Laboratory Exercise No.

1
Soil Genesis
I. Introduction
The important rocks and mineral materials which the soils are derived are classified into three groups;
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are formed when hot molten magma from deep under
the earth cools and solidifies and are classified into two types; Intrusive are formed when magma is forced
towards the earth's surface and slowly cools before they reach the surface, while extrusive rocks are formed
when magma forces its way to the surface and bursts out from a volcano, appearing first as molten lava, then
cools and hardens into a rock. Sedimentary rocks are made up from loose materials which had built up in layers
and solidified. There are three types namely; clastic, which are made of clasts or fragments of previously
existing rocks, which are built up layers of sediments and after it is compressed, the heavy weights created new
beds of rock; chemical sedimentary rocks are made up from the build-up of minerals that dissolved in water,
such as salt; biogenic sedimentary rocks are made from organic (living matter) and are combined with inorganic
minerals. Metamorphic rocks have undergone some changes depending on the variations of temperature and
pressure in which they have been exposed. Moreover, rocks decay very slowly and may take several thousands
of years before they become soil. Rocks may vary in hardiness, and the environmental condition required for
decomposition vary depending on the source of location. On the other hand, minerals are also source of soil
formation. Primary minerals persist in the soil to become sand and silt fractions, while secondary minerals are
those that were formed as a product of chemical weathering of the least resistant minerals.
The formation and development of soils are derived from the disintegration of rocks and minerals,
through the process called weathering. There are two types of weathering, physical and chemical. Physical
weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces whereas chemical weathering involves
the release of soluble materials from the rocks and minerals to form into a new product. According to Jenny
(1931), the weathering of rocks is due to various factors existing in the environment, particularly; climate,
organism, relief or topography, parent material, and time [s=f(cl,o,r,p,t)]. Wherein, parent material consisting
of partly broken and unconsolidated rocks; climate due to the influence of temperature and precipitation;
topography or relief influenced by the slope and surface orientation thereby affecting the moisture and
temperature of the soil; organisms including macro- and microorganisms; and time which measures how much
development the soil had experienced.
Soils that will be developed will all depend upon the intensity of the physical and biological forces that
act on the parent rocks and minerals. The quality of the soil produced from the clay will in part depend upon
the parent material. As an example, rocks rich in essential minerals may produce fertile soil. Hence, study of
minerals and rocks is a vital step in gaining understanding into the nature of the soil.

II. Objectives
At the end of this exercise the student should be able to:
1. differentiate various physical characteristics of soil forming rocks and minerals;
2. familiarize with some of the agriculturally important minerals; and
3. identify some essential nutrients derived from common rocks.
III. Material/s
1. Specimens of rocks and minerals displayed in the Soil Museum.

IV. Procedure
1. Characterization of rocks and minerals.
a. observe and list down the different rocks and minerals provided by the laboratory instructor.
b. classify and characterize the minerals according to their groupings as follows:
Rocks: Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
Minerals: Primary (quartz, feldspar, mica, and carbonate); Secondary (iron, gypsum, and
clay)
 c. observe the color and luster of the different minerals given. Other physical characteristics such as
hardness, streak, cleavage/fracture, and specific gravity will be given as assignment to be filled up in the
report sheet.
d. identify the chemical components of each rock and minerals you have listed. You may find this in
reference books or the internet.
e. As class requirement, collect and submit rock samples in the locality which may be used for
display in the soil museum.
 REPORT SHEET
Exercise 1: Origin of the Soil

Name: Score:
Program/Year/Section:
Laboratory schedule:
Date of submission

V. Results
Tabulate all the rocks and minerals available at the Soil Science Museum. List and characterize the rocks and
minerals.

Identification and Characterization of Rocks and Minerals (conduct at soil museum)

A. Rocks
Rocks Classification Sub-classification

B. Minerals
Minerals Chemical Characteristics Specific Potential Nutrient
Composition Color Streak Fracture Gravity Element
 continuation…………………..

VI. Discussion
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VII. Conclusion
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VIII. Questions to Answer

1.Why does quartz abundantly exist in most soil rather than feldspar?
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2. List the primary minerals that could be good source of the following elements:
a. Phosphorus- _____________________________
b. Potassium- _____________________________
c. Sodium- _____________________________
d. Calcium- ______________________________
e. Magnesium- ___________________________
f. Iron- __________________________________

3. Is it possible that a rock could be derived from clay? Explain.

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4. Which soil do you think would produce a more fertile soil, those derived from the igneous rock of those that
are derived from metamorphic rock. Why?
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IX. List of References:

(*Use at least 2 references from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; follow American Psychological Association (APA) format)
 Laboratory Exercise No. 2
THE SOIL PROFILE

I. Introduction
The formation of a horizontal layering of soil from finely broken parent materials is termed as soil profile.
It is a vertical section of the ground from the surface down to the to the parent rock with varying physical and
chemical properties from one layer to the other. These properties are developed based on the factors of soil
development such as: climate, organisms, relief/topography, parent materials and time.
The parent materials depend on the origin of the rocks and minerals, which are continuously exposed to
the environment and are acted upon by physical, chemical, and biological processes and is the first step in soil
formation. Organisms include both macro and micro-flora and faunas. Accumulation of organic materials,
including decomposed organic matter plays an important role in soil development. It contributes to the color of
the soil, structural stability, and porosity. Environmental temperature and rainfall are the major effects of
climate. They affect the physical and chemical processes of weathering. Generally, rainfall affects runoff and
leaching of elements and weathering products. Increase in temperature generally enhances weathering and
decomposition of organic matter. Relief or topography influences soil formation due to moisture regime and
degree of water loss. Geologic time refers to the actual length of time that materials were exposed
Each individual soil is best evaluated through examination of the representative profile and their horizon.
Soil horizons are identified by their differences in texture, structure, porosity, consistency, color depth of
horizon, organic matter content, and pH. The nature of the properties determines the characteristics of the soil
for land use, to support and provide nutrients to plants.

II. Objectives
This exercise allows students to:
1. differentiate soils in each horizon of a particular area;
2. experience how to characterize a soil profile; and
3. be able to describe a soil profile and understand the physical and chemical processes of weathering in relation
to the factors of soil development.

III. Materials
1. shovel and trowel
2. Meter stick or measuring tape
3. sampling bag
4. Munsell soil color chart
5. Stick
6. Marker pen

IV. Procedure
1. Select a site where typical soil profile can be shown. Dig a pit of 1m x 1m size with two-meter depth.
2. Measure the depth of each horizon and put a marker or stick on each identified layer.
3. Collect soil from each horizon.
4. Characterize the soil profile by identifying the physical properties of the different layers of soil horizons
through determining the color using a Munsell color chart, texture, friability, structure, and other observations
such as presence of roots, rocks, and pebbles. Record your observations on the report sheet.

Measure depth Characterize the

Select a soil
of each horizon. Collect soil from physical
profile with an
Place a marker each identified properties of
area of 1m2 and
on each horizon each identified
2m depth
identified layer. horizon.

Figure 1. Procedure for characterization of the soil profile.

 REPORT SHEET
Exercise 2: Soil Profile

Name: Score:
Program/Year/Section:
Laboratory schedule:
Date of submission:

V. Results
Profile Description:

Master Consistency
Illustration of Depth Color
Horizon Texture* Wet
Profile (cm) (moist) Moist
Symbol Stickiness Plasticity

* Field method (feel and roll method) may be used to identify the soil.
VI. Discussion
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VII. Conclusion
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VIII. Questions to Answer

1. What is concretion? When and where does it occur in the soil profile?
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2. Compare an organic soil with mineral soil.

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3. Compare an old soil from a young soil.

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4. How does topography affect the development of soil profile?

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IX. List of References:
(*Use at least 2 references from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; follow American Psychological Association (APA) format)
 Laboratory Exercise 3
SOIL TEXTURE

I. Introduction
Knowledge of the physical properties of the soil will help in understanding soil in many aspects. It
describes the nature of soil solids and their impacts in soil water and air which is found in the pore spaces
between the solid particles. It brings knowledge in classifying the soil profile and making field determination
for soil suitability of agricultural crops and other environmental studies. The physical properties of the soil such
as: colors, moisture, texture, structure, are generally used for soil classification and suitability classification.
Temperature, densities, and porosities of the soil are related physical properties.
Soil texture describes the size of the soil particles, while structure determines the manner in which the
soil particles are aggregated together. Both help determine the nutrient supplying ability of the soil solids, to
hold and conduct water and air necessary for plant - root activity. Texture largely influences the structure and
porosity of the soil. Methods of determining the physical properties of the soil includes both laboratory and
field conditions. Hydrometer and pipette method of determining texture is done in the laboratory whereas, feel
and roll method is done in the field. Paraffin clod and core sampling methods are used to determine structure
while, gravimetric determines moisture content of the soil.
This module deals on the importance of different physical properties of the soil which greatly influence
the growth and development of the crops. The study on physical properties of the soil is also regarded as the
study of three soil phases: the solid, liquid, and gaseous phase. They control the root penetration, drainage of
water, aeration, moisture retention and the availability of plant nutrients. The students will experience how to
perform laboratory analyses and field determination for particle size determination, porosity, and densities of
the soil.

II. Objectives
This exercise enables the students to:
1. get acquainted with the different methods for soil texture determination;
2. understand the significance of soil texture to crop growth and development; and,
3. learn the principle of particle size distribution.

III. Materials
Air Dried Soil Samples1 Plunger
Calgon Solution (4% Na-hexametaphosphate)2 Graduated Cylinder
250 mL Erlenmeyer Flask with Cover Soil Hydrometer
Wash Bottle Weighing Balance
Distilled Water
1
soil samples collected from the soil profile and sieved to 2 mm size (Sieve No. 10)
2
Dissolve 7.94 g sodium carbonate and 35.7 g sodium hexametaphosphate and dilute to 1 liter with distilled water. (Note:
heat Na-carbonate solution to dissolve, then add Na-hexametaphosphate and volume to 1 L).
IV. Procedure
A. Determination of Soil Textural Class

A.1. Laboratory Method (Hydrometer Method- Bouyoucos, 1927)

Figure 2. Hydrometer method procedure

A.2. Calculations and identification of texture

1. Correct the hydrometer reading using the Correction Factor (C.F.), where C.F.= 0.36 (T – 19.4°C).
Then C.F. value is algebraically added to the hydrometer reading (HR) to give the Corrected Hydrometer
Reading (CHR), CHR= C.F. + HR.
2. Compute %sand, %silt, and %clay based on the CHR using the following formula:

CHR after 2 hours

%clay = x 100%
Weight of soil sample

CHR at 40 sec - CHR after 2 hours

%silt= x 100%
Weight of soil sample
B. Field Method (Feel and Roll Method)
- Oftentimes it is necessary to determine the soil texture quickly or in places where laboratory
determination is not feasible. The texture of the soil may also be determined in the field by the so called “feel”
and “roll” methods.

B.1. Feel Method

Figure 3. Procedure of feel method for field determination of soil texture.

Table 1. Soil texture based on the feeling description of the soil sample.
Description Soil Texture
Feels gritty Sand
Feels smooth, floury, or powder Silt
Feels sticky and plastic when moist Clay

B.2. Roll Method

Figure 4. Procedure of roll method for field determination of soil texture.

Table 2. Soil texture based description of the soil sample using roll method.
Description Soil Texture
No rolls formed Sand, Loamy sand
Beginning of a roll Sandy loam
Roll is continuous and breaks when bend Loam, Silt loam, Silt
Roll is continuous and ring cracks Clay loam, Sandy clay loam,
Silty clay loam
Roll is continuous and can be molded into a ring Clay, Silty clay, Sandy clay
Figure 5. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Textural Triangle
 REPORT SHEET
Exercise 3: Soil Texture

Name: Score:
Program/Year/Section:
Laboratory schedule:
Date of submission:

V. Results
A. Hydrometer Method
Weight of soil sample (g):

Parameters 40 seconds 2 hours

Hydrometer reading (HR)
Temperature (°C)
Correction factor (C.F.)
Corrected Hydrometer Reading (CHR)
% Sand:
% Silt:
%Clay:
Soil Textural Description:

B. Feel and Roll Method

Description Soil Texture

1. Feel Method
2. Roll Method

VI. Discussion
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VII. Conclusion
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VIII. Questions to Answer

1. Is soil texture a property of the soil which would easily change? Why?
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2. What is the purpose of using calgon solution for soil textural analysis?
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3. What is the ideal proportion of the soil particles in a loamy type of soil texture?
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4. What particle in the soil suspension will settle first? Explain its relation to the Stoke’s Law.
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IX. List of References:

(*Use at least 2 references from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; follow American Psychological Association (APA) format)
 Laboratory Exercise No. 4
SOIL STRUCTURE, DENSITY, AND PORE SPACES
I. Introduction
Soil separates, sand, silt, and clay are usually grouped together in the form of aggregates. Structure
modifies the influence of texture as regards to moisture and air relationships, availability of plant nutrients,
action of microorganisms and ultimately plant growth. Structure refers to the arrangement of these individual
separates and their aggregates into certain defined patterns. Soil separates have the property to combine together
and assume some kind of shape. Texture has to do with the distribution of the soil separates (sand, silt and clay)
whereas structure has to do with the arrangement of these soil separates.
A well-developed structure is especially important for fine textured soils. Soils exhibit a desirable
structural condition when they have a high proportion of medium size aggregates, thus having a low bulk
density, and an appreciable number of large pores. These soils are highly permeable to water and air, having
satisfactory water-infiltration and water-retaining capacities. They are readily penetrated by plant roots and
resist compaction by farm supplements. On the other hand, soils with undesirable structures characteristically
show high bulk densities, a few large pores, and a low content of water-stable aggregates. Permeability to water
and air is low in this soil; resistance to root extension (mechanical impedance) is great, anaerobic conditions
are often approached.
Particle density is defined as the weight per unit volume of soil particles not including pore space and is
frequently expressed in grams per cubic centimeter. Particle density of most mineral soils varies from 2.6 to
2.75 g/cc. A generally accepted figure of particle density for the normal mineral soil is 2.65 g/cc. The value of
particle density tends to become higher if large amounts of heavy minerals such as magnetite, limonite and
hematite are present in the soil and tends to decrease with an increase in organic matter. However, particle
density is not affected by size of the particle or the changes in pore space.
Bulk Density (B.D.) is the oven dry weight of a unit volume of soil including pore spaces within the soil
mass. Like particle density it is generally expressed in g/cc. If B.D. is very high there are very few pore spaces
(or the total pore space is reduced). The bulk density of uncultivated soils usually varies from 1.0 to 1.6 g/cc.
The variation is due largely to the differences in total pore space. In general, the finer the texture of the soil,
the less it will weigh for a given volume. In other words, fine-textured soils have smaller B.D. values than do
coarse-textured soils. Clay loams and silt loams have bulk densities ranging from 1.1 to 1.4 g/cc. The
compaction of a soil decreases the pore space and increases its weight per unit volume.
Percent pore space or porosity of soils. Porosity refers to that percentage of soil volume which is occupied
by pore spaces. Porosity varies with the texture of soil, shape of individual particles, soil structure, amount of
organic matter, and degree of soil compaction. Any operation that reduces aggregation and decreases the
amount of organic matter decreases pore space. Porosity normally decreases with depth in the soil. Porosity of
soil indicates total pore space and not the size and form of individual pores.

II. Objectives
This laboratory exercise enables the students to:
1. familiarize on the different methods of determining densities and porosity of the soil;
2. realize the importance of these physical properties of the soil to agriculture; and,
3. identify the different soil structures and their characteristics.

III. Materials
A. Soil Structure
1. soil clod collected from the soil profile in Exercise 1
2. soil samples from disturbed and undisturbed areas for aggregate stability test

B. Particle Density
1. Clean, dry volumetric flask (100 ml)
 2. Air dried samples of the same soil used in bulk density determination
3. Weighing balance, Distilled water

C. Bulk Density
1. Soil clods at least 3 cm in diameter
2. Cotton twine, melted paraffin
3. Weighing balance set-up
4. Distilled water contained in 250 ml beaker

IV. Procedure
A. Soil Structure
Characteristics of soil structures
a. If the samples are large sized clods, slightly crush each sample with your hands so that it will crumble
into its aggregates.
b. Determine the type of the structure of each sample. Record all observations.
c.

Stability of soil aggregates

a. Place 50 g each of aggregates of forest and cultivated soil samples in a wire screen container and
submerge in a basin of water.
b. Observe the disintegration of the aggregates after a few minutes of submergence. Record observations.
c. After 5 minutes, lift and then submerge again the soils in water for 10 times. Compare the amount of
aggregates retained in the screen containers. Record your observations.

B. Particle Density: Pycnometer method

a. Weigh accurately a clean volumetric flask (Wvf)
b. Place 15 g of air dry soil sample in the flask and get the total weight
c. (Wvf + s) of the flask and the soil.
d. Determine the moisture content of a duplicate soil sample by oven drying 105 °C for at least 24 hours or
when the weight becomes
e. constant.
f. Fill the flask about one-half full distilled water. Shake gently and intermittently for about 10 minutes to
remove the entrapped air. Fill the mark with distilled water.
g. Clean and dry the outside of the flask and weigh (Wvf + s + w).
h. Compute the oven dry weight (ODW) based from the moisture content
i. (MC) of the sample using the following formula:

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝐴𝐷𝑊) (𝑔)

𝑂𝐷𝑊 =
%𝑀𝐶
1+
100

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Where: %𝑀𝐶 = 𝑋 100
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

j. Compute the volume of the soil particles. This is equal to the volume of the volumetric flask (Vf)
subtracted to the volume of water in the flask.
k. Compute the particle density.

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑔)

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑃𝐷) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
C. Bulk Density:
Core Method
a. Collect soil sample from the field using a core sampler and weigh.
b. Ovens dry the soil for 3 days to obtain its oven dry weight.
c. Analyze the bulk density of the soil sample using Core Method of analysis, where in the volume
of the core sampler used was computed by measuring the diameter and the height of the core
sampler.

Height (cm)

Diameter (cm)
d. Divide the total weight of the oven dried soil by the total volume of the soil including the air inside
the soil mass (g/cm3).

Paraffin Clod Method

a. Select undisturbed air dried soil clods about 3 cm or less in diameter.
b. Smoothen the clods by trimming the surface with a sharp knife carefully so as to preserve the
natural structure.
c. Tie a piece of fine thread securely around the clod and weigh (Wc).
d. Dip the soil clod in melted paraffin making sure that water will not penetrate through. Several dips
may be needed. After cooling, weigh the paraffined clod (Wpc).
e. Weigh the paraffined clod in water (Ww).
f. Remove the paraffin layer and determine the moisture of the clod by crushing the clod or oven
drying a representative sample at 105 °C for at least 24 hours.
g. Determine the ODW of the soil using the formula in procedure 6 for determination of particle
density.
h. Calculate the bulk volume of the clod using the following formula:

Bulk Volume = Volume of Paraffin Clod (Vpc) - Volume of Paraffin (Vp)

Wpc − Wc
Where: Volume of Paraffin (Vp) =
Density of Paraffin

Wpc − Wpcw
Volume of Paraffin Clod (Vpc) =
Density of water

Volume of Clod = Vpc − Vc

Oven − dry weight (ODW)

Bulk Density (BD) =
Volume of clod

Note:
• Density of water= 1.0 g/cc
• Density of paraffin= 0.9 g/cc

D. Porosity
a. Percent porosity is determined by subtracting the quotient of the bulk density and particle density by 1
then multiplied by 100.

Bulk Density
% Porosity = (1 − ) 𝑥 100%
Particle Density

Or

Bulk Density
% Porosity = 100 − ( 𝑥 100%)
Particle Density
b. Record the data.
 REPORT SHEET
Exercise 4: Soil Structure, Density, & Porosity

Name: Score:
Program/Year/Section:
Laboratory schedule:
Date of submission:

V. Results

A. Soil Structure

A.1. Characteristics of soil structures

A.2. Stability of soil aggregates

B. Particle Density: Pycnometer Method

Weight of soil sample; Ws (g)
Oven dry weight of the soil; ODW (
%Moisture content; %MC
Weight of flask; Wf (g)
Volume of flask; Vf (cc)
Weight of water; Ww (g)
Wf + Ws
Wf + Ws + Ww
Volume of water; Vw
(Vw= wt. of water/ density of water)
Volume of soil particles; Vsp
(Vsp= vol. of flask – vol. of water)
Particle Density; PD
(PD= ODW of soil – vol. soil part.)
C. Bulk Density
C.1. Paraffin Clod Method
Weight of clod; Wc (g)
Oven dry weight of the clod; ODW (g)
%Moisture content; %MC
Weight of paraffin clod; Wpc (g)
Weight of paraffin clod in water; Wpcw (g)
Weight of paraffin; Wp
(Wp= Wpc – Wc)
Volume of paraffin; Vp
(Vp= [Wpc – Wc]/ Density of paraffin)
Volume of paraffin clod; Vpc
(Vpc= [Wpc – Wpcw]/ Density of water)
Volume of clod; Vc
(Vc= Vpc - Vp)
Bulk Density; BD
(PD= ODW of clod/vol. of clod)

C.2. Core Method

Volume of core
Oven dry weight of the soi; ODW (g)
Bulk Density; BD
Pore spaces; %Porosity

VI. Discussion
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VII. Conclusion
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VIII. Questions to Answer

1. Why is the parameter bulk density more used than particle density?
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2. Why does coarse-textured dominated soil have lower water holding capacity than fine-textured soil?
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3. What is the significance of soil porosity to soil productivity?

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4. In which soil type do you think will the bulk density be lower, in a clayey soil or sandy soil? Explain.
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IX. List of References:

(*Use at least 2 references from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; follow American Psychological Association (APA) format)
 Laboratory Exercise No. 5
SOIL MOISTURE

I. Introduction
Soil moisture content is the amount of moisture contained in an amount of soil. This may be expressed
as: (a) percent by weight as percentage of oven dry, moisture free weight, (b) percent by volume as percentage
of the bulk (total volume), and (c) percentage of the total volume of the pore space of soil (degree of saturation).
Different soils have different capacities to hold water and any soils may contain quite different amounts of
water at different times. If too much water is present in a soil and will not drain out, plant roots may die because
of lack of oxygen. If too little water is present, plant growth slows down and ceases; finally, wilting results.
Much the same thing happens to microorganisms living in the soil.
Considering the many phenomena of nature in which water plays an important role, we recognize that
from the viewpoint of mankind, the functions of water can be beneficial or detrimental. The forces that keep
soil and water together are: (1) adhesion - mutual attraction between water and soil, and (2) cohesion -
attraction of water molecules for each other. Together, these forces make it possible for the soil solids to retain
water and control its movement and utilization.

II. Objectives
This exercise enables students to:
1. familiarize with the different methods of soil moisture determination;
2. observe four effects of texture and structure condition of the soil on water infiltration, percolation and
capillary movement; and
3. understand the importance of soil moisture content in relation to crops.

III. Materials
Drying Oven Iron clamp & iron stand
Weighing balance/ Triple beam balance Beaker (100 mL)
Glass percolation tube* Cheese cloth
Graduated cylinder Rubber band
Ruler Soil sample (clay and sand)
Tin can Aluminum foil
*40 cm long and 5 cm inside diameter
IV. Procedure
A. Gravimetric Method

Figure 6. Procedure for oven-drying of soil samples.

Calculate the moisture content of the soil, following the formula;

FW − ODW Where:
∅w = 𝑋 100
ODW ∅w= soil moisture content in percent by weight
FW= weight of the soil before oven drying
ODW= constant weight of the soil after oven-drying

B. Water Movement

B.1. Percolation

Figure 7. Procedure for percolation or downward movement of water.

 B.2. Capillary Movement

Figure 8. Procedure for capillary movement of water.

 REPORT SHEET
Exercise 5: Soil Moisture

Name: Score:
Program/Year/Section:
Laboratory schedule:
Date of submission:

V. Results
A. Gravimetric Method
Fresh weight of soil sample; FW (g)
Oven dry weight of soil sample; ODW (g)
% Moisture content; %MC

B. Water Movement
B.1. Percolation
Sand Clay
Time
Height

B.2. Capillary movement

Sand Clay
Time
Height
Rate*
*Note: Use 1 min. for sand and 30 min. for clay capillary movement;
Rate= height of water rise/time (sec.)

VI. Discussion
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VII. Conclusion
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VIII. Questions to Answer

1. The water available for plant is the moisture held between the moisture equivalent and field capacity and
wilting percentage. Compute the table below:

%Moisture Content % Field Capacity %Wilting %Available %Gravitational

coefficient Moisture Water
20 20 12 8
16 20 12 4
32 25 15
10 10 5
6 10 5
14 18 10
28 25 17
*Note: If MC > FC, then %Available moisture = FC – PWP
If MC < FC, then %AM= MC - PWP

2. A soil contains 18% moisture which corresponds to 9.5g of water. What is the moist weight of the soil?
Show your computation.
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3. Is it possible for a particular soil to obtain a moisture content of more than 100% by weight? Explain.
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4. What is the significance of capillary rise of water to crop production?

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IX. List of References:
(*Use at least 2 references from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; follow American Psychological Association (APA) format)
 Laboratory Exercise No. 6
SOIL COLLOIDS

I. Introduction
The most chemically active components of the soil are both the mineral and organic soil colloids. Their
reactivity is attributed to the tremendous surface area and the presence of the positive and negative charges.
However, soil colloids dominantly, contain negatively charged ions. Both negatively and positively charged
surfaces are found on soil colloid but generally the net charge within the usual pH range in soil is negative.
The very fine inorganic particles with size limit of one micron (4) are known as clay or mineral colloids.
Clay colloids may be either crystalline or amorphous in nature. Crystalline clays may have a definite structure
of silicates which could be 1:1, silica tetrahedral: aluminum octahedron layer or a 2:1, two silica tetrahedral
layer sandwiching an aluminum: octahedron layer. Each type of clay colloid has its own characteristics which
affect the properties of the soil. An example is the shrinking and swelling capacity of the soil during the wetting
and drying condition may be dominated by the 2:1 type of layer silicate.
On the other hand, a non-crystalline clays are colloidal silicates with crystalline structure which are not
sufficiently ordered. These minerals are somewhat poorly defined aluminum silicates. Allophane and imogolite
may be considered as non-crystalline minerals, along with iron and aluminum oxides, and colloids from an
organic origin, the organic colloids. The characteristics of the mineral soils generally depend on the dominant
clay minerals present.
Organic products, such as humus resulting from decomposition of organic residues are known as the
organic colloids.

II. Objectives
At the end of this exercise the students should be able to:
a. understand the characteristics of the colloidal component of the soil and their importance;
b. compare the extent of the presence of charges in different soil colloids; and study the colloidal
component of the soil and their characteristics.

III. Materials
Test tube Soil sample
Rubber ring Ca(OH)2
Petri dish 0.02% Gentian violetA
Filter paper 0.02% Eosin redB
Funnel 0.2 N NaOHC
Watch glass
A- dissolve 0.2 g of gentian violet in 1L distilled water
B- dissolve 0.2 g of eosin red in 1L distilled water
C- dissolve 8g/L of NaOH pellets
IV. Procedure
A. Proof for the Presence of Charges on Soil Colloids

B. Swelling of Colloidal Clay

C. Dispersion and flocculation of soil colloids

D. Stickiness
• Weigh about 5 grams each of the 3 soil samples into a separate watch glass and moisten with water.
Compare the degree of stickiness by rubbing a small portion between thumb, pointer, and middle
finger.

Figure 9. Rubbing of soil between pointer finger and thumb

 REPORT SHEET
Exercise 5: Soil Moisture

Name: Score:
Program/Year/Section:
Laboratory schedule:
Date of submission:

V. Results
A. Proof for the Presence of Charges on Soil Colloids
Dominant Charges
Soil Sample Soil Solution Color of Leachate
(+/-)
Eosin Red +Soil
Sand
Crystal Violet + Soil
Eosin Red +Soil
Clay
Crystal Violet + Soil
Eosin Red +Soil
Clay + OM
Crystal Violet + Soil

B. Swelling of colloidal clay. Describe and draw an illustration of the observation.

Soil Sample Observation

Sand

Clay

C. Dispersion and flocculation of soil colloids.

Soil Sample Observation

Sand

Clay

D. Stickiness. Draw an illustration of the observation.

Soil Sample Observation

Sand
Clay
VI. Discussion
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VII. Conclusion
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VIII. Questions to Answer

1. What is the importance of the charges in the soil colloids in relation to soil nutrient and pollution?
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2. What could be the probable soil management for the problems resulting from different types of clay?
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3. Will it be very effective to apply organic fertilizer in soils which are highly depleted of nutrient?
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4. What causes the cracking of soils in most of the rice fields?

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IX. List of References:

(*Use at least 2 references from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; follow American Psychological Association (APA) format)
 Laboratory Exercise No. 7
ION EXCHANGE

I. Introduction
An outstanding chemical property of the soil is the process of ion exchange, in which ions are exchanged
between solid and liquid phases and between solid phases if they are in close contact with each other. Cations
If the cations are exchanged (i.e. Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, Al3+) the process known as cation exchange whereas if the
anions (i.e. H2PO4-, HPO42-, Cl-, OH-) are exchanged the process is anions exchange.