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09 - Chapter 2
09 - Chapter 2
09 - Chapter 2
CHAPTER II
idea and foundation with regard to the problem under study. The investigator has
gone through available literature related to the present study from dissertations,
journals, magazines, books and articles relevant to Sports and Physical Education.
The review of related literature has been presented under the following headings;
Amrinder singh (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of plyometric
performance variables in national level hockey players. For this purpose, 40 national
level hockey players were randomly selected and they were divided into two groups
namely grass training group and sand training group. Pre tests were conducted on
selected dependent variables such as strength, endurance, balance and agility. Four
weeks of plyometric training was given to both groups. The training consisted of three
sessions per week. Muscle soreness was assessed at the end of each training session
on a seven point scale. After four weeks of training, post tests were conducted on
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above said dependent variables. The study revealed that players in the sand group
experienced less muscle soreness (P<0.05) than grass group. The study was concluded
that short term plyometric training on sand surface induced similar improvements in
strength, endurance, balance and agility as on firm surface but induced significantly
specific training on 20m sprint performance on sand and grass surfaces. Twelve team
sport athletes were attended one hour training of three sessions per week, including
two surface-specific sessions (Sand; six subjects , Grass; six subjects) and one group
session conducted on grass. Throughout the training period of eight weeks , 20m
sprint times of all athletes were recorded on both sand and grass surfaces at the end of
week one, four and eight. Results showed a significant improvement on 20m sand
time in the sand group only (p<0.05), whereas 20m grass time improved equally in
both training groups (p<0.05). The study was concluded that surface-specificity was
essential for 20m speed improvements on sand and also there was no detriment to
grass speed gains when incorporating sand surfaces into a pre-season program.
Gortsila, Eugenia (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of training
achieve this purpose, 45 prepubescent girls aged between 11 and 12 years were
selected at random and they were divided into three equal groups namely Group S,
players and Group C (control group) consisted of girls that had no volleyball training
experience. All the three groups participated in 10weeks ( three days/a week) of
volleyball training programme that included of technical and passing skill exercises.
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Along with this training, Group S underwent special training included of jumping and
sprinting exercises on sand surface, Group I underwent the same training on hard
surface and Group C had no special training. Pre tests were conducted on agility and
passing skill for all the three groups. After 10 weeks of training, post tests were
conducted. Pre and post tests data were statistically analysed by using two-way
ANOVA. The study was concluded that sand training group (Group S) significantly
improved agility and passing skills than other groups. Training on sand surface might
be a useful and effective method for improving agility and passing skills in
Pradeep, C.S. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand running
for endurance development among athletes. To achieve this purpose, 40 male athletes
aged between 18 and 25 years were selected from Kerala University. They were
divided into two equal groups namely experimental group and control group. Pre test
alternative days and control group underwent only the regular general physical
activities training of athletics. After eight weeks of training, post test was conducted.
significant differences among the groups. The study was conducted that the sand
running was significantly improved the endurance among college men athletes.
Sharma, Rajkumar (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand training
on jumping abilities of junior volleyball players. For this purpose, 30 volleyball players
aged between 16 and 19 years from S.A.I. training centre, Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh
were selected and they were divided into two equal groups
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of 15 subjects each. Groups-A underwent six weeks of sand training and Group-B
acted as control groups. Control group only practised technical and tactical skills of
volleyball. Pre and post tests were conducted on selected dependent variables such as
block jump (BJ), Spike Jump (SJ)and standing broad jump (SBJ) prior and
immediately after the training respectively. Mean, standard Deviation and ‘t’ test were
used as a statistical techniques and significant was set at 0.05 level of confidence. The
study was concluded that six weeks of sand training would significantly improve on
vertical block jump, spike jump and standing broad jump among junior volleyball
players.
Karver, Alical Anne (2012) conducted a study on sand jump training versus
ground jump training for volleyball players. For this purpose, 21 volleyball players
aged between 14 and 18 years were selected from Northern California Volleyball club
(NCVC), Rocklin, California. The subjects randomly assigned into two groups
namely sand training group and ground training group. Sand training group underwent
six weeks (two session/a week) training of various jumping exercises on sand court
along with a grass surface. Ground training group underwent the same training on
ground surface. Pre test and post test were taken on vertical jump prior and
immediately after the six weeks of training. Two-tailed independent t-test was used to
compare differences between the groups and two-tailed paired t-test was used to
compare differences within the group. The study was concluded that six weeks of
both sand and ground training groups and there were no significant differences
Alcaraz, P.E., et. al. (2011) conducted a study to find out the effects of a sand
running surface on the kinematics of sprinting at maximum velocity. The aim of this
study was to compare the kinematics of sprinting at maximum velocity on a dry sand
five men and five women athletes participated as subjects and they underwent 30m
flying sprints on different surfaces such as synthetic athletics track and beach sand
surface. All the sprints were recorded by using a video camera and biomechanical
analysis software was used to analyse the video images at the trails. The study
athletics track. This action was characterized by a lower centre of mass, a greater
forward lean in the trunk and an incomplete extension of the hip joint at take-off. The
study was concluded that sprinting on a dry sand surface may not be an appropriate
method for training the maximum velocity phase in sprinting. Although this training
running velocity and stride length, it also induced detrimental changes to the athlete’s
Sathishkumar, S. (2011) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand and
engineering college level football players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45
engineering college football players were selected and they were divided into three
experimental group II assigned as offshore training group and group III assigned as
control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected physical fitness and physiological
variables such as speed, agility, endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time and
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blood pressure. After a period of six weeks of sand and offshore training to the
(ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean
differences among the experimental groups. The study was concluded that six weeks
speed, agility, endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time and blood pressure
Jacob S. (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand training and
school level volleyball players. For this purpose, 30 school level volleyball players
were selected from different schools in Chennai and they were randomly divided into
three groups. Pre tests were conducted for all the three groups. Group I participated in
sand training exercises, Group II participated in seashore training and Group III acted
as control group. Post tests were conducted after six weeks of sand and seashore
training. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc tests were used
speed, endurance, agility and flexibility due to the influence of six weeks of sand and
seashore training. It was also concluded that there was no significant improvement on
volleyball playing ability due to six weeks of sand and seashore training.
surfaces had different effects on the performance of athletes. To achieve this purpose,
120 college athletes from different colleges of Gulbarga District were selected as
subjects by random sampling method and divided into four equal groups
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Experimental Group III underwent running training on cinder track and Group IV
served as control group. Before the training on different running surfaces, the
performances of 12 min run/walk test , vertical jump and also calf and thigh
circumference of each athlete were measured as pre test results. Eight weeks training
simultaneously and no training was given to control group. After the training the calf
and thigh circumference of each athlete were measured as post test results, further
vertical jump test was administered and also Cooper's 12 min run/walk test was
conducted on the cinder track. There was a significant effect of running training on
different surfaces on the performances of all three experimental groups. The study
was concluded that sand running group had significant improvement on vertical jump,
12 min run/walk test, increased circumference of calf and thigh muscles as compared
to other groups.
Kondapalli, Sreenivasa Rao (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of
sand running on speed and cardio respiratory endurance of university male students.
Andhra Pradesh, India were selected as subjects at random. The age of the subjects
ranged from 18 to 24 years. The selected subjects were divided into two equal groups
of 15 subjects each, such as sand running group and control group. Group I underwent
sand running programme for three days/ a week for 12 weeks. Group II acted as
control group and did not participate in any special training programme apart from
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their regular physical education activities. All the subjects were tested on selected
criterion variables such as speed and cardio respiratory endurance prior to and
immediately after the training programme by using 50m run and Cooper's 12 min
technique was used to test the significant mean differences among the groups. The
level of significance was fixed at 0.05 level. The results of the study revealed that
sand running group showed significant improvement on speed and cardio respiratory
Impellizzeri, F. M., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effect of
plyometric training on sand versus grass on muscle soreness, vertical jump height and
sprinting ability in soccer players. For this purpose, 37 soccer players were selected at
random. They were divided into two groups namely grass group and sand group. Pre
tests were conducted on 10m, 20m sprint time, squat jump (SJ), countermovement
jump (CMJ) and eccentric utilization ratio (CMJ/SJ). Muscle soreness was measured
by using a likert scale. Group I (n=18) underwent four weeks of plyometric training
on grass and group II (n=19) underwent four weeks of plyometric training on sand.
After four weeks of plyometric training, post tests were conducted for both groups on
the above said dependent variables. The results showed that no training surface with
time interactions were found for sprint time (p>0.87) and both groups showed
improvements on squat jump (SJ) (p= 0.08). On the other hand, the grass group
improved their counter movement jump (CMJ) (P=0.033) and CMJ/SJ (P=0.005)
more than players in the sand group. In contrast, players in the sand group
experienced less muscle soreness than those in the grass group (p<0.001). The study
was concluded that plyometric training on sand improved both jumping and sprinting
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ability and induced less muscle soreness. A grass surface seems to be superior in
enhancing countermovement jump (CMJ) performance while the sand surface showed
Pandey, Sarika (2008) conducted a study to find out the comparative effect of
endurance, resting pulse rate, blood pressure, vital capacity, respiratory rate, weight,
height, calf girth and thigh girth among female players. To achieve the purpose of the
study, 100 female players were selected from different schools of BHEL, Haridwar
and their age was between 14 and 16 years. They were divided into five groups and
training on sand surface, Group E assigned as control group. Pre tests were conducted
speed, agility, cardiovascular endurance, resting pulse rate, blood pressure, vital
capacity, respiratory rate, weight, height, calf grith and thigh grith. After a period of
ten weeks training to the respective groups, post tests were conducted. Analysis of
covariance and LSD test (post-hoc test) were used to test the significant mean
differences among the groups. The study was concluded that ten weeks of training on
Lobo, Francis Xavier (2002) conducted a study to find out the comparative
effects of training on dry sand and wet sand on physical and physiological variables
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such as speed, explosive power, endurance, agility, pulse rate, blood pressure, vital
capacity and respiratory rate of female Goan soccer players. For this purpose, 90 girls
football players from different Goan school were selected at random from the age
group of 14 to 16 years. They were divided into three equal groups of 30 subjects
each. Group A underwent wet sand training, Group B underwent dry sand training
and Group C acted as control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected dependent
variables before commencement of training. After 10 weeks of training with five days
in a week, post tests were conducted on selected dependent variables. The Analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA) statistical technique was applied for this study. The study was
concluded that the wet sand group performance on speed and pulse rate were best
among the three groups. Wet sand group and dry sand group were showed better
results on explosive strength and endurance than control group. There was no change
in blood pressure, vital capacity and respiratory rate among all the three groups.
comparative effects of training on dry sand, wet sand and natural turf on speed, strength,
endurance and agility of soccer players. To achieve the purpose of this study, 120 senior
division soccer players were selected at random from Bankura District sports clubs
belonging to the age group of 19 to 24 years. They were divided into four equal groups of
30 subjects each and pre tests were contacted before the training. Group A served as a
control group, Group B underwent training on dry sand surface, Group C underwent
training on wet sand surface and Group D underwent training on natural turf. After eight
weeks of training with six days in a week, post tests were conducted for all the four
groups. One way analysis of variance (F-ratio ) and Schefee’s post-hoc test were
was concluded that wet sand surface training group would significantly improve the
selected dependent variables such as speed, explosive strength and endurance than
other two groups. It was also concluded that natural turf training group significantly
improve the speed and agility than dry sand group and dry sand surface group
Moorthy, A. Eswara, et. al. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of
achieve the purpose, 30 male football players from Selvam Group of Institutions,
Namakkal, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected and their age was between 18 and 25
years. They were divided into two groups of fifteen subjects in each group and group
A underwent swissball training and group B was not exposed to any training and acted
as control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected motor fitness variables such as
speed and agility. Speed and agility were measured by using 50 meters dash and
shuttle run tests. Post tests were conducted after a period of 12 weeks of training.
significant differences among the groups. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of
swissball training significantly improved the selected motor fitness variables namely
Chandrasekaran, S., et. al. (2012) conducted a study on selective motor fitness
components empowers on playing ability among low and high performers of state
level football players. To achieve the purpose, 150 men football players were
randomly selected as subjects from Tamil Nadu State level men Football tournament
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held at Chennai in the year 2008-2009 and their age was between 20 and 25 years.
They were divided into three groups of 50 subjects in each group and group I served
as Chennai team, group II served as Salem and Coimbatore team and group III serves
as Trichy and Madurai team. All the subjects were oriented the purpose and procedure
of conducting this test. Regular activities and training were given aplomb to the
player’s ability to perform the game. Data was collected through questionnaire and
endurance, speed, agility and explosive power before and after the competition. The
collected data were statistically analysed by using ANOVA and the group means were
compared by using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The study was concluded
that playing ability mainly depends on the physical fitness components and stress free
and physiological variables of soccer players. To achieve this purpose, 60 college men
football players aged between 17 and 22 years from Scott Christian College,
Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected as subjects and they were divided into
Experimental group III was exposed to combined endurance and yogic practices
training and Group IV was acted as control group which was not exposed to any
experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of
experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after
the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical variables such as
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such as resting heart rate, blood pressure and breath holding time. Analysis of
significance among the mean differences. If the adjusted post test result was
significant, the scheffe’s post hoc test was used. The results of the study was revealed
endurance and yogic practices significantly improved the selected physical and
endurance, resting heart rate, blood pressure and breath holding time among college
Joel, M Palani (2011) conducted a study to find out the effects of varied
physiological variables among college men students. To achieve this purpose, 120
college men students aged between 18 and 23 years from MGR Arts and Science
college, Hosur, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected as subjects and they were divided
into four equal groups of 30 subjects each. Experimental group A was exposed to low
training and group D was acted as control group and they were not exposed to any
experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of
experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after
the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical variables such as
speed, leg explosive power, muscular endurance and physiological variables such as
resting pulse rate, Vo2 Max and anaerobic power. Analysis of Covariance
38
(ANCOVA) Statistical technique was administered to find out the significance among
the mean differences. If the adjusted post test results were significant, the Scheffe’s
post hoc test was used. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of varied packages of
plyometric training significantly improved the selected motor ability components and
Trzaskoma, L., et. al. (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of a short-
term combined conditioning training for the development of leg strength and power.
The aim of the study was to compare the effect of combined weight and pendulum
training exercises with those isolated ones on muscle strength and vertical jump
performance. A total of 38 young active men were divided into four groups
directly and two weeks after the training program. Weight training and pendulum
swing exercises, involving lower body during dynamic bounces, were used. Results of
one repetition maximum (1RM) in full squat and squat jump with the barbell,
maximal force measured during countermovement jump (CMJ) and hip and knee
flexor and extensor isometric strength were analyzed. Significant differences (p<or=
0.05) in strength test (1RM squat, hip and knee flexor and extensor strength) were
Positive significant increase (p <or= 0.05) in all strength and power parameters such
as maximal torques, One RM squat, CMJ power, CMJ height after the training
program was found when combined training was used. Seated safety position during
the pendulum swing was responsible for significant training effect with reduced loads.
alternative, effective method to increase muscle strength and power during short pre
or in-season mesocycles.
Castagna, C., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effect of recovery
mode on repeated sprint ability in young basketball players. To achieve this purpose,
16 basketball players aged between 15 and 18 years were selected. They performed
two repeated sprint ability protocols consisting of 10x30m shuttle run and sprints with
in random order over two separate occasions . Results showed that fatigue index (FI)
during the active protocol was significantly greater than in the passive condition (5.05
+/2.4, and 3.39 +/- 2.3, respectively, p<0.001). No significant association was found
between VO2 peak and FI and Sprint Total Time (TT) in either repeated sprint
protocols. Blood lactate concentration at three minutes post exercise was not
significantly different between the two recovery conditions. The results of this study
showed that passive recovery enabled better performance and reduced fatigue during
repeated sprinting. Consequently, the use of passive recovery was advisable during
exercise.
Chutara, M., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effect of
and power development. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of
the sequence order of high intensity endurance training and circuit training on changes
in muscular strength and anaerobic power. Forty eight physical education students
aged between 20 and 23years were assigned as subjects and they were divided into
five groups. First group underwent endurance training (E, n=10), second group
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underwent circuit training (S, n=9), third group underwent endurance before circuit
training in the same session( E+S, n=10), forth group underwent circuit before
endurance training in the same session (S+E, n=10) and fifth group acted as control
group (C, n =9). Training consisted of two sessions per week for 12 weeks. Resistance
type circuit training targeted strength endurance (Weeks one to six) and explosive
strength and power (weeks 7 to 12). Endurance training sessions included five
repetition run at the velocity associated with VO2 Max, for duration equal to 50 % of
the time to exhaustion at VO2 Max; recovery was for an equal period at 60 % VO2
Max. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of concurrent endurance and circuit
anaerobic power.
De Villarreal ES., et. al. (2008) conducted a study on the low and moderate
plyometric training frequency produces greater jumping and sprinting gains compared
with high frequency. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of three
different plyometric training frequencies (one day per week, two days per week, four
days per week) associated with three different plyometric training volumes on
maximal strength, vertical jump performance and sprinting ability. Forty two students
were randomly assigned into four groups and first group underwent seven sessions of
drop jump (DJ) training, (n= 10, one day per week, 420 DJs), second group underwent
14 sessions of DJ training (n=12, two days per week, 840 DJs), third group underwent
28 sessions of DJ training (n = nine, four days per week, 1680 DJs) and forth group
acted as control group. The training protocols included DJ from three different heights
20, 40, and 60 cm. Maximal strength (one repetition maximum (1RM) and maximal
isometric strength), vertical height in countermovement jumps and DJs and 20-m
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sprint time tests were carried out before and after seven weeks of plyometric training.
No significant difference was observed among the groups in pre training in any of the
variables tested. No significant changes were observed in the control group in any of
the variables tested at any point. Short-term plyometric training using moderate
training frequency and volume of jumps (two days per week, 840 jumps) produces
(approximately 12% and 0.014% per jump) compared with high jumping (four days
per week, 1680 jumps) training frequency (approximately 18% and 0.011% per
jump). In addition, similar enhancements in 20m sprint time, jumping contact times
and maximal strength were observed in both a moderate and a low number of training
sessions per week compared with high training frequencies, despite the fact that the
average number of jumps accomplished in 7S (420 jumps) and 14S (840 jumps) was
25 and 50% of that performed in 28S (1680 jumps). These observations may have
programs for athletes, given that a moderate volume was more efficient than a higher
Marques, M. C., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the changes in
strength and power performance in elite senior female professional volleyball players
during the in-season. The purpose of this case report is to describe the changes in
volleyball players in order to determine whether muscular strength and power might
be improved. Apart from normal practice sessions, 10 elite female volleyball players
completed two training sessions per week which included both resistance training and
plyometric exercises. Over the 12 weeks season, the athletes performed three to four
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sets of three to eight repetitions for resistance and plyometric exercises during each
training session. Muscular strength and power were assessed before and after the 12
weeks training program using four repetition maximum bench press and parallel squat
tests, an overhead medicine ball throw (BTd), as well as unloaded and loaded
countermovement jumps (CMJs). Strength improved by 15% and 11.5% in the bench
press and parallel squat, respectively (p < 0.0001). Distance in the BTd improved by
11.8% (p < 0.0001), whereas unloaded and loaded CMJ height increased between 3.8
and 11.2%. The study was suggested that elite female volleyball players can improve
strength and power during the competition season by implementing a well designed
plyometric training effects on jumping and sprint time. This study compared the
training (P) and combined EMS and P training of the knee extendsor muscles on 20 M
sprint time (ST), squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal isometric
strength (MVC) and muscle cross sectional area ( CSA). To achieve this purpose, 40
subjects were randomly assigned into four groups. First group (EG) underwent
for a period of four weeks and forth group acted as control group. The subjects were
tested before and after the training program, as well as once more after two weeks of
(2.4%) in EG, while a significant slowing (P<0.05) was observed (-2.3%) in EPG.
Significant increases in EPG (P<0.05) were observed in SJ (7.5%) and CMJ (7.3%)
43
after training, while no significant changes in both jumps were observed after training
and detraining for EG . A significant increase (P <0.05) in MVC was observed after
training (9.1%) and after detraining (8.1%) in EG. A significant increase (p< 0.05) in
MVC was observed after training (16.3% ) in EPG. A significant increase (p < 0.01)
in CSA was observed after training in EG (9.0%) and in EPG (7.1%). EMS combined
with plyometric training increased the jumping height and sprint run in physically
active men. In addition, EMS alone or EMS combined with plyometric training leads
EMS training alone did not result in any improvement in jumping explosive strength
Myer GD., et al. (2006) conducted a study to find out the effects of plyometric
vs. dynamic stabilization and balance training on power, balance, and landing force in
female athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of plyometrics
(PLYO) versus dynamic stabilization and balance training (BAL) on power, balance,
strength, and landing force in female athletes. Nineteen high school female athletes
participated in training three times a week for seven weeks. The PLYO (n= eight)
group did not receive any dynamic balance exercises and the BAL (n=11) group did
not receive any maximum effort jumps during training. Pre training vs. post training
measures of impact force and standard deviation of center of pressure (COP) were
recorded during a single leg hop and hold. Subjects were also tested for training
effects in strength (isokinetic and isoinertial) and power (vertical jump). The percent
change from pre test to post test in vertical ground reaction force was significantly
different between the BAL and PLYO groups on the dominant side (p< 0.05). Both
during hop landings in the medial/lateral direction on their dominant side, which
equalized pre test side to side differences. Both groups increased hamstrings strength
and vertical jump. The results of this study suggest that both plyometrics (PLYO) and
dynamic stabilization and balance training may further maximize the effectiveness of
Russell, S. Deane, et. al. (2005) conducted a study to find out the effects of hip
flexor training on sprint, shuttle run and vertical jump performance. This study aimed
served as experimental group and they underwent eight weeks of hip flexion
resistance training and 11 men and 13 women served as control group. Isometric hip
flexion strength, 40-yd dash time and the time for the first 10-yds, 4 x 5.8-m shuttle
run time and vertical jump height were evaluated at the beginning and end of the
training period. Improvements were observed in the training group but not in the
control group. The training group improved hip flexion strength by 12.2% and
decreased their 40-yd dash and shuttle run times by 3.8% and 9.0%, respectively. An
increase in hip flexion strength could help to improve sprint and agility performance.
Sharma, Hari Om (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of stair
climbing and sand dune running on selected physiological variables among football
players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 30 football players from different
45
colleges of Chennai were randomly selected and their age was between 18 and 23
years. They were divided into three groups of 10 players in each group. Group I
underwent stair climbing training, group II underwent sand dune running for a period
of six weeks and group III assigned as control group. Pre tests were conducted on
selected physiological variables namely vital capacity and tidal volume. Post tests
(ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc test was used to test the significant mean
differences among the experimental groups. The study was concluded that six weeks
of stair climbing significantly improved the selected dependent variables namely vital
capacity and tidal volume than sand dune running among football players.
Jacob, S. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of selected drill
practice and aerobic exercises on VO2 Max and Hemoglobin among college men
football players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45 football players from
different colleges of Chennai were randomly selected and their age was between 18
and 21 years. They were divided into three groups of 15 subjects each. Group I
Group III assigned as control group. Experimental group I underwent drill practices,
experimental group II underwent aerobic exercises for a period of six weeks and
control group was not assigned to any experimental training. Pre tests and post tests
were conducted prior and after a period of six weeks of training on selected dependent
variables namely VO2 Max and hemoglobin. Analysis of covariance and Scheffe’s
post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean differences among the
experimental groups. The study was concluded that six weeks of selected drill
46
practice and aerobic exercises significantly improved the selected dependent variables
namely VO2 Max and hemoglobin among college men football player.
Manna, Indranil, et. al. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of
soccer players. To achieve this purpose, 30 Indian male soccer players aged below 23
years were selected as subjects. The training sessions were divided into two phases
namely preparatory phase (PP, eight weeks) and competitive phase (CP, four weeks).
After taking the baseline data at (BD) at zero level(pre tests) on selected
lean body mass, grip and back strength, VO2 Max, anaerobic power, maximal heart
rate, present body fat, urea, uric acid, hemoglobin, total cholesterol, high density
lipoprotein cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride. After that,
the players underwent a training programme consisted of aerobic, anaerobic and skill
development training. Post tests were conducted for all the subjects on the selected
and competitive phases. The study was concluded that a significant increase (P<0.05)
in VO2 Max, anaerobic power, grip and back strength, urea, uric acid levels and a
decrease (P<0.05) in present body fat, hemoglobin, total cholesterol and triglyceride
levels due to the training. However, no significant change was found in stature, body
mass, lean body mass, maximal heart rate, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-
C) and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) among under 23 years soccer
players.
Sunder, K. (2011) conducted a study to find out the isolated and combined
men boxers aged between 18 and 25 years were randomly selected from various
colleges in Tamil Nadu and they were divided into four equal groups of 20 subjects
was exposed to anaerobic training, Experimental group III was exposed to combined
aerobic and anaerobic training and the control group was not exposed to any
experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of
experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after
the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical variables such as
speed, agility, muscular endurance and arm explosive power and physiological
variables such as resting heart rate, breath holding time, vital capacity and
was administered to find out the significance among the mean differences. If the
adjusted post test results were significant, the Scheffe’s post-hoc test was used. The
results of the study revealed that 12 weeks of isolated and combined aerobic and
Thiyagachanthan, N.V. (2010) conducted a study to find out the isolated and
achieve the purpose of the study, 120 men football players from different colleges of
Vellore District, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected and their age was between 18
and 25 years. They were divided into four groups namely isolated yogic group,
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isolated physical exercise group, combined yogic and physical exercise group and
control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected physical, physiological and
anthropometric variables such as speed, leg explosive power, agility, resting pulse
rate, blood hemoglobin, anaerobic power, chest girth, thigh girth and calf girth. Post
(ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean
differences among the experimental groups. The study was concluded that the 12
weeks of isolated and combined effects of yogic practices and physical exercises
significantly improved the selected dependent variables among college men football
players.
Brown, G. A., et. al. (2010) conducted a study on the oxygen consumption,
heart rate, and blood lactate responses to an acute bout of plyometric depth jumps in
college-aged men and women. The purpose of this study was to investigate the
oxygen consumption, heart rate and blood lactate responses to a single session of
plyometric depth jumps. Twenty recreationally trained college-aged subjects (10 men,
10 women) participated in a single session of eight sets of 10 box depth jumps from a
height of 0.8 m with three minutes of passive recovery between each set. Plyometric
depth jumping elicited 82.5 +/- 3.1% and 77.8 +/- 3.1% of the measured maximal
oxygen consumption (O2 Max) for women and men respectively, with no difference
rate significantly increased (p < 0.05) from 68.1 +/2.9 beats/min at rest to 169.6 +/-1.2
beats/min during depth jumping. Sets five to eight elicited a higher (p < 0.05) heart
rate (173.3 +/- 1.3 beats/min) than sets one to four (164.6 +/- 1.8 beats/min). Women
exhibited a higher heart rate (p < 0.05) during sets one and two (169.9 +/- 2.8
49
beats/min) than men (150.7 +/- 4.4 beats/min). The blood lactate concentrations were
significantly (p < 0.05) increased above resting throughout all sets (1.0 +/- 0.2
mmol/L compared with 2.9 +/- 0.1 mmol/L), with no differences between sexes or
sets. The study was concluded that plyometric depth jumping significantly increased
oxygen consumption, heart rate, and blood lactate in both men and women, but no
Paul, C. Godwin (2010) conducted a study to find out effect of weight training
and resistance training on selected bio motor, physiological and skill variables among
Tamil Nadu state hockey players. To achieve this purpose, 60 state level men hockey
players aged between 18 and 25 years from different colleges in Tamil Nadu were
randomly selected and they were assigned into three equal groups of 20 subjects each.
resistance training and group III acted as control group. Pre and Post tests were
conducted prior and after 12 weeks of training for all the subject on selected bio
motor, physiological and skill variables such as speed, leg strength, shoulder strength,
cardiovascular endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time, vital capacity,
scheffe’s post-hoc test were employed as statistical technique. The study was
improved the selected bio motor, physiological, skill variables among state level
hockey players.
Chatra, et. al. (2005) conducted a study to find out the effects of intra-session
capacity. To achieve this purpose, 48 male sport students aged between 20 and 23
50
years were selected as subjects and they were divided into five homogeneous groups
according to their maximal aerobic speeds (VO2 Max). Group I ( E, n=10) underwent
running endurance training, group II (S, n=9) underwent strength circuit training,
group III underwent(E+S, n = 10) combined running endurance and strength circuit
training, group IV (S+E, n=10) underwent combined strength circuit and running
V(C, n= nine) served as a control group. All the subjects were evaluated before (T0)
and after (T1) the training period using four tests such as a four km time trial running
test, an incremental track test to estimate VO2 Max, a time to exhaustion test (tlim) at
100% VO2 Max and a maximal cycling laboratory test to assess VO2 Max. Training
km time trial with interaction effect (p<0.001). The study was concluded that circuit
(E+S) produced greater improvement in the four km time trail and aerobic capacity
Caputo, F., et. al. (2004) conducted a study to find out the effects of aerobic
endurance training status and specificity on oxygen uptake kinetics during maximal
exercise. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of exercise mode,
training status and specificity on the oxygen uptake (VO2) kinetics during maximal
exercise performed in treadmill running and cycle ergometry. Seven runners (R), nine
cyclists (C), nine triathletes (T) and 11 untrained subjects (U), performed the tests on
showed the lowest values for V02 Max, regardless of exercise mode. Differences in
effective time constant of the VO2 response ( tau VO2 , in seconds) were found only
51
for the U group in relation to the trained groups; no effects of exercise mode were
found in any of the groups. It was concluded that tau VO2 during the exercise
performed at VO2 Max was dependent on the training status, but not dependent on the
exercise mode and specificity of training. Moreover, the transfer of the training effects
on tau VO2 between both exercise modes may be higher compared with VO2 Max.
Millet, G. P., et. al. (2002) conducted a study to find out the effects of
concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and VO(2) kinetics,
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a concurrent heavy weight
training (HWT) along with endurance training on running economy (CR) and the
with strength (ES) training and endurance only (E) training for 14 weeks. The training
programme was similar, except ES performed two NWT sessions a week. Before and
after the training period, the subjects performed the tests such as an incremental field
running test for determination of VO(2 Max) and the velocity associated (V(VO2
Max)), the second ventilatory threshold (VT(2)), a 3000 -m run at constant velocity,
calculated to require 25% of the difference between VO(2 Max) and VT(2) to
determine CR and the characteristics of the VO(2) kinetics, maximal hopping tests to
lower-limb strength measurements. Results showed that after the training period,
hopping power (P<0.001) were greater in ES than in E. VO(2 Max), leg hoping
stiffness and the VO(2) Kinetics were not significantly affected by training either in
ES or E. The study was concluded that additional heavy weight training (HWT) led to
52
improved maximal strength and running economy with no significant effects on the
Yamamoto, K., et. al.(2001) conducted a study to find out the effects of
the purpose, the subjects were divided into two groups namely endurance training
group (N=seven ) and control group (N=five). Training group underwent endurance
training for a period of six weeks and control group was not exposed to any training.
Endurance training induces reductions in both resting and post exercise heart rate
those in HR during an endurance training programme and the changes in resting and
post exercise HR variabilities over a six weeks training programme were noted. HR
variability was measured five times in an endurance training group (N =seven) and
four times in a control group (N =five) during the course of study. Endurance training
rest and during post exercise recovery periods. The study was concluded that six
contribute to a decrease in HR at rest and during post exercise recovery period and
that adaptation of the cardiac autonomic control occurs sooner in immediate post
packages of football drills with and without psych up strategies on selected physical
53
fitness, game skill variables and playing ability among inter collegiate football
players. To achieve this purpose, 45 college men football players aged between 21
and 24 years were randomly selected and they were divided into three equal groups of
drills with psych up strategies, Experimental group II was exposed to specific football
drills without psych up strategies and the control group was not exposed to any
experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of
experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after
the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical fitness variables such
as speed, agility, explosive power, flexibility and cardiovascular endurance and game
skill variables such as passing shooting, dribbling, kicking for distance in right leg
and kicking for distance in left leg. Playing ability was measured by experts rating.
the significance among the mean differences. If the adjusted post test result was
significant, the Scheffe’s post-hoc test was used. The results of the study revealed that
12 weeks of specific foot ball drills with psych up strategies significantly improved
the selected physical fitness and game skill variables and playing ability among inter
Suthar Singh J., Jackson (2012) conducted a study to find out the influences of
physical training package with and without psych up strategies on selected bio-motor,
football players. To achieve this purpose, 90 college men football players aged
between 18 and 25 years from Chennai City Colleges were randomly selected and
they were assigned into three equal of 30 players each. Experimental group I
underwent physical training packages without psych up strategies and group III acted
as control group. Pre and Post tests were conducted prior and after 12 weeks of
training for all the subject on selected bio-motor variables namely spaced,
VO2 Max, anaerobic power and resting pulse rate and psychological variables namely
sports achievement motivation, self concept, anxiety and playing ability. Analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA) and scheffe’s post- hoc test were employed as statistical
technique. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of physical training packages with
psychological variables and playing abilities among college men football players.
running and fartlek training on selected physical, physiological and skill related
variables of football players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45 football players
from Cheyyar, Thiruvannamalai District were randomly selected as subjects and their
age was between 18 and 23 years. They were divided into three groups of 15 players
group II underwent fartlek training for a period of twelve weeks and group III
physiological and skill related variables namely speed, agility, muscular endurance,
cardio respiratory endurance, forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in first
second (FEV1), peak expiratory flow rate (PEER), maximum expiratory pressure
(MEP), maximum inspiration pressure (MIP), breath holding time, systolic pressure
(SP), diastolic pressure (DP), resting pulse rate and dribbling. Post tests were
and Scheffe’s post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean differences among
55
the groups. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of continuous running and fartlek
training significantly improved the selected dependent variables except systolic and
Kulkarni, Vidya S. (2012) conducted a study to find out the effect of selected
exercises in yoga on motor fitness and football skills of boys aged 14 to 16 years. To
achieve the purpose of the study, 60 school level football players from Mumbai were
randomly selected and their age was between 14 and 16 years. They were divided into
two groups of 30 subjects each. Group I assigned as experimental group and Group II
assigned as control group. Experimental group underwent yogic exercise practices for
the period of eight weeks and control group was not assigned to any experimental
training. Pre tests were conducted on selected motor fitness variables and football
skills namely speed, flexibility, endurance, ball control, kicking accuracy and
juggling. Post tests were conducted after a period of eight weeks of training on
selected dependent variables. The data were analysed by using ‘t’ test to evaluate the
significant differences among the experimental and control groups. The study was
concluded that eight weeks of selected yogic exercise practices significantly improved
the selected dependent variables namely speed and juggling among school level
football player.
Bullock, William, et. al. (2012) conducted a study to find out the effect of
45min of soccer-specific exercise in the reactive motor skills test (RMST); a novel
test which measures sprint, passing and reactive agility (RAT) performance. To
achieve the purpose, 42 high-level amateur male soccer players aged between 15 and
22 years were recruited. Participants were familiarised with the RMST prior to initial
testing. Participants undertook 10 repetitions of the RMST before and after 45min of
56
of these participants repeated RMST for test re-test reliability determination. Paired t-
tests and effect size statistics were used to determine the effect of 45min of
p<0.00001) and RAT performance (1.5 ± 1.1%; 1.015 ± 0.011; p<0.05), but improved
passing task time (-2.7 ± 1.2%; 0.973 ± 0.012; p<0.001) and passing accuracy
(3.6 ± 3.3%; 1.036 ± 0.33). Change in total test time was trivial. The test-retest
coefficient of variation for the test was 2.4 ± 0.8%. The study was concluded that
soccer skill performance. Overall RMST performance time was largely unchanged.
in the search for international youth soccer players. The research was conducted on
the morphology (height, weight, body fat, body mass index), fitness (strength, speed,
international youth soccer players aged 15-16 years with varying biological maturity
status. The more mature players (U16 and U17) possessed higher morphological
measures and outperformed their later maturing peers (U16 Futures and U17 Futures)
coordination tests did not distinguish the more mature players from the later maturing
57
players in both age groups. When adjusted for the confounder (age at peak height
fitness related parameters did not differ between selection groups, again in both age
groups. These findings indicated that biological maturation affects morphology and
fitness more so than motor coordination skills. The study was concluded that to
independent performance tests during the talent identification and selection process.
Henry, G, et. al. (2012) conducted a study to find out the effects of a feint on
reactive agility performance. This study compared reactive agility between higher-
agility test incorporating a life-size video image of another player changing direction,
including and excluding a feint. Mean agility time in the feint trails was 34% (509 ±
243ms; p<0.001; effect size 3.06) longer than non-feint trails. In higher-standard
players, agility time was shorter than for lower-standard in both feint (114 ± 140 ms;
p= 0.18; effect size 0.52; likely beneficial) and non-feint (32 ± 44 ms; p= 0.22; effect
size 0.47; possibly beneficial) trails. Additionally, the inclusion of a feint resulted in
movement time increasing over three times more in the lower-standard group(197 ±
91 ms; p=0.001; effect size 1.07; almost certainly detrimental) than the higher-
standard group (62 ± 86 ms; p= 0.23; effect size 0.66; likely detrimental). There were
weak correlations between the feint and non-feint trails (r= -0.13 -0.14 ; p>0.05),
suggesting that reactive agility involving a feint was a unique skill. The study was
concluded that higher-standard players were more agile than their lower-standard
peers, whose movement speed deteriorates more as task complexity increases with the
58
inclusion of a feint. These results supported the need for specific training in multi-turn
Kannekens, R., et. al. (2011) conducted a study on the positioning and
deciding key factors for talent development in soccer. Talent identification and
implicate recognizing youth players who would be successful in the future and
guiding them to the top. A major determinant of this success was tactical skills. To
identify possible key factors that help in predicting success over time, this study
assessed the tactical skills of 105 elite youth soccer players who participated in a
talent development programme at an earlier stage of their sport career (mean age 17.8
± 0.9). These skills were related to their adult performance level, specifically whether
attackers completed the Tactical Skills Inventory for Sports with scales for declarative
regression analysis was performed to identify the tactical skills that contribute to
the tactical skill that best predicts adult performance level (P<0.05). This was
especially true for midfielders, with the correct classification of elite youth players in
the range of 80%. For players scoring high on this skill, the odds ratios indicated a
6.60 times greater chance that a player became a professional than players scoring low
(P<0.05).
Da Silva, J.F., et .al. (2011) conducted a study on the validity and reliability of
a new field test for soccer players compared with laboratory- based measures. The aim
of the study was to assess the validity (Study one) and reliability (Study two) of a
soccer players. In Study one, 28 players performed Carminatti's test, a repeated sprint
ability test and an intermittent treadmill test. In Study two, 24 players performed
progressively faster speeds until volitional exhaustion. The 12 s bouts were separated
by six s recovery periods, making each stage 90 s in duration. The initial running
distance was set at 15 m and was increased by 1m at each stage (90s). The repeated
sprint ability test required the participants to perform 7 x 34.2 m maximal effort
sprints separated by 25 s recovery. During the intermittent treadmill test, the initial
velocity of 9.0 km h(-1) was increased by 1.2 km h(-1) every three min until
Carminatti's test peak running velocity and speed at VO(2max) (v-VO(2max)). Peak
0.74,P < 0.01) and highly associated with velocity at the onset of blood lactate
accumulation (r = 0.63, P < 0.01). Mean sprint time was strongly associated with peak
running velocity in Carminatti's test (r = -0.71, P < 0.01). The intraclass correlation
appeared to be a valid and reliable measure of physical fitness and of the ability to
Jovanovic, M., et. al. (2011) conducted a study to find out the effects of the
speed, agility, quickness (SAQ) training method on power performance in elite soccer
players. Soccer players were assigned randomly into two groups: experimental group
(EG; n=50) and control group (n =50). Power performance was assessed by a test of
speed--the 20-m and the 30-m sprint along with Bosco jump tests--squat jump,
countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal CMJ and continuous jumps performed with
legs extended. The initial testing procedure took place at the beginning of the
in-season period. The 8-weeks specific SAQ training program was implemented after
which final testing took place. The results of the two way analysis of variance
seconds) and in 10m (2.15 vs. 2.07 seconds) sprints, and they also improved their
jumping performance in countermovement (44.04 vs. 4.48 cm) and continuous jumps
(41.08 vs. 41.39 cm) performed with legs extended (p< 0.05). In conclusion, the SAQ
Russell, M., et. al. (2011) conducted a study to find out the influence of
exercise on skill proficiency in soccer. They documented that the ability to maintain
performances, it was unusual for coaches to use methods other than observations to
assess changes resulting from technical training. Researchers have employed various
tests to measure isolated soccer skills; however, reliance on outcome measures that
include number of contacts (ball juggling tasks), time (dribbling tasks) and points
scored (criterion-based passing and shooting tests) means that the outcomes were
difficult for coaches to interpret. Skill tests that use video-analysis techniques to
measure ball speed, precision and success of soccer skills offer valid and reliable
61
limited ecological validity and cognitive demands, the effects of these homeostatic
disturbances might vary according to the type of skill being performed. Shooting
Schwesig, R., et. al. (2011) conducted a study on the development and
evaluation of a soccer focused complexity test. The aim of the study was to
assessment of the complex sports specific and league specific physical performance.
Soccer has increasingly become a technical - tactical (speed of activity) and athletic
sport over the last years. Simultaneously the new training and contest conditions result
in new challenges to sports science and sports medicine evaluation. Complex, sports
specific field tests for soccer exist rarely and only in low quality. To achieve the
purpose, two regional German soccer teams namely Verbandsliga (VL) and Oberliga
(OL) (n = 27) were assessed with FBKT. The assessment included lactate levels, heart
rate as well as time and error frequency (penalty time per error: five s) for defined
activity series at defined time points. The heart rate (hr (max) = 200 min
62
(-1)) and metabolic rate (lactate (max) = 17.1 mmol/l) were very excessively high and
did only partially differ between the groups. Furthermore no significant differences
sprint (p = 0.499), slalom dribbling (p = 0.310), time round one (p = 0.119), shots on
goal (p = 0.585) and crosses (p = 0.676). Significant differences were only found in
the parameters time round two (p = 0.004), time round one and round two (p = 0.013),
overall time (running) (time + penalty) (time) (p = 0.022) and speed dribbling
(p = 0.005).In conclusion, soccer specific complex loads generate very high physical
demands. Although complex, the FBKT proved to be a practical assessment tool with
high standardising potential. The FBKT gave plentiful information under competition-
like conditions such as technical skills, speed, speed endurance or anaerobe capacity.
review was reported that the ability to execute skilled movement patterns efficiently
and effectively was the most important aspect of soccer performance and players must
apply cognitive, perceptual and motor skills to rapidly changing situations. There had
been attempts to measure these parameters for talent identification (or development)
purposes and skill acquisition and intervention research; the aim of this review was to
examine the strengths and limitations of these tests. High levels of perceptual and
cognitive skill were characteristics of those players who were able look in the right
places for information and process this information efficiently before deciding on a
suitable course of action. The motor skills required to successfully control, pass,
dribble and shoot the ball at goal were fundamental skills of the soccer player and a
variety of methods had been used to measure these aspects. The tests mentioned in
this review vary in their complexity and the type of skills they purport to measure.
63
The assessment of choice must come down to a number of factors including cost,
available time and space, number of athletes in the cohort and experience of
researchers. Furthermore, consideration must be given to the aims of the research and
Jawahar, C.A. (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of hypoxic
performances among college soccer players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45
soccer players from Farook College, Calicut, Kerala were randomly selected and their
age was between 18 and 21 years. They were divided into three groups of 15 subjects
in each group. Group I was exposed to hypoxic training, Group II was exposed to
pranayama practices for a period of twelve weeks and Group III was assigned as
control group. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and immediately after the 12
speed, explosive power, cardio respiratory endurance, agility, dribbling, passing and
hoc test were used to test the significant mean differences among the groups. The
study was concluded that 12 weeks of hypoxic training and pranayama practices
power, cardio respiratory endurance, agility, dribbling, passing and shooting among
Silva, Coelho E.M.J., et. al. (2010) conducted a study on the discrimination of
U-14 soccer players by level and position. This study compared the characteristics of
position. Players were classified as local (n=69) and regional (n=45). Weight, height,
64
skinfolds, functional capacities, soccer skills and goal orientation were measured and
skeletal age was assessed with the Fels method. Factorial ANOVA was used to test
the effect of selection, position and respective interaction terms, while discriminant
analysis was used to identify the variables that contributed to selection. Selected
players had an advanced maturity status (F=24.97, p<0.01), were heavier (F=30.67.
p<0.01) and taller (F =35.07, p<0.01), performed better in explosive power (F =21.25,
p<0.01), repeated sprints (F=20.04, p<0.01) and ball control (F=3.69, p<0.05) and
were more ego oriented (F=13.29, p<0.01). The two competitive groups did not differ
correctly classified in the original groups was slightly lower when the analysis was
performed for the total sample (86%) than by position (86-90%). The study was
suggested for future research on talent identification and selection should adopt a
Meylan, C., et. al. (2009) conducted a study to find out the effects of in-season
soccer, explosive actions such as jumping, sprinting, and changes of direction are
essential to optimal performance not only in adults, but also in children's games. The
pubertal soccer players during the in-season. Twenty five children aged between 12
and 14 years were selected as subjects and they were divided into two groups namely
training group (TG, n = 14) and control group (CG, n = 11). All children were playing
65
in the same league and trained twice per week for 90 minutes with the same soccer
soccer drills to obtain the same session duration as CG. At baseline and after training,
explosive actions were assessed with the following six tests such as 10-meter sprint,
agility test, three vertical jump tests (squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ),
contact test (CT) and multiple five bounds test (MB5). Plyometric training was
associated with significant decreases in 10-ms print time (-2.1%) and agility test time
(-9.6%) and significant increases in jump height for the CMJ (+7.9%) and CT
(+10.9%). No significant changes in explosive actions after the 8-week period were
recorded for the CG. The study was concluded that a plyometric program within
conventional soccer training only. Therefore, the short-term plyomctric program had a
performance.
Campo, Sedano S., et. al. (2009) conducted a study to find out the effects of
speed in female soccer players. The aim of the present study was to examine how
explosive strength, kicking speed, and body composition are affected by a 12 weeks
plyometric training programme in elite female soccer players. The hypothesis was that
this program would increase the jumping ability and kicking speed and that these
gains could be maintained by means of regular soccer training only. Twenty adult
female players aged between 19 and 27 years were selected as subjects and they were
66
divided into two groups namely control group (CG, n = 10) and plyometric group
(PG, n = 10). The intervention was carried out during the second part of the
competitive season. Both groups performed technical and tactical training exercises
and matches together. However, the CG followed the regular soccer physical
Neither CG nor PG performed weight training. Plyometric training took place three
days per week for 12 weeks including jumps over hurdles, drop jumps (DJ) in stands
DJ height and kicking speed were measured on four separate occasions. The PG
demonstrated significant increases (p< 0.05) in jumping ability after six weeks of
training and in kicking speed after 12 weeks. There were no significant times with
group interaction effects for body composition. The study was concluded that a 12
players and that these improvements can be transferred to soccer kick performance in
terms of ball speed. However, players need time to transfer these improvements in
strength to the specific task. Regular soccer training can maintain the improvements
Thomas, K., et. al. (2009) conducted a study to find out the effect of two
plyometric training techniques on muscular power and agility in youth soccer players.
were randomly selected as subjects and they were divided into two groups. DJ group
underwent six weeks of depth jump (DJ) training and CMJ group underwent six
group performed drop jump with instructions to minimize ground-contact time while
67
maximizing height. Participants in the CMJ group performed jumps from a standing
start position with instructions to gain maximum jump height. Post training, both
groups experienced improvements in vertical jump height ( p< 0.05 ) and agility time
(p< 0.05) and no change in sprint performance (p<0.05). There were no differences
between the treatments groups (p=0.05). The study was concluded that both depth
jump and countermovement jump (CMJ) plyometrics were worth while training
Gomez, Perez J., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effects of
weight lifting training combined with plyometric exercises on physical fitness, body
composition and knee extension velocity during kicking in football. The effects of a
fitness and body composition (using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)) was
group (TG,16 subjects) and a control group (CG, 21 subjects). The TG followed six
weeks of combined weight lifting and plyometric exercises. In all subjects, tests were
performed to measure their maximal angular speed of the knee during in-step kicks on
a stationary ball. Additional tests for muscle power (vertical jump), running speed (30
m running test), anaerobic capacity (Wingate and 300 m running tests) and aerobic
power (20 m shuttle run tests) were also performed. Training resulted in muscle
hypertrophy (+4.3%), increased peak angular velocity of the knee during kicking
increased one repetition maximum (1 RM) of inclined leg press (ILP) (+61.4%), leg
extension (LE) (+20.2%), leg curl (+15.9%), half squat (HQ) (+45.1%),
68
and enhanced performance in vertical jump (all p < or = 0.05). In contrast, MHC type
I was reduced (-5.2%, p < or = 0.05) after training. In the control group, these
Ronnestad, B. R., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the short-term
professional soccer players. The purpose of the study was to compare the effects of
combined strength and plyometric training with strength training alone on power-
were randomly divided into two groups. Group ST (n = six) performed heavy strength
training twice a week for seven weeks in addition to six to eight soccer sessions a
the same training as the ST group. The control group (n = seven) performed six to
eight soccer sessions a week. Pre tests and post tests were one repetition maximum
(1RM) half squat, countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), four bounce test
(4BT), peak power in half squat with 20kg, 35kg, and 50kg (PP20, PP35, and PP50,
respectively), sprint acceleration, peak sprint velocity and total time on 40-m sprint.
There were no significant differences between the ST+P group and ST group. Thus,
the groups were pooled into one intervention group. The intervention group
significantly improved in all measurements except CMJ, while the control group
relative improvement between the intervention group and control group in One RM
half squat, Four BT and SJ. However, a significant difference between groups was not
69
observed in PP20, PP35, sprint acceleration, peak sprinting velocity and total time on
40-m sprint. The results suggested that there were no significant performance-
soccer players concurrently performing six to eight soccer sessions a week compared
The research reviews relevant to the sand training, offshore training, selected
motor fitness, physiological and performance variables of this study were categorized
and presented in this chapter. The above literature proves that there was a significant
change in motor fitness, physiological and performance variables due to sand and
offshore training. From the review of related literature, it was found that there was a
scope for research in isolated and combined sand and offshore training on selected
motor fitness, physiological and performance variables among inter collegiate football