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04 Handout 1
04 Handout 1
INVENTORIES
Nature of Inventories
According to IAS 2 (PAS 2), Inventories are assets that are:
• held for sale in the ordinary course of business;
• in the process of production for such sale; or
• in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of
services.
Cost of Inventories
Cost should include all (Deloitte Global Services Limited, 2017):
• costs of purchase (including taxes, transport, and handling) net of trade discounts received;
• costs of conversion (including fixed and variable manufacturing overheads); and
• other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition
The cost of inventories is assigned by (International Financial Reporting Standards Foundation, 2018):
• specific identification of cost for items of inventory that are not ordinarily interchangeable; and
• the first-in, first-out or weighted average cost formula for items that are ordinarily interchangeable
(generally large quantities of individually insignificant items).
IAS 23 (PAS 23) Borrowing Costs identifies some limited circumstances where borrowing costs (interest) can
be included in the cost of inventories that meet the definition of a qualifying asset. Inventory cost should not
include (Deloitte Global Services Limited, 2017):
• abnormal waste;
• storage costs;
• administrative overheads unrelated to production;
• selling costs;
• foreign exchange differences arising directly on the recent acquisition of inventories invoiced in a foreign
currency; and
• interest cost when inventories are purchased with deferred settlement terms.
The same cost formula should be used for all inventories with similar characteristics as to their nature and use
to the entity. For groups of inventories that have different characteristics, different cost formulas may be justified
(Deloitte Global Services Limited, 2017).
Classification of Inventories
The classification of inventories usually varies depending on the type of business the firm is involved with. For
a merchandising type of business, its inventory usually comes from its purchases. This account is usually termed
as Merchandise Inventory which is the sole item of inventory appearing in the Financial Statement.
Manufacturing type of business, conversely, produce goods to sell to merchandising forms. Manufacturers
normally have three (3) inventory accounts (Kieso, 2016):
• Raw Materials Inventory – These are goods and materials on hand not yet placed into production.
• Work-in-process Inventory - The cost of the unfinished product or goods still under the production
process. The cost of these units also comprises the direct labor cost applied and the manufacturing
overhead cost.
• Finished Goods Inventory - It includes completed but unsold units on hand.
Goods included in Inventory
1. Goods in transit - Often, companies purchase merchandise that remains in transit at the end of the
fiscal period. Proper accounting for these goods depends on who has the control over the goods. The
passage of title rule is applicable in this situation (Kieso, 2016).
The following are the shipping terms essential in identifying the legal title over the goods (Kieso, 2016):
• FOB shipping point - The title passes to the buyer the moment the seller delivers the goods to the
common carrier, who acts as an agent for the buyer.
• FOB Destination – The title passes to the buyer only when it receives the goods from the common
carrier.
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• Free Alongside (FAS) - The risk of loss is transferred from the seller to the buyer at a named port
alongside a vessel designated by the buyer (Robles & Empleo, 2016).
• Cost, Insurance, and Freight - Under this shipping contract, the buyer agrees to pay all the cost of
goods, insurance cost, and freight. The risk of loss is transferred to the buyer upon delivery of goods
to the carrier (Valix, 2017).
Freight Terms
• Freight collect - This means that the carrier will collect the cost of transporting the goods to the
buyer.
• Freight prepaid - This means that the freight cost on the goods shipped is already paid by the seller.
2. Consigned goods - These are goods under consignment arrangement. Under this arrangement, a
company (the consignor) ships various art merchandise to another company (the consignee), who acts
as agent in selling the consigned goods. These goods remain the property of the consignor.
3. Segregated goods - These are specially ordered or manufactured goods based on the customer’s
preference. These types of goods, once completed, shall be considered sold and excluded from the
inventory of the seller.
4. Conditional sale and installment sale - The title has already passed to the buyer.
5. Goods sold with buyback agreement - The goods are still part of the inventory of the seller.
6. Goods Sold with refund offers - If returns are predictable, goods are excluded from the inventories of
the seller, if not, retained as part of the inventory.
Systems of Recording Inventories
Companies usually use one of the two (2) types of systems for maintaining inventory records for the cost of
inventories- the perpetual system or the periodic system (Kieso, 2016).
The following are the pro-forma entries to record the transactions using the two (2) systems (Robles & Empleo,
2016):
PERPETUAL INVENTORY SYSTEM PERIODIC INVENTORY SYSTEM
Purchase of Goods Merchandise Inventory xxx Purchases xxx
Accounts Payable/Cash xxx Accounts Payable/Cash xxx
Purchase returns Accounts Payable xxx Accounts Payable/Cash xxx
Merchandise Inventory xxx Purchase Returns xxx
Sale of goods Accounts Receivable/Cash xxx Accounts Receivable xxx
Sales xxx Sales xxx
Cost of Sales xxx
Merchandise Inventory xxx
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Cost of Goods Available for Sale (COGAS) [Sum of (No. of units purchased x Cost per unit) per transaction]
COGAS P
Deduct: Ending Inventory
Cost of Goods Sold P
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Under the FIFO, the inventory accountant needed to account the sold items by using the earliest batches first.
Thus, the 930 units sold (cost of goods sold) consists of the 200 units at P10, the 400 units at P12, and another
330 units at P14 for a total of P11,420. The units remaining in ending inventory, therefore, consist of 170 units
(500 - 330 sold) at P14 and 140 units at P16, totaling P4,620.
Calculate the average price per unit using the formula given below:
Total cost (batch per unit x unit price)
= Average price per unit
Total units available
January 1 P
April 1
July 15
October 8
Total Cost P
Divided by units available
Average cost per unit (rounded) P
The cost of goods sold of ABC Company is P _________. (Round off to two [2] decimal places.)
Illustrative Problem: FIFO AND MOVING AVERAGE (Using the information of the previous example)
(Englard, 2007)
January 1 Beginning Balance 200 units @ P10
April 1 Purchase 400 units @ P12
May 1 Sale 250 units
July 15 Purchase 500 units @P14
September 9 Sale 280 units
October 8 Purchase 140 units @P16
November 28 Sale 400 units
Under the perpetual system, there is no need to rearrange the information in contrast to using the periodic
system. Under the FIFO method, earlier batches must be sold first before the latter batches. Therefore, the
sale of May 1 consists of the 200 units at P10 plus 50s units at P12.
So, for ease of computation, the table below shows the flow of the inventories adjusted by the effect of the May
1 sale:
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For the sale of September 9, the 280 units are from April 1 batch of 350 units at P12. Then, the adjusted flow
of inventories affecting the September sale would appear as follows:
April 1 70 units (350-280) @ P12
July 15 500 units @ P14
October 8 140 units @ P16
November 28 400 units (sale)
For the sale on November 28 of 400 units, 70 of these came from the April batch, while the remaining 330 came
from the July 15 batch.
Required: Using the concept learned from the previous consecutive months, answer the following questions:
1. How much is the cost of goods sold on December 31, 2018 statement of financial position? P ____________
2. What is the total ending inventory on December 31, 2018 statement of financial position? P ____________
Note: FIFO method under periodic and perpetual method will produce the same results.
Moving Average under Perpetual System using the same figures above (Englard, 2007):
January 1 Beginning Balance 200 units @ P10
April 1 Purchase 400 units @ P12
May 1 Sale 250 units
July 15 Purchase 500 units @P14
September 9 Sale 280 units
October 8 Purchase 140 units @P16
November 28 Sale 400 units
Under this method, there is a need to recalculate the average cost per unit after each new purchase. Thus, on
April 1, the average cost is calculated as follows:
200 units @ P10 = P 2,000
400 units @ P12 = 4,800
600 units P 6,800
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The total average cost (P6,800) divided by the total units (600 units) yields an average cost of P11.33. On May
1, the 250 units are sold by using this average cost.
So the remaining units are 570 units (850 - 280) on hand at P_______.
On October 8, the purchase of 140 units at P16 again requires the recalculation of average cost.
x = P
x =
P
Dividing the P______ by 710 units results in a new unit price of P____.
On November 28, 400 units of inventory was sold and the remaining inventory cost is P_______ (310 units x
P_____). The cumulative cost of goods sold is:
x = P
x =
P
Inventory Valuations
IAS 2 guides in determining the cost of inventories and the subsequent recognition of the cost as an expense,
including any write-down to net realizable value. It also provides guidance on the cost formulas that are used to
assign costs to inventories. Inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value (LCNRV).
Net realizable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated costs
of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale (International Financial Reporting Standards
Foundation, 2018).
The cost of inventories includes all costs of purchase, costs of conversion (direct labor and production
overhead) and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. When
inventories are sold, the carrying amount of those inventories is recognized as an expense in the period in which
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the related revenue is recognized. The amount of any write-down of inventories to net realizable value and all
losses of inventories are recognized as an expense in the period the write-down or loss occurs (International
Financial Reporting Standards Foundation, 2018).
Illustrative Problem: LOWER OF COST AND NET REALIZABLE VALUE (Robles & Empleo, 2016):
The following are the major products of MS Supermarket:
Therefore, from the total cost of P 8,240,000 to total value of inventory using lower of cost and net realizable
value of P 7,898,000, there is inventory write-down amounting to P________.
Valuation Methods on Outflows of Inventories
The amount of any write-down of inventories to net realizable value should be recognized as an expense in the
period the write-down occurs. The write-down of inventory cost to lower of cost and net realizable value may be
recorded using either direct method or allowance method. (Robles & Empleo, 2016)
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Assume the following data for JK Merchandising. The company uses periodic system and first-in, first-out
method of cost allocation. (Robles & Empleo, 2016)
12/31/201A 12/31/201B
Cost P 250,000 P 260,000
Lower of cost and NRV 240,000 245,000
12/31/201B
Income Summary
Inventory 240,000 250,000
To close beginning inventory 240,000 250,000
Assume that JK Merchandising uses the perpetual system in recording its inventories. The journal entries to
reflect valuation at the lower of cost and net realizable value are as follows (Robles & Empleo, 2016):
DIRECT METHOD ALLOWANCE METHOD
12/31/201A
Cost of Goods Sold 10,000
Inventory 10,000
12/31/201B
Cost of Goods Sold 15,000
Inventory 15,000
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To illustrate, assume the following figures from Cristian Company for the six (6) months ended June 30, 201A:
(Robles & Empleo, 2016)
Inventory, January 1, 201A P 250,000
Purchases 1,000,000
Sales 1,500,000
Purchase returns 40,000
Purchase discounts 2,500
Sales returns 30,000
Sales discounts 2,000
Determine the estimated cost of inventory for June 30,201A, assuming that the company maintains a gross
profit rate of:
I. 25 % on sales; and
II. 25 % on cost of goods sold (COGS).
The cost of goods available for sale is determined as follows:
Inventory, January 1, 201A P
Add: Net Purchases
Purchases P
Purchase returns
Purchase discounts
Totals cost of goods available for sale P
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I. 25 % on sales
Total cost of goods available for sale P
Less: Estimated Cost of Goods Sold
1,470,000 x 75%
Purchases P
Note: Both purchase returns, purchase discounts, and freight, are included in the computation for Cost of Goods
Sold. It lies in the context that these are actually incurred before setting up the sales price. On the other hand,
in computing for net sales using the gross profit method, only the sales return is allowed to be deducted in sales.
Sales discount and sales allowances are ignored, because they do not involve in physical flow of merchandise
back to the company. However, in rare cases, when sales discount is considered significant, sales discounts
may be considered. (Robles & Empleo, 2016)
In cases when there is undamaged or partially damaged merchandise, computation of inventory loss is further
continued as follows: (Robles & Empleo, 2016)
Estimated cost of ending inventory P xxx
Less: Cost of undamaged inventory
Realizable value of partially damaged P xxx
inventory (but not exceed cost)
Estimated inventory loss xxx xxx
xxx
Illustrative Problem: ADAPTED (Robles & Empleo, 2016)
On September 30, 201A, a Typhoon Ompong caused great damage on the warehouse of JKL Company. The
company incurred a great loss on its inventory. In estimating the damage caused by the typhoon, the accountant
gathered the following information:
January 1, 201B to the 201A
date of flood
Merchandise Inventory, beg. P 400,000 P -
Purchases 2,380,000 2,240,000
Purchase Returns 60,000 40,000
Sales 3,120,000 2,400,000
At the beginning of 201B, the company changed its policy on the selling prices of the merchandise to produce
a gross profit rate of 5% higher than the gross profit rate in 201A.
Undamaged merchandise marked to sell at P100,000 and damaged merchandise marked to sell at P30,000
were salvaged. The damaged merchandise had an estimated realizable value of P8,000.
Solution:
I. Compute the gross profit rate for year 201A, then followed by the gross profit rate for year 201B.
Cost of goods sold = __________ - _________ - _________= P 1,800,000
Gross profit = __________ - ___________ = P 600,000
Gross profit rate (201A) = ________ /_________= 25%
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The company increased its gross profit rate by 5% in 201B. Therefore, gross profit rate in 201B is 30%
(25% + 5%)
II. Compute the estimated cost of merchandise inventory at the time of typhoon.
Merchandise Inventory, January 1, 2016 P
Add net purchases (P2,380,000 - P 60,000)
Cost of goods available for sale P
Less: Estimated cost of goods sold
P 3,120,000 x (100-30%)
Estimated cost of inventory, September 30 P
III. Estimated cost of inventory lost from flood
Estimated cost of inventory, September 30 P 536,000
Less: Cost of undamaged merchandise
(P 100,000 x 70%)
Estimated realizable value of damaged
merchandise
Estimated cost of inventory, September 30 P
Illustrative Problem
Cost Retail
Beginning Inventory P 28,000 P 40,000
Purchases 126,000 180,000
Goods available for sale 154,000 220,000
Deduct: Sales revenue 170,000
Ending Inventory, at retail 50,000
The amounts shown in the “Retail” column above represent original retail prices, assuming no price changes.
In practice, though, retailers frequently mark up or mark down the prices they charge buyers. (Kieso, 2016)
The term markup means an additional markup of the original retail price. Markup cancellations are decreases
in prices of merchandise that the retailer had marked up above the original retail price. (Kieso, 2016)
If the market is competitive, retailers often resort to use markdown, which are decreases in the original sales
price. Such cuts in sales price may be necessary because of a decrease in the general level of prices, special
sales, soiled or damaged goods, over-stocking, and market competition. Markdown cancellations occur when
the markdowns are later offset by increases in the prices of goods that the retailer had marked down - such as
after a one-day sale, for example. Neither a markup cancellation nor a markdown cancellation can exceed the
original markup or markdown. (Kieso, 2016)
To illustrate, assume that JK Company recently purchased 1,000 school shirts from Nice Corporation. The cost
of these apparels was P 150,000, or P150 per shirt. JK Company established the selling price on these shirts
at P300 a shirt. The shirts were selling quickly in anticipation of back to school day, so the manager added a
markup of P9 per shirt. This markup made the price too high for the customers, and sales slowed. The manager
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then reduced the price to P303. At this point, we would say that the shirts at JK Company have had a markup
of P9 and a markup cancellation of P6.
Right after the back to school day, the manager marked down the remaining shirts to a sale of P280. At this
point, an additional markup cancellation of P3 has taken place, and a P20 markdown has occurred. If the
manager later increases the price of the shirts to P285, a markdown cancellation of P5 would occur (Kieso,
2016).
Cost Retail
Beginning Inventory P 140,000 P 252,000
Purchases 680,000 876,000
Purchase Returns (40,000) (48,000)
Purchase allowances (4,000)
Purchase Discounts (2,400)
Freight-in 8,000
Additional Markups (net of cancellations) 48,000
Markdowns (net of cancellations) (20,000)
Abnormal Losses (36,000) (44,000)
Departmental Transfers-out (17,600) (24,000)
P 588,000 P 788,000
Goods available for sale P 728,000 P 1,040,000
Cost-to-retail ratio:
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Deduct:
Sales P 760,000
Sales Returns (30,000)
Employee Discounts 3,000
Normal Losses 5,000
Total P 738,000
Ending Inventory, at retail P 302,000
When the retail method assumes a FIFO cost flow, the cost and the retail value of beginning inventory are
excluded from the cost ratio computation. The cost percentage that is developed is the ratio of the current cost
of purchases to the current retail prices of these purchases (adjusted for net markups and net markdowns). The
approximated cost of the ending inventory is therefore based on the ratio of cost to retail on current period
purchases only (Robles & Empleo, 2016).
FIFO RETAIL
Cost Retail
Beginning Inventory P 140,000 P 252,000
Purchases 680,000 876,000
Purchase Returns (40,000) (48,000)
Purchase allowances (4,000)
Purchase Discounts (2,400)
Freight-in 8,000
Additional Markups (net of cancellations) 48,000
Markdowns (net of cancellations) (20,000)
Abnormal Losses (36,000) (44,000)
Departmental Transfers-out (17,600) (24,000)
P 588,000 P 788,000
Goods available for sale P 728,000 P 1,040,000
Cost-to-retail ratio:
Deduct:
Sales P 760,000
Sales Returns (30,000)
Employee Discounts 3,000
Normal Losses 5,000
Total P 738,000
Ending Inventory, at retail P 302,000
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IAS 2 acknowledges that some enterprises classify income statement expenses by nature (materials, labor, and
so on) rather than by function (cost of goods sold, selling expense, and so on). Accordingly, as an alternative
to disclosing the cost of goods sold expense, IAS 2 allows an entity to disclose operating costs recognized
during the period by nature of the cost (raw materials and consumables, labor costs, other operating costs) and
the amount of the net change in inventories for the period). This is consistent with IAS 1 Presentation of
Financial Statements, which allows presentation of expenses by function or nature.
References
Deloitte Global Services Limited. (2017, September 12). Deloitte. Retrieved from Deloitte Website:
https://www.iasplus.com
Englard, B. (2007). Intermediate accounting I. New York: McGraw-HILL.
International Financial Reporting Standards Foundation. (2018, September 13). IFRS. Retrieved from IFRS
Website: https://www.ifrs.org
Kieso, D. E. (2016). Intermediate accounting (16th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Robles, N. S., & Empleo, P. M. (2016). Intermediate accounting (Vol. 1.). Mandaluyong: Millenium Books, Inc.
Valix, C. T. (2017). Financial accounting (Vol. 1.). Manila: GIC Enterprises & Co., Inc.
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