER- DIPTERA
Etymology : Di-two; ptera-wing
Common names: True flies, Mosquitoes, Gnats, Midges,
Characters-
1. These are small and soft bodied insects with prominent head and small neck
2. Eyes large, usually larger in males, holoptic / dichoptic
3. Head is often hemispherical and attached to the thorax by a slender neck.
4. Ptilinum or frontal sac is characteristic feature of cyclorrhapha indicated by the frontal or
ptilinal suture. It is a retractile bladder like organ employed to break open the puparium
5. Antennae mostly 3 segmented (except in Nematocera) and aristate
6. Mouth parts sucking type usually forming a proboscis. In many they are piercing and
sucking and in others they are sponging (lapping) with labium distally expanded in to a pair
of fleshy lobes.
6. Mesothorax large supporting the functional wings, pro and metathoracic segments small and
fused with mesothorax
7. Only front pair of wings present. Hind pair modified into halters which act as balancers
8. Legs well developed, tarsus usually 5 segmented pulvilli and an empodium usually present
9. Metamorphosis is complete
10. Larvae known as maggots, eruciform and apodous, mostly amphipneustic
11. Pupa either free or enclosed in the hardened larval cuticle known as puparium (coarctate
pupa)
Classification
This order is sub divided in to three suborders.
I. NEMATOCERA (Thread-horn)
 Antenna is long and many segmented (more than 6 segments) in adult.
 Legs are slender and long
 Larval head is well developed (Ecephalous).
 Larval mandibles act horizontally.
 Pupa is weakly obtect.
 Adult emergence is through a straight split in the thoracic region.
II. BRACHYCERA (Short-horn)
 Antenna is short and few segmented (less than 6 segments) in adult.
 Larval head is retractile into the thorax(Hemicephalous)
 Larval mandibles act vertically
 Pupa is exarate.
 Adult emergence is through a straight split in the thoracic region.
CYCLORRHAPHA: (Circular-crack)
 Antenna is aristate in adult (3 segmented).
 Larval head is vestigial with mouth hooks (Acephalous).
 Larval mouth hooks act vertically.
 Pupa is coarctate.
 The coarctate pupa has a circular line of weakness along which the pupal case splits during the
emergence of adult. The split results due to the pressure applied by an eversible bladder ptilinum in
the head.
Sub order: NEMATOCERA
1. CULICIDAE (Mosquitoes):
2. They are delicate, fragile, slender insects
 Females have piercing and sucking type of mouthparts with six stylets.
 Antenna is plumose (bushy) in male and pilose (less hairy) in female.
 Legs are slender, delicate and long.
 Wings are fringed with hairs and scales on hind margin and on some veins.
 Males are short lived and feed on nectar or decaying fruits.
 Females live long and are blood feeders.
 Larvae are called wrigglers. Larval head is large with chewing mouthparts and mouth brush aiding in
filter feeding. Thorax is large without legs. Respiratory siphon is located in the penultimate abdominal
segment. Anal gills are present at the terminal end of the abdomen.
 Pupa is known as tumbler. It is very active. It has a pair of prothoracic horns which houses the
anterior pair of spiracles. A pair of anal paddles is present at the terminal end aids in swimming.
Malarial mosquite Filarial mosquito .
Anopheles sp transmits malaria Culex sp transmits filariasis

Mosquito larvae wriggler Mosquito pupa tumbler

2. CECIDOMYIIDAE (Gall midges)
1. Minute to small delicate mosquito like flies, somewhat hairy with small head.
2. Antennae long, moniliform with whorls of hairs. Legs long resembling mosquitoes, tibiae
without spurs.
3. Wings broad with few longitudinal veins (3 to 5) for the most part un branched with no
obvious cross veins.
4. Larvae live in plants forming galls, some occur under bark, in decaying vegetation and a
few are predacious or parasitic on aphids / scales etc., The head is greatly reduced without
mandibles. In the last larval instar most of the species possess a sternal spatula or breast
bone on the ventral side of the prothorax.
5. Paedogenesis is seen in some members of this family
Ex: Rice gall midge -Orseolia oryzae (maggots feeding induces the galls)

.
Sub order: CYCLORRHAPHA
3. SYRPHIDAE (Hover flies, Flower flies)
 They are brightly coloured and brilliantly striped. A vein like thickening (spurious vein) is
present in between the radius and median in the forewing. Anal cells are long.
 Abdomen has distinct black and yellow markings.
 Maggots prey on soft bodied insects especially aphids.
 Spurious(false vein is present in the wing between radius and median
 Adults are excellent flies. They hover over flowers. They feed on pollen and nectar. They aid
in pollination.

Flower flies
4. TEPHRITIDAE (Fruit flies or Peacock flies)
1. Small to medium flies, slightly hairy / bristly
2. Head large broad with small neck
3. Wings large mostly spotted or banded. Sub Costa bends apically formed at almost a right
angle and then fade out without reaching the margin
4. Middle legs tarsi with spurs
5. Ovipositor very well developed horny and flattened and usually 3 segmented
6. Adults are visitors of flowers, fruits and foliage
7. Larvae phytophagous, amphipneustic (1st’s last pair of spiracle functional)
Ex: Fruit fly on cucurbit- Dacus cucurbitae
Mango fruit fly- Bractocera dorsalis

5. MUSCIDAE: (Flower flies, root maggots, shoot flies, house flies)

1. Small to medium dark coloured flies
2. Fine erect hairs are present on the under surface of scutellum (mesothorax portion) and have
more than one stero pleural bristles.
3. Abdomen bristly with somewhat constricted base usually 4-5 segmented
4. Pre tarsus consists of 2 claws and 2 adhesive pads.
4. Vein Cu2 + 2A is short and do not reach the wing margin
6. Lower calypter is longer than upper calypter.
5. Larvae cylindrical and truncate posteriorly some are phytophagous, some are saprophagous
while a few are parasitic.
Ex: Common house fly- Musca domestica

6. Tachinidae (Tachind flies)

 Arista is completely bare.
 Abdomen is stout with several noticeable
bristles.
 Post scutellum is prominent
 They are non specific endoparasites on the
larvae and pupae of Orthoptera, Hemiptera,
Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.
Ex: Silkworm uzifly- Exorista bombycis
7. Agromyzidae (Leaf miners, Pod flies and stem flies)
1. These are small blackish or yellowish flies
2. Femora of the legs bristled
3. Wings by hyaline or pictured
4. Vibriosae are generally present (a pair of stout bristles on each side of the face just above
the oral margin longer than other bristles on the vibrissal ridge)
5. Most of the larvae are phytophagous, mine in the leaves producing characteristic blotches
Ex: Serpentine leaf miner- Lariomyza trifoli

8. Anthomyiidae (Root maggot flies)

1. Anal vein, Cu + 1A reaches wing margin
2. Lower calypter not longer than upper calypter
3. Larvae with varied habits, phytophagous, saprophytic and some are aquatic and predaceous
4. Scutellum with small vertical spines beneath
Ex: Sorghum shoot fly- Atherigona soccata
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
DHARWAD

Laboratory Manual

for

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENTOMOLOGY
AET-101 (2+1)

Course Teachers
Dr. Dr. P.S. Hugar, AC, Dharwad
Dr. Guruprasad G.S., AC, Dharwad
Dr. D.N. Kambrekar, AC, Dharwad
Dr. Rohini Sugandi, AC, Dharwad
Ms. Kalavathi Kambli, AC, Dharwad
Dr. Prakash, AC, Vijaypura
Dr. Prasanna, AC, Hanumanamatti

Name ____________________________ I.D. No.________________

Class ___________ Batch ___________ Semester _____________

Year _________

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr/Ms_____________

I.D.No. __________ of the I B.Sc.(Agri)/(AMCO)

class of this college has satisfactorily completed

the practical work assigned to him / her in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the course

“Fundamentals of Entomology (AET 101)”

during __ semester of_________ year.

Date: Signature of the Teacher

Marks obtained:
 CONTENTS

Ex. No Date Title Remarks

Study of collection and preservation of insects and

1
immature stages
Study of external morphology of cockroach, Periplanata
2
americana
3 Study of insect antennae and its modifications
4 Study of insect mouthparts and its modifications
5 Study of insect leg and its modifications
Study of insect wing, venation, modifications and wing
6
coupling mechanism
7 Study of immature stages of insect
8 Study of insect digestive system (cockroach)
9 Study of insect reproductive system (cockroach)
Study of characters of insect orders, Orthoptera and
10
Dictyoptera
11 Study of characters of insect orders, Odonata and Isoptera
Study of characters of insect orders, Thysanoptera and
12
Neuroptera
13 Study of characters of insect order, Hemiptera
14 Study of characters of insect order, Lepidoptera
15 Study of characters of insect order, Coleoptera
16 Study of characters of insect order, Hymenoptera
17 Field visit for collection of insects
18 Study of characters of insect order, Diptera
THIS IS YOUR LABORATORY-

1. Specimens/ equipments that you handle are precious and meant for you and for the future
students. Carelessness in handling them will deprive the facilities for both the present and
the future.

2. A clean and neat laboratory is a pre-requisite for diligent work, let not your negligence
spoil the atmosphere of the laboratory.

3. Always equip yourselves with all that you need in the laboratory and avoid moving about
unnecessarily.

4. Watch carefully the procedure and steps followed by your teacher while demonstrating
the dissections.

5. The class teacher expects you to complete the day’s work before the end of the class
which saves your time and ultimately counts for the class performance.

6. Doubts not cleared in the laboratory may not be cleared outside. Do not hesitate to
consult the teacher when you are in doubt.

7. The laboratory manual is a record of your practical work. A well maintained manual is an
asset of a good student.

8. For perfection, work step by step, following the instructions with patience.

9. Take care to see that the insect specimens given in the practical classes are not damaged.

10. Students are required to bring dissection set consisting of the scissors, forceps, needles,
slides, pins, etc.
 Course outline
Week Theory Practicals
History of Entomology in India. Factors for
Methods of collection and preservation of
1 insect’s abundance. Major points related to
insects including immature stages.
dominance of insecta in animal kingdom.
Classification of Phylum Arthropod upto
2 classes. Relationship of class insect with External features of Cockroach
other classes of Arthropod.
Morphology- structure and functions of
3 insect cuticle and moulting. Body Types of insect antennae
segmentation.
Structure of head, thorax and abdomen.
4 Structure and modifications of insect Types of insect mouth parts.
antennae.
Structure and modifications of mouth parts
5 Types of insect legs.
and legs.
Wing venation, modifications and wing
Wing venation, types of wings and wing
6 coupling apparatus. Structure of male and
coupling apparatus.
female genital organ.
Metamorphosis and diapauses in insects.
7 Types of insect larvae and pupae.
Types of larvae and pupae
Structure and functions of digestive,
Dissection of digestive system in insect
8 circulatory, excretory and respiratory system
(Cockroach)
in insects.
Structure and functions of nervous, endocrine Dissection of male and female reproductive
9
and reproductive system in insects. systems in insect (Cockroach)
Study of characters of orders, Orthoptera-
Types of reproduction in insects. Major
Acrididae, Tettigonidae, Gryllidae and
10 sensory organs like simple and compound
Gryllotalpidae. Dictyoptera- Mantidae,
eyes, chemoreceptor’s.
Blattidae
Systemaics: Taxonomy- importance, history,
development and binomial nomenclature. Study of characters of orders, Odonata.
11
Definitions of biotype, sub species, species, Isoptera- Termitidae.
genus, family and order.
Classification of class insects upto orders.
Study of characters of orders, Thysanoptera-
Insect orders and families of Agricultural
12 Thripidae. Neuroptera- Chrysopidae and
importance like Orthoptera- Acrididae,
Hemerobidae.
Tettigonidae, Gryllidae and Gryllotalpidae
Study of characters of order, Hemiptera-
Dictyoptera- Mantidae, Blattidae. Odonata. Pentatomidae, Coreidae, Cimicidae, Miridae,
Isoptera- Termitidae. Thysanoptera- Reduviidae, Pyrrhocoridae, Lygaeidae,
13
Thripidae. Neuroptera- Chrysopidae and Cicadellidae, Delphacidae, Aphididae,
Hemerobidae Coccidae, Lophopidae, Aleurodidae and
Pseudococcidae
Hemiptera- Pentatomidae, Coreidae,
Study of characters of order, Lepidoptera-
Cimicidae, Miridae, Reduviidae,
Pieridae, Papiloinidae, Nymphalidae,
Pyrrhocoridae, Lygaeidae, Cicadellidae,
14 Noctudiae, Sphingidae, Pyralidae,
Delphacidae, Aphididae, Coccidae,
Gelechidae, Arctidae, Saturniidae and
Lophopidae, Aleurodidae and
Bombycidae.
Pseudococcidae
Lepidoptera- Pieridae, Papiloinidae, Study of characters of order, Coleoptera –
Nymphalidae, Noctudiae, Sphingidae, Coccinellidae, Chrysomelidae,
15
Pyralidae, Gelechidae, Arctidae, Saturniidae Cerambycidae, Curculionidae, Bruchidae,
and Bombycidae. Scarabaeidae.
16 Coleoptera – Coccinellidae, Chrysomelidae, Study of characters of order, Hymenoptera –
 Cerambycidae, Curculionidae, Bruchidae, Tenthridinidae, Apidae, Trichogrammatidae,
Scarabaeidae. Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, Chalcididae,
Encyrtidae, Bethylidae and Formicidae.
Hymenoptera – Tenthridinidae, Aphidae,
Diptera – Cecidomyiidae, Tachinidae,
Trichogrammatidae, Ichneumonidae,
17 Agromyziidae, Culicidae, Muscidae, ,
Braconidae, Chalcididae, Encyrtidae,
Tephritidae, Tabanidae and Syrphidae.
Bethylidae and Formicidae.
Diptera – Cecidomyiidae, Tachinidae,
18 Agromyziidae, Culicidae, Muscidae, , Submission of insect specimens
Tephritidae, Tabanidae and Syrphidae.
19 Practical examination

Scheme of Evaluation (Internal)

Midterm 30.00

Lab. Manual 05.00

Practical exam. 10.00

Assingment 05.00

Total 50.00

Note

1. The schedule of examinations will be announced by Dean (Agri.) office.

2. Each student should submit 50 adult insects representing different orders as indicated
below.
3. Specimens displayed during each practical class will not be displayed again before the
practical examination
4. Every student has to return all the materials taken from the department for course work on
the day of practical examination.
5. Every student has to produce the identity card during each examination.

List of Reference Books:

1. Richard, O.W. and Davies, R.G., 1977, Imm’s general text book of Entomology 10 th edition
Vol-I & II.
2. Mani, M.S., 1968, General Entomology.
3. Nayar, K.K., Ananth Krishnan, T.N. and David, B.V., 1976, General and Applied
Entomology.
4. Triplehorn, C.A. and Johnson. N.F., 2005, Borer and Delong’s Iintroduction to the study of
insects (7th Edition).
5. Chapman, R.F., Insects structure and function.
6. Romoser, W.S., 1973, The Science of Entomology.
7. Olderoyd, H., 1958, Collecting preserving and studying insects, Autchinson, London 312
pp.
8. Metcalf C.D. & Flint, M.P. 1962, Destructive and useful insects.
Ex. No: 1 Date: ______________

STUDY OF COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECTS AND

IMMATURE STAGES

The insects are the diversified organisms living around us. The best way to learn
about insects is to collect and study them. The process of insect collection includes the
Collection, Killing, Pinning, Setting, labeling and preservation.

I. COLLECTION: It is necessary to understand the following aspects before going for insect
collection which is a pre-requisite for study.

a. Why to collect insects?

 As a hobby
 For Scientific study.
 To acquaint with local insect fauna
 As aesthetic value.
b. Where to collect insects?

The insects are highly diversified in their habits and habitats. Therefore, they should be
searched in different ecosystems like.

1. Near flowering plants: All the insects which depend on for food
Ex: Butterflies, moths, flies, honey bees, etc.

2. Ponds and lakes: Insects living and breeding in and around water.

Ex: Aquatic beetles, Aquatic bugs, mayflies, dragonflies, etc.

3. Various field and forest crops: The insects feeding on cultivated crop plants and trees.

Ex: Bugs, beetles, etc.

4. Near light: Insects which are attracted to light

Ex: Planthoppers, moths, etc.

5. Near dead and decaying materials: The insects which feed and breed on dead animal or plant
matter and act as scavengers.

Ex: Dung rollers, termites, flies, etc.

6. In soil: Insects which live inside soil during one or the other part of their life cycle.

Ex: Cutworms, Rootgrubs, termites, etc.

129
 c. When to collect insects?

Most of the insects are active on clear and bright sunny days. Any time on such days is
suitable for collection. The nocturnal and phototrophic insects can be collected during night
time, near the light sources.

d. How to collect insects?

The insect collection is an art which involves skill of an individual. It requires certain
equipments and the procedure to collect.

1. Hand picking: Larger and comparatively docile and inactive insects such as beetles,
caterpillars and other sedentary insects can be hand picked.
2. Hair brush: Small, inactive and soft bodied insects like aphids, scales and mealybugs, can
be collected by using a hair brush to avoid damage to the specimens.
3. Umbrella: It is a normal umbrella made up of white or any other light colored cloth. It is
kept upside down below the plant to collect the caterpillars and insects which feign death
with slight disturbance like ash weevil, flea beetles, etc.
4. Insect Net: There are three types of nets.
i. Aerial net: It is of light weight and useful for catching active fliers like moths, butterflies,
flies, wasps, etc. The net consists of three parts viz., a small ring of 30-40 cm diameter, a
long handle (100 cm) and a cloth bag of nearly double the length of diameter of the ring
and depth of the bag should be in proportion of 1:2.
ii. Sweep net: This is heavier than the aerial net. It consists of a short handle, a large ring and a
heavy cloth bag. This net is suitable for collecting leafhoppers, grasshoppers and other small
insects.
iii. Aquatic net: This type of net is chiefly used for collecting aquatic insects. It is an ordinary
type of net where in wire or nylon mesh bag is provided instead of cloth bag. The net is
swept over the water surface to collect aquatic insects.
5. Aspirator (Pooter): It is a device useful to collect small and active insects from the insect
net or any other surface.

Ex: leafhoppers, flies etc.

6. Traps: Different types of traps can be used for collecting different groups of insects.

Food lure trap - Flies

Sex lure trap - Moths

Water trap - Brown plant hopper

Light trap - Phototropic insects

Suction trap - White flies

Sticky trap - Whiteflies, aphids

130
7. Berlese funnel: Soil dwelling insects like proturans, collembolans, diplurans, mites etc, can
be collected by using berlese funnel. It consists of a wide funnel with a light source at the top
and a container with 70% alcohol to collect the insects. Put the soil sample in funnel and put
on the light. Since the subterranean insects are photophobic in nature, they try to go away
from the light, thereby fall into the container kept below.
II. KILLING: Killing should be done immediately after the capture. Potassium cyanide, ethyl
acetate, carbon tetrachloride, alcohol and chloroform are commonly used for killing insects.

Preparation of ethyl acetate killing bottle:

1. Take a 300 ml wide mouthed bottle with a closely fitting cap.

2. Pour one inch layer of plaster of Paris slurry into the bottle.
3. Allow it to dry thoroughly
4. Saturate the plaster of Paris layer with a few drops of ethyl acetate and close the cap.
5. Place one or two circular pieces of blotting paper over the layer of plaster of paris.
6. Recharge the bottle with the ethyl acetate again as and when it loses its effectiveness.
Safe use of Poison bottles:

1. Affix a conspicuous 'POISON` label both in English and vernacular language

along with the skull and cross bone symbol.
2. Keep the bottle tightly closed to prevent gas leakage.
3. Remove the insects as and when they are dead.
4. Use a separate large poison bottle for moths and butterflies and another for beetles
and grasshoppers. Do not mix small and delicate insects with larger insects like
grasshoppers and beetles.
5. Keep the poison bottle in a safe place away from those who are unaware of its
deadlines and children.
6. Never keep the poison bottle in kitchen and with the medicines.
2. Pinching the thorax: A butterfly or moth can be immobilized and killed in an emergency by
giving a sharp pinch on the thorax by holding the insect between the thumb and forefinger.

3. Killing with alcohol: Many soft bodied insects can be killed by dropping them directly into
70 to 90 per cent ethyl or isopropyl alcohol.

III. PINNING: For pinning, specially made insect pins are required. There are two types of
insect pins.

i) Insect pins: These are pure nickel pins or nickel plated pins and rust resistant. Length and
thickness of these pins vary.

ii) Micro pins: Are very thin, slender, delicate and with or without head. These are used for
pinning very small insects,

iii) Methods of pinning:

131
Direct pinning: Based on the size and type of insect, the insects are pinned directly at various
locations as shown in the diagram. The pin should be inserted vertically and the insect
should be placed at 2/3rd height of the pin.

Name of the insect Place of pinning

Most insects Through the thorax

Dragon/ Damsel flies Through the centre of thorax

Grasshopper Pronotum, slightly to the right of the mid line

Preying mantis Prothorax

Stick insect Metanotum

Beetles Through the right elytra midway on the body

Bugs Through scutellum right to the mid line

Flies (wasps and bees) Through the prothorax slightly to the right of mid
line

Butterfly and moths Through the centre of prothorax

Double pinning: Very small insects cannot be pinned directly because most of the body parts
of the insects will be lost during pinning. For such insects double mounting can be
followed.

a) Staging: The stage is a narrow rectangular piece of pith or cork. The small insect is
pinned correctly with a micro pin to the stage. Later the stage is pinned with a bigger pin.

b) Pointing: The insect is fixed with a drop of clear glue at the tip of triangle card of a
suitable size.

132
IV. MOUNTING OR SETTING: Setting the insects is essential to study the wing characters
and other details. It affords a better look to the preserved specimens. Wings of moths,
butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies are set on either side. In grasshoppers, wings on one
side alone are set. Setting boards (mounting boards) are used for setting insects. Setting
should be done before the insects become stiff and brittle. The materials required mainly are
setting boards.

Setting boards: There are two types of setting boards.

a) Ordinary setting board: It has a central groove. Flat cork is glued on both side and bottom
of the groove to enable easy pinning.

b) Adjustable setting board: It is similar to that of ordinary setting board except one of the
sides is movable sideways to adjust the groove width based on the abdominal size of the
insects.

V. LABELLING: Labels are must for every specimen. Each insect should have a label giving
particulars about locality date and collectors name. An additional label is often used having
the habitat or host from which the specimen is collected. (Fig.1 & 2) Label should be small
(12x6mm), neat and made of stiff white card. Labels may be printed or hand written with
black Indian ink. They are inserted to the pin beneath the insects at 1/2 height from the
base. The long axis of the lable should coincide with the long axis of the insect. If more
than one label is used then the second label should be parallel and at 1/3rd height. All
labels should be oriented so that they are read from left side.

Label 1 Label 2

Name of locality- Dharwad (Karnataka) Name of the insect-

Date of collection- Family-

Name of the collector- Order-

Host-

133
VI. PRESERVATION: The insects can be preserved by two methods:

a) Dry preservation: This method is used for hard and big adult insects. These insects should
be pinned, body parts set, labeled, thoroughly dried and preserved in insect cabinet boxes.
A table spoonful of Dichlorobenzene or naphthalene powder should be kept in the box to
prevent the attack from museum pests.
b) Wet preservation: Soft bodied forms (nymphs, larvae and many adults) shrivel when
mounted dry. Such insects can be preserved in tightly fitting screw cap vials containing 75
to 90% ethyl alcohol. Sealing the stopper with paraffin wax reduces the evaporation of
preservative. Labels written in India ink are placed inside the vial along with the specimen.
Careful examination of liquid preserved specimens is essential once in a year to replace the
evaporated fluid.

Preservatives:-

1. Ethyl alcohol: Ethyl alcohol 70-80% is largely used for preserving insects, mostly immature
insects.
2. Kahles solutions: Used for most of the immature stages.
95% ethyl alcohol - 15 parts

Formaldehyde - 6 parts

Glacial acetic acid - 2 parts

Distilled water - 30 parts

3. Formaldehyde- alchohol solution: Used for most of the immature stages.

95% ethyl alcohol - 55 parts

Distilled water - 35 parts

Formaldehyde - 5 parts

Glacial acetic acid - 5 parts

4. Hood’s solution: Used for most of the immature stages.

70-80% ethyl alcohol - 95 ml

Glycerine - 5 ml

134
5. Alcoholic bovines fluid:
80% ethyl alcohol -150 ml

Formaldehyde - 60 ml

Glacial acetic acid - 5 ml

Picric acid - 1 ml

6. X.A. Mixture: Good for caterpillars, coleopteran and tenthredinid larva.

Xylene - 1 part

95% ethyl alcohol - 1 part

7. X.A.A.D. Mixture: Good for coleopteran and lepidopteran larvae.

Xylene - 4 parts

Commercial refined isopropyl alcohol - 6 parts

Glacial acetic acid - 1 part

Dioxan - 1 part

8. K.A.A. D. Mixture: Good for maggots, lepidopteran larvae, hymenopteran larvae and
pupae, coleopteran and neuropteran larvae. However, this is unsuitable for preserving highly
chitinised larvae

Kerosene - 1 part

95% ethyl alcohol - 7 parts

Glacial acetic acid - 1 part

Dioxan - 1 part

OTHER MATERIALS REQUIRED:

a) Relaxing Container: Used in relaxing (softening) of stiff and hard specimens.
b) Butterfly forceps: It is used for spreading the wings of moths and butterflies.
c) Pinning forceps: used to pin the pinned insects in the insect store boxes to avoid painful
prick to the fingers.
d) Paper point Punch: Used for cutting the triangular paper points of uniform size for
mounting the small insects.
e) Pinning block: Used to pin the insect at required height.
Directions:
1) Study the different insect collection devices, methods of mounting and preservation of
insects and draw neat labeled diagrams.

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Ex. No. 2 Date: ___________
STUDY OF EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF COCKROACH,
Periplanata americana
The Class Insecta includes members having 3 body divisions namely, head, thorax and
abdomen; having a pair of antennae, a pair of compound eyes, a pair of mandibles on head, 1
or 2 pairs of wings (in some cases wanted) and 3 pairs of legs on thorax and abdomen with no
locomotory appendages. The genital opening is at the posterior end of the abdomen. Insects are
tracheate arthropods, body covered with chitinous exoskeleton and usually undergo
metamorphosis.
HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES –
Head: It is of hypognathous type in cockroaches wherein the long axis of the head is vertical and
mouth parts are ventral. It is composed of six segments, which are highly fused to form head
capsule. An inverted ‘Y’ shaped epicranial suture divides the head into the lower frons or the face
and the upper epicranium. The epicranium is divided into two by the median epicranial suture. The
frons lies between the arms of the epicranial suture and above the clypeus. The compound eyes are
present one on either side of the head capsule. The dorsal region behind the frons and between the
compound eyes is known as the vertex. The ocelli are represented by a pair of pale coloured areas
know as ‘fenestrae’, present at the end of two arms of the inverted ‘Y’ shaped epicranial suture.
The clypeus lies immediately anterior to the frons which is separated by fronto-clypeal suture.
Clypeus is followed by labrum and is separated by labro-clypeal suture. The occiput is the hinder
part of the epicranium, between the vertex and the neck. The lateral area below and posterior to the
eyes on either side is the gena or the cheek.
Antennae: They are the paired jointed sensory organs, borne one on either side of the head,
commonly termed as horns or feelers. It consists of the basal scape, middle pedicel and terminal
flagellum. The long sweeping, whip-like antennae of the cockroach are of setaceous type in which
the flagellar segments decrease in size gradually towards tip.
Mouth-Parts: Typically, the cockroach mouth parts are of mandibulate or the biting and chewing
or the orthopteroid type. They consist of the labrum or the upper lip, the labium or the lower lip, a
pair of mandibles or the upper pair of jaws, a pair of maxillae or a lower pair of jaws and a median
tongue like structure called hypopharynx which arises from the floor of the mouth.
Procedure: Separate the head from the thorax and place it on a slide. Locate the various regions of
the head. Hold the head by means of a forceps with the left hand and remove the mouth parts with
another forceps. First remove the labrum, then mandibles, followed by the labium, the maxillae and
hypopharynx. Take care that all the sub parts of each part are intact. Before removing the parts
make superficial incisions at the joints of the parts to be removed and gently pull out the parts with
the help of forceps. Mount them on slide in glycerin and arrange them as you found in the insect.
Do not use more glycerin than required.
Neck: The flexible intersegmental region between the head and prothorax is known as the cervix or
the neck region.
THORAX AND ITS APPENDAGES
Thorax: It is the second or the intermediate region of the insect body consisting of 3 segments
namely the pro, meso and metathorax. It bears 3 pairs of the true legs and 2 pairs of wings when
present. Each thoracic segment of an insect is typically made up of 4 sides; the dorsal tergum the
ventral sternum and the two lateral pleura. In cockroach, prothorax is modified into shield like
structure known as pronotum which overlaps partly the head anteriorly and mesothorax posteriorly.
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Legs: Each of the thoracic segments bears a pair of jointed legs, one on either side in the ventro-
lateral region. Thus, 3 pairs of walking legs are present in cockroach.
Typically, each leg consists of five parts; namely, the coxa, the trochanter, the femur, the
tibia and the tarsus. In cockroach, the tarsus has five joints; the last one is called pretarsus which
bears a pair of claws and a median lobe called the arolium. The first segment of the tarsus is called
basitarsus.
Procedure: Remove one of the legs, place it on a slide with a drop of glycerin and examine the
different parts.
Wings: Two pairs of wings are generally present in adult insects situated on the dorso-lateral region
of the meso and metathoracic segments. Cockroaches have two pairs of wings wherein fore wings
are semi-hardened and leather like called tegmina. Broadly, 3 sides and 3 angles could be seen in
insect wings. The ‘3’ sides are the anterior or the costal margin, the outer or the apical margin and
the inner or the anal margin. The ‘3’ angles are the humeral, the apical or the apex and the anal
angles. There are several veins in the wing and arrangement of these veins is known as wing
venation which is of systematic importance. Though the insect wings appear to be smooth, the close
examination reveals the presence of several hairs and scales.

Procedure: Remove both the fore and hind wings of one side, place them on slide with a drop of
glycerin. Note the shape and size of each wing.

ABDOMEN
The abdomen of insects consists of 11 segments but the number varies in different insects
and the size of segments also varies in the same individual. In cockroach, all the eleven segments
are present but the 8th, 9th and 10th are reduced and fused; the 11th segment is represented by a plate
called the suranal plate or the epiproct which is just above the anus. A pair of many segmented
cerci is borne on the 10th segment laterally both in male and female cockroaches. In male, a pair of
styli is present along with the cerci. Anal opening is present on the 10 th segment ventrally. The
external genital opening is present on the 9th segment in male and between 8th and 9th segments in
female ventrally.
There are 10 pairs of spiracles, 2 pairs in the thoracic region on either side of the pro and
metathorax and 8 pairs on either side of the first ‘8’ abdominal segments. Each spiracle occurs on a
small narrow longitudinal sclerite lying on the pleuron between the tergites above and on the lateral
edge on the sternum below. In general, the spiracles permit gaseous exchange. A typical spiracle
includes an external opening, the annular sclerite or peretreme which surrounds the opening, the
atrium or vestibule into which the opening leads together with the closing apparatus.
Procedure: Locate the spiracles and remove one of them along with the pleurite. Keep it on a slide
with a drop of water.
Gently press and observe under the lens.
Directions:
1. Dissect out all the parts of cockroach discussed above and display on the slides.
2. Draw the neat and labeled diagrams of head, antenna, mouth parts, leg, pretarsus and wings of
cockroach.

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Ex. No. 3 Date: ___________
STUDY OF INSECT ANTENNAE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS
ANTENNAE: The antennae are usually located between and below the compound eyes. They are
sensory in function and act as organs for feeling, smelling and in some cases for hearing. The first
segment of the antenna is called the scape, the second pedicel and the remaining segments form the
flagellum. The antennae of insects vary greatly in size and form and are of much useful in the
classification of insects. Depending on the shape, size and length of segments, several types of antennae
are recognized in insects.
Types of Antennae:
1) Setaceous (Whip-like): Flagellar segments decrease in size gradually from base towards
the apex. Ex: Cockroach.
2) Filiform (Thread-like): All the segments are nearly uniform in size and usually
cylindrical in shape. Ex: Plant bug, Ground beetles.
3) Moniliform (String of beads): The segments are almost equal in size and spherical in
shape. Ex: Termites.
4) Serrate (Saw-like): The segments are saw like either on one side or on both sides
(bi-serrate). Ex: Click beetles, Longicorn beetles.
5) Pectinate (Comb-like): The segments are having long slender lateral processes either on
one side or on both sides (bi-pectinate). Ex: Moths.
6) Clavate (Clubbed): The flagellar segments gradually increase in size towards the apex.
Ex: Blister beetle.
7) Capitate (Clubbed): The few terminal segments become suddenly enlarged in size.
Ex: Butterfly and Chalcids.
8) Lamellate (Leaf-like): The few terminal segments expand laterally to form round or oval
leaf-like lobes. Ex: Dung rollers.
9) Geniculate (Elbowed): First segment long, the second smallest and rest of the segments
are at right angle to the first segment. Ex: Weevils, Honey bees, Ants.
10) Pilose (Feathery): The segments are having sparse long hairs, arranged hapazardly on the
body of antennae. Ex: Female Mosquito.
11) Plumose (Feathery): The segments are having long hairs which are arranged
systematically in whorls. Ex: Male Mosquito.
12) Aristate: The last segment (flagellum) is enlarged and bears a bristle or arista laterally.
Ex: Housefly.
13) Stylate: The last segment bearing a terminal finger like process or style. Ex: Robber flies.
14) Hooked type (Clubbed): It is similar to the clavate type but with hook at the tip of
flagellum. Ex: Skipper butterfly.

Directions:
1. Study the types of antennae displayed on the slides.
2. Draw the neat and labeled diagrams of types of insect antennae.

138
Ex. No. 4 Date: ___________
STUDY OF INSECT MOUTHPARTS AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

MOUTH PARTS: Depending on the shape and function, the mouth parts of insects are classified into
four main types.
1. Mandibulate type

2. Piercing and sucking type or haustellate type with stylets

a) Hemipterous sub-type
b) Dipterous sub-type
c) Thysanopterous sub-type
d) Anoplurous sub-type
e) Siphanopterous sub-type

3. Haustellate type without stylets

a) Chewing and lapping type
b) Sponging type
c) Siphoning type

4. Mandibulo-suctorial type: Typical insect mouth parts consists of the labrum or the upper
lip, the labium or the lower lip, a pair of mandibles or the upper pair of jaws, a pair of
maxillae or the lower pair of jaws, one tube-like structure called hypopharynx which arises
from the floor of the mouth.

1) Mandibulate type: Ex: Cockroach, Grasshopper, Beetles, Caterpillars etc., Refer earlier
exercise

2) Piercing and sucking type or Haustellate type with stylets

a) Hemipterous sub-type: Ex: Plant bug.
The mandibles and maxillae are modified into needle-like structures called stylets which
form piercing and sucking organs. The labrum is narrow, triangular and elongate, forming
an upper covering of the rostrum. The labium is elongated and ‘4’ segmented forming a
rostrum in which four stylets are lodged in the dorsal groove. The outer stylets are derived
from mandibles, used for piercing and the inner stylets are derived from maxillae, used for
sucking by inserting into the puncture caused by mandibles. The maxillae are double
grooved on the inner surface and when held together form two channels, the dorsal food
channel and ventral salivary channel.
Procedure: Separate the head from the thorax and remove the antennae. Keep the head
laterally on the slide and straighten the rostrum and gently tap at the base of the rostrum
with the help of the needle and see the needle like stylets bundle looping out still attached to
the head cone. The mandibular stylet could be distinguished from the maxillary stylet by the
presence of serrated apex. Prepare a temporary mount showing 4 stylets, the labrum and the
rostrum in situ.
b) Dipterous sub-type: Ex : Mosquito.

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 The labrum, mandibles, maxillae and hypopharynx are modified into needle-like
structures called stylets and are used for piercing and sucking. Labium is elongated without
segmentation and modified as rostrum in which six stylets are lodged in the dorsal groove.
Salivary channel is in the hypopharynx and food channel is in between grooved labrum and
hypopharynx. At the tip of the labium a pair of oral lobes or labellum is present. In feeding
the maxillary and mandibular stylets work together as a needle to penetrate the host’s skin.

c) Thysanopterous sub-type or Rasping and sucking type or Lacerating type: Ex: Thrips
Mouth parts are asymmetrical in having only one mandible on the left side. This is
characteristic feature of this group. The mouth parts are inserted in a mouth cone formed by
the upper labrum, clypeus and lower labium. The left mandible, maxillae and hypopharynx
together form a stylet. The stylet protrudes from the mouth cone when it is in use. Maxillae
consists of a pair of palpus bearing plate like associated stylets. The palpi consist of 2-8
segments. The stylet do not form the food channel and do not enter deep into the wound.
The mouth parts penetrate the epidermis of plant and suck up the exuding sap by applying
the mouth cone to the surface of the plant.

d) Anoplurous sub-type: Ex: Sucking louse

Mouth parts are highly modified for piercing and sucking. The labrum forms the dorsal wall
of a small snout like proboscis with small teeth like projections inside, which are used for
gripping the host during feeding. The mouth parts consist of three stylets which are about as
long as the head. When not in use these stylets are withdrawn into a suboral or stylet sac in
the floor of the mouth cavity below the alimentary tract. The dorsal stylet represents the
fused maxillae and serves as food channel. The median stylet is hypopharynx which
contains salivary channel. The ventral stylet is labium which is the principle piercing organ.
Blood sucking is through powerful protractor muscles and pharyngeal pump.
e) Siphanopterous sub-type: Ex: Fleas
Mouth parts are adopted for piercing and sucking with three piercing stylets - the
epipharynx and the laciniae of maxillae. The maxillae consists of large plates or lobes each
of which bears a lacinia, which are blade like and serrated along the distal 2/3 rd of their
length and a large maxillary palpi with 4 segments. The labrum is small hidden beneath
clypeus. The epipharynx is ventrally grooved and closely approximated to the laciniae
forming a food channel through which the blood is sucked. Salivary channel lies between
the edges of the laciniae. The labium is short and slender bears a short 5 segmented labial
palps. Labium and its palps serve to guide the stylets.
3) Haustellate type without stylets
a) Chewing and lapping type: Ex: Honey bee
Modified for chewing and lapping. Labrum narrow, mandibles spade-like, maxillae are
modified. When at rest, the mouth parts are folded down beneath the head and are
straightened while feeding.
Procedure: Separate the head from the thorax. Remove antennae, labrum and the mandibles.
After removing the mandibles and labrum the remaining mouth parts may be taken out of
the head and stretched properly on a slide to show the various parts. Arrange the labrum and
the mandibles in their respective positions along with the remaining mouth parts on a slide.

140
b) Sponging type: Ex: Housefly
Mouth parts are of sponging type wherein mandibles are absent and labrum is reduced. The
labium is modified into a proboscis. The proboscis has two parts, the concealed basal
rostrum and a distal haustellum. The rostrum carries anteriorly the single segmented
maxillary palp. The haustellum carries the labrum-epipharynx and the hypopharynx and at
the apex it expands to form a pair of fleshy lobes called labella. The membrane investing the
oral or distal surface of the labella contains series of food channels or pseudotracheae which
pass from its outer edges to the inner margin. The salivary channel is in the hypopharynx
and the food channel lies between the labrum-epipharynx and the hypopharynx. The
proboscis is adopted for sponging by wetting the substance by saliva.
Procedure: Take out the head and keep it on a slide with a drop of water. Now, search for the
antennae which will be lying in a depression between the compound eyes at the base of the
proboscis. Separate the antennae first to avoid mistaking it for the palpi. Keep the antennae
aside. Separate the proboscis from the head. Clean the slide. Keep only the antennae and the
mouth parts i.e., the proboscis on the slide.
c) Siphoning type: Ex: Butterfly and Moth
Mouth parts consist of an elongate sucking tube or proboscis. It is formed by the two
greatly elongated galeae of maxillae which are zippered together by the interlocking spines
and hooks. Galeae are grooved on the inner surface and when they are fitting together
closely they form a suctorial food canal through which the nectar is sucked up. The
proboscis is coiled up like a watch spring and kept beneath the head when it is not in use.
By pumping of blood into the galea, the proboscis is extended. The other mouth parts are
reduced to absent except the labial palpi and smaller maxillary palpi.

4. Mandibulo-suctorial type: Ex: Grubs of ant lion

The mandibles are elongate sickle shaped and grooved on inner surface. Each
maxilla is elongate and fits against the mandibular groove to form a closed food canal. The
body of the insect victim is pierced by the opposing mandibles. Secretions of the midgut are
first pumped into the victim or prey and partly digested food fluids are extracted.

Directions:
1. Dissect out the mouth parts of a given insect and display on the slide.
2. Draw the neat and labeled diagrams of types of insect mouth parts.

141
Ex. No. 5 Date: ______________
STUDY OF INSECT LEG AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

INSECT LEGS: Insects are six legged arthropods and it is this character which has given the name
Hexapoda to this class. In insects the legs are modified to serve many functions in addition to their
normal function of walking or running.
In exercise 3, you have already studied the various parts and segments of a typical adult insect
leg. In this exercise, you will study some of the modifications of insect legs suited for various
special functions of the specific groups concerned.
Typically, each leg consists of five parts namely from base to tip, the coxa, the trochanter, the
femur, the tibia and the tarsus.

Types of legs:
1) Walking or Ambulutorial: All the legs are equal in size and comparatively long. The
trochanter is two segmented. Ex: Wasps.

2) Running or Cursorial type: Legs are suited for running. Femur is not swollen. The
trochanter is single segmented. Ex: Cockroaches.

3) Digging or Fossorial type: The tibia of the fore legs is greatly expanded and the tibia is
digitate with three segmented tarsus beneath it. The slit-like tympanum is found at the base
of the tibia. Ex: Mole crickets.

4) Jumping or Saltatorial type: The hind pair of legs or typically adapted for jumping or
leaping with enlarged femora. Ex: Grass-hoppers, Fleas, etc.,

5) Pollen carrying type: The hind legs of the worker honey bee are adapted for collecting and
carrying the pollen. At the junction of tibia and tarsus of the hind legs a cavity guarded by
hairs is present which is meant for collecting pollen. Another cavity guarded by the long
and inwardly curved hairs on outer surface of tibia, meant for carrying the pollens. This is
called the pollen basket or corbicula. Ex: Worker honey bees.

6) Antennae cleaner: The fore legs are modified. The first segment of the tarsus has a notch
through which the antenna is drawn and held by a movable process of the tibia called fibula.
Ex: Worker honey bees.

7) Comb shape: In the middle legs, the terminal part of the tibiae has a long and needle-like
spur, which is used for shaping the comb while constructing the comb. Ex: Worker honey
bees.

8) Clinging type: The legs are strongly developed and adapted for maintaining a firm hold on
the host hairs. The tarsi are single segmented and terminate in a single sickle shaped claw
which works against a tibial process. Ex: Head louse.

142
9) Swimming or Natatorial type: The coxae of the hind legs are flattened out on the body
wall. Numerous long hairs are found on the lateral sides of the flattened tibia and tarsus
which are used for rowing. Ex: Aquatic bugs and Aquatic beetles.

10) Grasping or Raptorial or Prehensile type: The coxae are elongate and mobile while the
femora are spiny and grooved along the lower side. The tibia are also spiny and fit into the
groove along the femur. The prey is held between the femur and tibia while catching and
feeding. Ex: Preying mantids.

11) Climbing type: The terminal segment of the leg is the pretarsus. The pretarsus bears two
claws and lying below the claws are two lobes called pulvilli. In between the pulvilli there
is a bristle like structure known as the empodium. The empodium and pulvilli are pad like
organs enabling the insects to climb on smooth or steep surface. Ex: House fly.

Directions:
1. Study the types of insect leg displayed on the slides.
2. Draw the neat and labeled diagrams of types of insect leg.

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Ex. No. 6 Date: ______________
STUDY OF INSECT WING, VENATION, MODIFICATION AND WING
COUPLING MECHANSIM

Generally, insects possess two pairs of wings in adult stage. Insect wings are outgrowths
of the integument, arising as flattened sac-like invaginations at the dorso-lateral margins of
meso and metathorax, collectively known as pterothorax.
Structure: Wings are thin plate like expansions of the integument which are strengthened by a
frame work of hollow sclerotized tubes known as veins or nerves. These hollow tubes are filled
with body fluid, nerves and tracheae. A wing is composed of upper and lower layers which may
readily be separated in an insect which has just emerged from the pupa. Though the insect
wings appear to be smooth, the close examination reveals the presence of several hairs and
scales.
Broadly, 3 sides and 3 angles could be seen in insect wings. The ‘3’ margins are the
anterior or the costal margin, the outer or the apical margin and the inner or anal margin.
The ‘3’ angles are humeral angle, the apical or the apex angle and the anal angle or tornus.
A conspicuous opaque spot is found near the costal margin of the wing in many insects,
and is termed the stigma or pterostigma. It is present in the forewings of Psocoptera and most
Hymenoptera and in both pairs of wings of Odonata.
Venation: The complete system of veins in the wing is termed as wing venation. It presents
characters of great systematic importance since, the wing venation remains constant for each
species. The spaces in the wing plate enclosed by vein are called cells. When a cell is
surrounded on all sides by veins it is called a closed cell and when it extends to the margin of
the wing it is called an open cell. The veins of the wing can be grouped under two heads viz.,
(1) Longitudinal veins which extends normally lengthwise in the wing and
(2) Cross veins which run across the wing.
Modifications of wings: The most obvious function of wings is flight. However, in several
instances the wings have been modified or at least used for different purposes.

A) Fore wings modified for giving protection to hind wings and abdomen-
1. Elytra: The highly sclerotized thick and opaque fore wings of Coleoptera are called elytra.
2. Hemi-elytra: In Hemiptera the fore wings are partly hardened at the base and the distal
portion is membranous containing veins. These wings are called hemielytra.
3. Tegmina: In Orthoptera (grasshoppers) and Dictyoptera (cockroaches) the fore wings are
semi hardened and rubber like called tegmina.

B) Hind wings modified as balancing organs-

4. Halters: In Diptera the hind wings are modified into club shaped structures called halters
which are important in the stability of flight of these insects.

C) Wings used for different purposes-

5. Sound production: In Orthoptera some insects like field crickets and long horned
grasshoppers produce sound with the help of their fore wings.
6. Fanning: In very hot days of mid-summer, honey bees fan their wings in a community
effort and thereby reduce the temperature within the hive.

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WING COUPLING: In primitive Pterygota the fore and hind pairs of wings move independently of
each other. Ex. Odonata, Isoptera etc., But in many higher Pterygota both the wings i.e., the two wings
on the same side are held together or interlocked each other during flight by special structures called
wing coupling apparatus or wing coupling mechanism.
The following few types of wing coupling are recognized in insects.
a) Jugo-frenate wing coupling: In Mecoptera the posterior basal region of fore wing and the
anterior basal region of hind wing are developed into special lobes called the jugal and
humeral lobes, respectively. These are provided with comparatively larger bristles which
according to their positions, are known as jugal and humeral bristles. The jugal bristles lie
on top of the hind wing while humeral bristles press against the underside of the fore wing
thus keeping the two wings intact during flight.

b) Jugate wing coupling: In Trichoptera only the jugal lobe is present which lies on top of
the hind wing during flight. This lobe is relatively longer in the family Hepialidae
(Lepidoptera) and is called fibula which remains folded beneath the fore wing during rest.

c) Frenate wing coupling: Many Lepidoptera are provided with wing coupling which
slightly differs in two sexes. In females the humeral lobe of hind wing is provided with a
group of long bristles, the frenulum which interlocks with the retinaculum composed of
several forwardly directed hairs on the underside of the cubital vein of fore wing. In males
however, there is a single stout downwardly curved spine of retinaculum on the underside
of the radial or sub -costal vein.

d) Amplexiform wing coupling: In the super families Papilionoidea and Bombycoidea of

Lepidoptera the wing coupling is effected by a basal overlapping of the broad fore and hind
wings and is called the amplexiform wing coupling.

e) Hamulate wing coupling: Hymenopterans possess hamulate type of wing coupling in

which a row of curved small hooks called 'hamuli’ are present on the part of the costal
margin of hind wing which interlock with the thickened anal margin of the fore wing.

Directions:
1) Study the types of insect wings displayed, wing coupling mechanism of a given insect
2) Draw a neat diagram of wing venation and types of wings.

145
Ex. No. 7 Date: ______________
STUDY OF IMMATURE STAGES OF INSECT

IMMATURE STAGES: The immature stages of insects such as larva, nymph and pupa are discussed
here.

I) Nymph: In many insects, the young ones are very similar to the adults except for the
absence of wings and genitalia. These are called the nymphs. The food of nymphs and
adults is same. Here the metamorphosis is gradual and this group is known as
Paurametabolous type. Ex. Grasshoppers, Plant bugs, Cockroaches.
Naid: The young ones of paurometabolous insects which are aquatic in habitat. Ex: Young
ones of dragonflies and damselflies.

II) Larva: The larvae differ from adults both in form and habit. Insect larvae assume variety of
forms which are suited to their food habits. Based on the resemblance and shape, they are
classified into four groups.
a) Protopod larvae: The larvae look like a premature embryo, devoid of segmentation in the
abdomen with rudimentary cephalic and thoracic appendages which later develop into
normal size. Ex: Parasitic Hymenoptera.
b) Polypod or Eruciform larvae: These are characterized by the presence of well developed 3
pairs of thoracic legs and 5 pairs of abdominal prolegs but without abdominal appendages,
except the cerci and caudal processes with clear body segmentation. Ex: Caterpillars.
c) Oligopod larvae: These are characterized by the presence of well developed thoracic legs
but absence of abdominal legs except the cerci and caudal processes. The head capsule and
its appendages are well developed. Based on the general appearance two types can be
distinguished in oligopod larvae.
i) Campodeiform larvae: These larvae are generally active. Body elongate, somewhat
flattened and well sclerotized. Head prognathous, thoracic legs long, cerci and antennae
well developed. Ex: Coccinellid larvae, Elaterid larvae.
ii) Scarabaeiform larvae: Larvae C’ shaped, stout sub-cylindrical with a fleshy body. Head
well developed thoracic legs short, prolegs and caudal processes absent. Ex: Root grub and
dung beetle larvae
d) Apodous larvae: Body elongate, worm like, legless and with or without well developed
head. Ex: Housefly, Weevils.
III) Pupa: The resting and inactive instar of holometabolous insects is known as the pupa.
During this stage the insect does not feed, yet transformation into the adult takes place. The
following types of pupae are distinguished.

a) Exarate pupae: In this type the appendages are free and not glued to the body, they show
considerable movement. Ex: Honey bees, Weevils.
b) Obtect pupae: The appendages of the pupa are not free and are glued to the body, only the
tip of the abdominal region shows movement. Ex: Moths, Butterflies.
c) Coarctate pupae: The pupa is enclosed in a thick, cylindrical case or covering, the
puparium which is formed from the last larval cuticle. Ex: House fly, Syrphid fly.

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METAMORPHOSIS IN INSECTS AND ITS TYPES-
Metamorphosis is the series of changes in the growth and development of an insect
during its life cycle from egg to adult. The life cycle is the period or duration occupied by an
insect to develop completely from egg to adult stage. This is expressed in hours/ days/ weeks/
months/ years. During the course of development each insect sheds the old skin at regular
intervals called moulting. The number of moults varies accordingly in different insects. The
period between each moult is called instar/ stage which will also vary from insect to insect.
Based on the extent of change, there are two basic types of metamorphoses in insects.
1) AMETABOLA (Ex: Silver fish and Spring tail)
It is the most primitive type of metamorphosis, wherein no metamorphic changes takes
place. Here young ones resemble the adults in all respects except the size and gonad
development. The moulting continues even after attaining the adulthood. The life stages
involved are: Egg-Young ones (Juveniles)-Adult.
2) METABOLA:
It is the advanced type of metamorphosis, wherein metamorphic changes take place at
various levels of insect growth. But the extent of changes varies very much in different groups
of insects. There is no moulting after reaching the adult stage. Accordingly, there are three sub-
types under the metabola.
a) PAURAMETABOLA (Ex: Cockroach, Grasshopper, Plant bug, etc.,)
It is the gradual metamorphosis, wherein young ones are called nymphs. They resemble
more or less the adults and their habit, habitat and food is similar to that of adults. But they lack
fully formed wings and external genitalia. As they grow, the wing buds appear and genitalia
gradually develop. Towards the final instar, nymphs closely resemble the adults with more
prominent wing buds. The development of wings is outside.
Life stages involved are: Egg - Young ones (Nymph) - Adult.
b) HEMIMETABOLA (Ex: Dragonfly, Damselfly, Mayfly, etc.,)
It is the incomplete or simple metamorphosis, wherein young ones (naiads) have some
resemblances to their adults and differ in some other characters. The habitat, habit and food of
naiads differ from adults. Naiads possess external wing buds and tracheal gills for aquatic
respiration. The body form (some extent) resembles the adults as it possesses the wing buds
which grow in size after final moult. The development of wings is outside.
Life stages involved are: Egg - Young ones (Naiads) - Adult.
c) HOLOMETABOLA: Ex. Butterfly, Moths, Beetles, etc.,
It is complete or complex metamorphosis in which insects undergo major changes in
their life cycle. The young ones are called larvae and have no similarities with their adults. The
habit, habitat and food is completely different from that of adults. The larvae have different
form; lack compound eyes, have reduced antennae and lack external evidence of wing
formation. The larva after complete development enters into an inactive stage called pupa
which is not seen in any of the above types. Further, the development of wings is internal.
Life stages involved are: Egg - Larva - Pupa - Adult.

Directions:
1. Study the different types of eggs, nymphs, larvae and pupae from specimens
provided and draw neat labeled diagrams.
2. Study different stages involved in insects undergoing various types of metamorphosis
and make sketches.
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Ex. No. 8 Date: ___________

STUDY OF INSECT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (Cockroach)

In the following exercises, you are going to study the internal organs of cockroach. The
internal organs include the digestive, excretory, circulatory and respiratory systems.

Digestive System: The long coiled tube that you observe below the dorsal blood vessel is the
alimentary canal. Clear the fat bodies and tracheae with the help of forceps and wash the
specimen by pumping water gently with dropper. Take care not to puncture the alimentary
canal. In cockroach, the alimentary canal is about twice the length of the body. Lift the middle
portion of the alimentary canal with forceps and gently pull out to the right side by separating
the tracheae adhering to the gut. Expose the entire length of the alimentary canal and pin to a
side of the dissecting tray to study its various regions.

The alimentary canal is divisible into three primary regions. They are:

1. The foregut (Stomodeaum)

2. The midgut (Mesenteron)

3. The hindgut (Proctodeaum).

The foregut leads from the mouth or the preoral food cavity which opens into the
pharynx. The pharynx is the region between the mouth and the oesophagus. The oesophagus is
a simple straight tube running from the inner region of the head and extends as for back as the
posterior part of the prothorax, where it leads into the crop. The crop is the dilation of the hind
portion of the oesophagus and functions as temporary food reservoir and leads to the gizzard or
the proventriculus. The gizzard is conical structure and masticatory in function. Thus, the
foregut included the pharynx, the oesophagus, the crop and the gizzard.

At the junction of the foregut and midgut, there are eight finger shaped tubular
structures known as the enteric or gastric or hepatic caecae. The midgut is a narrow and short
tube that connects the foregut and the hindgut. At the junction of the midgut and hindgut there
are 80-100 long yellowish hair-like structures called the Malpighian tubules which are
excretory in function. The hindgut is long and coiled tube which has three regions, the anterior
ileum, the middle colon and posterior rectum. The rectum is slightly enlarged and opens out
through the anus.

Procedure: Remove the antennae, legs, wings and pronotum with scissor. Hold the specimen
with the left hand. Keeping the side of the specimen up; cut off both the lateral margins of the
pleural regions superficially with scissors (posterior to anterior) and place the insect on the
dissecting tray, keeping the dorsal side up. Insert a pin in a slanting position on the head at the
region of clypeus to fix the insect on the tray. Holding the tip of the abdomen with the forceps,
148
stretch the insect to its natural position and insert another pin at the tip of the abdomen, slanting
backwards. Insert one or two pins slanting away from the body on either side in the thoracic and
abdominal region to keep the specimen in perfect position. Pour sufficient water to cover the
specimen. Gently lift the abdominal region and needle below the tergal plate and work forward
carefully from posterior and remove only the tergal plate of the abdomen. Similarly, remove the
tergal plates of the thoracic region with the help of scissors. Since, alimentary canal begins at
the mouth and ends at the anus, it is necessary to expose the epicranium to study the entire
length of the alimentary canal. With the help of a fine scissors incise the cervix and head
capsule. Hold the head with the forceps in left hand and using another forceps gently peel off
the epicranium. This should be done with care to retain connectives. This operation should be
done with sufficient water in the tray.

Salivary Glands: These are the paired and modified labial glands situated in the thorax on
either side of the foregut. Their ducts combine to form a median salivary duct which opens on
the labium near the base of the hypopharynx. The salivary glands are composed of a number of
lobes. There are two sac-like salivary reservoirs one on either side associated with the salivary
glands. The ducts of reservoirs open into the median salivary duct.

Procedure: Locate the salivary glands and the reservoirs on either side of the oesophagus.
Trace the salivary ducts leading to the common duct which opens below the hypopharynx at the
base of the labium. Take out the entire salivary gland along with ducts and reservoirs. Keep on
a slide with one or two drops of water.

Directions:
1. Dissect out the cockroach digestive system and salivary glands and display on the slides.
2. Draw the neat and labeled diagrams of cockroach digestive system and salivary glands.

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Ex. No. 9 Date: ___________

STUDY OF INSECT REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (Cockroach)

Sexes are separate in insects. The male and the female cockroaches can be distinguished
by the presence of a pair of styli in the males in addition to cerci.

Male reproductive system: It consists of a pair of globular and finger shaped testes with sperm
tubes lying close to the venter on either side of the abdomen, the vasa deferentia which run back
and then loop forward to join the median ejaculatory duct. In the male reproductive organs, the
most conspicuous organ that you can see is the mushroom shaped gland or the accessory gland.
The conglobate gland lies beneath the accessory gland and opens separately into the ejaculatory
duct. The testes and the vasa deferentia are very delicate and care has to be taken to locate them
before clearing the fat bodies and the tracheae.

Procedure: Proceed as instructed in Ex. No. 7 and cut the oesophagus. Hold the cut end with
the forceps and gently pull out the alimentary canal. Separate the rectum by means of a needle
and make way to expose the reproductive opening. Clear the fat bodies and tracheae very
carefully to expose the male reproductive organs.

Female reproductive system: It consists of paired ovaries composed of ovarioles, paired

oviducts, common oviduct, collateral gland and the spermatheca. The ovaries are compact
bodies lying in the body cavity of the abdomen on either side of the alimentary canal. Each
ovary is composed of eight separate egg tubes or ovarioles with long filaments at the apex.
Each ovary leads into the oviduct. The long, slender and thread-like filaments unite to form a
common thread which holds the ovaries in position by attaching themselves to the body wall or
fat bodies. The two oviducts open into the common oviduct or the vagina. A sac-like
spermatheca with a duct which stores the spermatozoa, opens into the genital chamber. The
female accessory or collateral glands also open separately into the genital chamber.

Procedure: Proceed as instructed in Ex. No. 7 and cut the oesophagus. Hold the cut end with
the forceps and gently pull out the alimentary canal. Clear all other tissues from reproductive
organs. Separate the rectum by means of a needle and make way to expose the reproductive
opening.

Directions:
1. Dissect out the cockroach reproductive system and display on the slides.
2. Draw the neat and labeled diagrams of cockroach male and female reproductive system.

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Ex No. 10 Date: _____________
STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORTHOPTERA AND DICTYOPTERA

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS

The class Hexapoda is divided into orders primarily on the basis of the structure of the
wings, mouth parts and metamorphosis.

CLASS: INSECTA (HEXAPODA)

APTERYGOTA PTERYGOTA

1. Protura
2. Collembola
3. Diplura
4. Thysanura

PALEOPTERA NEOPTERA
5. Ephemeroptera
6. Odonata

POLYNEOPTERA PARANEOPTERA OLIGONEOPTERA

(Orthopteroid) (Hemipteroid) (Holometabola)

7. Grylloblattaria 17. Psocoptera 22. Neuroptera

8. Phasmida 18. Mallophaga 23. Coleoptera
9. Orthoptera 19. Siphanculata 24. Strepsiptera
10. Dictyoptera 20. Hemiptera 25. Mecoptera
11. Mantophasmatodea 21. Thysanoptera 26. Siphanoptera
12. Isoptera 27. Diptera
13. Dermaptera 28. Trichoptera
14. Embiidina 29. Lepidoptera
15. Plecoptera 30. Hymenoptera
16. Zoroptera

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 CLASS: HEXAPODA (INSECTA)
Sl.No. APTERYGOTA PTERYGOTA

1 Primarily wingless Winged or Secondarily wingless

Pre genital abdominal Pre genital abdominal appendages absent in

2
appendages present in adults adults

Metamorphosis is present and is incomplete

3 Metamorphosis is absent or slight
or complete

Mandibles normally articulates at

4 Mandibles articulates at two points
one point except in Lepismatidae

Ex: Silver fish Ex: Grasshopper, Plant bug and Butterfly

The sub-class: Pterygota is divided into following divisions

Sl. No. I. EXOPTERYGOTA II. ENDOPTERYGOTA

Metamorphosis is incomplete or
1 Metamorphosis is complete
gradual

2 Wings develop externally Wings develop internally

Young ones resembles adults and Young ones do not resemble adults and are
3
are called as ‘Nymphs’ called as ‘Larvae’

Pupal stage is absent or rarely

4 Pupal stage is always present
present

Ex: Grasshopper, Plant bug Ex: Butterfly, Moths, Wasps

Order: Orthoptera (Grasshoppers, Locusts, Crickets and Mole crickets)

1. Medium to large sized insects which are macropteran, brachypteran or secondarily apterous.
2. Mouthparts mandibulate, Antennae filiform some times longer than the body.
3. Prothorax large, hind legs usually enlarged and modified for jumping.
4. Fore wings usually elongate, many veined and thickened and are called tegmina. Hind wings
membranous, broad and many veined.
5. Legs modified for jumping, walking and burrowing.
6. Cerci well developed with one to many segments.
7. Female ovipositor is short or as long as the body.
8. Specialized stridulatory (sound producing) and auditory (hearing) organ often present.
Sub-order: Caelifera
Antennae shorter than body, tympanum on base of abdomen ovipositor short and robust,
Family: Acrididae (Short horned grasshoppers and locusts)
1. Antennae short with less than 30 segments
2. Tympanun is present at the lateral side of first abdomen segment dorso laterally
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3. Stridulation is femoro alary type
4. Tarsi 3 segmented, hind femora markedly enlarged.
5. Ovipositor blunt, eggs are laid in the soil.
6. Phytophagous and diurnal
Ex: Paddy grasshopper- Oxya spp
Paddy grasshopper- Hieroglypus banian
Cotton grasshopper- Cyrtocanthacris ranacea
Surface grasshopper- Chrotogonus trachypterous
Deccan wingless grasshopper- Colemania spheneroides
Sub-Order: Ensifera (Long horned grasshoppers and crickets)
Antennae long, tympanal organs on fore tibiae, ovipositor long and sickle or tubular shaped.
Family: Tettigonidae (Long horned grasshoppers and katydids)
1. Antenna is longer than the body
2. Tarsi is four segmented
3. Tympanum is on fore leg tibia
4. Stridulation is alary type
5. Ovipositor is long, curved and sword like.
6. Phytophagous and omnivorous
Family: Gryllidae (Crickets)
1. Antennae is longer than the body
2. Fore wings are abruptly bent down to cover the sides of the body
3. Hind wings are acuminate, produced into a pair of long processes which projects beyond
the abdomen.
4. Tympanum is on foretibia.
5. Stridulation is alary type.
6. Cerci are long and unsegmented.
7. Ovipositor is long and needle like
8. Omnivorous and nocturnal.
Ex. House cricket- Gryllus domesticus and Field cricket- Gryllus campestris
Family: Gryllotalpidae (Mole cricket)
1. Antennae are long, eyes reduced
2. Forelegs are digging type (fossorial)
3. Is is apterous or brachypterous
4. Hindwings are extended beyond the tegmina as a pair of processes.
5. One tympanum is on the outer side of foretibia.
6. Stridulation is absent.
7. Ovipositor is vestigial
8. They are subterranean, omnivorous.
Ex: Mole cricket- Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa

Order: Dictyoptera (Cockroach and Preying mantis)

1. Medium to large size
2. Body is dorsoventrally flattened or cylindrical
3. Head is hypognathous
4. Compound eyes are large and separated, two ocelli are present
5. Antenna is filiform
6. Mouthparts biting and chewing
7. Tarsus is five segmented
8. Forewings are tegmina
9. Hindwings are large and membranous
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 10. Cerci are short and many segmented
11. Eggs are laid in ootheca

Sub Order- Blattodea (Cockroach)

1. Body is oval, flattened
2. Two fenestrae (degenerated ocelli, sensitive to light) are present in place of dorsal ocelli
3. Antenna is filiform
4. Pronotun is oval, shield like covers much of head and thorax
5. Legs are long spiny, adopted for running (cursorial)
6. Tarsi is 5 segmented
7. Fore wings are tegmina
8. Cerci is short and segmented
9. Anal styli are present in males and used to hold the female.

Family: Blattidae- American cockroach- Periplaneta americana

Oriental cockroach- Blatta orientalis

Family: Blatellidae- German cockroach- Blatella germanica

Sub Order- Mantodea ( Preying mantis)

1. Body is elongate
2. Antenna is filiform
3. Head is triangular, hypognathous and mobile
4. Compound eyes are well developed
5. Three ocelli are present
6. Mouthparts are mandibulate type
7. Prothorax is elongate, does not cover the head
8. Forelegs are long and adopted for catching the prey (raptorial)
9. Forewings are tegmina
10. Tarsi is 5 segmented

11. Cerci is short and segmented

12. Aanal styli are absent

13. Often devours the male during mating

14. Nymphs are cannibalistic

Family: Mantidae- Mantis religiosa, Gongylus gongyloides and Hembertiella indica

Directions:
1. Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled diagrams.

154
Ex.No.11 Date: _____________

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER ODONATA AND ISOPTERA

Order: Odonata (Dragonflies and Damselflies)

1. Predaceous insects with biting mouth parts.

2. Two equal or sub equal pairs of elongated membranous wings with many cross veins and
stigma.

3. Eyes are very large and contiguous.

4. Antennae filiform and short.

5. Abdomen elongate and slender, male accessory genitalia on abdominal sternum, 2 and 3.

6. Cerci are unsegmented and function as clasping organ in the males.

7. Nymphs aquatic called `Naids'. Respiration through rectal or caudal gills. Labium modified
into prehensile organ and used for capturing the prey.

Sub order: Zygoptera (Damselflies)

1. Fore and hind wings similar in form and venation; more or less petiolated at base, usually
held vertically above the abdomen in repose.

2. Head transversely elongate with eyes separated by a space greater than their dorsal diameter.
3. Males with 4 appendages at the end of abdomen.

4. Naiads slender with elongate abdomen and with 3 leaf like caudal gills.

Ex: Copera merginipes Rambor

Sub-Order: Anisoptera (Dragonflies)

1. Fore and hind wings are not petiolate, dissimilar in form and venation: hind wings broader at
base, wings held horizontally or depressed in repose.

2. Head more rounded with large eyes and never separated by a distance greater than their
dorsal diameter and often contiguous dorsally.

3. Males with 3 appendages at the end of abdomen.

4. Naiads with rectal gills.

Ex: Pantala flaviscens Fab.

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 ORDER: ISOPTERA (White ants or termites)

1. Social and polymorphic species living in large communities composed of reproductive forms
together with numerous apterous, sterile soldiers and workers.

2. Antennae moniliform, or filiform.

3. Mouth parts typical biting type.

4. Wings membranous. The fore and hindwings almost equal in size and capable of being shed
by means of basal fractures.

5. Tarsi 4 segmented, cerci short, metamorphosis slight or absent.

Ex: Odontotermes obseus Ramb. & Microtermes obesi

Polymorphism: The termite colony consists of various castes.

i. Reproductive castes: a) Primary reproductive b) Supplementary reproductive c) Tertiary

ii. Sterile castes: a) Workers b) Soldiers

Queen: Head and thorax normal, abdomen very much enlarged bag like and greyish white in
colour. The function is egg laying.

Soldier: Head strongly sclerotized. They are either mandibulate or nasute type. Defends the
colony.

Worker: Head normal, mandibles normal, small and soft bodied insects. They gather the food
and also nurse the colony.

Family: Termitidae

1. Biggest family with ¾ of species of Isoptera

2. Hind wings without anal lobe

3. Ocelli present

Ex : Odentotermes obesus, O. wallensis, O. assumafi and Microtermes sp.

Directions:
1. Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled diagrams.

156
Ex. No. 12 Date____________

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER THYSANOPTERA AND

NEUROPTERA

ORDER: THYSANOPTERA (Thrips)

1. Small or minute slender-bodied insects with short, 4 to 9 segmented antennae and

asymmetrical mouth parts adapted for rasping and sucking. Right mandible absent.

2. Tarsi 1 or 2 segmented each with a terminal protrusible vesicle.

3. Wings when present very narrow with greatly reduced venation and fringed margin.

4. Intermediate metamorphosis accompanied by one or two inactive pupal instars.

This order is divided into two sub-orders.

Sl. No. Sub-order: Terebrantia Sub-order: Tubulifera

1 Antennae 4 to 9 segmented Antennae 4-8 segmented

2 Fore wings with at least one Fore wings with venation almost absent.
longitudinal vein reaching the Membrane without microscopic hairs
apex. Membrane with microscopic
hairs.

3 Ovipositor saw like, apex of the Ovipositor is absent, apex of the abdomen in
abdomen is conical in female and both sexes usually tubular.
rounded in male

Ex: Thrips tabaci Ex: Haplothrips sp.

Sub-order: Terebrantia

Family: Thripidae

1. Biggest family
2. Antenna 6-8 segmented, usually with one or two segmented apical style, third and fourth
segments are not conical.
3. Prothorax without sutures.
4. Wing surface is pubescent.
Ex : Scirtothrips dorsalis, Frankliniella. schultzi

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ORDER: NEUROPTERA (Lace wings, Antlions, Alderflies)

1. Soft bodied insects with usually elongate antennae (filiform).

2. Mouth parts adapted for biting.

3. Two pairs of equal or sub equal membranous net veined wings.

4. Larvae is campodeiform, carnivorous with biting or suctorial mouth parts.

This order includes three sub-orders, sub-orders Planipennia, Megaloptera and

Raphidiodea.

Sub-order: Planipennia (Lacewings, Ant lions etc.)

1. Include terrestrial insects, larvae with suctorial piercing mouth parts.

2. All longitudinal veins are forked near wing margin.
3. Pupate in silken cocoon.
Family- Chrysopidae (Aphidlions, green lacewings)

1. Body is pale green in colour

2. Have prominent, bulged golden eyes.
3. Antennae filiform.
4. Costal cross veins not forked.
5. Lay stalked eggs.
6. They often carry a layer of debris on its body as camouflage.
7. Larvae and adults feed on aphids and other soft bodied insects.
Ex: Green lacewing- Chrysoperla zastrowii

Family- Hemerobidae (Brown Lacewings)

1. Delicate brown insects with moniliform antennae

2. Ocelli are absent, compound eyes-well developed.

3. Forewings all cosatal cross veins branched or forked at the tip

Ex: Brown lacewing- Micromus igorotus

Directions:
1. Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled diagrams.

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Ex. No. 13 Date: ______________

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER HEMIPTERA

1. Minute to large sized insects

2. Head is prognathous or opistognathous
3. Compound eyes are large, ocelli are present or absent
4. Antennae are 4 or 5 segmented, filiform or setaceous
5. Mouthparts are piercing- sucking type
6. Mesothorax represented dorsally by scutellum
7. Forewings are hemielytra (heteroptera) or uniformly thickened (homoptera), hind wings are
always membranous
8. Honey dew secretion is characteristic of this order

SUB ORDER: HETEROPTERA (Plant bugs, bed bugs, water bug etc)
1. Wings maybe present or absent or short (brachypterous). If winged, basal half of the FW
thickened and distal half is membranous and is called hemielytra. Hind wings are
membranous.
2. They have piercing and sucking type of mouth parts.
3. Antennae usually long with 4 or 5 segments.
4. Head not deflexed. Rostrum arises from front part of the head.
5. Pronotum is large and distinct
6. Tarsi commonly 3 segmented
7. Wings are held flat over abdomen at rest
8. Honeydew secretion is uncommon

Family: Pentatomidae (Shield/stink bugs)

1. Body `shield' like
2. Mesonotum is well developed, scutellum of the mesothorax is large and shield like.
3. Antennae 5 segmented, hence the name pentatomidae.
4. Rostrum 4 segmented
5. Two ocelli present
6. Scent glands present and bugs emit characteristic smell when disturbed.
7. Many are phytophagous but few are predaceous
Ex: Green stink bug- Nezara viridula,
Painted bug- Bagrada cruciferarum
Predatory bug- Canthaconidia furcellatea
Family: Coreidae (Coried bugs, gundy bugs, leaf footed bugs)
1. Medium sized to large, dark coloured bugs with scent glands.
2. Two ocelli present.
3. Antennae 4 segmented.
4. Rostrum 4 segmented.
5. Forewing membranous portion with many parallel longitudinal veins arising from a
transverse basal vein.
6. Edge of the abdomen is raised so that the wing lies in a abdominal depression.
7. Hind tibia and tarsi are expanded and leaf like.
159
8. Scent glands are present, emit a nauseating odour
Ex: Paddy earhead bug- Oratorius acuta, Redgram pod bug- Riptortus pedestris
Family: Cimicidae (Bed bugs)
1. Body is dorso ventrally flattened, oval and dull reddish brown in colour
2. Hemielytra is short and reduced to scale like pads
3. Hind wings are completely atrophied
4. Stink glands are located on the dorsal surface of first three abdominal segments.
5. Male bed bugs pierce the integument of the femal and inject the sperm into the haemocoel
during mating (Haemocoelic or Traumatic insemination)
Ex: Cimex lectularis and Cimex hemipterus
Family: Miridae (Mirid bugs/leaf bugs)
1. Slender and delicate body, antennae and rostrum 4 segmented.
2. Ocelli absent.
3. Hemielytra with distinct corium, clavus and cuneus and one or two closed cells at the base of
the membrane part
4. Wings are tilted downwards.
Ex: Guava scab bug- Helopeltis antonii
Sorghum earhead bugs - Calocoris anagustatus
Cotton mirid bug- Papiocapsidae biseratense
Predatory bug - Cyrtorhimus levidipennis

Family: Reduviidae (Assassin bugs/kissing bugs)

1. Head narrow, elongate and constricted beyond the eyes forming a neck.
2. Rostrum short, 3 segmented, slightly curved with the distal tip usually lodged in a groove on
prosternum.
3. The abdomen is usually widened in the middle exposing lateral margins of segments beyond
the wing.
Ex: Isyndus heros
Rhodinus sp.
Family: Pyrrhocoridae (Stainers/Red bugs)
1. Medium sized, brightly coloured with organe, red and black.
2. Ocelli absent
3. Antenna and beak is 4 segmented
4. Wings are reddish; each has a black spot near the middle.
5. Membrane with many branched veins and cells.
Ex: Cotton red bug- Dysdercus cingulatus
Family- Lygaeidae (Dusky bug/seed bugs/chinch bugs)
1. Small, elongate and soft bodied
2. Ocelli present
3. Less than five unbranched veins on forewing membrane
Ex: Dusky cotton bug- Oxycaraenus hyalinipennis
Predaceous on mealy bugs - Geocoris indicus

Sub Order- Homoptera (Leaf hoppers, Plant hoppers, Cicadas, Aphids, white flies, scales)
1. Head is opisthognathous
2. Ocelli 2 or 3
3. Antenna is short, 2-5 segmented
4. Beak arises more posteriorly from the Head
5. Pronotum is small and collar like
6. Forewings are uniform in texture
160
7. Wings do not overlap, held roof like over the abdoomen.
8. Honyedew secretion is common
9. Asexual reproduction (parthenogenesis) is common.
Series - Auchenorrhyncha 1) Tarsi 3 - Segmented 2) Active insects
Family: Cicadellidae (Leafhoppers/ Jassids)
1. Small sized, body is tapering and wedge shaped usually with two ocelli
2. Hind tibia angular with one or more rows of spines and suited for jumping
3. Vectors of plant viruses.
Ex: Paddy green leaf hopper- Nephotettix virescens
Mango leaf hopper - Idioscopus spp. & Amritodus atkinsoni
Cotton leaf hopper - Amrasca biguttula biguttula
Family: Delphacidae (Planthopper)
1. Small, wedge shaped, phototrophic and brilliantly coloured
2. Feeding site is restricted to stem.
3. Head is pointed and bulbous shaped, antenna with a terminal arista
4. Hind tibia has a mobile spur at apes
5. Vectors of plant viruses.
Ex: Paddy brown plant hopper- Nilaparvata lugens
Jowar shoot bug- Perigrinus maidis
Family: Lophophidae (Lanternflies, Pyrilla)
1. Head is produced into a snout
2. Hind trochanter is directed backward
3. Hind basitarsus is moderately long.
Ex: Sugarcane pyrila- Pyrilla perpusilla
Series- Sternorrhyncha i. Tarsi 1-2 segmented. ii. Relatively inactive or sedentary insects
Family: Aleyrodidae (Whiteflies)
1. Small moth like insects with wings and body dusted with characteristic mealy white powder.
2. Tarsi 2 segmented with paired claws.
3. Presence of vasiform orifice on the last abdominal tergite.
4. Nymphs sessile; the later instars are covered with thick conspicuous rods which is know as
puparium.
5. Parthenogenesis is common, complex metamorphosis (nymph-pupa-adult)
Ex: Tobacco whitefly- Bemisia tabaci
Spiraling whitefly- Aleurodychus dispersus

Family: Aphididae (Aphids, Plant lice)

1. Small, soft and characteristic pear-shaped body with long antennae.
2. When winged, fore wings are larger and membranous.
3. Tarsi 2 segmented with paired claws.
4. A pair of cornicles or siphonculi or wax tubes is present dorsolaterally on 5 th or 6th
abdominal segment.
5. Notorious insects, Vectors of plant viruses.
Ex: Tobacoo aphid- Myzus persicae
Cotton aphid- Aphis gossypii and Banana aphid- Pentalonia nigronervosa

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Family: Coccidae
1. Sexual dimorphism is present
2. Females are oval, convex, apterous and sedentary with functional mouthparts, integument
naked or covered with wax.
3. Adult males are gnat like with long antennae and lateral eyes, forewings having one to two
veins, hindwings are reduced to halters, mouthparts vestigial and undergo complete
metamorphosis
Ex: Coffee green scale- Coccus viridis
Mango scale- Hemileucanium imbricans
Family: Pseudococcidae (mealy bugs)
1. Females are usually elongate oval, apterous with distinct body segmentation and generally
covered with a mealy waxy secretion, legs are well developed
2. Males are apterous or alate with caudal filament.
Ex: Pink mealy bug- Maconellicoccus hirsutus
Papaya mealy bug- Paracoccus marginatus
Cotton mealy bug- Phenococcus solenopsis

Directions:
1. Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled diagrams.

162
Ex. No. 14 Date: ________________

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER LEPIDOPTERA

ORDER: LEPIDOPTERA
1. Body, wings and appendages clothed with broad scales.
2. Mandibles vestigial, mouth parts with suctorial proboscis formed by the galeae of the
maxillae.
3. Larvae eruciform.
4. Pupae obtect type.
Sub order- Ditrysia.
Group: Rhophalocera (Butterflies)
1. Antennae clubbed (Clavate)
2. Wings held vertically at rest over the body
3. Day fliers (diurnal)
Family: Nymphalidae (Four footed butterflies)
1. Fore legs much reduced, hairy without claws and folded on thorax
2. Hind wings entire at the anal end.
3. The tibiae short and clothed with long hairs, thus called brush footed.
Ex: Castor butterfly-Ergolis merione,
Paddy horned caterpillar- Melanitis leda ismene
Family: Papilionidae (Swallow tails)
1. Hind wings with tail-like prolongation which are the marginal extension in the region of the
vein MS.
2. They have wings generally black and strikingly marked with shades of yellow, red, green or
blue.
3. Prothoracic legs have tibial epiphysis.
4. Larvae are smooth with glandular projection of the prothorax called `Osmeterium'
Ex: Citrus butterfly- Papilio demoleus L & P. aristalochea
Family: Pieridae (Whites or sulphurs)
1. Butterflies with white or yellow wings having black marginal markings.
2. Tarsal claws bifid.
3. Larva is green and elongate with hairs
4. Pupae are suspended in an upright position.
Ex: Cabbage butterfly- Pieris brassicae

Group- Heterocera (Moths)

1. Moths are usually dull coloured
2. antennae generally pectinate.
3. Wings held flat over the abdomen at repose.
4. Mostly nocturnal and stout bodied.
Family: Sphingidae (Hawk moths)
1. Large with spindle shaped body and narrow and long fore wings.
2. Hind wings smaller than fore wings.
3. Antennae gradually thickened into a club with apex pointed and usually hooked.
4. Proboscis is very long and frenulum strongly developed.
5. Larvae smooth with horn-like process on the 8th abdominal segment.
Ex: Sesamum sphingid- Acherontia styx
Sweet potato horned caterpillar- Herse convolvuli

163
Family: Arctiidae (Tiger moths)
1. Wings and abdomen conspicuously spotted with black, red yellow or orange spot and banded
or marked with bright colours.
2. Larvae hairy.
Ex: Red headed hairy caterpillar- Amsacta albistriga
Bihar hairy caterpillar- Spilaretia obliqua
Family: Noctuidae (Cutworms)
1. Usually robust bodied and dull coloured moths.
2. Labial palpi well developed
3. Fore wings cryptic or sombre in colour.
Ex: Gram pod borer- Helicoverpa armigera
Tobacco cutworm- Spodoptera litura
Jowar armyworm-Mythimna separata
Family: Pyralidae (Snout moths)
1. Small delicate moths
2. Labial palpi projecting forward in to a snout like structure.
3. Have slender long legs.
Ex: Paddy stem borer- Scirpophaga incertulas
Jowar stem borer -Chilo partellus
Family: Gelechiidae (Leaf miners)
1. Small and delicate moths.
2. Labial palpi curved upwards, third segment is long and tapering
3. Forewings trapezoidal, the anal margin of the fore and hind wings are fringed with hairs.
4. Ex : Pink boll worm- Pectinophora gossypiella
5. Groundnut leaf miner- Aproaerima modicella
Family - Saturniidae (Giant silk moth)
1. Antennae are prominently bipectinate in both sexes
2. Frenulum small
3. Have transparent eyespot near the centre of each wing.
4. Larvae stout with scoli.
Ex: Eri silk moth - Philosomia ricini
Tasar silk moth - Antheraea mylitta
Family - Bombycidae (Mulberry silk moth)
1. Antennae are markedly pectinate.
2. Body covered with fine hairs.
3. Proboscis is absent.
4. Larvae are glabrous and elongate form dense silken cocoons.
Ex: Mulberry silkmoth- Bombyx mori

Directions:
Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled diagrams.

164
Ex. No.15 Date: ________________

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER COLEOPTERA

1. Minute to large insects with forewings modified into horny or leathery elytra. Both
elytra meet on the mid dorsal line and act as a protective sheath. The hindwings are
membranous.
2. Head is prognathous and in few it is hypognathous
3. Mouth parts mandibulate
4. Prothorax large and mobile
5. Undergo complete metamorphosis.
6. Larvae are generally referred as grubs.
7. Pupa exarate.
Sub-order: Adephaga (Predaceous beetles)
1. Antannae generally filiform.
2. Tarsal formula 5-5-5
3. Hind coxae immovably fixed to the metasternum. Hind trochanters large and offset towards
midline, femora almost touching coxae.
4. Notopleural suture present on prothorax.
5. First abdominal sternum is divided by hind coxae. Posterior margin of sternum not extending
completely across abdomen.
Sub-order: Polyphaga
1. Ist visible abdominal sternum not divided by hind coxae.
2. Hind trochanters small.
3. Hind coxae mobile, tarsi and antennae variable.
4. Larvae of varied habits, often worm-like in shape.
Family: Scarabaeidae (Chafer beetles, Root Grub)
1. Adults heavy bodied, oval or elongate usually convex beetles.
2. Lamellate antennae, 8 to 11 segmented.
3. Front tibiae broad, flat provided with teeth on the outer edge. Rarely front tarsi absent.
4. Tip of abdomen exposed and is called pygidium.
5. Larvae scarabaeiform, saprophytic or phytophagous.
Ex: Coconut rhinoceros beetle- Oryctes rhinoceros
Sugarcane root grub- Holotrichia serrata
Dung roller- Heliocopris bucephalus
Family: Coccinellidae (Ladybird beetles)
1. Adults small oval, convex, hemispherical and brightly coloured.
2. Head partly concealed by expanded pronotum.
3. Antennae short, clubbed with 3-6 segments.
4. Tarsi pseudotrimerous but they are 4-4-4 claws toothed at base.
5. Larvae campodeiform.
6. Adults and larvae predaceous on aphids, scales, mites etc.
Ex: Menochilus sexmaculata, Coccinella septumpunctata,
Rodalia cardinalis, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri

Family: Bruchidae (Seed beetles/pulse beetles)

1. Short, stout bodied beetles with shortened elytra not covering the tip of abdomen.
2. Tarsal formula apparently 4-4-4.
165
3. Antennae serrate
4. Elytra pubescent with tip of abdomen exposed.
5. Head produced anteriorly into a short broad snout.
6. Hind femur is thick
7. Larvae feed inside various seeds and pupate inside.
Ex: Pulse beetle- Callosobruchus chinensis
Ground seed beetle- Caryodon serratus
Family: Chrysomelidae (Leaf / Flea beetles)
1. Moderate to very small metallic coloured beetles.
2. Antennae of moderate length, not inserted on frontal prominences and capable of flexing
over the abdomen at rest.
3. Hind femora usually enlarged and jumping type.
4. Tarsal formula apparently 4-4-4
5. Adults and larvae phytophagous.
Ex: Rice hispa- Dicladispa armigera
Pumpkin beetle- Aulacophora fovicollis
Mexican beetle- Zygogramma bicolorata
Family: Curculionidae (Weevils or snout beetles)
1. Head prolonged into a snout with mouth parts at the tip.
2. Antennae geniculate and clubbed arising about mid length of the snout.
3. Larvae apodous and eucephalous and phytophagous.
Ex: Rice weevil- Sitophilus oryzae
Ash weevil- Myllocerus discolor
Red palm weevil- Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Family: Cerambycidae (Lingicorn / longhorned beetle)
1. Antennae nearly always at least half as long as body, often longer and capable of being
flexed over abdomen. Scape about 5 times as long pedicel, borne on frontal.
2. Tarsal formula apparently 4-4-4
3. All tibiae with 2 spurs.
4. Larvae wood borers of trees and shrubs.
Ex: Coffee stem borer- Xylotrechus quadripes
Mango stem borer- Batocera rufomaculata

Directions:
1. Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled
diagrams.

166
Ex.No.16 Date: _______________
STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER HYMENOPTERA

1. Head is well developed, highly mobile and hypognathous

2. Wings membranous, hind wings, smaller than the fore wings, which interlock by means
of hamuli. Venation reduced.
3. Mouth parts primarily mandibulate, often modified for chewing and lapping.
4. Mesothorax is large, pro and metathorax are fused with mesothorax.
5. Abdomen usually basally constricted and its first segment fused with metathorax forming
propodeum.
6. Ovipositor in higher forms modified into a sting.
7. Larvae generally apodous, rarely eruciform with more than 5 pairs of prolegs without
crochets
8. Pupae exarate and generally covered by cocoon.
Sub Order- Symphyta (Saw flies)
1. Abdomen broadly joins with thorax without any constriction.
2. Hind wings with 3 closed basal cells, trochanter 2 segmented
3. Ovipositor adapted for sawing or boring.
4. Larvae eruciform

Family: Tenthredinidae (Sawflies)

1. Small to medium sized wasp like insects.
2. Adult with broad head, thorax and abdomen.
3. Female with short stout ovipositor.
4. Anterior tibia with apical spurs.
5. Larvae eruciform, phytophagous with more than 5 pairs of prolegs; devoid of crochets.
Ex: Mustard sawfly- Athalia lugens proxima
Sub Order- Apocrita (Ants, Wasps, bees)
1. First abdomen (propodeum) is fused with metathorax, second is narrow (petiole) and
beyond second segment is gaster.2.
2. Hind wings with not more than two basal cells.
3. Grub apodus and eucephalous without stemmata
4. They are generally parasitic.
Family: Ichneumonidae (Ichneumonflies)
1. Resemble slender wasps
2. Two recurrent veins in fore wing.
3. Antennae long (16 or more segments) and filiform.
4. Trochanter is two segmented
5. Larvae are parasitic immature stages of other insects.
6. Ovipositor as long as or longer than body and permanently extruded.
Ex: Xanthopimpla punctata, Isotema javensis, Campoletis chloridae
Family: Braconidae (Braconids)
1. Small stout bodied adults, dark or dull coloured.
2. Antenna is filiform
3. One recurrent vein present in the forewing.
4. Pronotum reaching to wing bases-tegulae.
5. Abdomen is as long as the head and thorax together
6. Larvae parasitic, pupae in a cocoon or pupate outside the host body.
Ex: Apanteles flavipes, A. glomaratus, Chelonis blackburni, Bracon brevicornis
Family: Chalcididae (Chalcids)
1. Adults small metallic coloured (blue or green) and bare body
2. Antennae geniculate, less than 13 segments
3. Wings sometimes banded or spotted, no closed cells no stigma and often almost without
veins
4. Hind coxae are five to six times larger than fore coxae
5. Hind femur swollen with rows of short teeth and large hind coxae.
6. Hind tibial spurs are larger than mid tibial spurs
7. Parasites of larval and pupal stages of other insects.
Ex: Brachymeria atrocephalus & B. nephantidis
Family: Trichogrammatidae
1. Very minute. Antennae short with 7 or less segments.
2. Tarsi 3 segmented.
3. Fore wing is broad with hairs arranged in rows. Hind wing is reduced, fringed with long
hairs long the margin
4. Egg parasitoids of Lepidoptera insects.
Ex: Trichogramma chilonis, Trichogramma achaea, T. japonecum
Family - Formicidae (Ants)
1. First abdominal segments bearing a dorsal hump or node and strongly differentiated from
the rest of the abdomen.
2. Antennae geniculate and the first segment is often very long.
3. Wings are present only in sexually mature form.
4. Social insects with 3 castes namely queen, males and workers.
Ex: Carpenter ant- Camponotus compressus and Red fire ant- Oecophylla smargdina
Family: Apidae (Honey bees)
1. Moderate sized bees with highly developed social life.
2. Pubescence of head and thorax is plumose.
3. Workers with pollen baskets on hind legs.
4. Mouth parts are chewing and lapping.
5. Social forms-Queen, drone and worker.
6. Ovipositor modified into stinging organ in workers.
7. Forewing with 3 submarginal cells and 3rd cell is placed obliquely to the rest.
Ex: Indian bee- Apis cerana
Rock bee- Apis dorsata
European bee- Apis mellifera
Little bee- Apis florea
Family: Encyrtidae
1. Mostly parasitoids of aphids and scale insects
2. Mesopleuron large, convex and undivided, occupying more than half the thorax in lateral
view.
3. Middle coxa is closer to fore coxa than to hind coxa
4. Mid tibial spur very stout and long
Ex: Acerophagus papaye and Anagyrus loecki (parasitoids of papaya mealy bugs)
Family: Bethylidae
1. Small, black coloured ant like wasps.
2. Males almost fully winged
3. Females are alate, with reduced wings or without wings.
4. Head is elongate and depressed, prognathous in females
5. In winged individuals, pronotum reaches tegulae and is bell shaped.
6. Fore wing with reduced venation, one or no discal cells.
7. Hind wing lacks closed cells.
Ex: Goniozus nephantidis – larval parasitoid of coconut black headed caterpillar.

Directions:
1.Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled diagrams.
Ex No. 17 Date: _______________
FIELD VISIT FOR COLLECTION OF INSECTS
Ex No. 18 Date: _______________
STUFY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER DIPTERA
1. Soft bodied, small to medium sized
2. Mouth parts are sucking type often modified for sponging and piercing.
3. Antennae are filiform, stylate or aristate type
4. Only one pair of wings present, hind wing modified into halteres.
5. Mesothorax is large and pro and metathorax greatly reduced.
6. Tarsi 5 segmented.
7. Undergo complete metamorphosis.
8. Larvae apodous.
9. Pupa either free (exarate) or enclosed in puparium (coarctate)
10.Of great economic importance-bloodsuckers, vectors, phytophagous, scavengers,
predators and parasites.

Sub-order- Nematocera (Thread like horn)

1. Adults are small, slender with long legs and mosquito like.
2. Antennae are with six or more segmented which are longer than head and thorax combined
lack arista
3. Larvae with well developed head (eucephalous)
Family: Culicidae (Mosquitoes)
1. Piercing and sucking mouth parts.
2. Wings are fringed with hairs and scales on hind margin and on some veins.
3. Distal part of the wings with an inforked vein between 2 forked veins.
4. Antennae plumose in males and pilose in females.
5. Larvae and pupae aquatic. Larvae called Wrigglers and pupae as tumblers.
Ex: Culex fatigens and Anopheles stephensi
Family: Cecidomyiidae (Gall midges)
1. Adults are minute, delicate, slender, densely haired mosquito like flies
2. Antennae are moniliform with conspicuous whorls of hairs, between each flagellar
segment.
3. Wing venation reduced with 7 or fewer veins reaching the wing margin.
4. Larvae (Maggots) with `breast bone' or sternal spatula on midventral prothorax which is
used for jumping.
Ex: Paddy gall fly- Orseolia oryzae and Jowar earhead midge- Contarinia sorgicola
Sub order: Brachycera (Short horn)
1. Antennae with less than six segments, longer than head but shorter than head and thorax.
Arista when present terminal.
2. Larvae-Hemicephalous.
Family: Tabanidae (Horse fly)
1. Medium to large sized, stout bodied
2. Large compound eyes, often brilliantly coloured
3. Antenna is stylate with shorts arista.
4. Proboscis is strong and pointing downwards
5. Wings with large calypters. Ex: Horse fly – Tabanus striatus
 Sub order: Cyclorrhapha (Circular crack)
1. Antennae inconspicuous and 3 segmented and not longer than head. Arista or style when
present borne dorsally/laterally.
2. Maggot is acephalous, head capsule is not sclerotized but the mouth parts are sclerotized
and act vertically.
3. Pupa is coarctate, has a circular line along which its splits during adult emergence.
Family: Syrphidae (Syrphid flies or flower flies or Hover flies).
1. Brightly coloured and brilliantly striped flies.
2. Spurious (false) vein is present in the fore wing between radius and median.
3. Anal cell long and flies, hover over flowers.
4. Larvae vary in habits, predaceous, saprophytic and rarely phytophagous.
Ex: Syrphid fly- Ischiodon scutellaris
Family: Tephritidae (Fruit flies, peacock flies)
1. Small to medium sized flies
2. Wings usually spotted or banded forming attractive patterns.
3. Subcostal vein apically bends forward at right angle and fades out.
4. Larvae phytophagous; feed on fruits, this leads to decay. Some are leafminers and gall
makers in stem.
Ex: Mango fruit fly - Bractocera dorsalis & Gourd fruit fly - Bractocera .cucurbitae
Family: Agromyzidae (Leaf miners)
1. Small flies, black grey or yellowish in colour.
2. Pre apical bristles absent in adults.
3. Larvae- leaf miners, serpentine mines are made which increase in width as larva grows.
Ex: Tur pod fly- Melanagromyza obtusa and Serpntine leaf miner- Liriomyza trifolii
Family: Tachinidae (Tachinid flies)
1. Large bristly flies, bee like or wasp like.
2. Arista bare
3. Scutellum is prominent, post scutellum is well developed
4. Large bristles on the base of abdomen.
5. Larvae, parasites on Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and sawflies, burrow in to hosts and feed
internally.
6. Pupation outside the body of host.
Ex: Euceletoria briyani and Uzi fly- Exorista Bombycis
Family: Muscidae (Housefly, stable fly, horn fly and Tsetse fly)
1. Dull coloured bristly flies.
2. Antennae are short aritstate.
3. Adult has sponging or piercing and sucking mouthparts.
4. Cu + 1A not reaching wings margin. Lower calypter always longer than upper calypter.
5. Terminal abdominal segment is telescopic forming a pseudo ovipositor.
6. Vectors of typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, anthrax, sleeping sickness, etc.
7. Larvae develop in decomposing animal and vegetable refuse.
Ex: House fly- Musca domestica and Musca nebulo
Stable fly- Stomoxys calcitrans, Hylemya antique

Directions:
1. Study the insect specimens of different orders and families and draw neat labeled
diagrams.