Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Investigation On The Electrical Performance of A Curved PV CIGS Cells
Investigation On The Electrical Performance of A Curved PV CIGS Cells
Investigation On The Electrical Performance of A Curved PV CIGS Cells
Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Inspired by traditional Chinese architecture, a curved PV roof integrated with copper indium gallium selenide
Curved PV (CIGS) cells is designed, which not only manifests Chinese aesthetic elements but also could generate electricity.
Photovoltaic roof tiles Considering solar radiation distribution on curved PV cells different from that on traditional flat cells, this paper
Traditional Chinese houses
builds a radiation distribution model to calculate the radiation on the curved surface and an electrical model
Experimental validation
Performance evaluation
based on 5-parameter model to predict the power output of PV cells with different connections (independent
output; in parallel; in series). An experimental rig was built, and the theoretical model was validated. Results
showed that the CIGS cells on the west side of the curved surface performed better in electricity generation than
the CIGS cells on the east side did; the CIGS cells in parallel generated more power than the cells in series did.
The annual performance prediction shows that CIGS cells on the west side generate 155.18 kWh, which is
21.49% more than on the east side; CIGS cells in parallel generate 275.96 kWh, which is 12.56% more than the
cells in series; The electrical generation of the curved PV roof is 7.41% less than the flat roof does. Parametric
analysis is also conducted.
buildings, and some of them have the ability to improve the indoor
environment. According to IRENA (2019b) [9], global PV electrical
1. Introduction power generation is likely to reach 8519 GWp in 2050, among which
roof-top PV systems will contribute about 40%. Zhong et al. [10] esti
As a cornerstone of social promotion, energy plays a significant role mated the rooftop solar PV potential in Nanjing, China, based on deep
in economic growth. The covid-19 pandemic has caused an enormous learning. The result was that the city’s total rooftop area extracted was
impact on human manufacture and life, which is likely to alter the future 330.0 km2 while the annual solar PV potential was about 311853 GWh,
global energy markets. Traditional energy demands dropped dramati showing the vast potential of PV panels on rooftop areas at an urban
cally in 2020, while solar energy has the most significant yearly increase scale.
ever [1]. Renewable energy, especially solar energy, will be one of the The flat-type PV modules are widespread in the application for the
fastest-growing energy sources over the next 30 years. Photovoltaic (PV) BIPV combination with the building’s rooftop. Numerous studies have
technology converts solar energy into electrical energy using PV cells. concerned the application of flat PV modules on the rooftop. Poulek
China claimed to achieve carbon neutrality in the middle of the century et al. [11] proposed a new simplified model to analyze the influence of
and has released a series of policies to control carbon emissions [2]. the increasing temperature on the electricity generation of a PV roof.
Benefiting from reduced costs and the government’s support, China’s PV Results showed that compared with independent PV panels, BIPV roofs
industry has been thriving recently [3]. reduce energy production by 3.5% in Prague. Shukla et al. [12] inves
Building energy consumption accounts for about 40% of the global tigated the thermal effects of the rooftop PV panels on the underlying
energy consumption [4], which means lowering building energy con roof shingles exposed to hot desert conditions during summer in Albu
sumption will alleviate the energy crisis to some extent. querque. According to the experimental results, the daily peak temper
Building-integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) combines the building exte ature of the rooftop PV panels covered by the rooftop PV panels was
riors with PV cells. On the premise of preserving buildings’ essential 13 ◦ C lower than the exposed shingles, showing the cooling effects by
functions, BIPV technology is applied to façades [5], blinds [6], win the rooftop PV systems. Alim et al. [13] experimented with
dows [7], rooftops [8], etc. Those BIPV systems supply electricity to the
* Corresponding author.Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230022, PR China
E-mail address: jijie@ustc.edu.cn (J. Ji).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125911
Received 2 April 2022; Received in revised form 25 September 2022; Accepted 26 October 2022
Available online 29 October 2022
0360-5442/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
incorporating phase change materials (PCM) with PV roof tiles. The architecture while realizing the reconstruction. For the combination of
results showed that the electrical energy generated by the new PV roof the BIPV technology with the curved pitched rooftop, it is not appro
tiles was 4.1% higher than that of the counterpart without PCM on priate to install standard flat-type PV modules directly on the rooftop
winter days. Saoud et al. [14] used building-information modeling because the PV modules would be against the building’s design ele
(BIM) software to indicate the solar insolation distribution of a metro ments. To combine the PV technology with the traditional architectural
station’s rooftop composed of several different oriented flat plates and design styles, our team proposed a curved roof integrated with CIGS cells
used a genetic algorithm to search for the optimal connection method of to maintain the aesthetic demand for the curved pitched roof. The
the PV modules. structure retains the design elements of Hui-style architecture and can
Additionally, the rooftops of buildings are not restricted to flat types. generate electricity and bring economic profits.
Considering the demands for diverse architectural designs such as The previous work on PV rooftops focused on the application of flat
curved shapes, standard crystalline silicon PV cells are not applicable in PV cells, while the curved types of PV cells were rarely mentioned. This
certain situations. In contrast, flexible thin-film cells can be bent into article aims to study the electrical performance of CIGS cells on curved
specified shapes to meet the requirements. Thin-film cells include surfaces and lay a foundation for future studies on the application of
amorphous silicon (a-Si), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and BIPV to buildings with curved design elements. The article’s frame is as
cadmium telluride (CdTe), etc. As one of the best thin-film absorbing follows: in Section 2, the system is described in detail, and the test rig is
materials, CIGS solar cells can reach light-to-power conversion effi established; in Section 3, the simulation model for the radiation distri
ciencies exceeding 20% at lab environment [15]. CIGS cells are also bution on the curved surface and the electrical performance by the
ideal for rooftop applications due to their lightweight. It can be installed curved PV cells is built; in Section 4, the experimental data is presented,
on a roof that cannot bear much weight or on the nonplanar surfaces of
buildings [16]. Profited from their flexibility and lightweight, CIGS cells
can easily be applied to the buildings’ external surfaces to make PV
shingles, tiles, etc. [17]. To completely stick to the complex curved
surfaces of the buildings, the electrical performance of the CIGS-BIPV
systems might be influenced by the shape of the building’s envelope,
bringing partial shading and uneven solar radiation to the PV cells.
Walker et al. [18] conducted a novel workflow to study the arrangement
of CIGS modules on a special-shaped rooftop, including parametric
design by BIM and CIGS modules’ configuration. The results showed that
reasonable arrangement and selection of appropriate parameters would
optimize curved PV cells’ electrical performance.
Curved surfaces are widely used in traditional Chinese architecture,
reflecting local characteristics and oriental flavor. Among all kinds of
Chinese regional architecture, Hui-style architecture is known for its
black pitched roof covered with curved roof tiles. As shown in Fig. 1,
which was shot in a village in the south of Anhui Province, every Hui-
style house in the village has a characteristic curved tiled roof, illus
trating that it is vital to maintain the overall appearance of the regional
Fig. 1. Photo of traditional Hui-style houses.
2
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the curved PV roof integrated with CIGS cells.
3
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Table 1
Parameters of the measuring instruments.
Apparatus Type Accuracy
Thermocouple T ±0.2 ◦ C
Pyranometer TBQ-2 for global radiation ±2%
TBD-1 for diffuse radiation ±2%
I–V curve tracer HT Italia /
Data logger HIOKI LR8402-21 0.01%
Table 2
Manufacture data for the single piece of the CIGS cell.
Parameters value unit
Isc 1.4 A
Voc 4 V
Vmpp 3.2 V
Impp 1.2 A
Pmpp 3.84 W
Temperature coefficient for power − 0.43 %/◦ C
Due to the shape of the system being different from traditional flat PV
cells, the calculation of the radiation distribution and shadow on curved
surfaces becomes essential. To calculate the curved surface’s radiation,
it is reasonable to divide the curved surface into a set of flat microfacets
shown in Fig. 6. We create a coordinate system shown in Fig. 6(a), in
which the x axis points to the south, the y axis points to the east, and the
z axis goes straight up.
Let a microfacet i’s unit normal vector be →
ni = (xi ,yi ,zi ). According to
the geometric relationship,
⎧
Fig. 4. (a) Configuration of the curved PV roof integrated with CIGS cells; (b) ⎪ 2 2 2
⎨ xi + yi + zi = 1
⎪
measuring instruments used in the experiment. xi sin βb + zi sin βb = cos ηi (1)
⎪
⎪
⎩ xi /zi = tan β
b
•Group C: 12 cells close to the east are serially connected to strings
connected in series; 12 cells close to the west are serially connected The result of the equation set is,
to strings connected in series. Two strings are connected in series. ⎧
⎨ xi = sin βb cos ηi
y = − sin ηi (2)
3. Simulation model ⎩ i
zi = cos βb cos ηi
In this section, the simulation model is built to describe the curved
where ηi is the angle between microfacet i’s unit normal vector → ηi and
PV roof and predict the system’s electrical performance theoretically,
including the calculation of the radiation distribution on the curved the bottom plate’s normal vector →
nb ; βi and βb are the angle between the
surface and the electrical power generated by the cells on the curved microfacet i and horizontal direction and the tilted angle of the bottom
surface. For the model establishment, in order to simplify the mathe plate respectively.
matical model, several assumptions are made as follows: Then
cos βi = cos βb cos ηi (3)
(1) For the possible shadow cast by the adjacent curved plates, the
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
shading would block the beam radiation in a straight path; the
cos γi (sin βb cos ηi )2 + (sin ηi )2 = sin βb cos ηi (4)
influence of the adjacent curved plates on the rest of the radiation
where γi is microfacet i’s azimuth angle.
cos θi = sin δ (sin φ cos βi − cos φ sin βi cos γ i ) + cos δ cos ω (cos φ cos βi + sin φ sin βi cos γ i )
(5)
+cos δ sin βi sin γi sin ω
4
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Fig. 5. Different electrical interconnection methods of CIGS cells. (a) Group A (b) Group B (c) Group C.
where φ is the local latitude; δ is the declination; ω is the hour angle. − l <x <0
⎩ ′ ch
z >0
Solar radiation consists of beam radiation, diffuse radiation and
ground reflected radiation. The beam radiation is calculated according
Similarly, its right-hand channel’s formula in ox’y’z’ is,
to Ref. [21].
⎧( ( ) )2 ( )2
(6) ⎪ ′ ′
Gbm,i = Gbm,h rbm,i ⎪
⎪ y − 2r sin θtotal 2 − spacech + z + r 2 = r2
/ /
⎪
⎨
(12)
rbm,i = max[0, cos θi / sin αs ] (7) ⎪
⎪
′
− lch < x < 0
⎪
⎪
⎩ ′
where Gbm,h is the horizontal beam solar radiation; rbm,i is the ratio of z >0
beam radiation on microfacet i to that on a horizontal surface; αs is the A point on the curved channel can be defined as p0 = (0, y, z). Then
solar altitude angle. sunlight direction of beam radiation across p0 is (sx′ t, y +sy′ t, z +sz′ t) (*).
For the curved PV roof design, the parallel curved plates might in We combine (*) with the right-hand channel’s formula,
fluence each other and block the beam solar radiation. The phenomenon ( )2
mostly happens near sunrise and sunset [22]. θtotal
→ (sx′ t)2 + y + sy′ t − 2r sin − spacech + (z + sz′ t + r/2)2 = r2 (13)
Let S be the unit vector in parallel with solar beam radiation. In the 2
→
coordinate system oxyz, S can be represented as [20], Discriminant Δ of Eq. (13) is,
→ ⎧
S = (cos αs cos γs , cos αs sin γs , sin αs ) (8) ⎪ Δ = b2 − 4ac
⎪
⎪
⎪
To make the calculation more convenient, we rotate the primary axes ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ a = s2x′ + s2y′ + s2z′
⎪
oxyz along y axis in βb degrees to create a new coordinate system ox’y’z’ ⎪
⎨ ( )
shown in Fig. 6(a). The two coordinate systems follow the rules of co b = 2s ′ y − 2r sin
θtotal
− space + 2sz′ (z + r/2) (14)
⎪
⎪ y
2
ch
ordinate axis transformation [23]: ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ( )2
⎧ ′ ⎪
⎪ θtotal
⎨ x = x cos βb − z sin βb ⎪
⎩ c = y − 2r sin − spacech + (z + r/2)2 − r2
2
(9)
′
y =y
⎩ ′
z = x sin βb + z cos βb
If Δ < 0, the right-hand channel casts no beam shadow. On the contrary,
→ →′
In the new axes ox’y’z’, S turns into S = (sx′ , sy′ , sz′ ) [24]: if Δ ≥ 0, the right-hand channel casts beam shadow on the channel and
the channel will be partially shaded. We definite a symbol marki to
⎧
⎨ sx′ = cos αs cos γ s cos βb − sin αs sin βb distinguish the two conditions above.
s ′ = cos αs sin γs (10) {
⎩ y′ marki = 1 Δ < 0
sz = cos αs cos γs sin βb + sin αs cos βb (15)
marki = 0 Δ ≥ 0
For a curved channel, its formula in ox’y’z’ is [25], Considering the beam shadow conditions Gbm,i turns into:
5
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
The curved surface is divided into a set of microfacets, and the total
solar radiation on the curved surface Gtotal could be regarded as the sum
of all microfacets’ solar radiation:
∑
m
Gtotal = Gtotal,i (19)
i=1
•
Put a single CIGS cell under the solar simulator and control the lab
environment at standard test conditions (STC, 1000 W/m2 solar
irradiance, 25 ◦ C PV cell temperature). Record the cell’s I–V data.
•
Along the length, use a piece of thin black paper to cover the cell’s
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% area, and record the cell’s I–V data
separately.
•
Along the width, use a piece of thin black paper to cover the cell’s
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% area, and record the cell’s I–V data
separately.
The fitting line of the electrical power output by the single piece of
the CIGS cell is shown in Fig. 9, indicating that when the single cell is
partially shaded, the electrical power generated by the single cell is
proportionate to its unshaded area. Under this premise, it is reasonable
to identify irradiation on a partially shaded surface with uniform irra
diation on the same surface.
Based on the conclusion above, it is essential to find a proper accu
rate and simple model to describe PV modules with inhomogeneous
solar radiation distribution. The 5-parameter model is generally applied
in electricity generation simulation. The equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig. 10. The single diode mathematical PV cell model based on the
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of (a) coordinate systems of the curved surface; (b)
Shockley diode equation is presented in Eq. (20) [28]:
the microfacet and the related angles.
[ ( ) ]
V + IRs V + IRs
I = Iph − Id − Ish = Iph − Io exp − 1 − (20)
For the partial beam shadow cast by the left-hand channel, the a Rsh
method proposed above could also be used to determine whether the
microfacet is under the beam shadow or not. a = nkT/q
With the change of the ambient environment, the ground albedo ρgnd
where Iph is the photocurrent (A); Id is the current through the diode (A);
changes accordingly in the interval [0,1] [26]. The value of the ground
Ish is the current through the shunt resistance (A); Io is the diode reverse
albedo in this study is considered to be a constant of 0.2. The ground
saturation current (A); Rs is the series resistance (Ω); Rsh is the shunt
reflected radiation could be represented as,
resistance (Ω); a is the modified ideal factor; n is the diode ideal factor; k
( )2
β is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10− 23 J/K); T is the cell temperature
Gr,i = ρgnd Gtotal,gnd sin i (17)
2 (K); q is the electron charge (1.6 × 10− 19 C).
To use the 5-parameter model, it is necessary to calculate five pa
where Gtotal,gnd is the total solar radiation on the horizontal surface. rameters in Eq. (20) which are: Iph , Io , Rs , Rsh , and a. The calculation
Among all the models of diffuse radiation calculation, Perez’s model equation of the five parameters mentioned above in standard test con
takes account of isotropic diffuse from the sky dome, diffuse from the ditions (STC, 1000 W/m2 solar irradiance, 25 ◦ C PV cell temperature) is
horizon, and circumsolar diffuse, which leads to higher accuracy. From shown in Eq. (21) to Eq. (25) [28].
the above calculation, Gbm,i , βi and θi are known. Referring to the article
related to the Perez’ model establishment [27], Gd,i can be calculated Iph = Isc (1 + Rs / Rsh ) (21)
which is the diffuse radiation on microfacet i. ( / )/
Based on the calculation above, total solar radiation on microfacet i Io = Iph − Voc Rsh [exp(Voc / a) − 1] (22)
is given in Eq. (18),
Gtotal,i = Gbm,i + Gd,i + Gr,i (18)
6
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Fig. 7. (a) Photo of the solar simulator; (b) the small piece of CIGS cell.
Fig. 8. (a) Shade the single cell along the length; (b) Shade the single cell along the width.
Fig. 9. Maximum power output by the PV cell under the different shaded area.
⎧ ( )[ ] ⎫
⎪
⎪ dV dV dV ( ) ⎪ where Isc is the short circuit current(A); Voc is the open circuit voltage
⎪
⎪ Vmpp | − | | Isc − Impp + Vmpp − ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ dI I=0 dI V=0 dI V=0 ⎬ (V); dV
dI |I=0 is the slope of the I–V curve at the open circuit point at STC;
Rs = ( )( ) dV
⎪
⎪
⎪ dV dV dV ⎪
⎪
⎪ is the slope of the I–V curve at the short circuit point at STC. Vmpp
dI |V=0
⎪ |I=0 | Impp + Vmpp | Isc + Voc ⎪
⎩ dt dI V=0 dI V=0 ⎭ and Impp are the voltage and current at maximum power point (MPP) at
⎧ ( )[ ] ⎫ (23) STC. These parameters above are generally accessible from PV cell
/⎪
⎪ ( )
⎪ Impp dV |I=0 − dV |V=0 dV |V=0 Isc − Impp + Vmpp + ⎪
⎪
⎪ manufacturers.
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
dI dI dI The above calculation related to the five parameters is under STC.
( )( )
⎪ dV
⎪ dV ⎪
⎪ For the actual working conditions, the five parameters should be con
⎪ ⎪
⎩ dI |V=0 Impp + Vmpp
⎪ | Isc + Voc
dl V=0
⎪
⎭ verted from the value under STC to the value under actual working
conditions. The conversion formulas are from Eq. (26) to Eq. (30) as
dV follows [29]:
Rsh = − Rs − | (24)
dI V=0 G
Iph = Iph,STC [1 + KI (T − TSTC )] (26)
( )( )/( ) GSTC
dV dV dV dV
a= |I=0 + Rs |V=0 Isc + Voc |I=0 − |V=0 (25)
dI dI dI dI
7
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
( )3 [ ( )]
T q Eg Eg
Io = Io,STC exp |STC − |T (27)
TSTC nk T T
( )[ ( )]
T G
Rs = Rs,STC 1 − В ln (28)
TSTC GSTC
GSTC
Rsh = Rsh,STC (29)
G
T
a = aSTC (30)
TSTC
8
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
9
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Fig. 14. Simulated and experimental electrical power output by (a) Group A; (b) Group B; (c) Group C.
Fig. 16. Average radiation on the east and the west side of the curved surface.
10
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Fig. 18. (a) Daily electrical power output with different tilted angles; (b) daily curved surface’s power output divided by the daily flat surface’s power output of
different tilted angles.
11
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Fig. 19. (a) Daily electrical yield by the curved surface and the tilted flat surface with different central angles; (b) daily curved surface’s power output divided by the
daily flat surface’s power output of different central angles.
Fig. 20. Beam shadow distribution on the curved surface from 6: 00 to 18:00. The space of the adjacent channels is (a) 0.05 m; (b) 0.10 m; (c) 0.15 m; (d) 0.20 m.
5.2.1. Performance prediction of PV roof in different connection methods CIGS cells, the east side of the CIGS cells, all the west and the east side of
For the prediction of the whole system, the eight curved plates all the CIGS cells in parallel, and all the east and the west side of the CIGS
would be pasted with flexible PV cells. Fig. 22 presents the simulation cells in series. Throughout the TMY, the west side of the CIGS cells
results of the monthly electrical power generation of the west side of the generate 155.18 kWh; the east side of the CIGS cells generate 121.83
12
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Fig. 23. Monthly electrical power output by the CIGS cells connected in par
allel on the curved surface and the CIGS cells on the flat surface in Hefei.
Fig. 21. Annual solar radiation and ambient temperature in Hefei.
Table 3
Comparison of the flat PV system and the curved PV system.
Subject Flat PV system Curved PV system
Radiation Usually, the radiation on the Due to the unique shape, the
distribution flat PV system is even. radiation on the curved surface
is inhomogeneous.
Electrical Flat PV roof performs better in The curved PV system begins to
performance electricity generation. show priority when the tilted
angle is relatively big.
Application The application of the flat PV The curved PV system could be
scenario system is widespread but does combined with the architecture
not include the combination with a strong sense of design.
with curved surfaces.
13
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911
generation than the PV cells on the east side do; the PV cells Foundation of China (No.52238004) and Anhui Provincial Major Sci
connected in parallel generate more electricity than the PV cells ence and Technology Project (202203a07020021).
connected in series do;
(2) The tilted angle of the bottom flat plate influences the radiation References
received by the curved surface, causing a change in the electrical
performance. On the July 22nd of TMY in Hefei, according to the [1] Statistical b plc. Review of world energy. 2021.
[2] Zhang H, Feng C, Zhou X. Going carbon-neutral in China: does the low-carbon city
simulation results, for the curved surface whose central angle is pilot policy improve carbon emission efficiency? Sustain Prod Consum 2022;33:
120◦ , when the tilted angle is more than 70◦ , the curved surface 312–29.
receives the same radiation as the tilted flat surface does. Further, [3] Kabir E, Kumar P, Kumar S, Adelodun AA, Kim K-H. Solar energy: potential and
future prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;82:894–900.
when the tilted angle gets bigger, the curved PV roof generates [4] El-Sawi A, Haghighat F, Akbari H. Assessing long-term performance of centralized
more electricity than the flat PV roof does; thermal energy storage system. Appl Therm Eng 2014;62:313–21.
(3) The curvature of the curved surface plays a role in electrical [5] Liang R, Wang P, Zhou C, Pan Q, Riaz A, Zhang J. Thermal performance study of an
active solar building façade with specific PV/T hybrid modules. Energy 2020;191:
performance. A set of curved surfaces is considered with different 116532.
central angles. The result shows that the bigger the central angle [6] Hong S, Choi A-S, Sung M. Development and verification of a slat control method
is, the worse the electrical performance is; the daily curved sur for a bi-directional PV blind. Appl Energy 2017;206:1321–33.
[7] Liu D, Sun Y, Wilson R, Wu Y. Comprehensive evaluation of window-integrated
face’s power output divided by the daily flat surface’s power
semi-transparent PV for building daylight performance. Renew Energy 2020;145:
output of different tilted angles falls from 0.98 to 0.79 with the 1399–411.
central angle changing from 60◦ to 180◦ ; [8] Wajs J, Golabek A, Bochniak R, Mikielewicz D. Air-cooled photovoltaic roof tile as
(4) The impact of the beam shadow cast by the adjacent curved an example of the BIPVT system – an experimental study on the energy and exergy
performance. Energy 2020;197:117255.
surfaces is discussed. When the space between curved surfaces [9] Global IEA. Energy transformation: a roadmap to 2050. 2019.
increases, the impact becomes weaker. Four situations of beam [10] Zhong T, Zhang Z, Chen M, Zhang K, Zhou Z, Zhu R, et al. A city-scale estimation of
shadow distribution are simulated (different spaces of 0.05 m, rooftop solar photovoltaic potential based on deep learning. Appl Energy 2021;
298:117132.
0.10 m, 0.15 m, and 0.20 m). When the space increases from 0.05 [11] Poulek V, Matuška T, Libra M, Kachalouski E, Sedláček J. Influence of increased
m to 0.20 m, the length of the time that the roof is under inner temperature on energy production of roof integrated PV panels. Energy Build 2018;
beam shadow decreases by 132 min; 166:418–25.
[12] Shukla N, Watts A, Honeker C, Hill M, Kośny J. Thermal impact of adhesive-
(5) Throughout the TMY, in Hefei, for the whole curved PV roof, the mounted rooftop PV on underlying roof shingles. Sol Energy 2018;174:957–66.
west side of the CIGS cells generates 155.18 kWh; the east side of [13] Alim MA, Tao Z, Abden MJ, Rahman A, Samali B. Improving performance of solar
the CIGS cells generate 121.83 kWh; all the east and the west side roof tiles by incorporating phase change material. Sol Energy 2020;207:1308–20.
[14] Al-Janahi SA, Ellabban O, Al-Ghamdi SG. A novel BIPV reconfiguration algorithm
of the CIGS cells in parallel generate 275.96 kWh; all the east and for maximum power generation under partial shading. Energies 2020;13.
the west side of the CIGS cells in series generate 232.66 kWh [15] Barman B, Kalita PK. Influence of back surface field layer on enhancing the
while the flat PV roof generates 298.04 kWh. efficiency of CIGS solar cell. Sol Energy 2021;216:329–37.
[16] Ramanujam J, Bishop DM, Todorov TK, Gunawan O, Rath J, Nekovei R, et al.
Flexible CIGS, CdTe and a-Si:H based thin film solar cells: a review. Prog Mater Sci
This system combines the BIPV technology and the design elements 2020;110:100619.
of China’s regional architecture— Hui-style architecture. With the [17] Bednar N, Caviasca A, Sevela P, Severino N, Adamovic N. Modelling of flexible
application of CIGS thin-film cells, the PV roof can be designed in any thin-film modules for building and product integrated photovoltaics. Sol Energy
Mater Sol Cell 2018;181:38–45.
shape that matches users’ demands. Electrical performance and the [18] Walker L, Hofer J, Schlueter A. High-resolution, parametric BIPV and electrical
method of parametric optimization are discussed in this paper, laying a systems modeling and design. Appl Energy 2019;238:164–79.
foundation for future study and application of the curved PV roof. [19] Li Q, Zhu L, Sun Y, Lu L, Yang Y. Performance prediction of Building Integrated
Photovoltaics under no-shading, shading and masking conditions using a multi-
physics model. Energy 2020;213:118795.
Credit author statement [20] Duffie JA BW. Solar engineering of thermal processes. 1980.
[21] Sun L, Lu L, Yang H. Optimum design of shading-type building-integrated
photovoltaic claddings with different surface azimuth angles. Appl Energy 2012;
Xinyi Tian: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Soft 90:233–40.
ware, Writing – original draft; Jun Wang: Conceptualization, Investi [22] Muhaisen AS, Gadi MB. Mathematical model for calculating the shaded and sunlit
gation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – review & editing; areas in a circular courtyard geometry. Build Environ 2005;40:1619–25.
[23] Wondratschek MIAH, Souvignier B, Chapuis G. International tables for
Shuang Yuan: Investigation, Formal analysis; Jie Ji: Conceptualization, crystallography. 2016.
Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition; Wei Ke: [24] Budin R, Budin L. A mathematical model for shading calculations. Sol Energy 1982;
Investigation, Formal analysis; Chuyao Wang: Writing – review & 29:339–49.
[25] Cai G, Chen BM, Lee TH. Coordinate systems and transformations. In: Cai G,
editing.
Chen BM, Lee TH, editors. Unmanned rotorcraft systems. London: Springer
London; 2011. p. 23–34.
Declaration of competing interest [26] USA DoEi. EnergyPlusTM version 9.2.0 documentation engineering reference.
2019.
[27] Yang D, Ye Z, Nobre AM, Du H, Walsh WM, Lim LI, et al. Bidirectional irradiance
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial transposition based on the Perez model. Sol Energy 2014;110:768–80.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [28] Wang Y, Pei G, Zhang L. Effects of frame shadow on the PV character of a
the work reported in this paper. photovoltaic/thermal system. Appl Energy 2014;130:326–32.
[29] Gu W, Ma T, Li M, Shen L, Zhang Y. A coupled optical-electrical-thermal model of
the bifacial photovoltaic module. Appl Energy 2020;258:114075.
Data availability [30] Bai J, Liu S, Hao Y, Zhang Z, Jiang M, Zhang Y. Development of a new compound
method to extract the five parameters of PV modules. Energy Convers Manag 2014;
79:294–303.
Data will be made available on request. [31] ASHRAE AG. Guideline 14-2014: measurement of energy, demand, and water
savings. Atlanta, Georgia: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air
Acknowledgments Conditioning Engineers; 2014.
14