21st Century Literature
Poems in Spanish and Tagalog
Week 1
Literature - (the origin of the term – litera, which means
letter) deals with man's ideas, thoughts, and emotions –
thus, it can be said that literature is the story of man.
literature comes from the French phrase "belles letters,"
which means beautiful writing.
Critical analysis - is a careful examination and evaluation of
a text, image, or other work or performance while Close
reading is a deep analysis of how a literary text works; it is
both a reading process and something you include in a
literary analysis paper, though in a refined form.
Geography - the study of places and the relationships
between people and their environments.
Language - a system of conventional spoken, manual
(signed), or written symbols by which individuals express
themselves.
Ethnicity - a notion that refers to social entities sharing real
or putative ascriptive features like a common origin or
cultural-linguistic legacy which assumedly command special
collective commitment,
as well as their retention and transmission
PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD (B.C. to 1564) - It showcases a
rich past through speeches, folk songs, folk narratives,
mimetic dances, and indigenous rituals.
Literary Forms
1. RIDDLE (Bugtong) - A mysterious, misleading, or
puzzling question posed as a problem to be solved or
guessed. Gives an enigma.
2. CHANTS (Bulong) - Used in witchcraft or enchantment.
3. PROVERBS (Salawikain) - A brief popular epigram or
maxim. Short poems that have customarily used and served
as laws or rules on good behavior by our ancestors.
4. FOLK SONGS - A song that originates in traditional
popular culture. Form of lyric that expresses hope,
aspiration, and lifestyles.
5. FOLK TALES
● Myths - A usually traditional story of ostensibly historical
events that serves to unfold part of the world view of people
or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon.
● LEGEND - Explaining the origin of things. One popularly
regarded as historical although not verifiable.
● FABLES - Used animal characters and allegory.
● EPICS - A long narrative poem in elevated style recounting
the deeds of a legendary or historical hero. Revolving around
supernatural events or heroic deeds.
THE SPANISH REGIME (1565-1863) - Religion was the
thematic focus during this era. Miguel de Legazpi - the first
Spanish Governor-General in the Philippines.
a. Took on a Religious Character
● Christianization of the Philippines
● Introduced the first printing press
● Doctrina Christiana – the first published book (1593)
b. Literary Output
● Catechisms
● Confession Manuals
● Grammar Books
● Dictionaries
c.
● Pasyon – the most popular form of religious literature A
long narrative poem about the passion and death of Christ
Ang Mahal na Pasyon ni Jesu Cristong Panginoon Natin –
Gaspar Aquilino de Belen’s well know pasyon.
● Sinakulo/Cenakulo – a dramatization of the pasyon. A play
on the passion and death of Christ performed during the holy
week
● Two Popular Narrative Poems
❖ Awit
❖ Korido
Filipino writers either wrote in Spanish, in their own
language, or both:
1. Francisco Baltazar - the master of traditional Tagalog
poetry, became well-known for his work Florante at Laura
(1838–1861), the most famous metrical romance of the
country.
2. Pedro Paterno - wrote Sampaguitas y poesias varias
(1880), the first poetry collection in Spanish by a Filipino, and
the novel Ninay (1885), considered to be the first Filipino
novel.
3. Jose Rizal - a prominent ilustrado and the country’s
national hero, is famous for the novels Noli Me Tangere and
El Filibusterismo. These novels portray the corruption and
abuse of Spanish officials and the clergy.
4. Andres Bonifacio - the founder of the Katipunan, wrote
the poem "Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa." This poem
appeared in the Kalayaan, the official newspaper of the
Katipunan, in March 1896.
5. Leona Florentino - known as the "mother of Philippine
women’s literature," was a poet in both Ilocano and Spanish.
Twenty of her poems were preserved and exhibited in
Europe. The poems were included in the Encyclopaedia
International des Oeuvres des Femmes in 1889.
6. Gaspar Aquino de Belen - was a Filipino poet and
translator of the 17th century, known for authoring a 1704
rendition of the Pasyon, a famous poetic narrative of the
passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus, which has
circulated in many versions.
7. Jose de la Cruz - was the foremost exponent of the
Komedya during his time. A poet of prodigious output and
urbane style, de la Cruz marks a turning point in that his
elevated diction distinguishes his work from folk idioms.
THE NATIONALISTIC PERIOD (1864-1896) - Strong feeling
of patriotism and devotion to the country.
A. Characteristics
1. Planted seeds of nationalism in Filipinos
2. The language shifted from Spanish to Tagalog
3. Addressed the masses instead of the “intelligentsia”
B. Literary Forms
1. Propaganda Literature - Reformatory in objective.
a. Political Essays – satires, editorials, and news articles
were written to attack and expose the evils of Spanish rule.
b. Political Novel
2. Revolutionary Literature – more propagandistic than
literary as it is more violent in nature and demanded
complete independence for the country.
a. Political Essays – helped inflame the spirit of revolution.
b. Poetry
THE UNITED STATES COLONIAL RULE (1910-1930,
1920-1945) - Spanish, English, and Filipino languages
flourished in this period.
May be divided into two periods:
1. The Period of Apprenticeship
2. The Period of Emergence
- Before the war and the Japanese Occupation
- Noted Short Story Writers
- Highly influenced by Western literary trends like
Romanticism and Realism.
- Short Stories – the most prevalent literary form
Other Famous Authors:
● Fernando Ma. Guerero – he collected the best of his
poem in a book called Crisalidas, and one of the poems
written in this book was “Inovacion A Rizal”
● Manuel Bernabe – is a lyric poet, he was more attractive
to the public in a debate with balmori because
of the melodious he used.
● Lope K. Santos – “Father of the National Language
Grammar”, he was also called“apo” of the tagalog writers.
“Banaag at Sikat” was his masterpiece.
● Jose Corazon de Jesus – known as huseng batute, HE
was also called the poet of love in his time.
● Inigo Ed Regaldo – a popular storyteller, novelist, and
newspaperman. He reached the peak of his success by the
“sumpong” of his pen.
THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION (1942-1944) - This period
broke away from tradition, especially among Tagalog poets.
A. War Years (1942-1944)
1. Tagalog poets broke away from the Balagtas tradition and
instead wrote in simple language and free verse.
2. Fiction prevailed over poetry.
B. Period of Maturity and Originality (1945-1960)
1. Bountiful harvest in poetry, fiction, drama, and essay.
2. Filipino writers mastered English and familiarized
themselves with diverse techniques.
3. Literary “giants” appeared.
National Artist/s - Filipino citizens who have been given the
rank and title in recognition of his or her significant
contributions to the development of Philippine arts and
letters.
Bienvenido L. Lumbera - is a Filipino poet, critic and
dramatist. He is a National Artist of the Philippines and a
recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism,
Literature, and Creative Communications.
Roberto "Bob" Ong - This author's actual name and identity
is unknown. He is a contemporary Filipino author born in
February 1975 in Quezon City.
PETER SOLIS NERY - This Hiligaynon pride from Iloilo is an
award-winning Filipino poet, fictionist, and author of various
books.
ANTHONY L. TAN - He was born in Siasi, Sulu whose
writings have been appearing locally and internationally in
magazines, journals, and anthologies.
Week 3
Genre – means a type of art, literature, or music
characterized by a specific form, content, and style.
Fiction - literature in the form of prose, especially short
stories, and novels that describes imaginary events and
people.
Short Story - often referred to as a “slice of life” fictitious
narrative.
Novel - fictitious narrative with a complicated plot.
Non-fiction – prose writing that is based on facts, real
events, and real people such as biography or history.
Elements – the part of literary text.
Structure - the arrangement of and relations between the
parts or elements of something complex.
A. TRADITIONAL LITERARY GENRES

THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD (1960- PRESENT) -

Integration of Ethnic, Spanish, and American Traditions.
Literary Expressions - Give responses to the historical and
political forces that have shaped Philippine society since the
pacific war.
The contemporary Period is classified into two categories:
I. POST EDSA LITERATURE (1986- ____) - has been
marked by adventurousness and a willingness to gamble on
"non-traditional" projects.
II. 21st Century Literature (2001- present) - literature
refers to world literature in prose produced during the 21st
century. The range of years is literature written from
(roughly) the year 2001 to the present.

Week 2

Canon - a collection of works considered representative of a

period or genre
Author - a writer of a literary work

21ST CENTURY LITERARY GENRES:
1. HYPERPOETRY
– This genre, also called cyber poetry.
– Refers to works of verse (although not necessarily in lines
and stanzas) which could not be presented without the
computer.
2. TEXTULA
- Mobile phone poetry, using short traditional formal verses
like tanaga which has a 7777 syllable count with rhyme
scheme aabb, abab, abba.
- a poetry genre mastered by FRANK RIVERA.
3. ILLUSTRATED OR GRAPHIC NOVELS
- Textual portions are presented in traditional form.
- Some illustrated novels may contain no text at all.
4. DIGI-FICTION
- Is a literary experience that combines three media: book,
movie/video, and internet website.
- In order to get the full story, people must engage in
navigation, reading, viewing, in all three formats.
5. FLASH FICTION
- a style of writing which involves producing very short pieces
of fictional literature.
- Fictional literature or fiction of extreme brevity that still
offers character and plot development.
6. DOODLE FICTION
- A literary presentation where the author incorporates
doodle drawings and handwritten graphics in place of
traditional font.
7. BLOGS, EMAIL, INSTANT MESSAGING NOVELS
8. CHICKLIT
- Addresses issues of modern womanhood, often
humorously and light-heartedly
9. CREATIVE NON-FICTION
- Literary non-fiction of narrative non-fiction
Creative nonfiction joins literary art, fiction, poetry with
research.
There are five types.
1. Memoir - contains a personal experience of the narrator. It
could include many scenes of a place, an encounter with a
person or an object such as a cat or dog (pet).
2. Personal essay- tackles one significant event in your life
e.g., your visit to a trade fair, book fair, zoological garden, or
your first meeting with your loved one
3. Short story - narrates with imagery, details of what you
see, hear, feel, smell or taste in case of story involving food
preparation.
4. Lyric essay - like personal essay; but it plays with words
with description that flow like music, poetry to tell the story.
5. Literary journalism - includes interviews and book
reviews. The narrator tries to maintain an objective impartial
stand.
10. SPOKEN WORD POETRY
- Spoken word poetry is poetry that is written on a page but
performed for an audience.
11. SPECULATIVE FICTION
- The setting is futuristic and involves supernatural elements.
It encompasses horror and science fiction works.
ELEMENTS OF FICTION
A. CHARACTERS – are the representation of human
beings.
TYPES OF CHARACTER
1. Round – a dynamic character who recognizes changes in
circumstances.
2. Flat – also known as the stock or stereotype who does not
grow up and develop.
3. Others
a. PROTAGONIST- hero/ heroine
b. Antagonist- a foil to the protagonist
c. Deuterogamist- second in importance
d. Fringe- one who is destroyed by his inner conflict.
e. Typical or minor characters
B. SETTING - the locale (place) or period (time) in which the
action takes place (also known as the background of the
story).
C. CONFLICT - the struggle or complication involving the
characters, the opposition of
persons or forces upon which the action depends in drama
or fiction.
TYPES OF CONFLICT
1. Internal Conflict - occurs when the protagonist struggles
within himself or herself. The protagonist is pulled by two
courses of action or by differing emotions.
2. Interpersonal Conflict - pits the protagonist against
someone else. Person-against-person
3. External Conflict - this happens when the protagonist
conflicts with the values of his or her society.
D. PLOT- a casually related sequence of events; what
happens as a result of the main conflict is presented in a
structured format; the sequence of events which involves the
character in conflict.
1. Narrative order - the sequence of events
⮚ Chronological- the most common type of narrative order
in children’s books.
⮚ Flashback- occurs when the author narrates an event that
took place before the current time of the story.
⮚ Time Lapse- occurs when the story skips a period of time
that seems unusual compared to the rest of the plot.
1. Exposition - beginning; introduces the time, place,
setting, and the main characters.
2. Complication - rising action; unfolds the problems and
struggles that would be encountered by the main characters
leading to the crisis.
3. Climax - the result of the crisis; the part where the
problem or the conflict is the highest peak of interest.
4. Denouement - is the untying of the entangled knots, or
the part that shows a conflict or problem is solved, leading to
its downward movement or end.
5. Resolution - end; contains the last statements about the
story.
E. THEMES - moral message about life or human nature that
is communicated by a literary work.
F. SYMBOLISM - it is a literary device that uses symbols and
abstract ideas to represent something beyond the literal
meaning.
POETRY
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
1. Sense - is revealed through the meaning of words,
images, and symbols.
a. Diction - denotative and connotative meaning
b. Images and sense impressions - sight, sound, smell,
taste, touch, motion, and emotion
c. Figures of speech - simile, metaphor, personification,
apostrophe, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony,
allusion, antithesis, paradox, litotes, oxymoron,
onomatopoeia.
FIGURES OF SPEECH
a. Simile - consists of comparing two things using the words
"like" or "as."
b. Metaphor - uses the direct comparison of two, unlike
things or ideas.
c. Personification- gives human traits to inanimate objects
or ideas.
d. Apostrophe - a direct address to someone absent, dead,
or inanimate.
e. Metonymy - substitutes a word that closely relates to a
person or a thing.
f. Synecdoche - uses a part to represent a whole.
g. Hyperbole - makes use of exaggeration for emphasis and
effect.
h. Irony - a contrast between what is said and what is
meant.
i. Allusion - refers to any literary, biblical, historical,
mythological, scientific event, character, or place.
j. Antithesis - involves a contrast of words or ideas.
k. Paradox - uses a phrase or statement that on the surface
seems contradictor but makes some
l. Litotes - makes a deliberate understatement used to affirm
by negating its opposite.
m. Oxymoron - putting two contradictory terms in one
statement. Words or phrases in which conflicting or opposite
terms are used together.
2. Sound - is the result of a combination of elements.
a. Tone Color- alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme,
repetition, anaphora.
b. Rhythm- ordered recurrent alternation of strong and weak
elements in the flow of the sound and silence: duple, triple,
running or common rhyme.
c. Meter- stress, duration, or number of syllables per line,
fixed metrical pattern, or a verse form
d. Rhyme Scheme- formal arrangement of rhymes in a
stanza or the whole poem.
3. Structure- refers to the arrangement of words and lines to
fit together, and the organization of the parts to form a whole.
a. Word order- natural and unnatural arrangements of
words
b. Ellipsis- Omitting some words for economy and effect.
c. Punctuation- abundance or lack of punctuation marks
d. Shape- contextual and visual designs; jumps, omission of
spaces, capitalization, lower case.
Week 4
Literary - means concerned with or connected with the
writing, study, or appreciation of literature.
Criticism - the analysis and judgment of the merits and
faults of a literary or artistic work.
Literary Criticism - the study, discussion, evaluation, and
interpretation of literature.
Formalist Approach - analyzing the literary elements.
Historical Approach- it involves the understanding of the
historical and cultural conditions that influence the production
of the literary work.
Feminist Approach - focuses on female representation in
literature, paying attention to female points of view,
concerns, and values.
Reader- response - It attempts “to describe what happens
in the reader’s mind while interpreting a text” and reflects
that reading, like writing, is a creative process.
Marxist Approach - an approach to diagnosing political and
social problems in terms of the struggles between members
of different socio-economic classes.
The Formalist Approach – holds that the true meaning of a
text can be determined only by analyzing the literary
elements of the text and by understanding how these
elements work together to form a cohesive whole.
Week 5 and 6
Multimedia - is a broad term for combining multiple media
formats. Whenever text, audio, still images, animation, video,
and interactivity are combined, the result is multimedia.
Electronic literature – Electronic literature or digital
literature encompasses works created exclusively on and for
digital devices, such as computers, tablets, and mobile
phones.
Format - general plan of organization, arrangement, or
choice of material, a method of organizing data.
Representation - an artistic likeness or image, the act or
action of representing: the state of being represented.
SMUG - very pleased and satisfied with yourself, and do not
doubt the value of what you know or have done.
SOLITARY - being, living, or going alone or without a
companion.
IRASCIBLE - marked by a hot temper and easily provoked
anger.
IMPUDENCE - the quality or state of being impudent.
TUMULT - disorderly agitation or milling about of a crowd
usually with uproar and confusion of voices: commotion.
Five Elements of Multimedia
1. TEXT - a broad term for something that contains words to
express something. It is the most essential element of
multimedia.
2. GRAPHIC - It is a two-dimensional figure or illustration. It
could be produced manually (by drawing, painting, carving,
etc.) or by computer graphics technology.
3. AUDIO - Produced by vibration, as perceived by the
sense of hearing. In multimedia, audio could come in
speech, sound effects, and music scores.
4. ANIMATION - The illusion of motion created by the
consecutive display of images of static elements.
5. VIDEO - This is the technology of capturing, recording,
processing, transmitting, and reconstructing moving
Pictures.
TEXT AND GRAPHICS
1. SLIDESHOW OR PRESENTATION - is a
series of pictures or pages of information (slides), often
displayed on a large screen using a video projector.
2. PREZI - is a presentation tool
that can be used to alternative traditional slide-making
programs such as PowerPoint.
3. DIAGRAM - is a symbolic representation of information
using visualization techniques.
4. INFOGRAPHICS - is "a visual representation of
information or data".
AUDIO
1. PODCAST - Digital audio or video files or recordings,
usually part of a themed series, that can be downloaded
from a website to a media player or computer.
VIDEO
1. SCREEN CAPTURE - An image of the data displayed on
the screen of a computer or mobile device, a screenshot.
2. LECTURE CAPTURE - is an umbrella term describing
any technology that allows
instructors to record their lectures and make them available
online.
3. TALKING HEAD - is an informal term used to describe the
widespread shot of a television presenter or other personality
talking directly to the audience, with only the upper body or
head visible.
4. ANIMATION - The technique of photographing successive
drawings or positions of puppets or models creates an
illusion of movement when the movie is shown as a
sequence.
Francisco Sionil Jose - was born on Dec. 3, 1924, in
Rosales, Pangasinan. He is best known for The Rosales
Saga, a five- novel epic encompassing 100 years of
Philippine history, 1872-1972, and depicts the Philippines'
revolutionary tradition.
Week 7 and 8
Artful Adaptation – concerned with finding a balance
between being true to its source material, and creating a film
that can stand on its own work of art.
Faithful Adaptation – Most appear in the film is almost the
same as the original Text; there is a slight change.
Language – is often viewed as a vehicle of thought, a
system of expression that mediates the transfer of thought
from one person to another.
Literal Adaptation – precisely what appears on the page
placed in the film
Literary Adaptation – is adapting a literary source (e.g., a
novel, short story, play, poem) to another genre or media,
such as music, a stage, a ballet, an opera, a film, or even an
animation.
Literary Text – a piece of written material, such as a book or
poem, that has the purpose of telling a story or entertaining,
as in a fictional novel.
Loose Adaptation – a film that keeps a few elements or
some semblance of the premise of the book it’s based on,
but then more or less does its own thing with them.
Museum Adaptation – concerned with preserving every
possible detail of the book exactly how it exists in the book,
just transferred to the film medium.
Novel- a long fictitious narrative with a complicated plot.
Characters and actions representative of the real life of past
or present times are portrayed in a plot. It is made up of
chapters.
Play – work of drama , usually consisting mostly of
dialogue between characters and intended for theatrical
performance rather than just reading .
Short story - a fictitious narrative compressed into one unit
of time, place, and action. It deals with a single character
interest, a single emotion, or a series of emotions called forth
by a single situation.
Music video - a form of audiovisual communication in which
the meaning is created via carriers of information
Elements of a “Good Adaptation”
● Fidelity to the story. This means the degree to which
detail and quality of original works are copied exactly. It also
deals with the accuracy of facts.
● Creative Addition (Music, actors, places). It means the
artistic representation of the literary Text.
● Temporal media between reading the book and watching
the movie.
● Simplicity- movie stories can easily be expressed in a
single sentence.
● Familiarity audiences prefer genre films that follow a
consistent set of rules and promise a predictable emotional
experience.
The Lyrics - Lyrics and images interact, creating meaning.
The Image - The visual form is close to the musical form.
Performance Clip - If a music video clip contains mostly
filmed performance. Is a video that shows the vocalist(s) in
one or more settings.
Narrative Clip - If a music video clip is most appropriately
understood as a short silent movie with a musical
background. Contains a visual story that is easy to follow.
Art Clip -If a music video clip contains no perceptible visual
narrative and no lip-synchronized singing.
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Week 1
Entrepreneurship - is the process of discovering
new ways of combining resources.
Entrepreneur - is comprehensively defined by
Zimmerer & Scarborough (2005) as someone who
“creates a new business in the face of risk and
uncertainty for the purpose of achieving profit and
growth by identifying significant opportunities and
assembling the necessary resources to capitalize
on them” (p.3).
Enterprise - is a company or business, often a
small one. Gartner (1990) identified 90 attributes
that showed up in definitions of entrepreneurs and
entrepreneurship provided by entrepreneurs and
other experts in the field.
The following are a few of these attributes:
Innovation – Does a person need to be innovative
to be considered an entrepreneur? Can an activity
be considered entrepreneurial if it is not
innovative?
Activities – What activities does a person need to
do to be considered an entrepreneur?
Creation of a new business – Does someone
need to start a new business to be considered an
entrepreneur, or can someone who buys a
business, buys into a franchise, or takes over an
existing family business be considered an
entrepreneur?
Start an innovative venture within an
established organization – Can someone who
works within an existing organization that they
don’t own be considered an entrepreneur if they
start an innovative venture for their organization?
Creation of a not-for-profit business – Can a
venture be considered entrepreneurial if it is a
not-for-profit, or should only for-profit businesses
be considered entrepreneurial?
eight entrepreneurship themes:
1. The Entrepreneur – The entrepreneur theme is
the idea that entrepreneurship involves individuals
with unique personality characteristics and abilities
(e.g., risk-taking, locus of control, autonomy,
perseverance, commitment, vision, and creativity).
2. Innovation – The innovation theme is
characterized as doing something new as an idea,
product, service, market, or technology in a new or
established organization.
3. Organization Creation – The organization
creation theme describes the behaviors involved in
creating organizations.
4. Creating Value – This theme articulates the
idea that entrepreneurship creates value. The
attributes in this factor indicated that value creation
might be represented by transforming a business,
creating a new business, growing a business,
creating wealth, or destroying the status quo.
5. Profit or Nonprofit - While for-profit
organizations are responsible for paying taxes
based on their net income, nonprofit organizations
are exempt from paying income tax.
6. Growth - Success in business.
7. Uniqueness – This theme suggested that
entrepreneurship must involve uniqueness.
8. The Owner-Manager – Some of the
respondents questioned by Gartner (1990) did not
believe that small mom-and-pop types of
businesses should be considered entrepreneurial.
4 ASPECTS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR
Involves creation process - Capability to think of
new ideas that will bring something useful to the
community.
Requires devotion of time and effort - If
something is important to you, time and effort will
make it easy to give in.
Involves the rewards of being an entrepreneur -
Give something to yourself as an entrepreneur
when you achieve something, and it could help
you be more inspired in your next project.
Requires assumption of necessary risk -
Business is not always at the top, which is why risk
is always present. We don’t know when there will
be an uncertain risk and when there will be the
best day in business because everything is not the
same day.
10 QUALITIES OF A SUCCESSFUL
ENTREPRENEUR
Disciplined – are focused on making their
business work and eliminating hindrances or
distractions from their goal.
Confidence – are confident in the knowledge that
they will make their business succeed.
Open-minded – they have the ability to look at
everything around them and focus it on their goals.
Self-starter – knows that if something needs to be
done, they should start it themselves.
Competitive – they need to win at the sports they
play and at the businesses they create.
Creativity - often come up with solutions that are
the synthesis of other items.
Determination – they look at defeat as an
opportunity for success.
Strong people skills – has strong communication
skills to sell the product and motivate employees.
Strong work ethic – will often be the first person
to arrive at the office and the last person to leave.
Passion – they genuinely love their work and are
willing to put in extra hours to make the business
succeed.
Importance of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship Accelerates Economic
Growth - Entrepreneurs are important to market
economies because they can act as the wheels of
the country's economic growth.
Entrepreneurship Promotes Innovation -
Through the right practices of research and
development, entrepreneurs bring innovation that
opens the door to new ventures, markets,
products, and technologies.
Entrepreneurship Can Promote Social Changes
- Entrepreneurs change or break traditions or
cultures of society and reduce the dependency on
obsolete methods, systems, and technologies.
Entrepreneurship Promotes Research and
Industrial Development - Along with producing
new business ideas and thinking outside the box,
entrepreneurs also promote research and
development.
Entrepreneurship Develops and Improves
Existing Enterprises - We often think of
entrepreneurs as inventing totally new products
and ideas, but they also impact existing
businesses.
Week 2
Development of Entrepreneurship as a
Concept
Risk and Uncertainty
Richard Cantillon (1680-1734) - was born in
France and belonged to the French School of
thought, although he was an Irish economist. He
appears to be the person who introduced the term
entrepreneur to the world. “According to Cantillon,
the entrepreneur is a specialist in taking on risk,
‘insuring’ workers by buying their output for resale
before consumers have indicated how much they
are willing to pay for it”
Adolph Reidel (1809-1872) - from the German
School of thought, picked up on Cantillon’s notion
of uncertainty and extended it to theorize that
entrepreneurs take on uncertainty so others,
namely income earners, do not have to be subject
to the same uncertainty.
Frank Knight (1885-1972) - founded the Chicago
School of Economics and belonged to the
American School of thought. He refined Cantillon’s
perspective on entrepreneurs and risk by
distinguishing insurable risk as something that is
separate from uncertainty, which is not insurable.
Distinction Between Entrepreneur and Manager
Jean-Baptiste Say (1767-1832) - also from the
French School, advanced Cantillon’s work, but
added that entrepreneurship was essentially a
form of management. Say “put the entrepreneur at
the core of the entire process of production and
distribution”.
Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) - from the English
School of thought, was one of the founders of
neoclassical economics. His research involved
distinguishing between the term’s capitalist,
entrepreneur, and manager. Marshall saw
capitalists as individuals who “committed
themselves to the capacity and honesty of others,
when he by himself had incurred the risks of
having contributed with the capital”.
Entrepreneurship versus Entrepreneur
Adam Smith (1723-1790) - from the English
School of thought, published An Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in
1776. In a departure from his previous thoughts on
entrepreneurship and economics, Smith did not
dwell on a particular class of individuals.
Carl Menger (1840-1921) - from the Austrian
School of thought, ranked goods according to their
causal connections to human satisfaction.
Lower-order goods include items like bread that
directly satisfy a human want or need, like hunger.
Higher-order goods are those that are further
removed from satisfying a human need.
Schumpeter (1934) - viewed innovation as arising
from new combinations of materials and forces. He
provided the following five cases of new
combinations.
1. The introduction of a new good – that is, one
with which consumers are not yet familiar—or of a
new quality of goods.
2. The introduction of a new method of production,
that is, one not yet tested by experience in the
branch of manufacture concerned, which by no
means needs to be founded upon discovery, can
also exist in a new way of handling a commodity
commercially.
3. The opening of a new market, that is a market
into which the branch of manufacture of the
country in question has not previously entered,
whether this market has existed before.
4. The conquest of a new source of supply of raw
materials or half-manufactured goods, again
irrespective of whether this source already exists
or whether it has first been created.
5. The carrying out of the new organization of any
industry, like the creation of a monopoly position ...
or the breaking up of a monopoly position
15 Important Entrepreneurial Traits According
to Divina Edralin, 2016
1. Initiative – it is the entrepreneur who takes or
initiates the first move towards setting up an
enterprise.
2. Looking for opportunity – always on the
lookout or searching for opportunity and ready to
exploit it in the best interest of the organization.
3. Persistence – is never disheartened by failure.
He believes in the Japanese proverb. “Fall seven
times, stand up eight.”
4. Information seeker – always keeps his eyes
and ears open and is receptive to new ideas that
can help him realize his goals.
5. Quality consciousness – set high standards
for themselves and then do their best to achieve
them.
6. Commitment to work – are prepared to make
all sacrifices to honor the commitments they have
made.
7. Commitment to efficiency – are keen to
evolve and try new methods aimed at making work
easier, simpler, better, and more economical.
8. Proper planning – they believe in developing
relevant and realistic plans and ensuring proper
execution of the same in their pursuit of attaining
their goals.
9. Problem solver – they will first understand the
problem and then evolve an appropriate strategy
for overcoming it.
10. Self-confidence – they have full faith in their
knowledge, skills, and competence and are not
worried about future uncertainties.
11. Assertive – assertive people know what to
say, when to say, how to say, and whom to say it
to. He believes in his abilities and ensures that
others will fall in line with his thinking, aimed at
promoting the interests of the organization.
12. Persuasive – it’s not physical force but
intellectual force he will use for convincing others.
13. Effective monitoring – they ensure regular
monitoring of the work so that the goals of the
organization are achieved in the best possible
manner.
14. Employee’s welfare – he takes a personal
interest in solving problems, and confronting
workers and generates the feeling that there is
interdependence between the interests of workers
and management.
15. Effective strategist – he can evolve relevant
strategies aimed at safeguarding or promoting the
interest.
The Earliest Period - Based on the idea that an
entrepreneur is a person who sells goods on
behalf of the goods’ owner, the entrepreneur was
exhibited by Marco Polo, (1254- 1324) the
merchant from Venice who traveled to many
places in Asia to trade. He would enter into a
formal agreement with a capitalist to sell his
goods. He bore all the risks of possible damage or
loss of the goods. After everything was sold, profits
were divided between the capitalist and trader as
agreed.
The Middle Ages - The term entrepreneur was
used to describe both an actor and a person who
was in charge of and managed large production
projects. This person merely managed large
production projects using the resources provided
by the government. In this case, he did not
assume any risks. ’’The entrepreneur in this age
who was in charge of great architectural works
such as public buildings and cathedrals.”
The 17th Century - Entrepreneurship has become
associated with risk. The entrepreneur was
someone who would enter into a formal agreement
with the government to provide products or
services, it was common practice to agree on the
price as part of the terms of the agreement. In
effect, the entrepreneur either reaps profits or
bears losses. A prominent theorist during this
period was Richard Cantillon (1680-1734), an
economist who viewed the entrepreneur as a risk
taker and a bearer of uncertainty.
The 18th Century - The entrepreneur was
distinguished from the capitalist, who simply
provided money for the creation of products to be
sold. Jean-Baptiste Say (1767-1832), a French
economist and businessman, described the
entrepreneur as a person who plays a central
coordinating role both in producing and selling
goods. He was someone who coordinated and led.
And manages all the activities of the firm.
19th and 20th Century - There was little
distinction between an entrepreneur and a
manager. However, towards the middle of the 20th
century, Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950), an
Australian Hungarian American economist and
Political Scientist, refuted the idea of
entrepreneurship as a manager of the firm, and
espoused the concept of the entrepreneur as an
innovator who seeks opportunities and leads
“existing means of production into new channels.”
The Entrepreneur is neither a risk–bearer nor a
manager nor capitalist”.
21st Century - Hailed as the Dotcom era,
entrepreneurs in the 21st century are considered
the heroes of free enterprise. “Today, many people
regard entrepreneurship as pioneering on the
frontiers of business”
Given the nature of the entrepreneurs’
decision-making environment, they would
oftentimes think this way:
1. ACTUATE SELF-ASSESSMENT AND CHOOSE
COURSE OF ACTION
2. GENERAL MULTIPLE DECISION MODELS
3. LEARN FROM FAILURE
Week 3
ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP & ENTREPRENEURS
IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT & SOCIETY
1. Creates employment – when entrepreneurs put up
their businesses, they employ people who possess
different competencies and personal values to help
them operate the enterprise.
2. Develops new markets – entrepreneurs are
opportunity seekers, creative, and resourceful. They
seek new buyers or customers for their products and
services.
3. Introduces innovation – entrepreneurs innovate,
and this innovation is done for the product, service, or
technology towards commercialization and generates
economic wealth.
4. Generates new sources of materials –
entrepreneurs are always in constant search for better
and cheaper sources of materials they need.
5. Stimulates investment interest in the new
business ventures being created – when
entrepreneurs engage in new business ventures, it
stirs curiosity in other people to invest in the business
because of the benefits it offers.
6. Improves the quality of life – the new products
and services developed by the entrepreneurs
contribute to the personal benefit and convenience of
the people in society.
7. Serves as role-models – the attitude, behavior,
and personality traits, like proactiveness, opportunity
recognition, risk-taking, alertness, and creativity are
some of the characteristics that will also make them
successful entrepreneurs in their lives.
8. Brings social benefit to the people –
entrepreneurs pay taxes for every product or service
sold in the market. They also pay for the licenses and
permits needed to operate their business.
9. Utilizes and mobilizes indigenous resources -
small and medium enterprises will always look for
cheaper and local materials to supply their needs.
10. Provides more alternatives for consumers The
stiff competition in the market for quality and cheaper
products and services requires the entrepreneurs to
come up with more products and services consumers
can choose from.
Week 4
The benefits for entrepreneurs:
1. Tech: While industrial manufacturing has been
in slow decline in developed nations, technological
entrepreneurship has moved in to fill the void.
2. Diversity: The leap in technological faith,
combined with social progression, has opened up
entrepreneurship to the masses. Today, it is much
harder, if not impossible, to conjure up that above-
mentioned picture of the ‘typical’ modern
entrepreneur.
3. Education: One of the reasons why
entrepreneurs can start out younger is the rise of
entrepreneurial education. Universities are now
mixing in people with the necessary skill sets and
knowledge to hit the ground running.
4. Location: Technology also means it’s possible
to work from anywhere, at great speed, and scale.
You don’t necessarily have to live where the
money is anymore, and you don’t have to spend
your day knocking on doors.
5. Social ethics: An even more recent shift has
been the rise of ‘ethical entrepreneurs. Touched by
the social desire to stem corporate greed, and in
line with the growing trend for conscious
consumers and environmentalism, these people
are no longer purely profit-driven.
CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEURS TODAY
according to different field experts
● Economist- “It is someone who brings
resources, labor, materials, and other
assets into combinations that make their value
greater than before; also, one who introduces
changes, innovations, and a new order.”
● Psychologist- a person who “typically driven by
certain forces such as the need to obtain or attain
something, to experiment, to accomplish, or
perhaps to escape the authority of others.”
● Management- “someone who identifies
opportunities, plans, mobilizes resources,
manages, and assumes the risks of a business to
have a positive impact on society.”
COMMON PROFILE DIMENSIONS
1. Calculated risk-taking is doing everything
possible to get the odds in their favor, and they
avoid taking unnecessary risks.
2. Commitment is the unwavering dedication to
work for the common good of society through one
business.
3. Feedback-seeking is the taking of steps to
know how well they are doing and how they might
improve their performance.
4. Perseverance is the determination to succeed
by overcoming obstacles and setbacks.
5. Drive to achieve is the internal desire to pursue
and attain challenging goals.
6. Self-confidence is the belief that, together with
other people, things can be done in business.
7. Opportunity orientation is the constant
awareness of opportunities that exist in everyday
life.
8. Innovativeness is the ability to come up with
something different or unique every time.
9. Responsibility is their willingness to put
themselves in situations where they are personally
responsible for the success or failure of the
business operation.
10. Tolerance for failure is using it as a learning
experience and being realistic enough to expect
such difficulties, so they do not become
disappointed.
IDENTIFYING BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES
ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITY
⮚ Favorable set of conditions that will enable the
entrepreneurs to create new products or services
by combining resources that will result, not only in
a profit but for the common good of the society and
the environment:
1. New product (Medicine) or services (delivery
of documents
or product)
2. New ways of organizing, like special events
or product launches
- Online booking
3. New Raw Materials
4. NEW MARKETS (FOREIGN TOURISTS FOR
ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE LIKE
ACUPUNCTURE)
5. New Production Processes
ENTREPRENEURIAL SOURCE OF
STIMULATION
1. EXTERNAL - Customer demands for new
products and services.
2. INTERNAL - When an entrepreneur recognizes
a problem or opportunity gap and decides to fill it.
FOUR ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF
OPPORTUNITY
1. ATTRACTIVE – Appealing product.
2. DURABLE - ability of a physical product to
remain functional, without requiring
excessive maintenance or repair, when faced with
the challenges of normal operation over its design
lifetime.
3. TIMELY – in demand or occurring at a favorable
or useful time
4. Create or add value for its user or end user.
7 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF OPPORTUNITY
1. THE UNEXPECTED
⮚ Opportunities can be found when situations and
events are unanticipated,
which might be unexpected success/good news or
unexpected failure/bad news.
2. THE INAPPROPRIATE
⮚ It happens when inconsistencies occur.
3. THE PROCESS NEEDS
⮚ It could be the process of discovery, such as
research and development, even before the
breakthrough. There will be numerous
opportunities that entrepreneurs will seize during
the process.
4. INDUSTRY AND MARKET STRUCTURES
⮚ Chances in technology, social value, and
customer taste can change the structure of an
industry, and this will give entrepreneurs
opportunities to innovate their products or
services.
5. DEMOGRAPHICS
⮚ It is the statistical characteristics of human
populations (such as age or income) used
specially to identify markets.
6. CHANGE
⮚ Changes in perception get to the heart of
people’s psychology. profile of what they value,
what they believe in, and what they care about.
These changes create potential market
opportunities for entrepreneurs.
7. NEW KNOWLEDGE
⮚ Entrepreneurs who come out with new products
and processes that can compete with other
products can manipulate this kind of knowledge.
Week 5
Service –type of business operations engaged in
rendering of services.
Manufacturing -engaged in the production of
items to be sold. It involves the purchasing and
converting of raw materials to finished goods.
Trading or Merchandising-business - engaged
in the buying and selling of goods. It includes the
process of managing and marketing the product.
The most frequently used forms by
entrepreneurs are the following:
● Start-up enterprise – a recently formed
company where the founder establishes a
completely new business from scratch.
● Buying an existing business – acquiring either
the shares of an existing company or all the assets
of an existing enterprise.
● Franchising – when the owner of a company
that already has a successful product or service,
licenses its trademark, trade name, and methods
of doing business to others in exchange for initial
franchise fee and royalty payments.
There are many other important factors to
consider before an entrepreneur can begin an
enterprise. These are the following:
1. Focus and Direction
● Should have a clear and documented vision-mission
and strategies to begin with.
● Have a very good objective for the business.
2. Sources of Capital
● Different sources of capital are available; the only
catch is determining the needed amount of funds
where it will be sourced from.
● It can be from personal funds, family and friends, a
retirement account, banks or financial institutions, a
government loan, or the stock market.
3. Good Network
● Building good relationships and working well with
other people.
● Formal networks like associations and professional
groups, informal networks like childhood friends,
family members, former classmates. These can be
drivers to build self-confidence and direction,
providers of information that are not readily accessible
to others, suppliers of raw materials, and serve as
mentors/coaches.
4. Legal Requirements
● Should know the laws and regulations that govern
the type of business that will be opened to avoid
major problems that can arise if legal requirements
are overlooked.
5. Degree of Risk
● Business is said to be risky when the probability or
chances of failure is high meaning the odds are great
in many aspects against starting the business-like
limited market, stiff competition, high cost of financing
the business, and few supply of needed labor.
6. Research and Development
● Should have a strong research and development to
be undertaken on creation of new technology-based
ventures. Innovation is a factor that keeps the
business and its products busy in the market resulting
in an increase or decrease in its customers. Success
through innovation is well connected with a very
strong research and development of an organization.
7. Personal Competencies
● Competencies like creativity, opportunity seeking,
self-confidence, persistence, commitment and
risk-taking as well as technical background and
related experiences needed to run the business are
necessary to start running a business.
● Before running a business, an entrepreneur must
know his/her capabilities. These capabilities will be
the basis for where the business can go, grow, and
glow.
8. Availability of Resources
● Resources like raw materials, human resources,
and machinery/equipment should be at an adequate
level from the get-go of your business. As an
entrepreneur, knowing the sustainability of these
resources is a must.
TYPES OF BUSINESS ACTIVITIES
/OPERATIONS
A. SERVICE - A type of business operation
engaged in the rendering of services. It is also
classified into three:
I. Manner of Delivery
A. Based on materials used in rendering
services:
1. Automated service
2. Services offered by unskilled workers
3. Services offered by skilled workers
B. Based on people rendering services:
1. Services offered by unskilled workers
2. Services offered by skilled workers
3. Services offered by professionals
II. Types of Organization
A. Profit Organizations - Services rendered by
private firms such as banks, placement agencies,
and food establishments are usually operated for
profit.
B. Non-profit Organizations - Organizations
whose main goal is to provide assistance to the
people.
III. Types of Organization given by the
Sponsoring Agency - There are many agencies
that help people by rendering services free of
charge.
B. MANUFACTURING - Business that is engaged
in the production of items to be sold. It involves the
purchase and conversion of raw materials into
finished goods.
C. TRADING OR MERCHANDISING-
A type of business engaged in the buying and
selling of goods. It includes the process of
managing and marketing the product.
The two types of Merchandising are:
1. Retailing
2. Wholesale
I. RETAILING - -Refers to selling goods and
services directly to the final consumer.
Types of Retail Business
A. According to Forms of Ownership
1. Independent Stores- owned and operated by
one person, a family, or a group in the community.
2. Company Stores- run by distinctly interested
people in the business. They are in the workplace
to provide for the immediate needs of the
employees of the company.
3. Manufacturer’s outlet store- stores are owned
by a manufacturing company.
4. Chain Stores- These groups of stores handle
similar products and are operated by groups
owned by individuals, partnerships, or
corporations.
5. Consumers Cooperative- membership is
voluntary. The profits are accumulated into funds
called savings. It is divided among members as
dividends. This is the reason a cooperative is a
non-profit enterprise.
B. According to Levels of Service
1. Full service- a kind of service given by a certain
store to their customers.
2. Limited Service- The groceries are good
examples of this limited service.
3. Self- Service- In this system, the customers are
the ones who choose the items, and compute the
prices up to packaging. There are stores in
America and Europe using this kind of selling.
C. According to Merchandise Line
1. General Stores- a retail store owned by an
individual or a family in a community. It is the most
common kind of retail store. These retail stores sell
different commodities.
2. Specialty Stores - a single-line store that
carries related products.
3. Convenience Stores - multiline type of stores
which carry different items such as groceries,
cosmetics, and school supplies.
. According to Mode of Operation
1. Television shopping
2. Internet Surfing
3. Ordering by phone
4. Automated vending machines
5. Mail-to-order shopping
II. WHOLESALE - An important component
distribution channel and it can be defined as a
business activity of the buying and selling of goods
in large quantities at cheaper prices, mostly to
small businesses and shops when they are sold to
end-users or customers.
The Key Benefits of Wholesale -
Instead of selling the products directly to
customers, the manufacturer chooses to sell his
goods and products to the wholesaler.
Here are some of the key benefits of wholesale if
one is interested in the wholesale business:
1. Saves Money
2. Brand Creation and Propagation
3. Become an Expert
4. Diversification
5. Build Supply Network
Week 6
Sole Proprietorship – is a business owned and
managed by one person.
Partnership – is a business organization owned and
managed by two or more people who agree to
contribute money, property, or industry to a common
fund for the purpose of earning profit.
Corporation – is a form of business organization
managed by an elected board of directors.
Cooperative – is an association of small producers
and consumers who come together voluntarily to form
a business that they own, manage, and patronize.
ACCORDING TO SIZE
ACCORDING TO OWNERSHIP
ACCORDING TO INDUSTRY
✔ Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing- Exploitation of
Vegetable and Animal Resources.
✔ Mining And Quarrying- Extraction of Minerals
Naturally as Solids
✔ Manufacturing- Physical or Chemical
Transformation of Materials, Substances or
Components to New
Products.
✔ Electricity, Gas, Steam, Air Conditioning Supply
-Providing Electric Power, Gas, Steam, Hot Water,
Etc.
✔ Water Supply; Sewerage, Waste Management
and Remediation Activities- Management of
Various Type of Waste
GOVERNMENT SUPPORT - The Small and
Medium Enterprises (SMES) are the lifeblood of
the economy, and without entrepreneurs,
managing these enterprises, there will be no
additional production, innovation, or contribution to
economic and social development.
FINANCE - Government banks like the
Development Bank of the Philippines, the Land
Bank of the Philippines, the Small Business
Corporation, and other banks have agreed in 23 to
simplify and standardize lending procedures, lower
interest rates, and facilitate loan releases to
enterprises under a unified scheme called sulong.
Week 7
Target market - represents a group of individuals who
have similar needs, perceptions, and interests. They
show an inclination toward similar brands and
respond equally to market fluctuations.
Identifying specific target markets – and then
delivering products and promotions that ultimately
maximize the profit potential of those targeted
markets – is the primary function of marketing
management for many smaller companies.
Market Strategy - Small Businesses can gain a
competitive advantage over larger competitors by
tailoring their products or services to meet the
demands of individual customers. This tailoring can
be done through the product, or the product/service
offered, price, promotion, and distribution.
Market penetration - is a strategy for increasing your
share of existing markets. You might achieve this by
raising customers’ awareness of your products and
services or by finding new customers.
Product development - is a strategy for enhancing
the benefits you deliver to customers by improving
your existing products and services or developing new
ones.
Diversification - is a strategy that usually carries high
costs and high risks. It often requires firms to adopt
new ways of doing business, which has
consequences far beyond simply offering new
products/services in a new market.
Importance of Market Research
1. Identify potential customers
2. Understand existing customers
3. Set realistic targets
4. Develop effective strategies
5. Examine and solve business problems
6. Prepare for business expansion
7. Identify business opportunities
Week 8
Branding - means the “use of a name, term,
symbol, or design or a combination of these—to
–identify a product,” according to Canon, Perrault,
and McCarthy (2008). It encompasses the use of
brand names, trademarks, and practically all other
means of product identification.
Marketing Management Practices are as
follows:
Estimate potential market demand – The best
way to be very certain and confident about
estimates for potential market demand is to look
for facts about the industry where the entrepreneur
intends to enter. Census data is a good source of
estimates to be able to project sales.
Analyze the competitors – Knowing what the
competitor’s marketing includes: the competitor’s
product or services, how much they cost, how they
are distributed, and how they are made known to
the target market.
Price the products/services reasonably – A
product can have great features and benefits, but
the price of the product can have a greater
influence on how it will sell in the marketplace. Set
your price, after considering all costs, at an
affordable amount for your target market.
Adopt a good product name for branding – Will
my product’s name be remembered? When a
name is different or unusual, it may attract
attention and perhaps arouse curiosity. It is
something that is interesting, such as one that is
part of a rhyme or evokes humor
.
Put a price tag – All goods that are being sold
must have a price tag. A price tag is a label to the
price of an item being sold in a store.
Promote the products/services in various ways
to increase sales – Products/Services of the firm
need to be advertised to generate sales.
Attend to the complaints of customers
Issue official receipts to customers – All
business establishments are required to issue
official receipts. However, there are some that do
not issue receipts unless the customer asks for
them. Others do not issue receipts at all.
Pack the goods bought by customers properly
– Loading goods inside the paper bag, like
breakable items, wet items, and toxic items like
insect spray and other poisonous household items,
should be done
Properly.
Observe the rights of customers – The
government passed several laws to protect the
rights of consumers.

FILIPINO SA PILING
LARANGAN
(AKADEMIK)
ARALIN 1 – PAGSULAT
(KAHULUGAN,KALIKASAN AT
KATANGIAN)
Pagsulat – pagsasatitik, limbag, at
pagbibigay simbolo sa mga ideya at
kaisipan na nais iparating o ipahayag.
Mababalikan at matatandaan ang mga
mahahalagang bagay. Matrabaho at
mabagal na proseso.
Kellogg at Gilhooly – “kambal utak” ang
pagsulat. “ Ang pag -iisip ay set ng proseso
na lumilikha, nagmamanipula at
nakikipagtalastasan.”
Akademikong Pagsulat – ginagawa sa
akademikong institusyon kung saan
kailangan ng mataas na antas ng
kasanayan sa pagsulat.
Katangian ng Akademikong Pagsulat
Pormal (magagalang at standard na salita)
Obhetibo (katotohanan)
May paninindigan (dinidepensahan sa
pamamagitan ng ebidensya)
May pananagutan (naitatala ang mga
pinaghanguan ng impormasyon)
May kalinawan (direkta at klaro)
Antas ng Pag -unawa sa Pagbasa
Literal
Pagbasa nang may pag - unawa
Pagbasa nang may aplikasyon
Proseso ng Pagsulat
Bago sumulat (Pre -writing) – nagpaplano
at nangangalap ng impormasyon para sa
sulatin. Magiging gabay.
Habang sumusulat/Pagsulat ng Burador
(Actual writing/ Draft writing) – malayang
yugto ng pagsulat o di isinasaalang -alang
ang pagkakamali
Muling pagsulat (Post writing) – muling
sulatin ang burador at dumadaan sa
proseso ng rebisyon at pagwawasto.
Rebisyon – pagsusuri ng kabuuang
isinulat upang malaman ang mga dapat
alisin, baguhin, iwasto at palitan.
Pagwawasto – pagsasaayos ng estruktura
ng sulatin.
Bahagi ng Teksto
Panimula (kawili -wili)
Katawan (organisasyon at balangkas)
Konklusyon (mag - iiwan ng kakintalan sa
isip/natutuhan )
Layunin ng Pagsulat
Ekspresiv (target, unang panauhan, sarili,
personal, karanasan, malaya)
Transaksyunal (target, ikatlong panauhan,
katotohanan, kontrolado, ibang tao,
pormal, estilo)
Uri ng Pagsulat
Teknikal – komersyal/teknikal na layunin.
(manwal,gabay sa pagsasaayos ng
kompyuter)
Referensyal – nagpapaliwanag, bigay
impormasyon/nagsusuri. Maiharap sa
katotohanan ang mambabasa. (Suring
kasaysayan, aklat/libro,teksbuk,notecard)
Jornalistik – pagsulat ng balita.
Akademikong pagsulat – pormal at
nagpapakita ng resulta ng
pagsisiyasat/pananaliksik. (research paper,
case study)
Malikhaing pagsulat – masining na
paglalahad ng iniisip o nadarama. (tula,
personal na liham)
ARALIN 2 – ABSTRAK
-Inilalagay sa unahan bago ang
introduksyon ng isang
pag-aaral/pananaliksik.
-“Abstractus”, salitang Latin na ang ibig
sabihin ay drawn away o extract from.
-“Halaw”, ibang katawagan na ibig sabihin
ay kuha o bahagi.
-Pinaikling deskrisyon ng isang
pahayag/sulatin.
-Bahagi ng isang buo.
-Maikling buod ng inilalagay sa unahan ng
introduksyon ng tesis.
Uri ng Abstrak
-Deskriptibo
-Impormatibo
Gabay/Bahagi sa/ng Abstrak
Buod – muling pagpapahayag ng
impormasyon
Layunin – kahalagahan at sino ang
makikinabang
Resulta – mahalagang datos
Konklusyon - natutuhan
Rekomendasyon – obserbasyon at
mungkahi
ARALIN 3 – SINTESIS/ BUOD/
SIPNOSIS O LAGOM
-Salitang Griyego na “syntithenai” na ibig
sabihin ay put together or combine.
-Diwa o sumaryo o pinakaideya ng kabuuan
-Paraan ng pagpapaikli ng teksto/babasahin
-Di-orihinal na sulatin,patalata at dibalangkas
-Sustansya o “substance” (tumayo/tumindig)
-Pinakapuso ng kabuuan ng teksto
BUOD – paglalagom/pagpapaikli o
pinasimpleng kabuuan
SINTESIS – pagbuo/kolekta ng iba’t ibang
detalye galling sa iba’t ibang resources kung
saan nagdedetalye ng isang paksa.
ABSTRAK – pasiksik na detalye ng isang
pag-aaral/pananaliksik
Hakbang sa Pagbubuod
Pagbasa
Pagpili (pandama)
Pagsulat (detalye)
Sekwensyal (pangyayari)
Kronolohikal (impormasyon)
Prosidyural (hakbang/proseso)
Pagpapares
Proseso (pagsulat)
Nilalaman/Katangian ng Lagom/Buod
Conciseo – pinaikli na ayon sa kahingian
ng lagom
Akyureyt – malinaw/ wasto
Objective – punto de vista lamang ng
awtor ang lumilitaw
ARALIN 4 – BIONOTE
-Impormatibong talata ukol sa propesyon ng
isang awtor.
-“Bio”, ibig sabihin ay buhay (Greek), “Vivus”
(Latin), “Jivas” (Sanskrit)
-Nakikita sa likuran ng libro at kadalasa’y
may litrato
-Isang talata lamang karaniwan -Naglalahad
ng klasipikasyon ng isang indibidwal at ng
kanyang “kredibilidad” bilang isang
propesyonal. (natamo, kaalaman, awtoridad)
-Punto de vista at ikatlong panauhan
AWTOBIOGRAPIYA/TALAMBUHAY
Obra ng buhay (lifework)
Buhay ng isang tao (sarili)
Buhay at karanasan
Sino siya bilang manunulat
Ano ba ang natutunan ko sa pangyayari
sa buhay ko? (sinasagot ng manunulat
mismo)
BIOGRAPIYA/KATHAMBUHAY
Buhay ng ibang tao
Paggunita sa kilalang tao
Pagsilang, pagtanda at pagkamatay
Buong buhay
ARALIN 5 – PANUKALANG
PROYEKTO
-Proyektong iminumungkahing isagawa
dahil sa nakitang kinakailangan ng
pagkakataon.
-Karaniwang Gawain ng mga taong
nanunungkulan sa gobyerno o pribadong
kumpanya.
-Kailangan ng pinansyal na tulong para sa
paggawa/kamit ng proyekto
-Di gawaing basta-basta
-Kailangan ng ibayong pagpaplano at
pananaliksik para mapatunayan ang
kahalagahan ng proyekto sa komunidad.
-Ang pagsasatitik ng panukala ay
nangangailangan ng kaalaman at pag
eensayo.
FORMAT NG PANUKALA
Pangalan ng proyekto – proyekto, saan,
sino/alin ang tagatanggap. Dapat tiyak at
maikli. Sigurado sa baryabol.
Proponent ng proyekto – sino ang
nagmungkahi.
Klasipikasyon ng proyekto – ilarawan
saan kabilang ang proyekto --- edukasyon,
agrikultura,pangkalusugan at iba pa.
Kabuuang pondo - kagastusan
Rasyonale ng proyekto – batayan sa
paggawa ng proyekto, kalagahan o
pagkilala sa problema.
Deskripsyon ng proyekto – ilarawan ng
malinaw at makatotohanan ang kaligiran
ng proyekto.
Layunin ng proyekto – goal/objective
Kapakinabangan – sino ang makinabang
at matulungan nito.
Kalendaryo – dapat sunod sunod at may
kaakibat na petsa at kasangkot.
Lagda – lahat ng taong kasangkot/
pagpapatunay na pinagtibay ang gawain.
ARALIN 6 – TALUMPATI
-Sining ng pagsasalita na maaaring
nanghihikayat.
-Pagpapahayag ng saloobin, kaisipan at
damdamin sa isang masining na paraan.
-Isang magalang na pagsasalita sa harap
ng publiko ukol sa isang mahalaga/
napapanahong isyu/ paksa.
Hangarin sa pagtatalumpati
Magbigay kabatiran (hindi pa alam ng
publiko)
Magturo (ituro sa publiko ang nararapat na
paraan/ paniniwala ukol sa isang
bagay/isyu)
Manghikayat (hikayatin ang publiko hinggil
sa katotohanan o kabutihan)
Magpaganap/ magpatupad (botohan,
magpakilos)
Manlibang (nakawiwili kaakibat ng apat na
hangarin)
3 bagay na dapat isaalang-alang sa
pananalumpati
Mananalumpati (sarili)
Talumpati (nilalaman/layunin)
Publiko (tagapakinig/taganuod)
Uri ayon sa layunin
Pampalibang/ pampasigla
-Karaniwan na sa usapan sa araw- araw
-Nagbibigay kagalakan
-Gumigising/pumupukaw
-Gumagamit ng eksaherasyon/
pagmamalabis
Nagbibigay kabatiran/ impormasyon
-Kailangan ng pagsasaliksik, pag –aaral,
pagbasa
-Seminar
Panghikayat
-Para sa paksa o isyu na nais panigan ang
katwiran/ impormasyon
Papuri
-Pagpupuri, handog, pag – alaala
-Mensahe sa pumanaw, kaarawan, kasal
Nagbibigay - galang
-Pagpapakilala ng baging kaanib
-Pagtanggap sa tungkulin
-Pag-alaala sa taong may naimbag sa
lipunan/organisasyon
Nagmumungkahi
-Nagbibigay opinion/ suhestiyon
-Nominasyon ng miyembro sa
organisasyon
Uri ayon sa paghahanda
Impromptu (delivered on-the-spot)
Extempore (rely on notes or outline)
Isinaulong talumpati
Pagbasa ng papel komprehensya
Katangian na dapat taglayin ng paksa
ng talumpati
Napapanahon (ukol sa kasalukuyan at
hinaharap na pangyayari)
Kapaki -pakinabang (makatulong sa araw
-araw na pamumuhay)
Katugon ng layon (Nakamit ang layunin)
Pagbubuo ng talumpati
Simula (hangarin ng talumpati)
Katawan (mahusay na pagtalakay sa
paksa)
Wakas (pagbubuod )
KUMPAS - pagbibigay diin gamit ang
indayog ng mga kamay sa mga salita sa
pagtatalumpati. Kapani -paniwala kung
tama/ wasto ang gamit ng kumpas.
Tatlong bahagi ng kumpas
-Paghahanda
-Pagkumpas
-Pagbabalik ng kamay
Uri ng kumpas
-Palad na itinataas habang nakalahad (dakilang damdamin)
-Nakataob na palad at biglang ibababa (marahas na
damdamin)
-Palad na bukas at marahang ibababa (mababang uri ng
kaisipan/damdamin)
-Kumpas na pasuntok/ kuyom na palad (poot, galit,
pakikipaglaban)
-Paturong kumpas (panduduro, pagkagalit, paghamak)
-Nakabukas na palad na magkakalayo ang daliri at
ikinukuyom (matimping damdamin)
-Palad ay bukas paharap sa nagsasalita (pagtawag ng
pansin)
-Nakaharap sa madla, bukas ang palad (pagtanggi,
pagkabahala, takot)
-Kumpas na pahawi/ pasaklaw (pagsaklaw,pag -aari)
-Marahang pagbaba ng dalawang kamay (kabiguan, kawalan
ng lakas)
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Week 1
Atom - a chemical element in its smallest form and is
made up of neutrons and protons within the nucleus
and electrons circling the nucleus.
Chemical properties - properties that require a
chemical reaction to observe.
Compound - a term used generally to indicate a
definite combination of elements into a more complex
structure (a molecule) but it is also applied to systems
with non-stoichiometric proportions of elements.
Element - a substance that cannot be divided
chemically into component substances.
Ion - an atom which has lost or gained electrons and
becomes charged.
Mixture - is a material system made up of two or
more different substances which are mixed but are
not combined chemically.
Molecule - refers to two or more atoms which have
chemically combined to form a single species.
Physical properties - can be observed without using
a chemical reaction that would change the
substance..
Matter – commonly defined as anything that exists in
time, occupies space, and has mass.
Three ways in which matter may be classified:
1. According to origin
2. According to the state
3. According to composition
There are two kinds of matter:
Organic materials - which are commonly derived
from living things, and contain carbon.
Examples: sugar, methane (CH4), and DNA
Inorganic materials - come from non-living things
and do not contain carbon.
Examples: salt, sulfuric acid, and metals
Solid - particles are packed tightly together so they
are unable to move about very much. Particles of a
solid have very low kinetic energy.
Liquid - the particles of a substance have more
kinetic energy than those in a solid. The liquid
particles are not held in a regular arrangement but are
still very close to each other, so liquids have a definite
volume.
Gas - have a great deal of space between them and
have a high kinetic energy. If unconfined, the particles
of a gas will spread out indefinitely; if confined, the
gas will expand to fill its container.
Plasma - is not a common state of matter here on
Earth but may be the most common state of matter in
the universe. Plasma consists of highly charged
particles with extremely high kinetic energy.
Bose-Einstein condensate - In 1995, technology
enabled scientists to create a new state of matter, the
Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). Using a
combination of lasers and magnets, Eric Cornell and
Carl Weiman cooled a sample of rubidium to within a
few degrees of absolute zero.
PURE SUBSTANCE – matter that has a fixed
composition and distinct properties.
Element – consists of only one kind of atom and
cannot be separated into simpler substances by
chemical change.
Compound – a substance that is composed of two or
more elements, chemically combined in definite and
constant proportions. Ex: Carbon dioxide (CO2),
water (H2O).
Classification of Compounds
1. Acids – substances that have a sour taste.
2. Bases – substances that have a bitter taste. These
are slippery and soapy in litmus paper.
3. Salts – compounds formed when acids combine
with bases.
MIXTURE – a combination of two or more pure
substances in variable proportions (not chemically
combined). The substance may be elements or
compounds.
Homogeneous – mixture that do not contain visibly
different parts.
Heterogeneous – mixture that has visibly different
parts/components.
PHYSICAL PROPERTY - is one that can be
observed without changing the composition of a
substance, it includes phase, color, solubility, density,
melting and boiling points, volatility, viscosity, and
conductivity.
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES - are properties that
depend on the amount of matter present or being
tested.
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES - are properties that do
not depend on the amount of matter present or being
measured.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES - are characteristics that
can be observed with an accompanying change in the
chemical composition of a substance.
SEPARATING MIXTURES
1. Distillation - is a widely used method of separating
mixtures based on differences in boiling point.
2. Filtration - is good for separating insoluble solid (an
insoluble substance is one that does not dissolve)
from a liquid.
3. Evaporation - is a process of separating mixtures
consisting of a nonvolatile solid and a volatile
liquid,i.e.
4. Decantation - is a method of separating
components of mixtures by removing a layer of liquid,
generally one from the settled solid particles.
5. Chromatography - came from two Greek words
chroma and graphe which means "color writing" is a
method of separating mixtures either in gas or liquid
form using difference in solubility or using the
appropriate solvent, the mobile phase while the
medium used to hold the sample is called the
stationary phase.
Week 2
Atom - is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of
the chemical properties of an element.
Isotopes - are atoms of the same element that have
different numbers of neutrons but the same number of
protons and electrons.
Ions - any atom or group of atoms that bears one or
more positive or negative electrical charges. When a
neutral atom gains or loses one or more electrons.
Cation - Positively charged ions.
Anion - negatively charged ions.
Molecule- is a particle made up of two or more atoms
that are chemically bonded together.
Monatomic/ monoatomic - an atom.
Diatomic - combination of two same atoms.
Polyatomic - combination of the two or more atoms.
Compound - is a combination of two or more
elements.
Covalent compound - results when non metals
share electrons.
Ionic compound - results from an attraction between
a cation (metal) and an anion (nonmetal).
Chemical Formula - is a notation that uses atomic
symbols with numerical subscripts to convey the
relative proportions of atoms of different elements in
the substance.
Orbit - is the outermost regions of the atom
which are also called electron shells because they
contain the electrons (negatively charged).
Nucleus - is the center of the atom that contains the
protons (positively charged) and the neutrons (no
charge).
Atomic number - represents the element’s number of
protons in its nucleus.
Atomic mass - indicates the total number of protons
and neutrons.
Types of Chemical Formula
A. Molecular Formula - Chemical formulas that
indicate the actual numbers of atoms in a molecule.
B. Empirical Formula - Chemical formulas that give
only the relative number of atoms of each type in a
molecule.
C. Structural Formula - shows the location of the
atoms relative to one another in a molecule and the
number of chemical bonds between the atoms.
Week 3
Hydrogen compounds - compounds that contain
hydrogen and a metal.
Oxygen compounds - ionic compounds that contain
oxygen.
Law of Definite Proportions - states that atoms
combine in fixed ratios of whole numbers to form
compounds.
Traditional or Stock Method (for metals with two
or more charges) – this method utilizes the ending.
Roman Numerals – this method uses Roman
numerals to represent the charge of the metal.
Using Latin Greek Prefixes - This method is much
easier than the first two methods since one can still
identify the chemical formula of a compound even
without identifying the charges.
Week 4
Chemical equation - a shorthand method of writing a
chemical reaction
Law of Conservation of Mass - states that mass is
neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions
Reactant - substances that enter into a chemical
reaction. Placed on the left.
Product - new substance that formed in a chemical
reaction. Placed on the right.
Aqueous solution - is a solution in which the solvent
is water.
Hydrocarbons - are a class of compounds that
primarily consist of hydrogen and carbon.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION
Synthesis Reactions (Combination Reaction) - is a
reaction in which two or more substances combine to
form a new compound. A + X → AX
Decomposition Reaction - is a reaction in which a
single compound undergoes a reaction that produces
two or more simpler substances. AX → A + X
Single-Replacement Reaction (Substitution
Reaction) - is characterized by one element being
displaced from a compound by another element. A +
BX → AX + B
Double-Replacement Reaction (Metathesis) - is a
reaction in which the ions of two compounds
exchange places in an aqueous solution to form two
new compounds. AX + BY ---> AY + BX
Combustion Reaction - is a reaction in which a
substance combines with oxygen and releases a
large amount of energy in the form of heat and light.
CxHy + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
Precipitation Reactions - an anion and a cation
contact each other and an insoluble ionic compound
precipitates out of solution.
Acid-Base Reactions (Neutralization) - is when the
reaction is between an acid and a base, water is
formed as one of the products.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions - happens when
there is an exchange of electrons between two
reactants.
Week 5
Stoichiometry - quantitative nature of chemical
formulas and chemical reactions
Mole - standard unit in chemistry for measuring large
quantities of very
small entities such as atoms, molecules, or other
specified particles
Mass - is a property that reflects the quantity of
matter within a sample. It is usually expressed in
grams
Mole Ratio - is a conversion factor that relates the
amounts in moles of any two substances in a
chemical reaction.
Molar mass (MM) - is expressed in grams/mole or
g/mol because we are pertaining to the mass of
compound per 1 mol.
Percent Yield - is the ratio of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage.
The Avogadro’s number (NA) - is a constant used to
quantify the number of particles of an element (atoms,
ions) or compound (molecules, formula unit)
- Named after the italian scientist, Amadeo
Avogadro
Mass to mass
Week 6
Limiting reagent- the reactant that is consumed
completely in a chemical reaction.
Excess reagent- the reactant that will have some
unreacted amount after a chemical reaction.
Stoichiometry- is derived from two Greek words;
stocheion which means ‘’element” and metron which
means ‘’measure’’.
Law of Conservation of Mass- states that mass in
an isolated system is neither created nor destroyed
by chemical reactions or physical transformations.
Week 7
Gas - particles that fill their container though have no
definite shape or volume.
Scientific Law – is a statement that describes an
observable occurrence in nature that appears to
always be true.
Temperature - the average energy of microscopic
motions of particles; the measure of the kinetic energy
present in a system.
Volume - the quantity of three-dimensional space
occupied by a liquid, solid, or gas.
Pressure - defined as force per unit area
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) – is
defined as 0 degrees Celsius and 1 atmosphere of
pressure.
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gas - describes gas as
a large number of particles, atoms or molecules to be
in constant, random motion and exhibit a perfectly
elastic collisions.
What are the properties of gases? 4. Amount of Gas (n) - The amount of gas
● Most gasses exist in molecules being measured is always expressed in
● No definite shape and volume moles. At standard temperature and
● Gases have lower densities than solids and pressure (STP), 1 mole of a gas occupies a
liquids. volume of 22.4 L.
● Gases diffuse or effuse.
○ Diffusion - is the ability of gaseous Different Gas Laws
particles to scatter in wider space Boyle’s Law - Robert Boyle (1627-1691), an
since the particles are in constant Anglo-Irish natural philosopher performed an
random motion. experiment using a J-tube, where in a quantity of gas
○ Effusion - is the ability of gaseous is trapped in the tube behind a column of mercury. He
particles to pass through a small changed the pressure on the gas by adding mercury
opening. to the tube. He found that "at constant temperature,
● Gases can be compressed and expanded. the volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely
○ Compression - means very large proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas."
mass can be placed in a small
container like methane gas in an
LPG tank.
○ Expansion - means a very small
mass can occupy a very large
space like the mass of air in a
room.
● Gases exert pressure. Charles' Law - Jacques Charles (1784-1817), a
French mathematician, physicist and inventor
What are the Six Postulates of Kinetic Molecular together with another scientist, Nicolas Robert was
Theory of Gases? the first one to fly using a hydrogen filled balloon. He
● The gas consists of very small particles, found that "at constant pressure, the volume of a
each of which has mass. fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to the
● The distances separating gas particles are absolute temperature."
relatively large.
● Gas particles are in constant, rapid, random
motion.
● Collisions of gas particles with each other or
with the walls of the container are perfectly
elastic, which means no energy is lost upon
collision.
● The average kinetic energy of gas particles
depends only on the temperature of gas.
● Gas particles exert no force on one another.
Attractive forces between gas particles are Gay-Lussac's Law or Amontons' Law - Guillaume
assumed to be zero. Amontons (1663-1705), a French inventor and
What are the Measurable Properties of Gases? physicist, discovered the relationship between the
1. Pressure (P) - is equal to the force exerted pressure and temperature of a fixed mass of gas kept
by the gas on the walls of its container at a constant volume while building an air
divided by the surface area of the container. thermometer. He found that “at constant volume,
P = force / area the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to
2. Temperature (T) - The measure of the absolute temperature."
degree of hotness or coldness of a
substance as measured by thermometer or
perceived by touch. Kelvin is the
temperature used in the measurement. K =
°C + 273.
3. Volume (V) - The volume of the gas is the
space it occupies.
Combined Gas Law - Combines Charles' law,
Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac's law.
Avogadro's Law - In 1808, an Italian chemist,
Amedeo Avogadro, found out that "the volume of a
gas maintained at constant temperature and pressure
is directly proportional to the number of moles of the
gas.
Ideal Gas Law - one in which the collision
between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic and
there is no intermolecular attractive forces.
-In 1834, to describe the behavior of ideal gas, the
ideal gas law was proposed by Emile Clapeyron.
WEEK 8
Partial pressure- refers to the pressure exerted of a
gas in a mixture if it is the only gas present in the
container.
Gas stoichiometry- involves the mass relationships
in a chemical reaction whereas gas is either reactant
or product.
Graham’s Law of diffusion/effusion—states that,
the rate of effusion of any gas is inversely proportional
to the square root of the molecular weights or
densities.
Effusion—is the process in which a gas escapes
through a small hole. Diffusion—when particles
move to a lower area of concentration from a high
area of concentration.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures - states that the
total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the
partial pressures of its components.
The mole fraction (xi) - is the number of moles of
that gas divided by the total moles of gas in the
mixture.
Gas Stoichiometry - Gas stoichiometry involves the
mass relationships in a chemical reaction whereas
gas is either reactant or product.
Effusion and Diffusion - Scottish chemist Thomas
Graham (1805-1869) formulated his law of effusion,
which states that the rate
of effusion or diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its molar mass.
GENERAL PHYSICS PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS
Week 1 Measurements of physical quantities are
expressed in terms of units, which are
standardized values.
Measurement - is the determination of size or
TWO MAJOR SYSTEMS OF UNITS
magnitude of something.
● SI units (also known as the metric
S.I. Unit - or the International System of Units is
system)
the modern form of the metric system. It is the only
● English units (also known as the
system of measurement with an official status in
customary or imperial system)
nearly every country in the world. The acronym
“SI” is derived from the French Système
International.
SI base units - are the standard units of
measurement defined by the International System
of Units (SI) for the seven base quantities of what
is now known as the International System of
Quantities.
Derived unit - is a SI unit of measurement
comprised of a combination of the seven base
units.
Conversion of units - is the conversion between
different units of measurement for the same
Accuracy - is the degree of closeness between a
quantity.
measured value and true value. It depends on
Rounding-off means - reducing the digits in a
using good techniques and highly accurate tools.
number while trying to keep its value similar.
Precision - is the representation of measurement
Random errors - arise from unknown and
of a single property in the same way of at least
unpredictable variations in condition.
three trials giving a way of judging how close to
Systematic errors - are errors which tend to shift
each other the repeated values. It depends on
all measurements in a systematic way so their
accuracy of the instruments.
mean value is displaced.
Conversion of units - is the conversion between
Physics - is the branch of science concerned with
different units of measurement for the same
the nature and properties of non-living matter and
quantity, typically through multiplicative conversion
energy that are not dealt with by chemistry or
factors.
biology, and the fundamental laws of the material
Scientific Notation - Other form of writing large or
universe.
small (decimal) numbers using the base ten or
SI Derived Unit - defined in terms of the seven
exponential form.
base quantities via a system of quantity equations.
Random errors - arise from unknown and
unpredictable variations in condition.
THE FIELDS OF PHYSICS
Sources of Random Errors:
● Classical Physics - Before the turn of the
1. Human limitations
19th century, physics concentrated on the
2. Lack of sensitivity of the instrument
study of mechanics, light, sound and wave
3. Wrong technique of measurement.
motion, heat and thermodynamics, and
This type of error can be reduced by:
electromagnetism.
1. Taking repeat readings
● Modern physics - embraces the atom
2. Find the average value of the reading
and its component parts, relativity and the
Systematic errors
interaction of high speeds, cosmology and
Sources of Systematic Errors:
space exploration, and mesoscopic
1. Incorrect calibration of measuring
physics, those pieces of the universe that
instrument
fall in size between nanometers and
2. Consistently improper use of equipment
micrometers.
How to overcome: Vector Quantity - is a quantity that is fully
1. Conducting experiment with care described by both magnitude and direction. Scalar
2. Repeat the experiment by using different Quantity - is a quantity that is fully described by its
instruments magnitude.
Pythagorean theorem is a useful method for
Week 2 determining the result of adding two (and only two)
vectors that make a right angle to each other.
Distance - can be defined as total length moved.
Distance is a scalar, which means it has no
direction associated with it.
Displacement - is a vector, representing a change
in position. Displacement is defined as the
straight-line distance between two points.
Velocity - of an object is the rate of change of its
position with respect to a frame of reference, and is Vector’s Direction
a function of time.
Speed - can be thought of as the rate at which an
object covers distance. A fast-moving object has a
high speed.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Acceleration - is a vector quantity that is defined
as the rate at which an object changes its velocity.

Free fall - is any motion of a body where gravity is

the only force acting upon it.
2
𝑔 = 9. 8 𝑚/𝑠

Week 3

Projectile motion - is a form of motion

The Greek ∆ - stands for “change in” or final
quantity minus the initial quantity.
Average speed - is defined as the total distance a
moving objects covers divided by the total time it
takes to cover that distance.
experienced by an object or particle (a projectile)
that is projected near the Earth's surface and
moves along a curved path under the action of
gravity only.
Trajectory - or flight path is the path that an object
with mass in motion follows through space as a
function of time
Circular motion - is a movement of an object
along the circumference of a circle or rotation along
a circular path.
Relative motion - as observed from or referred to
some material system constituting a frame of
reference (as two adjacent walls and floor of a
room).
Range - The horizontal distance covered by the
projectile from the roof of the tower where it is fired
to the point where it touches the ground.
Week 4
Real Forces - are those that have some physical
origin, such as gravitational pull/ gravitational force,
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) and Friction.
Fictitious/ Pseudo Force - is what a naive
observer would supposed to explain a motion
which is not real, but which depends on the frame
of observation.
Inertial Frame of Reference - is a reference frame
in which an object stays either at rest or at a
constant velocity unless another force acts upon it.
- When a body does not seem to be acting
in accordance with inertia, it is in a
non-inertial frame of reference or
accelerating.
Mass - is a measure of how much matter is in the
object.
- The typical measure of mass is the
kilogram.
Weight is a measure of the force of gravity acting
on the object.
- It is equal to the mass of an object (m)
multiplied by the acceleration due to
gravity (g).
- It is measured in terms of Newtons or
pounds in English units.
Free body Diagrams - is a graphic,
dematerialized, symbolic representation of the
body (structure, element or segment of an element)
in which all connecting "pieces" have been
removed.
Inertia - is the property of matter in which an object
that is at rest wants to remain at rest, and an object
that is moving wants to remain moving in a straight
line unless another force acts upon it.
Inertial Frame Of Reference - is a reference
frame in which an object stays either at rest or at a
constant velocity unless another force acts upon it.
non-inertial frame of reference - is when a body
does not seem to be acting in accordance with
inertia.
free diagram - is a sketch of the body of interest
and the forces action on the body.
Friction - defined as the force resisting the relative
motion of fluid layers, solid surfaces, and material
elements sliding against each other.
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)
- Laws of motion were just one part of the
monumental work that has made him
legendary.
- The development of Newton’s law marks
the transition from the Renaissance into
the modern era.
GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)
- was instrumental in establishing
observation as the absolute determinant of
truth, rather than “logical” argument.
- Galileo’s use of the telescope was his
most notable achievement in
demonstrating the importance of
observation.
- Galileo contributed to the formation of
what is now called Newton’s first law of
motion.
Dynamics - is the study of the forces that cause
objects and systems to move.
1. NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION (Law of
Inertia)
- A body at rest remains at rest, or, if in
motion, remains in motion at a constant
velocity unless acted on by a net external
force.
- As the force acting upon an object is
increased, the acceleration of the object is
increased, and as the mass of an object is
increased, the acceleration of the object is
decreased.
2. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
- If you apply more force to an object, it
accelerates at a higher rate.
- If the same force is applied to an object
with greater mass, the object accelerates
at a slower rate because mass adds
inertia.
 - According to Newton, an object will only
accelerate if there is a net or unbalanced
force acting upon it. The presence of an
unbalanced force will accelerate an object
- changing its speed, its direction, or both
its speed and directio
3. NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
- States that for every action (force) in
nature there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
- Forces always occur in pairs, and one
body cannot exert a force on another
without experiencing a force itself.
- We sometimes refer to this law loosely as
“action-reaction,” where the force exerted
is the action and the force experienced as
a consequence is the reaction.
normal force - is the support force exerted upon
an object that is in contact with another stable
object.
tension force - is the force that is transmitted
through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.
friction force - is the force exerted by a surface as
an object moves across it or makes an effort to
move across it.
applied force - is a force that is applied to an
object by a person or another object.
The force of gravity - is the force with which the
earth, moon, or other massively large object
attracts another object towards itself.
kinetic friction - is defined as a force that acts
between moving surfaces. A body moving on the
surface experiences a force in the opposite
direction of its movement. The magnitude of the
force will depend on the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the two materials.
WEEK 5
Dot product - also called the scalar product, is the
product of two vectors, obtained by performing a
specific operation on the vector components.
Vector - is an element of a vector space.
Vector quantities – are quantities which require
both magnitude and direction for their complete
description.
Scalar quantities – are quantities that can be
expressed completely by a single number with
appropriate units.
Work - is a measure of energy transfer that occurs
when an object is moved over a distance by an
external force at least part of which is applied in the
direction of the displacement.
Energy - is defined as the “ability to do work, which
is the ability to exert a force causing displacement
of an object.”
Power - is the amount of energy transferred or
converted per unit time. Average power is defined
as work over time, and it is measured in Watts.
Conservative force - is one for which the work
done is independent of path.
Non-conservative force - is one for which the
work done depends on the path.
Week 6
Gravitational potential energy - is energy an
object possesses because of its position in a
gravitational field.
𝑃𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Elastic potential energy - (also called spring
energy) is potential energy stored as a result of
deformation of an elastic object, such as the
stretching of a spring.
1 2
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2
𝑘𝑥
Energy conservation - energy of interacting
bodies or particles in a closed system remains
constant.
Potential energy - the stored energy that depends
upon the relative position of various parts of a
system.
- arises in systems with parts that exert forces on
each other of a magnitude dependent on the
configuration, or relative position, of the parts.
- is an energy that could be used to do work.
Week 7
Mass - A property of a physical body and a
measure of its resistance to acceleration when a
net force is applied.
Center of Mass - A position defined relative to an
object or system of objects.
Center of Geometry – The arithmetic mean
position of all the points in the figure.
Center of Gravity – The average location of the
weight of an object.
Homogeneous - Composed of parts or elements
that are all of the same kind.
Spaghettification - is the vertical stretching and
horizontal compression of objects into long thin
shapes in a very strong non-homogeneous
gravitational field. It is caused by extreme tidal
forces.
HOW CAN WE FIND THE CENTER OF MASS OF
ANY OBJECT OR SYSTEM?
Week 8
Elastic Collision - total kinetic energy and
momentum are conserved.
Conservation of Linear Momentum – Total
momentum of an isolated system before collision is
always equal to total momentum after the collision.
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Conservation of Kinetic Energy - the total energy
of an isolated system remains constant.
Inelastic Collision - the total momentum is
conserved but total kinetic energy is not conserved
IMPULSE – MOMENTUM THEOREM
The formula for getting Impulse is:
𝐼 (𝑜𝑟 𝐽) = ∆𝑝
The formula for getting Force is:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
The formula forgetting acceleration is:
𝑣𝑓−𝑣𝑖
𝑎= ∆𝑡
The formula forgetting initial and final momentum
is:

Momentum – the product of the mass of the object

and its velocity. Momentum is a measurement of
mass in motion: how much mass is in how much
motion. It is usually
given the symbol p.
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
As simply, you can say that force is equals to
Linear Momentum – the tendency of a body to
change in momentum divide by change in time:
continue in uniform motion along a straight path.
Impulse – the product of the net force and the time
interval. Impulse is a term that quantifies the
overall effect of a force acting over time. It is
conventionally given
the symbol I (or J) and expressed in
Newton-seconds.
𝐼 = 𝐹∆𝑇
Impulse-Momentum Theory – The change in
momentum of a particle during a time interval
equals the impulse of the net force that acts on the
particle during that interval.
Collision - is the event in which two or more
bodies exert forces on each other in about a
relatively short time.
INTRODUCTION TO THE
PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN
PERSON
WEEK 1
Etymologically, the word "philosophy"
comes from two Greek words, philo meaning
"love" and sophia, meaning "wisdom"
Philosophy originally meant "love of
wisdom".
Science- it is called science because the
investigation is systematic.
Natural Light of Reason- philosophers uses
his natural capacity to think
Study of All Things- sets the distinction
between philosophy from other sciences
First Cause or Highest Principle - principle
is that from which something proceeds in any
manner whatsoever. The First Principles:
Principle of Identity- everything is its own
being, and not being is not being.
Principle of Non- Contradiction- it is
impossible for a thing to be and not be at the
same time and at the same respect.
Principle of Excluded Middle- a thing is
either is or is not; everything must be either
be or not be; between being and not being,
there is no middle ground possible.
Principle of Sufficient Reason- nothing
exists without a sufficient reason for its being
and existence.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Metaphysics = The only extension of
fundamental and necessary drive in every
human being to know what is real
Epistemology = origin of knowledge
Logic = concern in reasoning and a treatise
on matter. ARISTOTLE was the first
philosopher to devise logic.
Ethics = Branch of philosophy that explores
the nature of moral virtue and evaluates
human action.
Aesthetics = sensitive, beauty, arts
PHILOSOPHERS
THALES = father of philosophy
ANAXIMENES = air is the fundamental
elements
ANAXIMANDER = universe was formed from
boundless
HERACLITUS = no man cannot stem on the
same river twice
PYTHAGORAS = numbers are important
matter
XENOPHANES = did not subscribed to the
idea of anthropomorphic God
WEEK 2
Doing Philosophy = to ask questions, to
reflect and to formulate and evaluate
arguments. Doing philosophy involves asking
the right questions.
Philosophical Reflection = It is the tool in
doing philosophy which is the act of giving
time to think about meaning and purpose of
life
There are two types of Philosophical
reflection:
1. Primary reflection (fragmented and
compartmentalizes thinking; instrumental
thinking; means-end of thinking or selfish way
of thinking). OBJECTIVE type of reasoning
2. Secondary Reflection (integrates the
fragmented and compartmentalizes
experience into a coherent whole).
SUBJECTIVE type of reasoning
Partial point of view is one's perception is
limited by other factors or based on a single
factor.
Holistic point of view is having a view
where we understand both the whole and the
parts of something, and, we understand how
the parts, when brought together, make up
the whole.
THE GREEK TRIUMVIRATE
SOCRATES = Socratic Method / Elenchus -
Means of examining a topic by devising a
series of questions, Claimed that, "the
unexamined life is not worth living". PLATO =
Plato's lasting contribution to learning was his
founding of the Academy, One of his famous
works is The Republic.
ARISTOTLE = His studies in logic led to the
formulation of a formal process of analyzing
reasoning, Human beings philosophize
because they wonder about the world.
WEEK 3
FACTS AND OPINIONS =
A fact is a provable statement. It can be
shown to be true or false without a doubt.
An opinion, on the other hand, expresses a
personal belief, idea, or feeling that is not
provable.
Truth is a state or quality of being true.
OBJECTIVE INFORMATION= the analysis is
based on facts, measurable and observable.
SUBJECTIVE INFORMATION=Based on
personal opinions, interpretations, points of
view, emotions and judgment.
THEORIES OF TRUTH
Correspondence theory=is the view that
truth is correspondence to, or with, a fact.
Embracing the idea of truth that consists in a
relation to reality.
Coherence theory=the truth conditions are
based on facts or objective features of the
world.
Pragmatic theory= the truth of a statement
can be defined in terms of the utility of
accepting it. There are things that are false
that it may be useful to accept, and
conversely there are things that are true that
it may be damaging to accept.
WEEK 4
FALLACY = is a defect in an argument other
than it's having false premises. To detect
fallacies, it is required to examine the
argument's content.
A. Appeal to pity (Argumentatum ad
misericordiam) is a specific kind of appeal to
emotion in which someone tries to win
support for an argument or idea by exploiting
his or her opponent's feelings of pity or guilt.
B. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentatum ad
ignorantiam) whatever has not been proved
false must be true and vice versa.
C. Equivocation is a logical chain of K. Begging the question (petitio principii) is
reasoning of a term or a word several times, the type of fallacy in which the proposition to
but giving the particular word a different be proven is assumed implicitly or explicitly in
meaning each time. the premise.
D. Composition infers that something is true
of the whole from the fact that it is true some WEEK 5 and 6
part of the whole.
HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED
E. Division one reasons logically that
SPIRIT
something true of a thing must also be true of
all or some of its parts.
F. Against the person (Argumentatum ad Embodied = being materialized or incarnated
hominem) attempts to link the validity of a Spirit = Immutable and Indestructible
premise to a characteristic or belief of the The union of soul and body is inseparable
person advocating the premise. However, in
some instances, questions of personal
conduct, character, motives are legitimate if LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN PERSON
relevant to the issue. FACTITY - refers to the things in our life that
G. Appeal to force (Argumentatum ad are already given.
baculum) is an argument where force, SPATIAL-TEMPORAL BEINGS - As
coercion or the threat of force is given as a
temporal beings, our most obvious limitation
justification for a conclusion.
is our finitude-our finite quality or state.
H. Appeal to the people (Argumentatum ad
populum) is an argument that appeals or Spatial = space
exploits people's vanities, desire for esteem Temporal = time
THE BODY AS INTERMEDIARY -
and anchoring on popularity.
I. False Cause (post hoc) since that event Intermediary means acting as a mediator
followed this one, that event must have been
TRANSCENDENCE - is the ability to change,
caused by this one. This fallacy is also
be dynamic, and continually redefine oneself
referred to as coincidental correlation or
which works with our facticity to create
correlation not causation.
J. Hasty generalization one commits errors change.
if one reaches an inductive generalization
based on insufficient evidence. The fallacy is Polytheism is a belief or worship of more
commonly based on a broad conclusion upon
than one god.
the statistics of a survey of a small group that
Monotheism is a belief in or worship of one
fails to sufficiently represent the whole
population. god.
Hinduism is one of the oldest Eastern
traditions, practiced by hundreds of millions
of people for about 5000 years, the oldest
religion in the world.
Brahman = ultimate reality. oneness of
reality, self-hood
Atman = absolute soul
Samsara = endless series of birth
(reincarnation)
Karma = law of action, good or bad karma
Dharma = right action or role
Moksha = liberation from samsara
Buddhism = tears to enlightenment
Siddharta Gautama Buddha = founder
Dharma in Buddhism = law of salvation
Nirvana = absolutely free from all forms of
bondage and attachment
Arhat = one who entered nirvana
Bodhisattva = one who planned to enter
nirvana
Four Noble of Truths = realizations of
Buddha
Eightfold Path = ways to escape suffering to
achieve nirvana
WEEK 7 and 8
HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR
ENVIRONMENT
EGO-logical = humans over the environment
(Anthropocentric view)
ECO-logical = humans within the
environment (Egocentric view)
ANTHROPOCENTRISM = Refers to a
human-centered, or "anthropocentric," point
of view. Humans are the only, or primary,
holders of moral standing.
HUMANISM = Progressive philosophy of life
that, without theism or other supernatural
beliefs, affirms our ability and responsibility to
lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that
aspire to greater good.
PATHOCENTRISM = A philosophical position
regarding the difference or similarities in the
reaction to pain in humans and animals.
BIOCENTRISM = A philosophical viewpoint
that all living organisms, not just humans, are
deserving of equal and moral and ethical
consideration. ECOCENTRISM =This
concept believes that ecology is the central
and most significant part of the earth and
thus promotes a nature-based system of
values.
HOLISM = Etymologically, holism comes
from the Greek word "holos" meaning "all" or
"total*. Concisely summarized by Aristotle in
Metaphysics, "the whole is more than the
sum of its parts".
Sustainable Development - is development
that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs
Prudence - the ability to govern and
discipline oneself by the use of reason. It is
classically considered to be a virtue, and in
particular one of the four Cardinal virtues.
Frugality - the quality of being frugal,
sparing, thrifty, prudent or economical in the
consumption of consumable resources such
as food, time or money, and avoiding waste,
lavishness or extravagance.
Conservation - the act of protecting Earth's
natural resources for current and future
generations.
Preservation - The act of preserving; care to
preserve; act of keeping from destruction,
decay or any
DEEP ECOLOGY = For this theory,
ecological crisis is an outcome of
anthropocentrism
SOCIAL ECOLOGY = Ecological crisis
results from authoritarian social structures.
Destroying nature is a reflection wherein few
people overpower others while exploiting the
environment for profit or self-interest.
ECOFEMINISM = This theory argues that
ecological crisis is a consequence of male
dominance.
Erich Fromm = envisioned a society to be a
responsible human being towards the
environment
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
HEALTH 3
Week 1
Intensity - depends on the type of dance you
choose. Fast-moving dance styles like hip hop
and salsa are more intense than slower dances
like the tango or waltz. All of them will use your
whole body and will challenge your brain as you
learn the choreography and form.
Core - Depending on the type of dance you
choose, some of the steps/moves will engage
the core muscles.
Arms - Although most dances focus on your
lower body, you're also using your arms.
Legs - The choreography will have you doing
moves that work your lower body, including your
quads and hamstrings.
Back - Dance uses your core muscles,
including those in your back.
Flexibility - Most dance-inspired workouts
include moves that improve flexibility.
Aerobic - Dancing raises your heart rate. The
more up-tempo the dance style, the better it is
for your heart.
Strength - You won't be lifting weights, but your
body weight counts, helping to build muscle
strength.
Low-Impact - Dancing can be a high-or
low-impact workout depending on the style of
dancing.
Week 2
Folk Dance - a popular dance, considered as
part of the tradition or custom of a particular
people.
Cultural - relating to the ideas, customs, and
social behavior of a society.
Square Dance - a country dance that starts
with four couples facing one another in a
square, with the steps and movements shouted
out by a caller.
Dragon Dance - Chinese
Bon Odori - Japanese
Square Dance - West Americans
THE DANCES OF LUZON
BANGA - One of the interpretive dances created
during the KAYAW days was the “BANGA” dance.
This dance is performed with Kalinga women
showing their agility in balancing the bangas on
top of their heads while toddling through rice
paddies and mountain paths; a daily routine to
fetch water from the mountain springs.
Maglalatik - was originally performed in Biñan,
Laguna as a mock-war dance that demonstrates a
fight between the Moros and the Christians over
the prized latik or coconut meat during the Spanish
rule, this dance is also shown to pay tribute to the
town’s patron saint, San Isidro Labrador.
PANDANGGO SA ILAW - The word
Pandanggo comes from the Spanish dance
“fandango” characterized with lively steps and
clapping while following a varying 3⁄4 beat.
Pandanggo requires excellent balancing skill to
maintain the stability of three tinggoy, or oil lamps,
placed on head and at the back of each hand.
Balse - was a popular dance in Marikina, Rizal
during the Spanish times. Balse (valse in Spanish)
means waltz. This dance was performed after the
lutrina (a religious procession) and the music that
accompanied the dancers was played by the
musikong bungbong (musicians using instruments
made of bamboo).
THE DANCES OF VISAYAS
TINIKLING - Tinikling means "bamboo dance" in
English. The dance imitates the movement of the
Tikling birds as they walk between grass stems,
run over tree branches, or dodge bamboo traps set
by rice farmers. Dancers imitate the Tikling bird's
legendary grace and speed by skilfully
maneuvering between large bamboo poles.
KURATSA - The Kuratsa is highly favoured by the
Waray people of the Eastern Visayas region in the
Philippines. Strictly speaking, The Kuratsa must be
done with the Amenudo; that is, only one couple
dances it at a time. The Kuratsa is however, very
different in the manner of execution to the Mexican
counterpart.
Mazurka Boholana - is a Spanish-inspired
ballroom dance from the Bohol province of the
Philippines. Although the mazurka is the Polish
national dance, it was wildly popular throughout
Europe in the 19th century and even in colonized
lands overseas.
THE DANCES OF MINDANAO
KINI - KINI - A martial arts dance originating from
the Tausug people of the Sulu archipelago in the
Southwestern part of the Philippines. Male dancers
depict a fight between a cat and a hawk. They
simulate martial arts movements while
manipulating daggers and fans. KINI-KINI
represents the sophisticated women of the Royal
Maranao.
Pangalay - is a traditional Tausug dance
characterized by elaborate body postures and
gestures and the graceful arm and hand
movement of the dancer, amplified by the use of
janggay or metal claws. The dance is performed to
the music of the kulintangan, gandang, agong and
gabang. Commonly referred to as the fingernail
dance, Pangalay is usually performed during
weddings and other festive celebrations.
Singkil - originated from the Maranao people who
inhabit the shores of Lake Lanao. It is a re- telling
of an episode from the Maranao epic legend
Darangen involving the rescue of Princess
Gandingan (abducted by the diwatas) by the
legendary Prince Bantugan.
KANDINGAN - Performed at Tausug weddings in
Jolo, the Kandingan consists of figures and steps
based on classical and
traditional Indian dance forms. Dancers
perform with slightly bent knees turned
outward, fingers held stiffly together with the thumb
outward and apart.
Week 3
Occupational Dance - depict the lifestyle and
daily work of the people living in various
topographies, for example, planting and pounding.
Binatbatan - An occupational dance from Paoay,
Ilocos Norte. It depicts the beating of the cotton
pods to separate the seeds from the fibers with the
use of two sticks called “batbat” in the Ilocos
region.
Mag-asik - Tiruray dance for females performed
in Nuro, Cotabato. Dancers go around a piece of
bright colored cloth with small heavy steps but with
graceful hand and arm movements.
Religious/ Ceremonial Dance - are those
associated with religion, vows and ceremonies. A
religious dance may be performed to drive away
evil spirits and for having recovered from sickness,
favors granted and vows fulfilled.
Dugso - (meaning 'dance') is a ceremonial dance
among the Manobo people in Bukidnon, Agusan
and Misamis Oriental . The Dugso (also Dugsu) is
usually performed during important occasions like
kaliga (feasts) or kaamulan (tribal gatherings).
Game Dances - are those that are done with play
elements.
Lubi-lubi - (Bikol dance) a combination
of simple folk and social steps (literally, Lubi
means coconut.
Wedding Dances - are those dances that are
performed during wedding feasts.
Pagkawin -The wedding ceremony is called
Pagkawin. The festivity opens with the Pahanda or
presentation of dowry. Relatives of the groom
present to the relatives of the bride traditional
dowries that usually include the Salap-pa, a brass
box containing money, jewelry, other valuables and
the all-important betel nut.
Courtship Dances - depict the art of courtship.
Sua-Sua. -dance from Jolo, Sulu. Literally
"Sua-sua" means small orange plant and is the
name of a courtship dance and its accompanying
song.
WAR DANCE - is a dance involving mock
combat, usually in reference to tribal warrior
societies where such dances were performed as a
ritual connected with endemic warfare.
Sagayan - War dance performed by both the
Maguindanao and Maranao depicting in dramatic
fashion the steps their hero, Prince Bantugan, took
upon wearing his armaments, the war he fought in
and his subsequent victory afterwards.
Week 4
ARMS POSITIONS
1st position -Both arms are raised forward in a
circle in front of the chest with the fingertips about
an inch apart.
2nd position -Both arms are raised sideward with
a graceful curve at shoulder
level.
3rd position -Left arm is raised sideward as in
2nd position; right arm raise
upward.
4th position -Left arm is raised in front as in first
position; right arm raised
overhead.
5th position -Both arms are raised overhead.
FEET POSITIONS
1st position -Heels close together; toes apart
within an angle of around 45 Degrees.
2nd position -Point the right toe sideward; bring
down the heel of the right foot.
3rd position -Heel of one foot is close to in step
of other foot.
4th position -Point the right toe forward; bring
down the heel of the right foot.
5th position -Close the right foot to the left by
circling and return to the first
position.
TERMINOLOGIES IN FOLK DANCING
1. Arms in lateral position- both arms are at
one side, either sideward right or left, this may be
done at shoulder, chest or waist level.
2. Brush- weight on one foot, hit the floor with the
ball or heel of the other foot (the free foot) after
which that foot is lifted from the floor to any
direction.
3. Clockwise- like the motion of the hands of the
clock. R shoulder is toward the center of an
imaginary circle.
4. Counterclockwise- the reverse direction of
clockwise. L shoulder is toward the center of an
imaginary circle.
5. Cut- to displace quickly one foot with the other,
thus completely taking off the weight of the body
from the displaced foot.
6. Do-si-do- the vis-à-vis (opposites) both
advance forward, pass each other’s right (or left)
side, step across to the right (or left), move
backward without turning around, and pass each
other’s left (or right) side to proper places. This is
of foreign origin and is used in many Philippine
dances.
7. Free foot- the foot not bearing the weight of the
body.
8. Free hand- the hand not placed anywhere or
not doing anything.
9. Hands on waist- place hands at the waistline.
10. “Hayon-hayon”- to place one forearm in
front and the other at the back of the waist. This is
a Visayan term.
Week 5
Ati-atihan - Kalibo - Dubbed as the Mother of All
Festival in the Philippines, Kalibo's Ati-Atihan is the
oldest festival in the country.
Sinulog - Cebu City - On the same day, Cebu
City also pays tribute to Santo Niño through their
Ati-Atihan Sinulog. What sets it apart is the way
they dance to the beat of the drums – two step
forward and one step backward – a movement
that's meant to simulate the water current (sulog)
of Pahina River.
Dinagyang - Iloilo City - Exactly a week later on
the 4th Sunday of January, Iloilo City also holds
the same cultural and religious festivity in honour
of the Child Jesus. Dinagyang consists of a fluvial
procession, colourful parades, and a competition
for the most intricate costume and impressive
choreography.
Masskara - Bacolod - Another renowned
Visayas festival is Bacolod's Masskara, a 20-day
street party replete with food, drinks, dances, and
a bevy of wild contests like chasing after a pig and
downing coconut milk.
Kadayawan Festival - Davao City - Mindanao
also has their own share of lavish fiestas led by
Davao City's Kadayawan Festival held annually
every 3rd week of August. This time it's primarily to
give thanks for a plentiful harvest so the streets
are decorated with freshly picked fruits and
vegetables.
Moriones Festival - Marinduque - During Holy
Week each year, a biblical reenactment is seen on
the roads of Marinduque when villagers don their
interpretation of a Roman soldiers' helmet, dress,
and armour.
Pintados Festival - Tacloban - If you're into
tattoos and body arts then you might flip over the
yearly celebration of Pintados festival in Tacloban
when locals dance around the streets with inked
bodies to symbolize the brave warriors of the past.
Panagbenga - Baguio Flower Festival - The
mainland Luzon is not one to take the backseat in
terms of festivals too. Every year during the month
of February, thousands of tourists both domestic
and foreign go up to the Summer Capital of the
Philippines to witness the city bloom, literally.
Higantes Festival - Angono, Rizal - Every
23rd of November, head over to Angono, Rizal to
be part of its larger than life celebration - the
Higantes Festival. In celebration of the Feast of
San Clemente, people open their homes and
dining tables to visitors. It's also quite a sight to
see papier-mâché giants sashaying down the
street, some measuring as tall as 12 ft.
Pahiyas Festival - Lucban, Quezon - Pahiyas
is the time when people in Lucban, Quezon give
thanks to San Isidro Labrador for a good harvest.
Pahiyas means "decor". Every May 15, the fronts
of houses are elaborately decorated with brightly
colored rice wafers, called kiping, a type of rice
dough made from a traditional recipe.
Paru-paro Festival - Dasmarinas, Cavite - The
paru-paro (known as butterfly in English) is a
universal symbol of change, transformation and
celebration. The birth of a butterfly starts with an
egg and becomes a butterfly larva (also known as
a caterpillar) where it grows quickly. It sheds from
its chrysalis and flies off to new life. The butterfly
has a strong correlation to the city.
Week 6
Social dance etiquette
Personal Hygiene - In social dancing one
encounters a lot more people. Making personal
hygiene a lot more vital.
Asking a prospective partner to dance -
When asking someone to dance, a man must be
polite. Snapping your fingers, nodding your head,
or waving to call someone is a big no- no. if a lady
accepts your invitation, escort her to and from the
dance floor.
If you are asked to dance - In all social dance
functions, good manners should be shown when
you are asked to dance. Accept the invitation to
dance politely.
On the dance area - Remember to politely
introduce yourself to your partner as well as to
other dancers. Dance in the best way you can.
At the end of music - Always show gratitude to
your dance partner for sharing a dance moment
with you. Say thank you when the music ends.
Then, escort your dance partner to the place
where she was when you asked her.
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Week 1
Different–not the same as another or each other;
unlike in nature, form, or quality.
Descriptive- tests the causality between variables.
Correlational - attempts to determine to what extent
two or more variables are related to each other.
Quasi-experimental - establish a causal relationship
between two or more variables.
Experimental - often called “true experimentation”;
the independent variable is manipulated to assess
causal relationships.
Cause – a reason for a certain action, condition or
result to happen.
Effect - expressing a result or outcome based on a
certain cause.
Variables – subject matter of the study, important
elements of the research. Is the object, characteristic,
category, attribute, case, event, which has been
regarded measurable once it is assisted by statistical
treatments. Furthermore, it can change
to change, alter, improve, or be modified.
Kinds of Quantitative Research
1. Descriptive Research - involves identifying and
describing the cause or reason of a particular
phenomenon. It is focusing on independent and
dependent variables. This design generally attempts
to test variable relationships or causality between
variables.
Independent Variable – a variable that affects the
dependent variable
Dependent Variable – a variable that receives the
effect from the independent variable
2. Correlational Design - seeks to analyze the
relationship between variables(positive or negative)
that are involved in a research context.
3. Quasi- Experimental Design - determines the
causality between one or more variables. A lot of
intervening factors are integrated since there are
some other major variables that must be determined
and are highly based on time duration and centralized
on programs.
4. Experimental Design - this is one of the highest
forms of quantitative research wherein independent
variables are manipulated and various statistical
techniques are involved in order to formulate a
product.
Types of Variable
1. Independent Variable(IV) – variable that stands
alone and the variable that causes an effect to the
dependent variable/s. It is the one that researcher/s
manipulate/control in order to produce the necessary
context in processing and determining the results of
the study. (Cause)
2. Dependent Variable (DV) - the one that is
assumed to be affected by an independent
variable and some other mediating variables. (Effect)
Guidelines in Structuring and Identifying
Research Variables:
1. The independent variable is stated first before the
dependent variable.
2. Research Variables are always specific in structure.
3. Research Variables are the subject matter of the
study, thus, it is always present in the research title
structure.
4. The specific category of the independent variable
and the dependent variable is always included.
5. To identify variables in a research structure, using a
concept diagram can help determine the two
variables.
Week 2
Research Title – summarizes the main idea of the
whole paper and is the most notable part of the
research paper.
A research title entails an idea that is developed from
and integrated from a question raised by a
researcher/s about a particular research topic.
A research title is a product of real- world
observations, wide reading, and meaningful
interactions with other people.
A good title contains the fewest possible words that
adequately describe the contents and/or purpose of
your research paper.
Research Topic – a general area of interest that you
would like to pursue in your research
-an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer in the
form of scientific inquiry.
-topics or problems are general questions about
relations among variables, or characteristics of the
phenomenon which a researcher needs to undertake
Subject Matter - the main research variables to be
studied
Aim –the purpose for conducting the research study
Locus – location/ place where the study will be
conducted
Respondent– an individual or group of people that
serves as the source of information during data
collection
Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a
Research Title:
1. The title must contain the following elements:
a. the subject matter or research problem
b. the setting and locale of the study
c. the respondents or participants involved in the study;
and
d. the time or period when the study was conducted (if
the title becomes too long because of these elements, the
timeframe or period may be omitted except in evaluation
studies)
2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects
of the study but should be brief and concise as possible.
3. The use of the term “Analysis of”. “A Study of”, “An
Investigation of”, and the like should be avoided. All these
are understood to have been done in research.
4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be
written in an inverted pyramid.
5. When typed or encoded on the title page, all words in
the title should be in capital letters.
6. If possible, the title should not be longer than 15
substantive words.
7. Avoid long, detailed titles that give too much
information.
8. To shorten the title, delete the terms “assessment” or
“evaluation” if these are already emphasized in the text.
Characteristics of a Good Title:
- Informative
-Not stuffy or dull
-Written in phrase not in complete sentence
-Straightforward
-No punctuation at the end
Week 3
Background–introductory idea, initial basis
of a particular point.
Gap–an issue that has not been fully addressed by
previous studies. This is the problem that the
researchers will aim to solve or answer.
Problem-ideas or concepts that are structured to be
resolved
Introduction–part of the research that describes the
basic background ideas.
Citation-a quotation from or reference to a
book,paper, or author, especially in a scholarly work
Background of the Study - includes an overview of
the research topic, the area being researched, as well
as previous studies and relevant information on the
topic. This part of a research study demonstrates the
relevance of the research question
A Step-by-Step on How To Do the Background of
the Study:
1. Conduct preliminary researches
2. Read information and develop research questions
3. Write thesis statement
4. Use your thesis statement as guide for writing
background of the study
5. Create relevant sections in writing research
background
6. Identify any further studies to address gaps of the
study
7. Revise and improve your research background in
terms of perceived gaps, rationale, observations,
problems, questions and purposes
Research Introduction - gives us the idea of what
the research will be about. It gives the context of the
study.
Citation - An author uses citations to inform his/her
audience that specific items in the work come from
another source.
-The most commonly used citation style for the social
sciences is the APA (American Psychological
Association) style. More information about this style
can be found on the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association, (7th ed.).
Two Types of Citation
1. In-text citation - In-text citations use only a few
details of the source, enough to locate its matching
reference citation in the reference list. As the name
implies, it is placed within the text.
2. Reference List - Reference list citations provide
more information about the source, so that the reader
can find it if they wish.
Three options for placing citations(in-text)
1. Idea-focused - Place the author(s) and date (s) in
parentheses at an appropriate place in or at the end
of the sentence.
2. Researcher-focused-Place only the date in
parentheses.
3. Chronology-focused-Integrate both the author
and date into the cited sentence.
Week 4
Problem- ideas or concepts that are structured to be
resolved
Statement- a definite or clear expression of
something in speech or writing
Purpose – the overall direction or focus of the study
Research Question - research statements that are
constructed to inquire for further relevant answers,
theories and ideas. It addresses areas of research
discovery and research analysis through relevant
sources and methods.
Characteristics of a Good Research Question
1. The question is feasible. It can be investigated in
a particular achievable time frame and resources.
2. The question is clear. Most people can
understand the content of the question.
3. The question is significant. It is worth
investigating because it will contribute important
knowledge about the human condition and
development of society.
4. The question is ethical. It will not involve physical
or psychological harm, or to the natural or social
environment of which they are part.
Research Problem - a statement about an area of
concern, a condition to be improved, or set of ideas
that exists in a scholarly literature, in theory, or in
practice that emphasizes the need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation in a
research process.
Research Purpose - is generated from the research
problem and clearly focuses on the development of
the study. In the research process, the purpose is
usually stated after the problem, supports the
problem, and clarifies the knowledge to be generated.
Statement of the Problem
-The statement of the problem shortly addresses the
question: Derived from relevant research questions.
-There should be main research problems, major and
minor research questions.
Parts of the Statement of the Problem and
Purpose
1. Introduction (Introductory Statement) –
describes the presentation of the research questions
and research purpose.
2. Major Question – stated the central inquiry of the
research. It must be parallel with the research title.
3. Supporting Research Questions – stated the
other specific instances of the problem that must be
investigated in a research study to provide substantial
research theories.
4. Research Purpose- describes the goal of the
study in achieving a set of research results.
Guidelines in Formulating the Statement of the
Problem and Purpose
1. Statement of the Problem and Purpose must be
complete with the necessary substantial parts.
2. Statement of the Problem and Purpose must be
relevant and sequential.
3. The research title structure reflects the Statement
of the Problem and Purpose.
Introduction
- Must contain the research title structure.
- The reasons of presenting the questions and
purposes
- Clear and direct
- Understandable by readers
Major Question
- Must be complete, clear, and concise with the
necessary information.
- Reflects the type of study.
- Reflects the major variables of the study.
- Must be a realistic question with logical structure.
- Comprehensive enough for research.
Supporting Research Questions
- Relevant to the major question
- Relevant to the title structure
- Must reflect intervening variables.
- Clear and direct
Research Purpose
- Must be aligned with the research problem.
- Reflects the research question.
- Identifies the major reason for the study.
- Direct and specific.
Week 5
Scope - it is the extent of the area or subject matter
that something deals with or to which it is relevant.
Limitation - it is a certain thing that restraints.
Significance -the quality of being worthy of attention;
importance.
A research hypothesis - is any statement created by
researchers when they try to attempt upon the
outcome of a research or experiment.
Definition of Variables - A specialized part of the
research study that is operational and contextual in
nature
Scope and Delimitation of the study - are the two
elements of a research paper that inform the reader
what information is included in the research and its
parameters.
Scope- The scope of the study is a section of a
research paper that explains what information or
subject is being analyzed. potential weakness of the
study researcher cannot control.They are the
shortcomings conditions that placed restrictions
Delimitation of study- The delimitation of the study is
the explanation of the scope of study.
-study will be narrowed in scope, how it is bounded
Significance of the study - are those persons, or
group of persons, or organizations or communities as
a result of the study.
Community – this study spreads awareness in the
community on recognizing anxiety as a mental health
concern and how meditation can be a useful approach
to alleviating it.
Academic Institutions and Administrators –
through this research, academic institutions and
administrators may promote programs and
advocacies regarding meditation to help
students deal with their anxiety issues.
Mental health advocates – the result of this research
will provide valuable information for the advocates to
further their campaign on spreading awareness on
how to deal with various mental health issues
including anxiety and how.
Parents – this research may convince parents to
consider programs involving meditation that may help
the students deal with their anxiety issues.
Students – students will be directly benefited from
this research as its findings may encourage them to
consider meditation as an approach to lower their
anxiety levels.
Future researchers – this study covers information
involving meditation as an approach to reducing
anxiety levels. Thus, the result of this study can be
used for future discussions on the capabilities of
meditation in alleviating other mental health concerns.
Research hypothesis - is any statement created by
researchers when they try to attempt upon the
outcome of a research or experiment.
Types of Hypothesis
Based on Structure
1. Null Hypothesis – a hypothesis that indicates the
nothingness and the similarities and the absence of
change in the objects, principles and results of the
research study. It indicates a very low or no possibility
of a result to be accomplished or the negativity of an
instance.
It is called the H0
2. Alternative Hypothesis – a hypothesis that is
positive in its structure, indicating an increase or a
change or even a point of difference and relationship,
it is the true goal of the researchers, to establish an
identified response. It is called the H1.
Week 6
Logical- each article must be rational enough to
describe a particular theory or concepts
Current and Realistic – articles must be placed in a
research context considering a specific research
problem based on the researchers’ scientific
observation.
Comprehensively Analytical – the researchers must
understand the function, content and discourse of the
ideas and analyze its relevance on the statement of
the research problem.
Consistency of Ideas – each article has to be related
with the research variables as well contribute to the
formulation of substantial theories, constructs and
thesis statements.
Insightful– each article must be properly analyzed in
such a way that the practicality of the supporting
details can be used in the collection of primary
research data.
Steps in Reviewing Literature and Studies
1. Find relevant materials - Researchers should be
selective and wise in determining a relevant research
material.
2. Read the reference comprehensively. -In reading
a reference, there should be notecards in which
relevant information is written and as considered the
outline of the cited article.
3. Paraphrase the ideas of the research article. -
Always remember that in paraphrasing an article,
proper restatement should be followed.
4. Put proper citation (APA format) -Researchers
must be aware of the 7 th Edition APA format for
scientific articles.
5.Account the reference used by doing an
annotated bibliography - The reference list includes
all the research articles used in a research study
Printed Sources
-Author/s’ Last name, First Name – Initial. (Year of
Publication.)Title of the Article/Topic. Title of the Book.
Place of Publication: Name of Publishing Company,
page range, volume number
Ex. King, M. (2000). Wrestling with the angel: A life of
Janet Frame. Auckland, New Zealand: Viking.
Online Sources
-Author/s’ Last name, First Name – Initial. (Year of
Publication.)Title of the Article/Topic. URL
Ex.Dewston, R.A. (2006). Using the internet to
enhance teaching at the University of Waikato
(Master’s Thesis, University of Waikato Hamilton,
New Zealand).
6. Present set of cited articles
In presenting cited articles, there must complete
information such as:
-Author of the Article
-Date of Publication
- Paraphrased Article
7. Explain each cited article -Each cited article must
be thoroughly explained in order to determine the
importance of the article in the research study.
8.Provide a general synthesis - State a general
theory that had been reflected in all accounted and
reviewed articles.
Structure of Review of Related Literature and
Studies
Introduction
- Must describe the general importance of all
presented research articles
- Must describe that all presented articles are for
generating substantial theories Chapter 2
Citation and Analysis
Citation - is a systematic way of crediting a work and
must consider a standardized format. It is also a way
of referring to:
o Name of the author
o Title of work
o Name and location of the company that published
your copy of the source
o Date your copy was published
o Page numbers of material you are borrowing
Analysis - deals with the assertion and explanation of
the researchers regarding the cited materials, it can
affirm or negate the content of the materials but it
should be properly justified.
- Each article must be properly cited and
paraphrased.
- Each article must be classified into a set of
categories.
- The research article needs to be properly explained
based on logical analysis of research problem,
academic reasons and substantial variables.
Synthesis
- Give the similarities and differences of all cited
articles
- Formulate a general theory
- Provide the generalization of the relevance of all
cited articles
Types of Syntheses
1. Explanatory synthesis
-Helps the reader to understand the topic
-Present the facts in a reasonably objective manner
-explanations given may entail descriptions, sequence
of events or state of affairs.
2. Argument synthesis-Helps the researcher to
present own point of view with the support of relevant
facts drawn from services and presented in a logical
manner.
Week 7
Concept – is any pre- conceived notion or idea that is
in the center of a particular instance
Conceptual Framework of the Research – Is a
paradigm that gives a strong emphasis on the
interdependency and connection of each research
variables throughout the study
Theory - refers to the ideas that are collectively
common among most references
Theoretical Framework – diagram that presents all
the theories of the research study which establishes
thesis statements.
Week 8
Methodology – focuses on the description of the
structured methods of research. Is the scientific and
organized way of accumulating data from respondents
and even accounting the research instruments used,
determining research designs, and even stating the
actual respondents, locus of the data, nature of the
sources and the way the respondents have been
selected.
Research Design –types of research to be done
Data Gathering Procedure- describes the collection
of data to be used in a research
Sample– representing the research respondents
Data Presentation – process of using table and
graph to present research result
Method - Refers to any consecutive steps to be
followed in order to achieve something. But research
method should be specific and scientific.
Data GatheringProcedure- an act of accumulating
information that is vital in the research context
1. Interview Method - This is done by asking an
interviewee some selected questions randomly,
usually it is done in most qualitative research.
2. Survey/ Questionnaire Method – This is done by
selecting purposive respondents and provides them
forms which include questions that the respondents
will answer.
3. Document Method - This is done by collecting
written articles (printed/ online) sources to support the
assumption of the researchers in their study.
4. Observation Method- It generates ideas by
focusing on the current phenomenon by witnessing
how it occurs and how it will be resolved.
5. Experimental Method – It is usually the method to
be used if the study is more on investigation and/or
research project.
Data – any important details or codes that are being
acquired in order to produce necessary information.
Two types of Data
1. Primary Data - These are acquired directly by the
researcher from the source.
2. Secondary Data – These are acquired from
reading printed materials or having access to the
internet. It is considered secondary since the data
have been published already and to acquire these,
there are media to be used.
Important Ideas in Research Samples
-Population – the totality of the individuals
-Target Population– the desired population to be
used in a particular research study
-Sample – the subset of a population; the finite
number of individuals that will represent the
population
-Sample Size – the number of respondents
-Respondent – the group of people who will give a
relevant response to a given research problem in a
specified time
Sampling Techniques/Procedures
The way of selecting a target set of respondents
1. Purposive Sampling – Deals with selecting
respondents based on the subject of the study and
the relevance of those respondents to the study the
researchers are conducting.
2. Stratified Sampling – This sampling focuses on
selecting an equally distributed representation of a
class.
3. Cluster Sampling – This is also called area
sampling by which the geographical location is very
much important in selecting respondents.
Instrument – any measuring tool to be used in a
research study
Two common research instruments
1. Questionnaire – a form by which respondents are
set to answer pre-determined questions arranged in a
particular scheme. Usually, it is used in quantitative
research.
It can either be in a form of a checklist, rating scales,
or assessment tools
2. Interview Questions- a formal/ organized way of
questions given to a few people, specifically
respondents are being asked to state their opinions
and/or ideas about a particular phenomenon. It can
either be in the form of journals, field notes, and
interview guide questions.
Validity – deals with the extent of what is supposed to
be measured. refers to the appropriateness of any
given means to what is expected to be done.
Reliability – deals with the consistency of data results
Reliability can be subdivided into two:
1. Internal Reliability - if the data are near to what is
being expected to achieve.
2. External Reliability – if two data sets can be
generalized as one constructive and consolidated
data set.
Data Processing and Data Presentation
Data Processing - a way of knowing the frequency of
data by counting and grouping them into a given data
set.
Counting – a way of quantifying categories by means
of using numbers
Tallying – a way of recording, sorting out, classifying,
and arranging data obtained into its respective data
set.
Data Presentation – a way of showing and
describing the data into an organized and presentable
manner using tables, graphs and charts
Three types of Data Presentation
1. Textual Presentation – a type of presentation that
focuses mainly on using words in explaining the
acquired data. It must be accompanied by tables and
graphs.
2. Tabular Presentation – a type of presentation that
uses tables.
3. Graphical Presentation – a type of presentation
that uses graphs and charts.
-Tables – consists of rows and columns
-Rows – the horizontal part
-Columns – the vertical part
-Cells – the intersection of rows and columns
Graphs and Charts
Chart – a visual representation that uses geometrical
figures to show holistically the frequencies and its
variations and distributions.
Graph – a visual and statistical representation that
shows the analytical aspects of frequencies,
specifically trends and changes, which charts cannot
do.
Types of Graphs
1. Bar Graph – shows magnitude of the frequency,
the frequency itself and the variations of frequencies.
2. Histogram – a bar graph that is showing variations
of intervals and ranges and its structure is marked by
adjoining boxes.
3. Frequency Polygon Method – a graph that shows
continuity, trends, changes over a time period and/ or
duration, it can progress or regress.
4. Circular/Pie Graph - a graph that shows
components, partition, composition and/or distribution.