COVENANT UNIVERSITY

CANAANLAND, KM 10, IDIROKO ROAD

P.M.B 1023, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.

COLLEGE: Engineering
DEPARTMENT: Petroleum Engineering
SESSION: 2022/2023 SEMESTER: Alpha
COURSE CODE: PET 531 CREDIT UNIT: 3
COURSE TITLE: Petroleum Production Engineering III
INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ALL QUESTION

MARKING SCHEME FOR PET 531: PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

III

1a. State six different types of flow meters used in Natural gas industry.

1b. Highlight the advantages of orifice meter over other natural gas flow meter

1c. The table below shows 24 hours readings from a square root orifice meter chart if the
meter is 50in X 100ib/in2 guage:

Table1: Differential and Static pressure readings from a Square root orifice meter chart

S/N Period Differential Static

Pressure Pressure
Reading Reading
1 12pm – 1am 7.1 8.4
2 1am – 2am 6.4 9.2
3 2am – 3am 6.8 8.6
4 3am – 4am 6.2 7.3
5 4am – 5am 7.5 7.4
6 5am – 6am 6.8 8.3
7 6am – 7am 7.2 8.1
8 7am – 8am 7.2 9.1
9 8am – 9am 6.1 6.4
10 9am – 10am 6.6 7.0
11 10am - 11am 7.0 8.2
12 11am – 12noon 5.3 8.1
13 12noon - 1pm 5.7 6.7
14 1pm – 2pm 6.8 7.2
15 2pm - 3pm 6.3 6.1
16 3pm – 4pm 6.4 7.1
17 4pm – 5pm 5.9 6.8
18 5pm – 6pm 5.5 7.0
19 6pm – 7pm 4.6 6.5
20 7pm – 8pm 6.3 7.3
21 8pm – 9pm 6.9 8.4
22 9pm – 10pm 7.2 7.5
23 10pm – 11pm 6.1 7.4
24 11pm – 12pm 6.5 8.8

and the orifice flow constant = 1057.97 Calculate:

a. Actual readings of the differential and static pressures for each hour.

b. The total gas delivered in 24 hours in ft3.

c. The average flow rate of the gas in ft3/hr.

SOLUTION

1a. Both gas and liquids may be measured using various measurement techniques/methods,
these include:-

 Orifice meters
 Positive displacement meters
 Turbine meters
 Venturi meters
 Flow noozles
 Critical flow provers
 Elbow meters
 Variable area meters (rotameters) (3 Marks)

1b. ADVANTAGES OF ORIFICE METER

 Accuracy
 Ruggedness
 Simplicity
 Ease of installation and maintenance
 Range of capacity
 Low cost
  General acceptability
 Availability of standard tables of meter factors. (3 Marks)

!c.

Using the 100 in., 500-lb guage, a chart reading of 5 would represent a differential pressure
of 25 in. or a static pressure of 125 psia.

For square root charts, a chart factor may be defined as

From the formulae:

Chart factor=
√ meter range
100
Actual pressure = (chart reading * chart factor)2

Actual pressure=
10 (
chart reading 2
)
∗meter range

The actual differential pressure hw and static pressure Pf are calculated and Tabulated
in the Table below

Static
Real Real
Differentia Pressur
S/ Differentia static
Period l Pressure e SQRT(hw*Pf)
N l pressure pressur
Reading Readin (3 Marks)
(hw) e (Pf)
g
12pm –
1 7.1 8.4
1am 25.205 70.56 42.17184843
2 1am – 2am 6.4 9.2 20.48 84.64 41.63444728
3 2am – 3am 6.8 8.6 23.12 73.96 41.35160456
4 3am – 4am 6.2 7.3 19.22 53.29 32.00365292
5 4am – 5am 7.5 7.4 28.125 54.76 39.24442636
6 5am – 6am 6.8 8.3 23.12 68.89 39.90910673
7 6am – 7am 7.2 8.1 25.92 65.61 41.23846748
8 7am – 8am 7.2 9.1 25.92 82.81 46.3296363
9 8am – 9am 6.1 6.4 18.605 40.96 27.60544874
9am –
10 6.6 7
10am 21.78 49 32.66833329
10am -
11 7 8.2
11am 24.5 67.24 40.58792924
12 11am – 5.3 8.1 14.045 65.61 30.35609412
 12noon
12noon -
13 5.7 6.7
1pm 16.245 44.89 27.00440797
1pm –
14 6.8 7.2
2pm 23.12 51.84 34.61994801
15 2pm - 3pm 6.3 6.1 19.845 37.21 27.1741136
3pm –
16 6.4 7.1
4pm 20.48 50.41 32.13093214
4pm –
17 5.9 6.8
5pm 17.405 46.24 28.36912406
5pm –
18 5.5 7
6pm 15.125 49 27.22361108
6pm –
19 4.6 6.5
7pm 10.58 42.25 21.14249276
7pm –
20 6.3 7.3
8pm 19.845 53.29 32.51984087
8pm –
21 6.9 8.4
9pm 23.805 70.56 40.98390904
9pm –
22 7.2 7.5
10pm 25.92 56.25 38.18376618
10pm –
23 6.1 7.4
11pm 18.605 54.76 31.9188001
11pm –
24 6.5 8.8
12pm 21.125 77.44 40.44650788
SUM = 836.8184491
(3 Marks)

1c. Since C = 1057.97

From

q g ( ft 3 / day )  C  (h w Pf )

from the above table h w Pf  836.818

b. Therefore total gas volume delivered in 1 day (24 hours) equals

= 1057.97 * 836.818

= 885,328.34 ft3. (1 Mark)

c. Average flow of gas = 885,328.34/24 = 36,888.68 ft3/hr.

2a. Write on different methods used in the treatment of oil field emulsions.

2b. Derive the expressions that can be used to determine equivalent diameter (De) for both
series and parallel network of pipelines using:
i. Weymouth’s equation without friction factor
ii. Weymouth’s equation with friction factor.

2c. It is desired to transport gas measured at standard conditions of 14.7psia and 60oFto an
industrial estate from a gas field. The gas is delivered to the pipeline at 350psia, and it is to be
transmitted through a non-horizontal and non-uniform pipelines network (whose parameters
are tabulated in Table 1) so the outlet pressure at the industrial estate is not less than 80psia,
assume the specific gravity of the gas to be 0.67 and the temperature of flow is 70oF. What is
the flow rate at which the gas is delivered to the estate? Assume friction factor for all
pipelines to be 0.0176.

Table 1: Parameters for the Pipelines Network

Pipeline Length Diameter Angle of

Serial No (miles) (inches) inclination
PED I 245 9 18
PED 2 323 11 25
PED 3 127 7 14
PED 4 305 13 35

SOLUTION

2a. Oil Field Emulsion Treatments

Even in multi-stage separation the liquid that remains is not pure oil. Separations commonly
remove only the free water and gas leaving the emulsion as the liquid. An emulsion is a
mixture in which one liquid is uniformly distributed (usually as tiny globules) in liquid.

Treating facilities may use a single process or a combination of processes to break down a
water-in-oil emulsion (the most common type), the properties of the emulsifying agent must
be neutralised or destroyed so that the droplet of water can come together. Treatments that do
this use chemicals, heat or electricity along with gravity. (1 Mark)

Chemical Treatment
The emulsion that remains after separation from the gas and free water is often piped into
special tanks or vessels for chemical treatments. Chemicals called demulsifier are added to
the emulsion in order to make the droplets of water merge or coalesce. When droplets merge
they get bigger and big, heavy water drop and settle out faster than small light ones. A bottle
test method helps to determine which chemicals is the most effective demulsifier for a
particular emulsion. In most cases small amount of treating chemicals is needed to break a
sizeable amount of emulsion.

Heat treatment

When an emulsion is heated, it becomes less viscous and water and oil molecules move about
rapidly, causing the water droplet to strike each other. When the force and frequency of the
collision are great enough, the film of emulsifier that surrounds each droplet breaks and the
water droplets merge and separate from the oil. Heat alone may not cause an emulsion to
break down. Usually the application of heat is an auxiliary process to speed up separation. If
possible the treatment process uses little or no heat because heat allows valuable hydrocarbon
to boil off from the oil.

Treatment with Electricity

Electricity is also used to treat emulsion, usually in conjunction with heat and chemicals. The
film around the water droplet formed by the emulsifier is composed of molecules that have a
positive and negative end, very much like a bar magnet. When the electric current disturbs
this film of polar molecules, the molecules re-arrange themselves, the film is no longer stable
and adjacent water droplet coalesce freely until large drop form and settle out by gravity.

(1 Mark)

Types of Emulsion Treater

To apply any or a combination of these treatment, the emulsion is sent into a special holding
tank where the water can settle out, or through a treatment tank or vessel called a flow line
treater. A flow line treater is a tank in which chemicals, heat and often electricity are applied
to an emulsion. A treater may combine oil-gas separator, a free water knock-out, a heater and
a filter. Different treaters emphasize different functions and are available in a number of sizes
and shapes to handle different volumes of well fluids. Some treaters are design for extremely
cold climates; other models are especially design to treat foaming oil.

Treater can operate at atmospheric pressure but they often operate under low pressure. For
this reason the treater can be at low pressure, second stage separator as well as treatment unit.
Where the pressure in flow line (a pipe from the well to the processing equipment) is low, the
treater can operate as a primary separator which eliminates the need for a regular separator.

Flow line treater are either vertical or horizontal cylinders constructed so that the emulsion
enters the vessel with the treating chemicals already added. Commonly used emulsion
treaters are heater-treater and electro-static treater. These devices combine various pieces of
equipment to treat the emulsion in one vessel (1 Mark)

2b. Considering Weymouth equation without friction factor

√
16

18. 062 T b ( p21 −p 22 )D 3

q h=
Pb γ g TzL

Pipelines in series

Consider a three-segment pipeline in a series of total L shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: pipeline in Series

Applying the Weymouth equation to each of the three segments gives:

( )
2
γ TzL qh pb
p21 − p22 = g 16 1
18 . 062T b
D13

( )
2
γ TzL qh pb
p22 − p23 = g 16 2
18 . 062T b
D23

( )
2
γ g TzL3 q h pb
p23 − p24 = 16 18 .062 T b
D33 (1 Mark)

Adding the above three equations gives:

 ( )( )
2
L1 L2 L3 qh pb
p21 − p24 =γ g Tz 16
+ 16
+ 16 18 .062 T b
D13 D23 D33

Or

√
18. 062 T b ( P21 −P24 )
q h=

( )
Pb L1 L2 L3
γ g Tz 16
+ 16
+ 16
D 13 D23 D33

Capacity of a single-diameter (qt) pipeline is expressed as:

√
18 .062 T b ( P21−P24 )
qt=

( )
Pb L
γ g Tz 16
Dt 3

Hence. The equivalent diameter qt for pipeline in series is given as:

L L1 L2 L3 (1 Mark)
16
 16
 16
 16

Dt 3 D13 D23 D33

L  L1  L2  L3

The fractional increase in gas flow rate as a result of laying additional pipeline in series is

given as:

√ ( )
L
16

qt Dt 3
=

( )
qi L1
16
D 13

Pipeline in parallel
Consider a three-segment pipeline in parallel as shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2: Sketch of Parallel Pipeline

q 1=
18 . 062 T b
Pb √ ( P 21−P 22 ) D116 / 3
γ g TzL

q 2=
18 . 062 T b
Pb √ ( P21−P 22 ) D2 16/ 3
γ g TzL

q b=
18 .062 T b
Pb √ ( P21 −P22 ) D 316 / 3
γ g TzL

Adding the above three equations gives,

√( )( √ √ √ )
2 2 16 16 16
Tb p1 −p 2
q t =q 1 +q 2 +q 3 =18. 0062 D 13 + D 23 + D33
pb γ g TzL

Hence. The equivalent diameter qt for pipeline in parallel is given as:

16 16 16 16 (1 Mark)
Dt 3  D13  D23  D33

The fractional increase in gas flow rate as a result of laying additional pipeline in parallel is

given as:
 √
16 16 16
qt D 1 + D 2 + D 33
3 3
=
ql
√
16
D 13

b. Considering Weymouth equation witht friction factor

q h=
3 . 23 T b
Pb √ ( P21−P22) D5
fγ g TZLe

Pipelines in series

Consider a three-segment pipeline in a series of total L shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: pipeline in Series

Applying the Weymouth equation to each of the three segments gives:

( )
2
γ Tzf L q h pb
p21 − p22 = g 51 1
D1 3 .23 T b

( )
2
γ Tzf L qh pb
p22 − p23 = g 52 2
D2 3 .23 T b

( )
2
γ g Tzf 3 L3 qh p b
p23 − p24 =
D53 3. 25 T b
(1 Mark)

Adding the above three equations gives:

 ( )( )
2
f 1 L1 f 2 L 2 f 3 L3 q h pb
p21 − p24 =γ g Tz + 5 + 5
D 51 D2 D3 3 . 23T b

Or

√
3 . 23 T b ( P21 −P24 )
q h=

( )
Pb f 1 L1 f 2 L2 f 3 L3
γ g Tz + +
D 51 D52 D53

Capacity of a single-diameter (qt) pipeline is expressed as:

√
3. 23 T b ( P12−P24 )
qt=

( )
Pb f t Lt
γ g Tz
D5t

Hence. The equivalent diameter qt for pipeline in series is given as:

f t Lt fL f L f L (1 Mark)
5
 1 51  2 5 2  3 5 3
Dt D1 D2 D3

The fractional increase in gas flow rate as a result of laying additional pipeline in series is

given as:

√ ( )
f t Lt
5
qt Dt
=

( )
qi f 1 L1
D 51

Pipeline in parallel

Consider a three-segment pipeline in parallel as shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2: Sketch of Parallel Pipeline

q 1=
3 .23 T b
Pb √ ( P21−P 22 ) D1 5
γ g Tzf 1 L1

q 2=
3 . 23T b
Pb √ ( P21 −P 22 ) D2 5
γ g Tzf 2 L2

q 3=
3 . 23T b
Pb √ ( P21 −P22 ) D3 5
γ g Tzf 3 L3

Adding the above three equations gives,

√( )( √ √ √ )
2 2 5 5 5
Tb p1 −p 2 D1 D2 D3
q t =q 1 +q 2 +q 3 =18. 0062 + +
pb γ g Tz f 1 L1 f 2 L2 f 3 L3

Hence. The equivalent diameter qt for pipeline in parallel is given as:

Dt5 D15 D25 D35 (1 Mark)

  
f t Lt f 1 L1 f 2 L2 f 3 L3

The fractional increase in gas flow rate as a result of laying additional pipeline in parallel is

given as:
qt
=
√ D 5t
f t Lt

√
ql D 51
f 1 L1

2c. Weymouth Equation for Non-horizontal Flow

Gas transmission lines are often non-horizontal, account should be taken of substantial
pipeline elevation changes. Weymouth equation with compensation for elevation is:

q h=
3 . 23 T b
Pb √ ( P21−e s P22) D5
fγ g TZLe

0.0375 g Z
s 
Tz

Z  Outlet elevation min us inlet elevation

Where Le is the effective length of the pipeline, for a uniform slope, Le is defined as

( e s−1 ) L
Le =
S

Where

0. 0375 γ g ΔZ i
si =
Tz

Z i  Li sin  i

ΔZ = elevation height z = gas compressibility factor.

si and ΔZi for each pipeline were calculated and tabulated in the Table below:

Diamete
Pipeline Length Angle of
r
Serial No (miles) inclination
(inches) Δzi si fiLi/Di5
PED I 245 9 18 75.709 0.004324 7.30241E-05
136.50
PED 2 323 11 25
6 0.007797 3.52981E-05
PED 3 127 7 14 30.724 0.001755 0.000132992
PED 4 305 13 35
174.94 0.009992 1.44576E-05
(1 Mark)

T = 70oF = 530oR

P1 = 350psia

P2 = 80psia

Specific gravity = γ = 0.67

From the compressibility Chart z( P = (P1 + P2)/2 , T) = 0.83

(1 Mark)

Tb = 60oF = 520oR

Pb = 14.7psia

Where:

Z t  Z 1  Z 2  Z 3
= 417.879 miles
 0 . 0375 γ g ΔZ t
st = =0. 023867
Tz

Since the pipes are in series

Applying Weymouth Equation with the frictional factor, f

f e Le fL f L f L
5
 1 51  2 5 2  3 5 3
De D1 D2 D3

f e Le
 0.000255772
De5

And

De5 (1 Mark)
 1 / 0.000255772  3909.732
f e Le

For a non-uniform slope (where elevation cannot be simplified to a single section of constant
gradient, an approach in steps to any number of sections, n, will yield
i−1

( e s −1 )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 s
e 2−1 s + s e −1
3
s n ∑ e i −1
s

L3 .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. ..+ ∑ e j=1
s1
Le = L1 + e L2 +e 1 2 Li
s1 s2 s3 i =1 si

Le = 1010.67 miles (1 Mark)

Hence the gas flow rate qh is given as:

q h=
3 . 23 T b
Pb √ ( P21−e s P22) D5e
γ g TZf e L e
 (1 Mark)
= 404,222.8151scf/day

3a. Derive the formulae used to determine the cumulative production for oil well
experiencing

i. Exponential decline
ii. Harmonic decline

3b. A well with initial production of 4500 bopd with decline rate of 0.08416/year, if b = 0.73,
calculate:

i. The production during the 16th year

ii. The total production from the eleventh to the seventeenth year.
iii. The gas production during the third year if gas oil ratio is 35200 scf/stb

3c. A well starts production with production rate of 4500 BOPD, decline rate of 0.01263/year
and b = 1.0, after production for 20 years there was an alteration in the reservoir drive
mechanism resulting in new decline rate and b values of 0.02195/year and 0.86 respectively.
If the economic rate of the well is 300BOPD calculate:

a. The cumulative production during the first twenty (20) years

b. The cumulative production during the first thirty two (32) years.

c. The total production between 16th and 27th year.

d. The total life of the well.

e. The total un-produced oil in the reservoir after the abandonment at the economic rate of
300BOPD.
SOLUTION

3a i. Cumulative production Np for Exponential Decline Curve

Cumulative production is given as the total area under the production rate (q) Vs Time (t) on
a semi-log plot.

Mathematically, this is given as:

t2 t
N p =∫ qdt =∫ q i e
− Dt
dt
t1 0

t qi t
=qi ∫0 e
−Dt
dt = [ e−Dt ]0
−d
qi q
¿ [ e− Dt−1 ]= i [1−e−Dt ]
−d d
−Dt
q i−qi e
¿
d
qi −q
N p=
D

(1 Mark)

Half life derivation

q 
ln i 
q
t life   
D

(1 mark)
3a ii. Cumulative production Np for Harmonic Decline Curve

For the Np
t
N p =∫ qdt
0
t
q
N p =∫ dt
0 1+ Di t
t
1
N p =qi∫ dt
0 1+ Di t
qi t
N p = [ ln ( 1+ Di t ) ]0
Di
q
N p = i [ ln ( 1+ Di t )−0 ]
Di
q
N p = i ln ( ( 1+ Di t )
Di

From

qi
q ( t )=
( 1+ Di t )
qi
( 1+ Di t )= q

qi qi
N p= ln
Di q (1 Mark)

b
 qi 
   1 Half life derivation
q
t life  
bDi
(1 mark)

3b.(i) Since 0≤b≤1 , The well is experiencing exponential decline

The production rate for hyperbolic decline is given as

qi
q ( t )= 1/ b
( 1+bD i t )
The cumulative production for hyperbolic decline is given as

qb
[q ]
i 1−b
N p= 1−b −q
( 1−b ) Di i

qi = 4500bopd Di = 0.08416/year b =0.73

The production rate during the 15th year is given as:

qi
q ( t )= 1/ b
( 1+bD i t )
4500
q ( 15 )= =1839. 116bopd
(1+0. 73∗0 .08416∗15 )1/0. 73

The production rate during the 16th year is given as:

qi
q ( t )= 1/ b
( 1+bD i t )
4500
q ( 15 )= =1761. 504 bopd
(1+0. 73∗0 .08416∗16 )1/0. 73

Cumulative Production at the end of the 15th year is given as:

qb
[q ]
i 1−b
N p= 1−b −q
( 1−b ) Di i
 4500 0. 73 [ 45001−0 . 73−1839 .121−0 . 73 ]=411899 bbls(for 1 day )
N p (15 )=
( 1−0 . 73 )∗0. 08416
¿150 , 343 ,125 bbls( for the whole year)
Cumulative Production at the end of the 16th year is given as:

qb
[q ]
i 1−b
N p= 1−b −q
( 1−b ) Di i

4500 0. 73 [ 45001−0 . 73−1761. 501−0. 73 ]=429344 bbls(for 1 day )

N p (15 )=
( 1−0 . 73 )∗0. 08416
¿156 , 710 ,548 bbls (for the whole year)
Cumulative production during the 16th year

= 156,710,584-150,343,125

= 6,367,422 bbls. (1 Mark)

ii. The total production from the eleventh to the seventeenth year

= Cumulative production at the end of the 17th year – cumulative production at the end of the
10th year

= 162,813,308 – 113,728,591

= 49,084,717 stb (1 Mark)

iii. The gas production during the third year if gas oil ratio is 35200 scf/stb

Oil production during the third year = cumulative oil production after the third year –
cumulative oil production after the second year

= 42,488,400 - 29,394,244

= 13,094,156 bbls

Since Rs = Solution Gas oil ratio = 35200 scf/stb

Produced gas = Produced oil (Np) X Rs = 13,094,156 X 35200 = 460,914,291,200 scf of gas
(1 Mark)

3c.

a. During the first 20 years, the well is experiencing harmonic decline (Since b = 0)
 qi
q ( t )=
( 1+ Di t )

qi qi
Np  ln X 365days
Di q
qi = 4500BOPD Di = 0.1263/year t = 20 years

q (20 years) = 1276.234BOPD (1 Mark)

Np (20 years) = 16,388,120stb= cumulative production during the first 20 years of harmonic
decline

b. The cumulative production during the first 32 years equal

= Cumulative production during the first 20 years of harmonic decline + cumulative

production during the first twelve years of hyperbolic decline (1 Mark)

Cumulative production during the first 12 years of hyperbolic decline (b = 0.86 and Di =
0.2195)

qi
q ( t )= 1/ b
( 1+bD i t )
= 322.67BOPD

qb
[q ]
i 1−b
N p= 1−b −q
( 1−b ) Di i
X 365 days = 2,656,062 stb

Hence cumulative production during the first 32 years

= 16,388,120 + 2,656,062 = 19,044,182 stb. (1 Mark)

c. C
 Cumulative production between 16th and 27th year = Cumulative production between
16th to 20th year under harmonic decline (b = 1) + Cumulative production between 21st
to 27th year under hyperbolic decline (b = 0.86) (1 Mark)

i. Cumulative production between 16th to 20th year under harmonic decline (b = 1)

qi
q ( t )=
( 1+ Di t )

qi qi
Np  ln X 365days
Di q

q16 = 1554.67BOPD and q20 = 1323.65BOPD

Np16 = 13,821,610 stb and Np20 = 15,913,747 stb

Cumulative production between 16th to 20th year under harmonic decline (b = 1)

= 15,913,747 – 13,821,610 = 2,092,137 stb

ii. Cumulative production between 21st to 27th year under hyperbolic decline (b =
0.86)

q20 = 1323.65BOPD = qi and q27 = 529.02BOPD

qb
[q ]
i 1−b
N p= 1−b −q
( 1−b ) Di i

X 365days

= 1,758,290stb (1 Mark)

Hence Cumulative production between 16th and 27th year = 2,092, 137stb + 1,758,290

=4,750,427stb

d. Total Life of the well = 20 years of harmonic decline + well life during hyperbolic
from qi = 1323.65BOPD to economic rate of 300BOPD.
b
 qi 
   1
q
tlife  e
bDi
 = 20 +

= 20 + 13.10 = 33.10 years (1 Mark)

e. Un-produced oil = Cumulative oil production from qi = 300BOPD to q = 0 BOPD

qb
[q ]
i 1−b
N p= 1−b −q
= ( 1−b ) Di i

X 365days

= 3,563,293 stb (1 Mark)

3.23 * 520 (350 2  (e 0.023867 (80 2 )) * 3909.732

qh   404222.8151scf / day
14.7 0.67 * 530 * 0.83

4a. Discuss the industrial processing and treatment of natural gas.

4b. Calculate the percentage increase in gas capacity for each case in Table 2, when a pipeline
of length 420 miles and diameter 8.5-in. has:

Table 2: Different Natural Gas Pipeline Looping Operations

Case Operation Details

1 45% of its length looped with 13-in. pipeline
2 60% of its length looped with 9-in. pipeline
3 52% of its length looped with 11-in. pipeline
4 Half of its length looped with 1ft. pipeline
5 One-third of its length looped with 1ft. 3-in. pipeline

4c. A pipeline of diameter 9-inches and length 450 miles was used to deliver natural gas from
a gas well to a gas processing plant. Due to increase in gas demand three major upgrade were
performed on the pipeline as tabulated in the table below:

Table 1: Different Looping Operations

S/N Operation Details

1 Initially
2 1st up-grade
3 2nd up-grade
4 3rd up-grade
Pipeline of diameter 9-in. and 450 miles long
45% of the initial pipeline was looped with an 11-in. pipeline
on the left hand side
The entire length of the initial pipeline was looped with a 13-in.
pipeline on the right hand side
The remaining length on the left hand side was looped with a
14-in. pipeline.

Calculate using Weymouth’s equation without friction factor:

a. The resulted percentage increase in flow rate from the first upgrade

b. The resulted percentage increase in flow rate from the second upgrade

c. The resulted percentage increase in flow rate from the third upgrade

SOLUTION

4a. Natural Gas Processing and Treatments

Once the gas has been separated from the liquids, it generally requires further processing.
Whether this processing happens in the field, in a gas processing plant or not at all depend on
such factors as the type of well, the content of the well fluid, climate condition, the sales
contract and economics. Whether the gas is process in the field or not, it’s pressure must be
regulated before sales. The operator installs a regulator to reduce pressure or a compressor to
raise pressure as needed.

Methods of gas de-hydration

There are two methods used in de-hydrating natural gas, these are absorption and adsorption

In absorption the gas is bubbled through a liquid desiccant often a glycol solution that
absorbs the water vapour. A desiccant is a substance that has a special attraction or affinity for
water vapour, the liquid and gas can then be separated.

In adsorption, the vapour-laden gas is passed over a solid desiccant in an adsorption tower.
The water adheres to the solid desiccant and dry gas flows out of adsorption tower. The
desiccant bed can be re-used after it is dried by heating and vapourizing the water. Each of
the processes has its own special advantages and disadvantages. Dry bed adsorption is more
likely to be used in a gas processing plant than in the field.(1 Mark)

Contaminants Removal
Natural gas often contains carbon dioxide and compounds of sulphur such as hydrogen
sulphide. These gases are called acid gases because they form acids or acidic solutions in the
presence of water. Gases with high concentration of sulphur are called sour gases. If present
in significant quantities acid gases must be removed from natural gas. Both carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide are corrosive when water is present and H2S is very poisonous in
relatively small concentrations. Removing these contaminants from natural gas is often called
sweetening the gas. The processes for sweetening natural gas are similar to the ones for
removing water vapour: absorption and adsorption. In the two type of absorption processes
(Chemical and Physical absorption), the acid gas stream contacts a liquid absorbent that
selectively removes certain acid gas from the natural gas.

In chemical absorption the liquid absorbent react chemically with the acid gases but not with
the natural gas. The purified gas flow out and heat and/or low pressure is used to separate the
acid gas from the absorbent, so that the absorbent can be used again. The most widely used
sweetening processes in the industry are the amine processes. The amine process is a
continuous operation that uses solution water and a chemical known as an amine to remove
carbon dioxide and several sulphur compounds.

In physical absorption, the gases physically dissolve in the liquid absorbent, and the natural
gas does not. Again heat and low pressure separate the acid gases from the absorbent so that it
can be reused. Commercial processes of this type include the Selexol, sulphinol, Pectisol and
fluor solvent processes.

In adsorption or dry bed processes, the acid gas stream flows over a solid adsorbent as in
dehydration rather than removing water, however this adsorbent removes sulphur compounds
and/or carbon dioxide. Heat or lowered pressure vapourizes the acid gas and removes it from
the adsorbent bed. (1 Mark)

Removal of Natural Gas Liquids

Natural gas is a mixture of methane, ethane, propane and some heavier hydrocarbon such as
butane and natural gasoline (ranging from pentane through nonane or decane). In field
separators, some of the heavier hydrocarbon liquefy and are removed. For economic reasons
the lease operator often wants to liquefy some or all of the remaining ethane and heavier
hydrocarbon and remove them from the methane gas. The liquefied hydrocarbon known as
natural gas liquid (NGLs) are more valuable as liquid fuel or refinery feed-stocks than as
components of natural gas, also if butanes and heavier hydrocarbon are allowed to remain in
the natural gas stream, they may condense in the transmission lines during cold weather.

When gas is produced from high pressure gas wells, the NGL’s are usually separated in field
facilities. It is generally more economical to process gas coming from an oil well in a gas
processing plants.

The usual equipment for processing gas from a gas well is the low temperature separator
(LTX) unit. The equipment partially dehydrates the gas stream as well as removing NGL’s. It
takes advantage of the fact that the gas stream coming from the well head is under high
pressure. After passing through a free water knockout, the compressed gas is cooled and
allowed to expand to pass through a choke into a separated vessel. The expansion further
cools the gas and condenses the heavier hydrocarbon is into a liquid. The hydrocarbon liquid
and the hydrates form from water vapour drops to the bottom of the separation and the dry
gas passes out through the top, then the gas is warmed and allowed to enter the gas gathering
system. The hydrates melt, the water goes to a disposal systems and the NGL is stored in a
low pressure tank. (1 Mark)

4b.

From the expression:

1
X= −1

√ (
1−Y 1−
1
(1+ R2D. 31 )2 )
Y is the fraction of looped pipeline

X is the increase in gas capacity

Rd is theratio of the looping pipe diameter to the original pipe diameter.

i. When 45% of the 8.5in. pipeline was looped with a 13in. pipeline

The increase in gas capacity = 0.309188 = 30.9188% (1 Mark)

ii. When 60% of the 8.5in. pipeline was looped with a 9in. pipeline

The increase in gas capacity = 0.372473 = 37.2473% (1 Mark)

iii. When 52% of the 8.5in. pipeline was looped with a 11in. pipeline

The increase in gas capacity = 0.353747 = 35.3747% (1 Mark)

iv. When 50% of the 8.5in. pipeline was looped with a 12in. pipeline

The increase in gas capacity = 0.350507 = 35.0507% (1 Mark)

v. When 33.3% of the 8.5in. pipeline was looped with a 15in. pipeline

The increase in gas capacity = 0.21091 = 20.091% (1 Mark)

4c.
 a. For the first upgrade

Initially a single pipeline of length 450miles and diameter 9-in.

When 45% of the pipe was looped with 11-in. pipeline.

Initially, 450miles, 9-in. pipeline

Upgraded by looping 45% of its length with 11-in. pipeline 202.5miles of 9-in.

202.5miles of 11-in
247.5miles of 9-in.

Resulting in pipeline of equivalent diameter of 9.87-in of length 450miles

By using expression for pipeline in parallel and then in series

From the expression:

1
X= −1

√ (
1−Y 1−
1
(1+ R2D. 31 )2 ) (1 Mark)

Y is the fraction of looped pipeline

X is the increase in gas capacity

Rd is theratio of the looping pipe diameter to the original pipe diameter.

The percentage increase in gas capacity = 27.298%. (1 Mark)

b. During the second upgrade

 Initially, 450miles, 9.87-in. pipeline

Upgraded by looping 45% of its length with 11-in. pipeline 450miles of 13-in.

450miles of 9.87-in

Resulting in 450 miles of 15.063-in pipeline

By using expression for pipeline in parallel

16 8 (2 Marks)
q D 3
new Dnew
3
Percentage increase in capacity  new   8
 308%
qinitial 16

D 3
initial
D 3
initial

c. For the third upgrade

 Initially, 450miles, 15.063-in. pipeline

Upgraded by looping 45% of its length with 11-in. pipeline

247.5miles of 15.063-in.

247.5miles of 14-in
202.5miles of 15.063-in.

Resulting in 450miles of 16.496-in.

Using the expression

1
X= −1

√ (
1−Y 1−
1
(1+ R2D. 31 )2 ) (1 Mark)

The percentage increase in gas capacity during the third upgrade = 27.86%

(1 Mark)

5a. Discuss two type of charts used in an orifice meter

5b. Discuss the well stimulation operations used in the petroleum industry

5c. The direct reading orifice chart detached from an orifice meter is as shown in the
attached. If the orifice flows constant C = 1258.

a. Calculate the total volume of gas delivered to the gas plant in ft3.

b. Calculate the average gas flow rate in ft3/hr.

SOLUTION

5a. There are two principal types of meter charts: the uniform scale direct reading chart for
the differential pressures in inches of water and the static pressure in pound per square inch.,
and a chart that reads the square root. Clocks turn the charts at desire speed, one turn each
time period.

DIRECT READING CHARTS

In this type of scale, the lines are spaced an equal distance apart, the scale value of each line,
in terms of the full range of the each line, in terms of the full range of the instrument with
which it is used, should be 1, 2, or 5 units, or some multiples of these. In many cases, the
differential pressure and static pressure are recorded on a chart with a common spacing. (1
Mark)

SQUARE ROOT CHARTS

This scale shows the square root of the percentage of the full-scale range of the guage, or as
represented by the full scale of the chart. A reading of full scale or full range of the guage will
be 10, the square root of 100.

Using the 100 in., 500-lb guage, a chart reading of 5 would represent a differential pressure
of 25 in. or a static pressure of 125 psia.

For square root charts, a chart factor may be defined as

Chart factor=
√ meter range
100
Actual pressure = (chart reading * chart factor)2

Actual pressure=
10 (
chart reading 2
)
∗meter range
(1 Mark)

5b. Well Stimulation Operations

Well stimulation operations can be classified into two main categories

i. Matrix acidizing
 ii. Formation Fracturing (1 Mark)

i. Matrix acidizing: The objective of matrix acidizing is to remove near wellbore

formation damage that might have been caused by drilling or other work over
operations in order to restore or enhance well productivity.

For carbonate formation matrix acidizing is achieved by injecting hydrochloric acid (HCL)
into the formation at low pressure. As acid is injected, it prefentially flows through more
permeable passages reacting and dissolving the carbonate. Thus creates irregular highly
conductive channels known as a worm holes, for easier flow of from the formation to the
well.

For sand stone matrix acidizing a solution of hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acid (known as
mud acid) is injected into the formation to dissolve clay and to some extent silica. This
removes the damage to restore the near wellbore permeability. (1 Mark)

ii. Formation Fracturing: This is conducted on formation having very low

permeability in order to increase well productivity. Fracturing is performed on
wells completed in very tight (very low permeability) formations.

In carbonate formations, a fracturing fluid followed by hydrochloric acid (HCL) is injected at

pressure exceeding the formation fracture pressure. The fracturing fluid initiates a fracture
and the acid react with the carbonate walls of the fracture, leaving the wall as rough surface.
Therefore when the pressure is reduced, the fracture will not close and provide a very
conductive passage for the fluid to flow from the formation into the well. This operation is
known as acid fracturing.

Fracturing tight sandstone formation is known as hydraulic fracturing. As with carbonate, a

fracturing fluid is injected at high pressure to initiate a fracture, the fracture is kept open by
filling it with high permeable, high compressive strength sand known as Proppants. (1
Mark)
5c. The hourly differential (hw) and static pressure (Pf) and the square-root of their products

were determined and tabulated in the table below= the sum of the square-root of the products

was also determined.

Static
Differentia Pressur
S/
Period l Pressure e
N
Reading Readin
g SQRT(hw*Pf)
1 12pm – 1am 15 145 46.63689527
2 1am – 2am 16 145 48.16637832
3 2am – 3am 16 145 48.16637832
4 3am – 4am 16 145 48.16637832
5 4am – 5am 15 145 46.63689527
6 5am – 6am 14 145 45.0555213

7 6am – 7am
15 145 46.63689527
8 7am – 8am 15 145 46.63689527
9 8am – 9am 16 145 48.16637832
10 9am – 10am 16 145 48.16637832
11 10am - 11am
14 150 45.82575695
11am –
12
12noon 15 150 47.4341649
12noon -
13
1pm 16 145 48.16637832
14 1pm – 2pm 15 145 46.63689527
15 2pm - 3pm 17 145 49.64876635
16 3pm – 4pm 16 145 48.16637832
17 4pm – 5pm 17 145 49.64876635
18 5pm – 6pm 17 145 49.64876635
19 6pm – 7pm 17 145 49.64876635
20 7pm – 8pm 17 145 49.64876635
 21 8pm – 9pm 17 145 49.64876635
22 9pm – 10pm 17 145 49.64876635
10pm –
23
11pm 17 145 49.64876635
11pm –
24
12pm 16 145 48.16637832
SUM = 1154.021077
(4 Marks)

i. Since C = 1258.0

From

q g ( ft 3 / day )  C  (h w Pf )

from the above table h w Pf  1154 .021

Therefore total gas volume delivered in 1 day (24 hours) equals

= 1258 * 1154.021

= 1,451,758.021 ft3. (2 Marks)

ii. The rate = 1,451,758.021/24 = 60,489. 92ft3/hr. (2 Marks)