1.2.3 Internet Principles of Operation

1.
2 COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES AHMED THAKUR
1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
 Understanding of the role of the browser and Internet server
Internet Browser: is a program/software that allows a user to display web pages, web sites, etc.
Software that enables users to access/view documents and other resources on the Internet. Internet
browser is also known as a web authoring package/software.
Features:
 links to associated resources possible within text (hyperlinks)
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 hot spots – in pictures/maps
 forward/back buttons – allows review of resources
 favourites – maintains links to resources between sessions
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 history – previous searches for example
 refresh – updates pages for example
 filters – takes out unwanted information for example
A good web authoring package will have the following features (and many others):
 You can view and edit the page as it will look in a web browser. Sometimes called a
WYSIWIG editor ("What You See Is What You Get")
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 You can view and edit the HTML code directly if you want.
 It will check that the navigation links are working
 It will provide readymade 'templates' so you only have to add your own content if you want to.
 Easy to add or remove pages without breaking the site navigation
Disadvantage
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 Takes time to learn
 A professional package costs hundreds of pounds/dollars although there are cheap or even free
ones available as well. For example there are some very capable free 'open-source'
applications.
Internet
The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks. When you connect your
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computer to the Internet via your Internet Service Provider (ISP) you become part of the ISPs network,
which is connected to other networks that make up the Internet.
Connecting to the Internet

To connect to the Internet the following are needed:
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Hardware
 a computer
 telephone line (cable being the exception)
 modem and/or router
Software and Service

 an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
 Web browser, eg Internet Explorer, Firefox, Chrome, Safari, Opera etc.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

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ISPs provide access to the Internet. Commonly used ISPs include Sky, Virgin and BT but there are
many more. Most offer the same basic package of Internet access,email addresses and web space.
You need a web browser to view web pages. The most widely used are Internet Explorer and Firefox.
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the web such as:
 forward and back buttons to move between pages
 a history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
 a stop button if a page is taking too long to load
 favourites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
 options to cut, copy, paste, save and print elements of web pages
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1.2 COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES AHMED THAKUR
A connection made to the Internet will be either analogue or digital. It is important to know the
difference between the two and the technologies they use.
Analogue connection
Dial-up
A dial-up modem converts digital signals from a computer to analogue signals that are then sent
down the telephone line. A modem on the other end converts the analogue signal back to a digital
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signal the computer can understand.
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An analogue Internet connection
The maximum theoretical connection speed is 56Kbps. Dial-up is very slow by today’s standards and
in real world use will typically result in a download speed of roughly 5KBps. Phone calls cannot be
made whilst connected to the Internet.
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Digital connections
ISDN
An ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) capable phone line can provide connection speeds
of up to 64Kbps (single channel) or 128Kbps (dual channel) using a terminal adapter often referred
to as an ISDN modem. The terminal adaptor removes the need to convert digital signals to analogue
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signals before they’re sent down the telephone line, this results in a more reliable Internet connection.
ADSL
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) provides connection speeds of up to 24Mbps and uses a
telephone line to receive and transmit data.
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A digital Internet connection

The speed that data can be transferred is dependent on a number of factors:
 Phone lines were designed to carry voice signals - not data. Signal quality can vary between
lines and whilst it doesn’t affect voice signals, it does affect data transmissions.
 The distance between your house and the telephone exchange has an effect on the speed at
which data is transferred. A distance of 4Km is considered the limit for ADSL technology, beyond
which it may not work.
An ADSL modem/router is needed for broadband Internet access over ADSL. This is usually provided
by your ISP. Phone calls can still be made whilst connected.

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Cable
Cable companies do not use traditional telephone lines to provide broadband Internet access. They
have their own network, a combination of co-axial copper cable and fibre optic cable.
With their purposefully built infrastructure cable companies are able to provide speeds of up to
50Mbps - considerably faster than the highest available ADSL speed (24Mbps).
A cable modem/router is needed for broadband Internet access over cable. This is usually provided
by your ISP.
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The making and receiving of phone calls is not affected because the telephone line is not used.
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Why use broadband?
Most people in the UK access the Internet using broadband because it’s much faster than the other
methods. Broadband access allows feature rich web pages (ones that have lots of graphics, videos,
sound, animations etc) to download quickly and it allows users to quickly download large files (like
music or video clips). Faster Internet connections also mean that the response time between clicking
on a link and the new page appearing are reduced.
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The download times below are calculated based on each connection's maximum theoretical
download speed.
Song download time

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Album download time
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TV episode download time
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Film download time
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ISPs advertise speeds as 'up to', for example, 'up to 8Mb'. This means that the maximum speed you
will achieve is 8Mb but that you're unlikely to achieve 8Mb all the time.
What can you do on the Internet?

 browse websites
 send and receive email
 download media files, eg Mp3s or video files
 watch streamed video, eg BBC iPlayer, YouTube etc
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 check your bank balance and make payments

 buy goods from online shops
 access educational material from your school’s Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)
 create, store, edit and share your documents using web-based applications, eg Google Docs
 interact with friends on social networking sites, eg Bebo, MySpace, Facebook etc
 write a blog
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 sign-up to forums and discuss topics that interest you with like-minded individuals
 game with friends
 instant message family and friends
 share photos and videos
 complete free tutorials covering a wide range of subjects
Searching the web

Finding the exact information you want on the web requires skill and practice. There are thousands
of pages on any given topic.
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Search engines

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A search engine is a service which helps you find the information you want on the Internet. Search
engines continually trawl the net for new websites cataloguing them into an index. Some commonly
used search engines are Google, Yahoo and AltaVista, but there are many others.
Search terms
When you go to a search engine you are given a search box into which you enter the key words of
your topic. For example, if you enter the word rock you will likely get links to pages about geology,
music and building societies.
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Let us say we want information on rock music. If you type in rock music it is likely the search engine
will bring up links to many pages about rocks, rock climbing and music. However, if you try typing
in "rock music" (with quotes) the search engine will treat it as a phrase and bring up details of web
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pages containing the words rock music in that order.
Advanced search terms

Entering rock + music will bring up documents containing both words. Entering rock + music -
climbing will bring up documents containing the words rock and music but with no reference
to climbing.
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Intranet
An intranet is a network that works like the Internet but is only available within a particular
organisation, not to the public. An intranet may have web pages used to share company specific
data within that company, such as internal telephone numbers or details of employee benefits.
The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (WWW or Web for short) is the part of the Internet that you can access using
a web browser such as Internet Explorer or Firefox. It consists of a large number of web servers that
host websites. Each website will normally consist of a number of web pages. A web page can
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contain text, images, video, animation and sound.
Accessing web pages
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You can access a website or web page by typing its URL (Uniform Resource Locator) into the address
bar of your browser. An example of a URL is http://www.bbc.co.uk.
URLs will have the format 'http' and a domain (such as .uk). What goes in between is arbitrary, but
often has the term "www", eg http://www.bbc.co.uk, but it doesn’t have to, eg
http://news.bbc.co.uk.
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Https is the secure version of http. When you use https any data you send or receive from the web
server is encrypted. For example, when banking online https is used to keep your account details
safe.
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Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This is called the
homepage.
Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be taken to another
page which could be on another server in any part of the world.
Types of web sites

Web sites are usually designed with a specific purpose in mind. These include
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 E-commerce sites - you visit these to buy something

 Information sites - such as your favourite news website
 Entertainment - such as YouTube and the BBC iPlayer site
 Business - provides support, documents and software drivers for customers
 Ideas and opinion sites - such as personal blogs or your own personal site
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 Social networking site - such as someone's Facebook page

 Portfolio site - you want to show off your work to a potential employer or client
TYPE OF SITE COMMENT

E-commerce This type of site is dedicated to selling goods and services directly
over the Internet. An e-commerce site includes
 A number of things for sale
 A "shopping cart" to select items
 A payment method such as credit card.
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Information and These exist to provide factual information and knowledge

knowledge sites  Online encyclopaedias such as Wikipedia
 News sites such as the BBC News
 Online training and education - such as teach-ict.com
Entertainment These exist just for fun and entertainment
 Catch-up TV such as BBC iPlayer
 Online gaming sites
 Viewing videos such as on YouTube
 Sports sites - football clubs
 Celebrity sites - follow your favourite pop star

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Ideas and opinion Visitors read other people's opinion about things
 Personal blog site
 Professional journalists providing analysis
 Forums set up for a certain topic
Business These are created by a business to support their customers,
provide information and maybe download software drivers. They
do not sell things directly on this kind of site.
Social networking Show friends and visitors details about your life. You do not need
technical knowledge to set up your own web page on these kind
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of sites.
Portfolio site These are created to show off what you can do. So you can find
work and new clients. For example a wedding photographer
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could have a site showing off the kind of work they do. Or a web
designer can show their skill to a potential employer.
Web server and domain

In order to let other people see your web site, it must be placed on a web server. This is called 'hosting'
a web site.
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Before you can do this, you must choose an URL (Uniform Resource Locator) for your site, such as
www.teach-ict.com. This is called the site's domain name.
Domain names are purchased from a domain registrar who has the authority to sell domains.
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To type in a complete URL you normally include http:// followed by the domain.
HTTP is the standard protocol for a web page. You can also get HTTPS with an extra s on the end that
indicates it is a secure web page.
Each domain name must be unique - you cannot purchase a domain that someone else already
owns. This is because every URL is converted into a unique IP address. For example the web site
www.google.com has the IP address 74.125.91.104.
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Try typing http://74.125.91.104/ into your web browser and see what you get. Once your site is online,
you expect your web hosting company to provide
 Fast response time - visitors hate waiting for a page to download because of a slow server.
 Administration tools such as web statistics so you can see how many visitors you have and what
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they are looking at.

 Good upload speeds - your site needs to be updated easily and often, so a good upload speed
makes this much easier.
 Help - when things go wrong on the server, you want confidence that they will help out.
A server is a running instance of an application (software) capable of accepting requests from the
client and giving responses accordingly. Servers can run on any computer including dedicated
computers, which individually are also often referred to as "the server". In many cases, a computer
can provide several services and have several servers running.
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What is an Internet server?

Internet server (web server) - this is a special computer, which is constantly switched on and
connected to the Internet so that each Internet user around the world can access your website at
all times. This computer is built up with selected high quality components, which can endure
incessant work and high load.
Types of Servers
The multiple types of servers or types of network servers are as follows:

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 Server Platform: Server platform is the fundamental hardware or software for a system which acts
as an engine that drives the server. It is often used synonymously with an operating system.
 Application Server: Also known as a type of middleware, it occupies a substantial amount of

computing region between database servers and the end user, and is commonly used to
connect the two.

Audio/Video Server: It provides multimedia capabilities to websites by helping the user to
broadcast streaming multimedia content.
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 Chat Server: It serves the users to exchange data in an environment similar to Internet newsgroup
which provides real-time discussion capabilities.
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 Fax Server: It is one of the best options for organizations that seek minimum incoming and
outgoing telephone resources, but require to fax actual documents.
 FTP Server: It works on one of the oldest of the Internet services, the file transfer protocol. It
provides a secure file transfer between computers while ensuring file security and transfer control.
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 Groupware Server: It is a software designed that enables the users to work together, irrespective
of the location, through the Internet or a corporate intranet and to function together in a virtual
atmosphere.
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IRC Server: It is an ideal option for those looking for real-time discussion capabilities. Internet
Relay Chat comprises different network servers that enable the users to connect to each other
through an IRC network.
 List Server: It provides a better way of managing mailing lists. The server can be either open
interactive discussion for the people or a one-way list that provides announcements, newsletters
or advertising.
 Mail Server: It transfers and stores mails over corporate networks through LANs, WANs and across
the Internet.
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 News Server: It serves as a distribution and delivery source for many public news groups,
approachable over the USENET news network.
 Proxy Server: It acts as a mediator between a client program and an external server to filter
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requests, improve performance and share connections.
 Telnet Server: It enables the users to log on to a host computer and execute tasks as if they are
working on a remote computer.
 Virtual Servers: A virtual server is just like a physical computer because it is committed to an
individual customer's demands, can be individually booted and maintains privacy of a separate
computer. Basically, the distance among shared and dedicated (hosting) servers is reduced
providing freedom to other customers, at a less cost. Now, it has become omnipresent in the
data center.
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Web Server: It provides static content to a web browser by loading a file from a disk and transferring
it across the network to the user's web browser. This exchange is intermediated by the browser and
the server, communicating using HTTP.
Other types of servers include Open source servers, Gopher server (like a plain document, similar to
WWW and the hypertext being absent) and Name server (applies name-service protocol).
The various servers can be categorized according to their applications. Servers along with managing

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network resources are also dedicated, i.e., they perform no other task other than their server tasks.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/different-types-of-servers.html
More: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/different-types-of-servers.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)
Parts of a web page, CSS and JavaScript

Although there seems to be an almost infinite variety of web pages. Most good web pages share
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some common elements. Quite often these elements and placed on a template page that is then
used to design all pages on the site.
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If you want to make a change to the site's navigation for example, then altering the template allows
the web authoring package to update every page that uses that template.
Every web site has a home page. This is the main page that visitors see when they first visit the site.
Of course visitors can go directly to any site page by loading the right URL in their browser, but in
general, typing the main domain (such as www.teach-ict.com) will show the home page.
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The picture below shows you the main parts of a typical web page
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 The Banner
This is an area at the top of the page that is often the same on all the pages of the web site. It
may contain a company logo. It often has a search box located there and sometimes a hot
spot to take you back to the home page.
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 The Menu system

This area is concerned with providing a method of moving around (navigating) the site. There
are a number of menu styles in common use. These are explained a little later on.
 The Content area

This is where the main content of the web page is located. Content can be in a number of
different forms such as text, pictures, video and Flash movies. Sound can also be embedded in
a web page such as background music.

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 Footer
This area often contains copyright notices, links to terms and conditions and a privacy statement.
 Cascading Style Sheets – CSS

The text and layout of a web page can be formatted (styled) with 'cascading style sheet' or CSS.
This is text based just like html, but it is made up of a set of styling commands that a web browser
understands. For example to make this bit red, we added a bit of CSS to this page that looks like
this:
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<span class="style1">make this bit red</span>
All these commands can be gathered together into a single text file ending with .css This file is
then linked to all the pages on the site. So you only need to change the CSS code in one place
to affect the whole site.
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 JavaScript
Many web sites want to add some interaction to the page. This is done with computer code
called 'javascript'. For example most web forms have some type of checking going on before it
can be sent to the server, such as a 'required' field. Until that form field is filled in, you cannot
send the form.
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There are whole libraries of JavaScript code now available that you can easily add to a web
page to add extra features. A very popular library is called jQuery.
Viewing a web site

Web sites are now viewed in a number of ways and this affects the design of the site.
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It is no longer the case that web sites are just viewed on a large computer screen. For example, smart
phones, tablets and e-readers can view web sites.
The problem is that if a site is designed with a fixed width, say 900 pixels, this is fine for a standard
screen, but it looks horrible on a small smart phone.

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To overcome this, many web sites are now designed to change shape depending on what is being
used to view it. This is called 'responsive design'.
The way it works is when a page request arrives at the web server, it usually knows what kind of
machine made the request (tablet etc) and so this causes a small bit code on the page to re-set
page and image sizes to suit and send that page to the machine.
This can be quite tricky to do and so many 'web frameworks' are available that designers can use
that have a built-in responsive feature.
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Hyperlinks
Most web sites have more than one page. So there has to be a method of navigating from one page
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to another.
There are three popular methods of navigating, hyperlinks, menus and hotspots. These are covered
in the next three pages.
The Hyperlink
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When you click your mouse on a navigation hyperlink, it will take you to another page. The page
may be on the same web site, but it could just as easily be on another web site altogether.
A hyperlink that takes you to another web site is called an external link
Hyperlinks can be mixed in with normal text. A standard hyperlink has a different colour to the text
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around it in order to give you a clue that it is there, it often has an underline as well.
Hyperlinks are also used to download files and documents

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Menus
Just like in a cafe or restaurant, a menu gives you a set of choices.
In this case, the navigation menu gives you a choice of which page you want to view next.

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A Menu is a set of hyperlinks, grouped together in some way. The pictures below shows you some
very popular menu styles.
Side Menu: This type of menu normally

sits on the left hand side of the page.
Each hyperlink is arranged vertically,
surrounded by some graphics so to look
a bit more pleasing to the eye.
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You can also arrange the hyperlinks horizontally
along a graphical bar of some kind. This is called
a menu bar
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When you hover or click your mouse over the
horzontal bar, another vertical menu may
appear with more choices. This is called adrop
down menu.
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Some web sites like to use a tabbed
menu style, a bit like a filing cabinet
drawer. Each tab takes you to a
different area within the site
When there are many levels to a site, a good trick

is to use a breadcrumb menu that shows how
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you got to where you are on the site. Just like the
Hansel and Gretel fairytale! It is normally situated
just beneath the banner.
As a designer, it is up to you to decide on the style of menus you wish to use. On the more
complicated sites, you will find more than one style in use.
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Hotspots
Sometimes the designer may want to provide an invisible hyperlink. Or they may want to allow you
to click on an image to jump somewhere else.
It is possible to define an area on the web page that will let you jump to another page. This area is
called a 'hotspot'
Hot spots are often invisible, but when you hover your mouse over one, the cursor changes to a little
hand. The designer can add any number of hot spots to a page.
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There is a hot spot on the page you are reading right now - hover your mouse somewhere over the
banner at the top of this page.
You will notice that the little hand appears. This is a 'hot spot'. In this case it will take you to the home
page of www.teach-ict.com.

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You will often find that the logo in the banner of a web page contains a hotspot that takes you to
their home page.
Summary of web design

The World Wide Web is that part of the Internet which contains web sites. There are millions upon
millions of web sites to view.
 Each web site is made up of one or more web pages.

 There are common elements to a web page that include, Banner, Navigation, Content and
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Footers
 Templates can be used to hold common elements
 There are three main methods of Navigation. These are Hyperlinks, Menus and Hotspots.
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 A web site is 'hosted' on a web server. Each web site needs a domain name.
 http is the standard web protocol for web pages
 You need to plan a web site before building it
 There are a number of methods of creating web pages. These include saving a document from
Office as a web page. Writing it directly in a text editor or using a Web Authoring package.
 Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) allow a web page to be laid out nicely
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 JavaScript code allows a web page to be interactive
 A responsive web design re-shapes the page depending on what is being used to view it.
 You can analyse any web page for effectiveness
 Understanding of what is meant by hypertext transfer protocol (http and https) and HTML
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HTTP
HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. HTTP is the set of rules that are used for transmitting files,
(text, graphics, sound, video etc) over the World Wide Web.
Almost every web page needs to start with http://
This tells the browser that the rules for moving files from the web server will be those defined by the
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protocol called 'http'
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

It is the secure version of HTTP, the protocol over which data is sent between your browser and the
website that you are connected to. The 'S' at the end of HTTPS stands for 'Secure'. It means all
communications between your browser and the website are encrypted. HTTPS is often used to
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protect highly confidential online transactions like online banking and online shopping order forms.
Web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Chrome also display a padlock icon in the
address bar to visually indicate that a HTTPS connection is in effect.
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How Does HTTPS Work?
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HTTPS pages typically use one of two secure protocols to encrypt communications - SSL (Secure
Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security). Both the TLS and SSL protocols use what is known as
an 'asymmetric' Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) system. An asymmetric system uses two 'keys' to
encrypt communications, a 'public' key and a 'private' key. Anything encrypted with the public key
can only be decrypted by the private key and vice-versa.
As the names suggest, the 'private' key should be kept strictly protected and should only be
accessible the owner of the private key. In the case of a website, the private key remains securely
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ensconced on the web server. Conversely, the public key is intended to be distributed to anybody
and everybody that needs to be able to decrypt information that was encrypted with the private
key
What is a HTTPS certificate?

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When you request a HTTPS connection to a webpage, the website will initially send its SSL certificate
to your browser. This certificate contains the public key needed to begin the secure session. Based
on this initial exchange, your browser and the website then initiate the 'SSL handshake'. The SSL
handshake involves the generation of shared secrets to establish a uniquely secure connection
between yourself and the website.
When a trusted SSL Digital Certificate is used during a HTTPS connection, users will see a padlock icon
in the browser address bar. When an Extended Validation Certificate is installed on a web site, the
address bar will turn green.
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Why Is an SSL Certificate Required?
All communications sent over regular HTTP connections are in 'plain text' and can be read by any
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hacker that manages to break into the connection between your browser and the website. This
presents a clear danger if the 'communication' is on an order form and includes your credit card
details or social security number. With a HTTPS connection, all communications are securely
encrypted. This means that even if somebody managed to break into the connection, they would
not be able decrypt any of the data which passes between you and the website.
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Benefits of Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure

The major benefits of a HTTPS certificate are:
 Customer information, like credit card numbers, is encrypted and cannot be intercepted
 Visitors can verify you are a registered business and that you own the domain
 Customers are more likely to trust and complete purchases from sites that use HTTPS
Difference between HTTP and HTTPS

 In case of HTTP URL begins with “HTTP://” and for HTTPS connection it is “HTTPS://”
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 HTTP is unsecured on other hand HTTPS is secured.

 HTTP uses port 80 for communication unlike HTTPS which uses port 443
 No certificates required for validation in case of HTTP. HTTPS requires SSL Digital Certificate
 No encryption in HTTP; Data encrypted before sending and receiving in HTTPS.
HTML
It is the authoring language used to create documents to be viewed on the World Wide Web
A "web site" is made up of one or more web 'pages'.

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A web page is created by writing code in a language called HTML. HTML stands
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for Hyper Text Markup Language. It was developed especially to create web pages.
You may be looking at a web page right now and thinking "where is this HTML" - I can't see it. To see
the HTML code of most web pages take these steps:
 View the page in a web browser.

 Right click your mouse over the page text and a small menu will appear close to the mouse (right
clicking over a picture gives you a different menu) Click on the "View Source" in the menu list.
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 A page full of words and symbols will appear in a separate window

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This is what html looks like.
All the coloured text surrounded by < > are html 'tags'
 Distinguish between HTML structure and presentation
The makeup of a webpage could be viewed as a combination of the following four elements:
 Content is the collective term for all the browser-displayable information elements such as text,
audio, still images, animation, video, multimedia, and files (e.g., Word, PowerPoint, PDF, etc.) of

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web pages. Content does not require any additional presentational markups or styles in order to
fully convey its message.
 Structure refers to the practice of using HTML on content to convey meaning (semantics) and to
describe how blocks of information are structured to one another. Examples: "this is a list" (ol, ul,
li), "this is headings and subheadings" (<h1>, <h2>, ..., <h6>), "this section is related to" (<a>), etc.
 Presentation (or Style) refers to anything related to how the content and structure is presented.
Examples: size, color, margins, borders, layout, location, etc.
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 Behavior (or Interactivity) refers to the employment of client-side script (e.g., JavaScript) to
create interactivity between the webpage and its users.
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HTML Structure
HTML uses tags that are encased in brackets like the following:
<>
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HTML documents consist of elements which are constructed with tags. For instance, a paragraph is
considered to be an html element constructed with the tags <P> and </P>. The <P> tag begins the
paragraph element and the </P> tag ends the element. The following is a paragraph element.
<p>
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This is a sample paragraph element. Any text in a paragraph goes here.
</p>
Not all tags have a tag for ending the element such as the line break, <br> tag.
The HTML document is begun with the <html> tag and ended with the </html> tag.
Elements of an HTML document include the HEAD, BODY, paragraphs, lists, tables, and more.
Elements may be embedded within each other. Also some elements have attributes embedded in
the tag that define characteristics of the element such as the placing of text, size of text, source of
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an image, and other characteristics depending on the element. These attributes are listed in this
document when the element is discussed in detail.
An HTML document is structured with two main elements:

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 HEAD
 BODY
An Example HTML File

<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Arachnophilia 3.9">
<meta name="description" content="Comprehensive Documentation and information
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about HTML.">
<meta name="keywords" content="HTML, tags, commands">
<title>The CTDP HTML Guide</title>
<link href="style.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">

</head>
<body>
<center><h1>HTML Document Structure</h1></center>
<p>
This is a sample HTML file.
</p>

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</body>
</html>
Activity
1. Create a new text document in notepad.
2. Copy and paste the above html code.
3. Save the document as “First html file.html” and close it.
4. Open the file in an Internet Browser
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Comments begin with <! and end with the > bracket. The tags "HTML", "BODY", and all others may be
in capital or small letters, however the new XHTML standard requires small letters so small letters are
recommended.
In the above file, there is a header and a body. Normally you can copy this file and use it as a
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template to build your new file while being sure to make some modifications. You can edit HTML
using a standard editor, but it is easier to use an HTML editor like Arachnophilia since it displays the
tags with different colors than the text is displayed in. Also note the LINK element above which
specifies a style sheet to be used. This is a file with a name "style.css". This is a text file that may be
created with a text editor but must be saved in plain text format. See the section called "Setting
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Document Style" for more information about style sheets.
The center tag used above is depreciated. It is best to use style sheets to center headers and other
items. This is covered in more detail later.
HTML Presentation
Presentation (or Style) refers to anything related to how the content and structure is presented.
Examples: size, color, margins, borders, layout, location, etc
Often, a clear distinction between content and structure is difficult, because content could also be
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viewed as the information with its semantic coding as well as its structure. For example, the <img>
tag, as a structural element, is used to create graphical content. In practice, the makeup of a
webpage can simply be viewed as a combination of three elements: Structure, Presentation,
and Behavior.
The terms "separation of content and presentation," "separation of meaning and presentation,” and
“separation of structure and presentation” are being used interchangeably. Nonetheless, all of these
terms essentially refers to the "separation of the content made meaningful by structure and the
presentation, ” or simply the "separation of the stucture (HTML) and presentation (CSS)".

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More: http://www.w3.org/TR/WD-html40-970708/present/presentop.html
 Understanding of the concepts of MAC address, Internet Protocol (IP) address, Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) and cookies
Protocol: Protocol is an agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. It
determines type of error checking and data compression used. It is the special set of rules that end
points in a telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols specify
interactions between the communicating entities.
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Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are protocols
for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange at the
application program level. In the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI),
there are one or more protocols at each layer in the telecommunication exchange that both ends
of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or
international standard.
In this case it is a set of rules that describe how data is to be transmitted across the network.
Features of Protocol

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 How to set up and stop a connection

 How to start and end a message
 How to deal with corrupted data
 How to format the data
With these rules in place, hardware makers are sure their devices will work on a network using that
protocol. Software authors are confident that their networked applications will work.
An extremely popular protocol is called TCP / IP on which the World Wide Web is based. But it is by
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no means the only one that people use for their networks.
The TCP/IP – Internet protocol, a common example, consist of:
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 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which uses a set of rules to exchange messages with other
Internet points at the information packet level
 Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive messages at the Internet
address level.
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 Additional protocols that include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), each with defined sets of rules to use with corresponding programs elsewhere on
the Internet
There are many other Internet protocols, such as the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and the
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
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The word protocol comes from the Greek protocollon, meaning a leaf of paper glued to a
manuscript volume that describes the contents.
IP Addressing
IP is short for Internet Protocol. A 'protocol' is a set of rules for doing something. In this case it is the
task of being able to uniquely identify every computer connected to an IP based network.
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The way this is done is to assign a long number to each computer made up of 4 bytes. This normally
takes the form of four, three digit numbers separated by a dot. Like this
255.168.101.004
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A sample IPv4 Address
Of course behind the scene this is actually a 32 bit binary number (4 bytes).
Each number group in the address sub-divides the network to which the computer is connected with
the final number (004 above) being the actual computer.
The Internet is a vast collection of smaller networks each connected to one another through routers.
Interesting fact: The internet is running out of addresses. The current scheme was designed to handle
up to 4 billion addresses and everyone thought this would be enough. But with mobiles, gaming
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machines and even fridges getting connected to the internet this will soon become a problem.
A new protocol called IPv6 has been developed, this uses 128 bits for each address rather than 32.
This offers a range of 3 followed by 38 zeros unique addresses. Enough to address every grain of sand
on Earth - it should be enough!
fe80::dde7:da53:caf3:7678%3
A sample IPv6 Address

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MAC Addressing
Short for Media Access Control address. This is the unique identifier assigned to a network card or Wi-
Fi adapter set by the manufacturer. The code identifies the card and also the maker of that card.
Tip: MAC Addressees can be cloned/changed to another MAC – provided with expert' supervision.
It is a 48 bit binary number stored within the card hardware itself.

To make it a bit more people friendly the MAC address is usually quoted as a set of six hex number
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like this:
0A-14-FF-32-11-23-97
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MAC address:
If you set up a WiFi one of the things you can do to improve security is to only allow devices with
certain MAC addresses to connect to the network.
Packets
The basic idea behind the TCP / IP networking is that data is broken up into independent small
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packets containing a certain amounts of bits. It is up to the network designer as to how large of small
the packet needs to be, typically they start from 512 bits upwards.
These packets travel through the network and get re-assembled in the right order on the receiving
computer.
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Each packet contains the IP address of the receiving computer, the data itself along with some
control and error codes.
Splitting the data into packets makes data transmission very reliable. If one part of the network is
broken, the packets are guided around the problem area by routers within the network. If a packet
is missing, then the receiving computer asks for that one to be re-sent.
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URL
URL is an acronym for Uniform Resource Locator and is a reference (an address) to a resource on
the Internet.
A URL has two main components:

 Protocol identifier: For the URL http://example.com, the protocol identifier is http.
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 Resource name: For the URL http://example.com, the resource name is example.com.
Note that the protocol identifier and the resource name are separated by a colon and two forward
slashes. The protocol identifier indicates the name of the protocol to be used to fetch the resource.
The example uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which is typically used to serve up hypertext
documents. HTTP is just one of many different protocols used to access different types of resources
on the net. Other protocols include File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Gopher, File, and News.
The resource name is the complete address to the resource. The format of the resource name
depends entirely on the protocol used, but for many protocols, including HTTP, the resource name
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contains one or more of the following components:
 Host Name: The name of the machine on which the resource lives.
 Filename: The pathname to the file on the machine.
 Port Number: The port number to which to connect (typically optional).
 Reference: A reference to a named anchor within a resource that usually identifies a specific
location within a file (typically optional).
Cookies

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Cookies are usually small text files, given ID tags that are stored on your computer's browser directory
or program data subfolders. Cookies are created when you use your browser to visit a website that
uses cookies to keep track of your movements within the site, help you resume where you left off,
remember your registered login, theme selection, preferences, and other customization functions.
The website stores a corresponding file(with same ID tag)to the one they set in your browser and in
this file they can track and keep information on your movements within the site and any information
you may have voluntarily given while visiting the website, such as email address.
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Types of cookies
Session cookies: Session cookies are created temporarily in your browser's subfolder while you are
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visiting a website. Once you leave the site, the session cookie is deleted.
Persistent cookie: Its files remain in your browser's subfolder and are activated again once you visit
the website that created that particular cookie. A persistent cookie remains in the browser's
subfolder for the duration period set within the cookie's file.
Cookie files are automatically lodged into the cookie file - the memory of your browser - and each
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one typically contains:
 The name of the server the cookie was sent from
 The lifetime of the cookie
 A value - usually a randomly generated unique number
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1.

2 COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES AHMED THAKUR

1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

 Understanding of the role of the browser and Internet server

Connecting to the Internet

Software and Service

Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

A digital Internet connection

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Song download time

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1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Album download time

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1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Film download time

What can you do on the Internet?

 check your bank balance and make payments

Searching the web

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Advanced search terms

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1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

The World Wide Web

Accessing web pages

Types of web sites

 E-commerce sites - you visit these to buy something

 Social networking site - such as someone's Facebook page

TYPE OF SITE COMMENT

Information and These exist to provide factual information and knowledge

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Web server and domain

they are looking at.

What is an Internet server?

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

 Application Server: Also known as a type of middleware, it occupies a substantial amount of

requests, improve performance and share connections.

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1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Parts of a web page, CSS and JavaScript

 The Menu system

 The Content area

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1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

 Cascading Style Sheets – CSS

Viewing a web site

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1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Hyperlinks are also used to download files and documents

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

1.2.3 INTERNET PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Side Menu: This type of menu normally