energies
Article
Analysis of Interturn Faults on Transformer Based on
Electromagnetic-Mechanical Coupling
Nan Zhu 1 , Ji Li 2, *, Lei Shao 2, *, Hongli Liu 2 , Lei Ren 2 and Lihua Zhu 2
Citation: Zhu, N.; Li, J.; Shao, L.; Liu,
H.; Ren, L.; Zhu, L. Analysis of
Interturn Faults on Transformer Based
on Electromagnetic-Mechanical
Coupling. Energies 2023, 16, 512.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010512
Academic Editor: Pawel Rozga
Received: 29 November 2022
Revised: 26 December 2022
Accepted: 29 December 2022
Published: 2 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 512. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010512
1 School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China
2 Tianjin Key Laboratory for Control Theory & Application in Complicated Systems, Tianjin 300384, China
* Correspondence: liji0606@163.com (J.L.); shaolei555@163.com (L.S.); Tel.: +86-22-13512883786 (J.L.);
+86-22-18649178219 (L.S.)
Abstract: A running transformer frequently experiences interturn faults; they are typically difficult
to detect in their early stages but eventually progress to interturn short circuits, which cause damage
to the transformer. Therefore, finding out the fault mechanism of the full interturn fault process
can provide a theoretical basis for transformer fault detection. In this paper, an electromagnetic-
solid mechanics coupled finite element model consistent with an actual oil-immersed three-phase
transformer is established. The transient process of winding from interturn discharge to interturn
short circuit is simulated to study the electromagnetic characteristics as well as the mechanical
characteristics during transformer failure. The model parameters of the transformer are simulated
to obtain the fault current, electromagnetic parameters and other performance parameters to study
the characteristics of the magnetic field and coil force when interturn faults occur. Finally, the
vibration of the transformer casing is used to detect as well as diagnose the transformer fault
situation, providing a theoretical basis for the study of transformer detection and diagnosis capability
improvement measures.
Keywords: transformer; multi-physical field coupling; interturn fault; transient process
1. Introduction
The interturn fault is one of the common faults of oil–immersed power transformers,
while the winding interturn insulation aging and continuous partial discharge is the main
cause of interturn faults. Partial discharge occurs between the windings at the beginning of
a transformer interturn fault. As the insulation material between the windings ages, the
interturn insulation resistance decreases. Partial discharge occurs between windings at
the initial stage of transformer turn–to–turn fault. As the insulation material between the
windings ages, the inter–turn insulation resistance decreases. After the development of
inter–turn discharge to a certain extent, the insulation between the transformer windings
will be penetrated resulting in infinitesimal insulation resistance, thus occurring between
the turns of the winding short circuit [1]. Significant electromagnetic forces are generated
in the event of a transformer turn–to–turn short circuit, which can lead to elastic and plastic
deformation of the transformer windings and catastrophic failure of the transformer [2].
Transformer failures due to short–circuit forces are a major concern for transformer users [3],
and much literature has been devoted to the insulation design of transformers and to the
calculation of leakage inductance as a means of reducing hysteresis losses and reducing
short–circuit electromagnetic forces [4]. Thus, the problem of how to find and stop interturn
faults in transformers needs to be solved.
The experimental analysis of interturn faults in operating transformers is typically
challenging, and experiments cannot measure detailed data during transformer fault
operation. Therefore, a combination of finite element software is needed to simulate
the transient process of multi–physics field coupling in transformers. At present, the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2023, 16, 512 2 of 13

research on the simulation of transformer winding interturn short circuit fault is mainly
on the electromagnetic characteristics and mechanical characteristics after an interturn
short circuit [5]. In recent years, many scholars have studied the characteristic parameters
and characteristics of power transformer winding interturn short–circuit faults. In [6], a
two–dimensional simulation model of a three–phase transformer is made to find out what
happens in a running transformer when an interturn short–circuit fault happens. The
results show that the terminal current, the circulating current in the short–circuiting turns,
and the electromagnetic flux inside the transformer can all be used as reliable monitoring
parameters for detecting transformer faults. In [7], the finite element method is used to
make a simplified three–dimensional model of a split–winding transformer so that the
forces acting on the short–circuit winding and the distribution of the leakage magnetic
field at different points along the low–voltage winding can be studied. The results show
that interturn winding short circuits in certain places have a significant effect on the axial
winding on the same core, and that the distorted leakage magnetic field causes the normal
and short–circuit windings to have too much axial thrust and end thrust force.
In summary, the problem of an inter–turn short circuit in transformer windings has
attracted extensive research, and finite element software has been applied to simulate
inter–turn short circuits. However, not much literature exists on the fault conditions that
occur in oil–immersed three–phase power transformers during the process from interturn
discharge to interturn short circuit and on the leakage distribution, coil forces, and core and
enclosure vibrations of the transformer when interturn faults occur. To come up with good
ways to find transformer interturn faults, it is important to understand the electromagnetic
and mechanical properties of transformers when they have interturn faults and to study
how the transformer moves when it has interturn faults.
In this paper, a multi–physics field simulation model consistent with the actual trans-
former is established using finite element simulation software to simulate the transient
process from interturn discharge to interturn short circuit for oil–immersed three–phase
power transformers. The simulation study obtains the changes of electromagnetic, me-
chanical, and other physical parameters of the transformer during the fault to analyze the
current, transformer leakage, winding force, and vibration of the core and enclosure to
provide a theoretical basis for identifying and diagnosing the interturn fault.

2. Finite Element Model of the Faulty Transformer

Because of how they are used, the electrical properties of the dielectric materials in
power transformers can change a lot over the course of their service lives. Strong electric
fields that the transformer is exposed to are typically to blame for the deterioration and
aging of the insulation. Figure 1 illustrates how the parallel equivalent circuit is commonly
used to represent the electrical properties of interturn insulation material. The transformer
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
windings’ internal faults will be simulated using this model. The resistance Req shows 3 of 14
how much active power is lost by the dielectric, and the capacitance Ceq shows how much
reactive power is lost [8].
I

IR Ic

V
Req Ceq

Figure
Figure 1. Parallel Equivalent
1. Parallel Equivalent circuit
circuit of
of aa dielectric
dielectric material.
material.

Because the capacitance of the equivalent circuit is so low, the capacitive reactance
Because the capacitance of the equivalent circuit is so low, the capacitive reactance is
is very high near the power frequency and can be ignored. Resistance decreases with the
very high near the power frequency and can be ignored. Resistance decreases with the
further deterioration of insulation properties. When the interturn equivalent resistance
further deterioration of insulation properties. When the interturn equivalent resistance
decreases, it leads to transformer interturn discharge [9]. Eventually, the insulation is
decreases, it leads to transformer interturn discharge [9]. Eventually, the insulation is com-
pletely damaged. When the interturn equivalent resistance is almost zero, it will lead to a
short circuit between the turns of the transformer [10].

2.1. Electromagnetic Field Theory

 Figure 1. Parallel Equivalent circuit of a dielectric material.

Because the capacitance of the equivalent circuit is so low, the capacitive reactance is
very high near the power frequency and can be ignored. Resistance decreases with the
Energies 2023, 16, 512 further deterioration of insulation properties. When the interturn equivalent resistance 3 of 13
decreases, it leads to transformer interturn discharge [9]. Eventually, the insulation is com-
pletely damaged. When the interturn equivalent resistance is almost zero, it will lead to a
short circuit between the turns of the transformer [10].
completely damaged. When the interturn equivalent resistance is almost zero, it will lead
to a short circuit between the turns of the transformer [10].
2.1. Electromagnetic Field Theory
2.1. Assuming that the
Electromagnetic transformer
Field Theory interturn fault occurs on the secondary side, an equiv-
alent transformer interturn fault simulation
Assuming that the transformer interturn circuit
fault is created
occurs on based on the equivalent
the secondary cir-
side, an equiv-
cuit in transformer
alent Figure 1 [11].interturn
The simulation circuit is shown
fault simulation circuitinisFigure
created based R
2, where on represents the
the equivalent
primary resistance, R represents the secondary resistance, Z represents
circuit in Figure 1 [11]. The simulation circuit is shown in Figure 2, where R1 represents the load,
Nthe,Nprimary
,N represent theRhigh−voltage
resistance, 2 represents thewinding,
secondaryN ,N ,N represent
resistance, the low−volt-
ZL represents the load,
N ,N ,N represent the high–voltage winding,
age winding, and N represents the short−circuit winding [12].
11 12 13 N 21 ,N 22 ,N 23 represent the low–voltage
winding, and N22 represents the short–circuit winding [12].
R1 i1 i2 R2
N11 N21

+
U N12 N22 ZL
-

N13 N23

Simulationcircuit.
Figure2.2.Simulation
Figure circuit.

The transformer winding will still satisfy Maxwell–Ampere’s law when an interturn
The transformer winding will still satisfy Maxwell−Ampere’s law when an interturn
fault occurs. The differential equations of the electromagnetic field can be obtained by
fault occurs.Maxwell’s
associating The differential equations
equations ofinstantaneous
with the the electromagnetic field
equations as can be obtained
follows [6]: by
associating Maxwell’s equations with the instantaneous equations as follows [6]:
→
 
∇× −1 −1 ∂A∂A
∇ × µμ0 µμr ∇ ∇××AA
⃗ ++σ σ ∂t= =
J Je (1)
(1)
∂t
AAisisthe
thevector
vectormagnetic potential, JJe isisthe
magnetic potential, thesource
sourcecurrent
currentdensity,
density, µr μis the
and
and is the rel-
relative
ative permeability,
permeability, wherewhere μ is
µ0 is the the vacuum
vacuum permeability.
permeability.

2.2.Structural
2.2. StructuralMechanics
MechanicsTheory
Theory
Inthe
In thefinite
finiteelement
elementsolid
solidmechanics
mechanicsfieldfieldcoupling,
coupling,Hooke’s
Hooke’slaw
lawisisused
usedtotofind
findthe
the
relationship between strain and strain in a linear elastic material in the direction
relationship between strain and strain in a linear elastic material in the direction of the x of the
x–axis[13].
−axis [13].
1 v

εx = σx − σy + σz (2)
E1 vE
ε = σ − σ +σ (2)
E
where εx is the x–axis strain, E is the Young’s E modulus of the transformer core, v is the
Poisson’s ratio of the transformer core, and σx , σy , and σz are the strain on the x–axis, y–axis
and z–axis, respectively.
In the FEM analysis, since the strain and unit force equilibrium conditions need to be
satisfied within each finite element so as to ensure the equilibrium of the whole model, the
differential equation can be satisfied at any point of the iron core in the physical field of
solid mechanics [14].
∂2 u
ρ 2 = ∇·S + Fv (3)
∂t
where u is the displacement vector at any point within the object, ρ is the object density, ∇·S
is the strain component in each direction at any point of the object, and Fv is the physical
place plus the body load.

2.3. 3–D Model and Parameters of Power Transformer

In order to investigate the influence law of the physical characteristics of the trans-
former when inter–turn faults occur in the winding, this paper uses an oil–immersed
three–phase transformer with a capacity of 100 kVA and a voltage of 10/0.4 kV as the object
of study for simulation analysis. The main parameters are shown in Table 1.
 Energies 2023, 16, 512 4 of 13

Table 1. Parameters of transformer.

Main Technical Indicators Parameter

Phase number Three–phase
Rated frequency 50 Hz
Rated capacity/kVA 100
Rated voltage/kV 10/0.4
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Linkage group number Yyn0 5 of 14
Short–circuit impedance (%) 4.0

The structure of power transformers is complex and includes a variety of components

Based on as
such thewindings,
above parameters
cores andand the simulation
cooling circuit
devices. The in theadds
model simulation software
fasteners and enclosures
to build aaccording
three−dimensional
to the actualmodel of thewhich
structure, transformer, the simulation
makes the model is shown
yield in Figure
more 3.
accurate trans-
The model addsvibration
former fastenerswaveforms.
according toFortheefficient
actual structure,
simulation,which makes the
components suchsimulation
as internal cooling
unitsaccurate.
results more are therefore ignored. Based on the parameters of winding and core in Table 2 in the
The simulation
model draws software to build aarea
the calculation three–dimensional
according to the model
actualofoil−immersed
the transformer, the model is
trans-
shown in Figure 3.
former tank dimensions. The material property of the winding is set to copper, the core is
selected as a loss−free soft iron, the relative dielectric constant of the transformer oil is 2.2,
Table 2. Parameters of transformer winding and core.
and the connection of the external circuit added in the winding is Yyn0 [15]. The termina-
tion time in the transientMain Technical
solver study setting is 500 ms and the time stepParameter
Indicators is 0.5 ms. The
solver used for the model
Number is theofdefault
of turns fully coupled
high voltage winding transient solver. The finite
500 element
Number of turns of low voltage winding
software adaptively divides the mesh area for the solution. The geometric model 20 of the
Diameter of high voltage winding/cm 22–23
transformer is meshed by aoffree
Diameter low tetrahedral network. Finally, the boundary conditions
voltage winding/cm 23–24 in
Height of high voltage winding/cm
the physical field interface are set to build a coupled multi−physical field model 50 for solu-
Height of low voltage winding/cm 50
tion [13]. The established transformer
Shell size(W×H×faultD)/cmmodel can be used to analyze 250the changes
× 150 × 100 in
Height
current, leakage of the
flux, upper and lowerforce,
electromagnetic yoke and
of thevibration 102.4
core/cm at the core and transformer en-
Core thickness/cm 20
closure points under interturn Corefaults in the transformer’s low−voltage side winding
length/cm 128.48 [16].
Core column radius of core/cm 21

Figure 3. 3–D model of power transformer.

Figure 3. 3−D model of power transformer.
Based on the above parameters and the simulation circuit in the simulation software
3. Analysis of Interturn
to build Faults on Transformers
a three–dimensional model of theBased on Electromagnetic
transformer, the model is shown in Figure 3. The
Characteristics
model adds fasteners according to the actual structure, which makes the simulation results
more
3.1. Winding accurate.
Interturn Fault Current Analysis
The model draws the
Interturn faults are added calculation
to the simulationareacircuit
according
of thetotransformer
the actual oil–immersed
3D model, and transformer
the fault is set to occur in the middle winding of the secondary side of phase B. The equiv-is selected
tank dimensions. The material property of the winding is set to copper, the core
as a loss–free
alent resistance used tosoft iron, the
simulate anrelative dielectric
interturn constant
short circuit of the transformer
is generally less than oil is 2.2, and
1 Ω.
the connection of the external circuit added in the winding is Yyn0
Therefore, the equivalent resistance is set to 1 Ω, 0.5 Ω, 0.1 Ω, and 0.01 Ω in turn, so as to [15]. The termination
simulate time in the transient
the transient processsolver study setting
from interturn is 500to
discharge msinterturn
and the short
time step is 0.5
circuit ms. The solver
[17].
used for the model is the default fully coupled transient solver. The finite element software
A short circuit is created in the winding when an interturn fault happens. The mini-
adaptively divides the mesh area for the solution. The geometric model of the transformer
mum resistance of the winding is affected by the short−circuit loop’s induced voltage.
is meshed by a free tetrahedral network. Finally, the boundary conditions in the physical
Because field
the winding
interfaceacts liketoan
are set inductive
build element
a coupled and the current
multi–physical does for
field model notsolution
change [13]. The
quickly, the short circuit has a circuit current that is much higher than the rated
established transformer fault model can be used to analyze the changes in current, leakage value.
Figures
flux,4 electromagnetic
and 5 depict the primary
force, andand secondary
vibration at side currents
the core and of the winding
transformer under points
enclosure
normal andunder interturn faults in the transformer’s low–voltage side winding [16]. sec-
fault conditions, respectively. When inter−turn discharge occurs on the
ondary side of the winding (R = 1 Ω), the fault current of the winding is about 260 A,
which is about two times the normal winding current. However, as the equivalent re-
sistance value of the faulty winding decreases, the fault current generated on the winding
increases rapidly. When the insulation is completely damaged (R = 0.01 Ω), the short−
circuit current of the winding is about 3800 A, which is tens of times the normal winding
Energies 2023, 16, 512 5 of 13

3. Analysis of Interturn Faults on Transformers Based on Electromagnetic Characteristics

3.1. Winding Interturn Fault Current Analysis
Interturn faults are added to the simulation circuit of the transformer 3D model, and
the fault is set to occur in the middle winding of the secondary side of phase B. The
equivalent resistance used to simulate an interturn short circuit is generally less than 1 Ω.
Therefore, the equivalent resistance is set to 1 Ω, 0.5 Ω, 0.1 Ω, and 0.01 Ω in turn, so as to
simulate the transient process from interturn discharge to interturn short circuit [17].
A short circuit is created in the winding when an interturn fault happens. The min-
imum resistance of the winding is affected by the short–circuit loop’s induced voltage.
Because the winding acts like an inductive element and the current does not change quickly,
the short circuit has a circuit current that is much higher than the rated value.
Figures 4 and 5 depict the primary and secondary side currents of the winding under
normal and fault conditions, respectively. When inter–turn discharge occurs on the sec-
ondary side of the winding (Req = 1 Ω), the fault current of the winding is about 260 A,
which is about two times the normal winding current. However, as the equivalent resistance
value of the faulty winding decreases, the fault current generated on the winding increases
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW rapidly. When the insulation is completely damaged (Req = 6 0.01 of 14 Ω), the short–circuit
current of the winding is about 3800 A, which is tens of times the normal winding current.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 4. The currents of primary and secondary side under fault conditions; they should be listed
as: Figure 4. The
(a) Primary currents
side current of Rof =
primary and secondary
1 Ω; (b) Secondary side
side current of Runder fault
= 1 Ω; conditions;
(c) Primary side they should be listed
current of RPrimary
as: (a) = 0.5 Ω; (d)
side current
Secondary Req =
ofcurrent
side R Ω;= (b)
of 1 0.5 Ω;Secondary side
(e) Primary side of R of= Req = 1 Ω; (c) Primary
current
current
0.1 Ω; (f) Secondary side current of R = 0.1 Ω; (g) Primary side current of R = 0.01 Ω; (h) Sec-
side current of Req = 0.5 Ω; (d) Secondary side current of Req = 0.5 Ω; (e) Primary side current of
ondary side current of R = 0.01 Ω.
Req = 0.1 Ω; (f) Secondary side current of Req = 0.1 Ω; (g) Primary side current of Req = 0.01 Ω;
(h) Secondary side current of Req = 0.01 Ω.

Energies 2023, 16, 512
(g) (h)
Figure 4. The currents of primary and secondary side under fault conditions; they should be listed
as: (a) Primary side current of R = 1 Ω; (b) Secondary side current of R = 1 Ω; (c) Primary side
current of R = 0.5 Ω; (d) Secondary side current of R = 0.5 Ω; (e) Primary side current of6Rof 13=
0.1 Ω; (f) Secondary side current of R = 0.1 Ω; (g) Primary side current of R = 0.01 Ω; (h) Sec-
ondary side current of R = 0.01 Ω.

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

Figure5.5.The
Figure Thecurrents
currentsofofprimary
primaryand
andsecondary
secondaryside
sideunder
undernormal
normalconditions.
conditions.

It can be concluded that when an interturn fault happens in the secondary side
It can be concluded that when an interturn fault happens in the secondary side fault
fault winding, the primary winding must balance the flux produced by the fault current
winding, the primary winding must balance the flux produced by the fault current ac-
according to dΦ dt = 0. As a result, the current in the primary winding rises. Due to the
cording to = 0. As a result, the current in the primary winding rises. Due to the strong
strong magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary sides, as the interturn fault
magnetic coupling
gets worse, betweenon
the current the primary
the primaryandside
secondary
is mostsides, as the
affected. interturn
The fault
increase getssecondary
in the
worse, the current on the primary side is most affected. The increase in the secondary side
side fault current will lead to an increase in the primary side current as well, while the peak
fault current will lead to an increase in the primary side current as well, while the peak
current on the primary side varies under different levels of faults.
current on the primary side varies under different levels of faults.
3.2. Magnetic Field Analysis
3.2. Magnetic Field Analysis
From
From thethe results
results of first
of the the subsection,
first subsection, it can
it can be seenbe seen
that the that the winding
winding becomes larger
becomes larger
and larger during the inter–turn fault after the inter–turn fault occurs
and larger during the inter−turn fault after the inter−turn fault occurs above the second-
above the secondary
side winding of phase B. The spatial magnetic field distribution will also change. To show
ary side winding of phase B. The spatial magnetic field distribution will also change. To
howhow
show the flux density
the flux changes
density changes during
duringa transformer
a transformerinterturn
interturnfault,
fault, the
the flux
flux density
density diagrams
of four different equivalent resistance models of the transformer
diagrams of four different equivalent resistance models of the transformer at a certain at a certain point in the
transient
point in the process
transientare chosen.
process are chosen.
Figure
Figure 6 shows
6 shows howhow the resistance
the resistance of theof thewill
turn turn
gowill
down goasdown as the magnetic
the magnetic flux flux
around the short–circuit winding goes up. When the transformer
around the short−circuit winding goes up. When the transformer has an interturn short has an interturn short
circuit,
circuit, thethe magnetic
magnetic fluxflux density
density on theonsurface
the surface of the
of the bad bad winding
winding can reachcan reach a maximum
a maximum
of about 0.8 T. The transformer’s total magnetic flux density distribution willwill
of about 0.8 T. The transformer’s total magnetic flux density distribution havehave
a a higher
maximum
higher maximum magnetic
magneticfluxflux
density, from
density, from2.16 T to
2.16 about
T to about2.22
2.22T.T.The
Thetransformer’s
transformer’s magnetic
magnetic field’s maximum
field’s maximum magnetic magnetic flux density
flux density willwill go from
go from 1.921.92 T to
T to about1.98
about 1.98TT[18].
[18].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 6. The distribution of transformer magnetic field under interturn fault, which should be listed
Figure 6. The distribution of transformer magnetic field under interturn fault, which should be listed
as: (a) The distribution of magnetic field of R = 1 Ω; (b) The distribution of magnetic field of
as: (a) The distribution of magnetic field of RR == 10.1Ω;Ω;(b)
R = 0.5 Ω; (c) The distribution of magnetic field of eq
The distribution of magnetic field of
(d) The distribution of magnetic
R = 0.5 Ω; (c)
field of R = 0.01 Ω.
eq The distribution of magnetic field of R eq = 0.1 Ω; (d) The distribution of magnetic
field of Req = 0.01 Ω.
A cross−sectional analysis of the transformer’s flux density and magnetic field for
the same time period as the interturn fault process is shown in Figure 6. It is easy to see
how the flux density of the core near the faulty winding decreases and how the flux den-
sity of the said fault turns and the nearby leakage flux increases.
Therefore, it can be assumed that the presence of inter−turn faults causes the mag-
Energies 2023, 16, 512 7 of 13

A cross–sectional analysis of the transformer’s flux density and magnetic field for the
same time period as the interturn fault process is shown in Figure 6. It is easy to see how
the flux density of the core near the faulty winding decreases and how the flux density of
the said fault turns and the nearby leakage flux increases.
Therefore, it can be assumed that the presence of inter–turn faults causes the magnetic
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
flux density of the core to become locally saturated. This, in turn, increases the leakage
magnetic field near the short–circuit winding [19]. According to dΦ dt = 0, when a winding
interturn fault happens, the flux of the faulty winding will be cancelled out by the magnetic
winding interturn fault happens, the flux of the faulty winding will be cancelled out by
chains of the other windings [7]. The degree of leakage flux produced by the fault current
the magnetic chains of the other windings [7]. The degree of leakage flux produced by the
is primarily
fault current is responsible for the local
primarily responsible for thesaturation of the
local saturation ofcore fluxflux
the core density. However,
density. How- when
the leakage flux is very concentrated in the fault region, the symmetry of the
ever, when the leakage flux is very concentrated in the fault region, the symmetry of the leakage flux
goes away.
leakage flux goes away.

4.4.Analysis
Analysisofof Interturn
Interturn Faults
Faults on Transformers
on Transformers BasedBased on Mechanical
on Mechanical Characteristics
Characteristics
4.1.Analysis
4.1. Analysis of Transformer
of Transformer Interturn
Interturn FaultFault
Force Force
Themagnetic
The magnetic flux flux density
density of the
of the transformer
transformer winding
winding becomes
becomes largerlarger
after anafter an interturn
inter-
fault,
turn which
fault, which causes
causesthe strainon
the strain onthethe faulty
faulty winding
winding to become
to become larger, resulting
larger, resulting in the in the
deformation
deformation of the shorted
of the turn. In
shorted orderIn
turn. to order
study the
to mechanical
study the characteristics of a trans-
mechanical characteristics of a
former after anafter
transformer interturn failure, failure,
an interturn the transformer in whichin
the transformer the interturn
which failure occurred
the interturn failure occurred
was
wascoupled
coupled with
with solid mechanics
solid mechanics for electromagnetic
for electromagneticfield−solid mechanics
field–solid physical physical
mechanics
field
fieldcoupling.
coupling.
Theresults
The resultsof of thethe multi–physics
multi−physics field field coupling
coupling simulation
simulation of the transformer
of the transformer are are
shownininFigure
shown Figure 7. It7.shows
It shows the transformer
the transformer winding
winding strain distribution
strain distribution and displacement
and displacement
duringthe
during the process
process from from interturn
interturn discharge
discharge to interturn
to interturn short The
short circuit. circuit.
strainTheon strain
the on the
transformer
transformerfault faultwinding
winding is isrelatively
relatively small
smallwhen
when thethe
equivalent
equivalent resistance
resistance between
between turns
is 1The
is 1 Ω.
turns Ω. The maximum
maximum strainon
strain onthe
thefault winding isis4.34
fault winding 4.34××1010N/m4 N/m , and the maxi-
2 , and the maximum
mum 11.8 cm.
deformation is 11.8 cm. The difference in stress and deformation magnitude be-
deformation is The difference in stress and deformation magnitude between the
tween the faulty winding and the winding under normal conditions is about two times.
faulty winding and the winding under normal conditions is about two times. However, as
However, as the interturn equivalent resistance decreases, when the interturn equivalent
the interturn equivalent resistance decreases, when the interturn equivalent resistance is
resistance is 0.01 Ω, the transformer short−circuit winding is subjected to a much larger
0.01 Ω, the transformer short–circuit winding is subjected to a much larger force than the
force than the non −
non–short–circuit short − circuit
winding, and thewinding,
maximum and strain
the maximum
on the coilstrain on×the
is 2.67 105coil
N/m is 2 , and the
2.67 × 10 N/m
maximum , and the maximum
deformation variabledeformation variable is 766
is 766 cm. Therefore, the cm. Therefore, variable
deformation the defor-generated
mation
by thevariable
strain ongenerated by the strain
the short–circuit on the short−circuit
winding winding impact
can have a serious can haveona serious
the transformer
impact on the transformer
operating condition [20]. operating condition [20].

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 7. Cont.
Energies 2023, 16, 512 8 of 13
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure
Figure7.7.Transformer
Transformer strain and and
strain displacement distribution
displacement under fault
distribution conditions,
under which should
fault conditions, be should be
which
listed as: (a) Strain distribution of R = 1 Ω; (b) Displacement distribution of R = 1 Ω; (c) Strain
listed as: (a) Strain distribution of Req = 1 Ω; (b) Displacement distribution of Req = 1 Ω; (c) Strain
distribution of R = 0.5 Ω; (d) Displacement distribution of R = 0.5 Ω; (e) Strain distribution of
Rdistribution Req = 0.5 Ω;distribution
= 0.1 Ω; (f)ofDisplacement (d) Displacement
of R =distribution eq = 0.5 Ω;of(e)R Strain
of Rdistribution
0.1 Ω; (g) Strain distribution
= 0.01 Ω; of
(h) = 0.1 Ω; (f)distribution
ReqDisplacement Displacement = 0.01 Ω. of Req = 0.1 Ω; (g) Strain distribution of Req = 0.01 Ω;
of R distribution
(h) Displacement distribution of Req = 0.01 Ω.
It can be seen that the transformer in the occurrence of inter−turn failure of the fault
winding It can be seen
current that the flux
and magnetic transformer in become
density will the occurrence of inter–turn
increasingly large so thatfailure of the fault
the fault
winding by the strain becomes larger. As the inter−turn insulation material ages until it the fault
winding current and magnetic flux density will become increasingly large so that
winding by the strain becomes larger. As the inter–turn insulation material ages until it
is finally completely destroyed, the deformation of the faulty winding is several times
is finally
higher thancompletely
normal. Afterdestroyed, the deformation
the deformation of the
of the winding, faulty winding
the mechanical is several
properties of times
higher than normal. After the deformation of the winding, the mechanical
the winding will be reduced. When the winding is impacted by the inter−turn fault cur- properties of the
winding will be reduced. When the winding is impacted by the inter–turn
rent again, it is very likely that it will not be able to withstand the impact of the significant
fault current
again, it
amount of is very and
power, likely that
then the it will not
accident be able will
of damage to withstand
occur [21]. the impact of the significant
amount of power, and then the accident of damage will occur [21].
4.2. Analysis of the Vibration Situation under the Transformer Inter−Turn Fault
4.2. Analysis of the Vibration Situation under the Transformer Inter–Turn Fault
The degree of vibration in the transformer winding during the interturn discharge
The to
that leads degree of vibration
an interturn in thewill
short circuit transformer
increase whenwinding duringfault
an interturn the interturn
occurs in adischarge
that leads to an interturn short circuit will increase when an interturn
transformer. Therefore, the vibration at each point of the transformer can be observed fault tooccurs in a
transformer.
determine Therefore, the
the transformer vibration
interturn faultat each point
situation [22]. of
Inthe
the transformer
3D model of canthe be observed to
trans-
determine
former, the transformer
the core point as well interturn fault situation
as the enclosure point of the[22]. In the 3Dwill
transformer model of the transformer,
be selected in
thepaper
this core point
to studyas the
wellvibration
as the enclosure point ofduring
of the transformer the transformer will be selected
the whole process. in this paper
The selected
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW core point the
to study andvibration
transformer of enclosure point areduring
the transformer shownthe in Figure
whole8,process.
and 10
theofvibration
The
14 of thecore point
selected
core
andpoint and transformer
transformer enclosure enclosure point
point are are shown
shown in Figures
in Figure 8, and9 the
and vibration
10. of the core point
and transformer enclosure point are shown in Figures 9 and 10.

(a) (b)
FigureFigure
8. The location
8. Theoflocation
the transformer
of theobservation
transformerpoint; they shouldpoint;
observation be listedthey
as: (a) The position
should be listed as: (a) The position
of the core point; and (b)The position of the transformer enclosure point.
of the core point; and (b) The position of the transformer enclosure point.
Figure 9 shows that the vibration at the transformer’s core point is pretty regular
when the equivalent resistance is 1 Ω. The maximum amplitude of the vibration at the
core point is 5 × 10 m/s . As the equivalent resistance decreases, the vibration at the
core point becomes more and more violent, and the amplitude of the vibration signal be-
comes larger and larger. When the equivalent resistance is 0.01 Ω, the core point of the
transformer will vibrate violently in the first 0.1s when an interturn short circuit occurs.
 quency that is two times the frequency of the power supply. The spectrum is mostly made
at 100 Hz by a vibration signal with a fundamental frequency that is twice the frequency
of the power supply. The spectrum in the 200~500 Hz range is mainly due to the mag-
netostriction of the core and the winding inter−turn electrodynamic force. As the equiva-
lent
Energies 2023, 16, 512 resistance decreases, the vibration of the core point increases, and the Fourier coeffi- 9 of 13
cients at the different components increase significantly with the decrease of the equiva-
lent resistance [14].

3, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 9. The vibration
Figure and spectrum
9. The diagram
vibration of transformer
and spectrum diagram ofcore point, they
transformer should
core point,be listed
they as: be listed as:
should
(a) Core point vibration ofpoint
(a) Core = 1 Ω; (b)ofCore
R vibration Req point
= 1 Ω;spectrum of R spectrum
(b) Core point = 1 Ω; (c) Core
of Req = point
1 Ω; vibration
(c) Core point vibration
of R = 0.5 Ω; (d)ofCore point
Req = spectrum
0.5 Ω; R spectrum
(d) Coreofpoint = 0.5 Ω; (e)
of Core
Req =point
0.5 Ω;vibration
(e) Core of R vibration
point = 0.1 Ω; of
(f)Req = 0.1 Ω;
Core point spectrum of Rpoint
(f) Core = 0.1 Ω; (g) Core
spectrum of Reqpoint
= 0.1vibration of Rpoint
Ω; (g) Core = vibration
0.01 Ω; (h)ofCore
Req = point
0.01 spec-
Ω; (h) Core point
trum of R = 0.01 Ω.
spectrum of Req = 0.01 Ω.

It can be seen from Figure 10 that the amplitude of the vibration at the transformer
enclosure point has a maximum value of 30 × 10 m/s when the equivalent resistance
is 1 Ω. When the equivalent resistance is 0.01 Ω, the maximum amplitude of the vibration
at the transformer enclosure point is 9 × 10 m/s . The vibration acceleration spectrum
of the transformer enclosure point is still mainly distributed at 50 Hz and 100 Hz, and
 Energies 2023, 16, 512 10 of 13
3, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 10. The vibration andThe
Figure 10. spectrum diagram
vibration of the diagram
and spectrum transformer enclosure
of the point;
transformer they should
enclosure point; be
they should be
listed as: (a) Enclosure point vibration of R = 1 Ω; (b) Enclosure point spectrum of R = 1 Ω; (c)
listed as: (a) Enclosure point vibration of Req = 1 Ω; (b) Enclosure point spectrum of Req = 1 Ω;
Enclosure point vibration of R = 0.5 Ω; (d) Enclosure point spectrum of R = 0.5 Ω; (e) Enclo-
(c) Enclosure point vibration of Req = 0.5 Ω; (d) Enclosure point spectrum of Req = 0.5 Ω; (e) Enclo-
sure point vibration of R = 0.1 Ω; (f) Enclosure point spectrum of R = 0.1 Ω; (g) Enclosure point
sure point vibration of Req = 0.1 Ω; (f) Enclosure point spectrum of Req = 0.1 Ω; (g) Enclosure point
vibration of R = 0.01 Ω; (h) Enclosure point spectrum of R = 0.01 Ω.
vibration of Req = 0.01 Ω; (h) Enclosure point spectrum of Req = 0.01 Ω.

It can be concluded that as the transformer inter−turn insulation material ages, the
vibration of the transformer core and enclosure points becomes increasingly violent, and
the amplitude of the waveform increases. However, the variation of interharmonics at the
transformer enclosure point is not as pronounced as at the core point. Thus, the vibration
Energies 2023, 16, 512 11 of 13

Figure 9 shows that the vibration at the transformer’s core point is pretty regular when
the equivalent resistance is 1 Ω. The maximum amplitude of the vibration at the core point
is 5 × 10−5 m/s2 . As the equivalent resistance decreases, the vibration at the core point
becomes more and more violent, and the amplitude of the vibration signal becomes larger
and larger. When the equivalent resistance is 0.01 Ω, the core point of the transformer will
vibrate violently in the first 0.1s when an interturn short circuit occurs. The difference from
the previous core point vibration is large, and the maximum amplitude of the core point
vibration is 25 × 10−5 m/s2 . From the spectrum of the core point in Figure 9, it can be seen
that the acceleration spectrum of the vibration of the core point is mainly concentrated in
the first 500 Hz, with the most intense vibration at 50 Hz and 100 Hz. The spectrum at
50 Hz is mainly due to the three–phase unbalance of the transformer. The majority of the
vibration signals in the spectrum at 100 Hz have a fundamental frequency that is two times
the frequency of the power supply. The spectrum is mostly made at 100 Hz by a vibration
signal with a fundamental frequency that is twice the frequency of the power supply. The
spectrum in the 200∼500 Hz range is mainly due to the magnetostriction of the core and
the winding inter–turn electrodynamic force. As the equivalent resistance decreases, the
vibration of the core point increases, and the Fourier coefficients at the different components
increase significantly with the decrease of the equivalent resistance [14].
It can be seen from Figure 10 that the amplitude of the vibration at the transformer
enclosure point has a maximum value of 30 × 10−6 m/s2 when the equivalent resistance is
1 Ω. When the equivalent resistance is 0.01 Ω, the maximum amplitude of the vibration at
the transformer enclosure point is 9 × 10−5 m/s2 . The vibration acceleration spectrum of
the transformer enclosure point is still mainly distributed at 50 Hz and 100 Hz, and there
will be interharmonics of small amplitude in 200∼500 Hz. As the equivalent resistance
decreases, the transformer enclosure point vibration increases. The Fourier coefficients at
50 Hz and 100 Hz increase significantly as the equivalent resistance decreases. However,
there is no significant change in the Fourier level of the range. However, there is no
significant change in the Fourier magnitude in the range of 200∼500 Hz [23].
It can be concluded that as the transformer inter–turn insulation material ages, the
vibration of the transformer core and enclosure points becomes increasingly violent, and
the amplitude of the waveform increases. However, the variation of interharmonics at the
transformer enclosure point is not as pronounced as at the core point. Thus, the vibration
at two points can be used to determine the fault condition of a transformer and to figure
out how bad an interturn fault is.

5. Conclusions
In this paper, a three–phase transformer of 10 KV is used as an example. The model
is simulated in a transient manner using the finite element method and the field–circuit
coupling method. The electromagnetic and mechanical characteristics of the faulty winding
during the transformer interturn discharge to the interturn short circuit are comprehen-
sively analyzed. The following conclusions are obtained as a result.
1. In this model, the transformer interturn fault current becomes rapidly larger as the
interturn insulation material ages. The magnetic flux density of the core is locally
saturated where the fault is. As a result, the short–circuit winding’s local leakage
magnetic field expands. When the interturn insulation material is completely dam-
aged, the transformer experiences an interturn short circuit. The winding short–circuit
current is tens of times the normal current. The leakage field from the short–circuit
fault makes the core vibrate more by locally filling up the magnetic field of the core.
2. When the transformer develops from interturn discharge to interturn short circuit,
the strain on the short–circuit winding increases dramatically, resulting in a larger
deformation of the short–circuit winding. Finally, the short–circuit winding causes
damage. The mechanical characteristics of the winding will be reduced after the
deformation occurs, leading to a decrease in short circuit resistance.
Energies 2023, 16, 512 12 of 13

3. In the time domain, the amplitude of the waveform at the core and case points
increases as the inter–turn insulation material ages. The interharmonic Fourier coeffi-
cients also increase in the frequency domain. Therefore, in transformer fault detection,
the vibration characteristics of the shell points in the time and frequency domains can
be combined to analyze and detect transformer faults.

Author Contributions: Methodology, L.R.; Software, N.Z. and L.Z.; Validation, H.L.; Investigation,
L.S. and L.R.; Resources, J.L. and L.R.; Data curation, J.L.; Writing—review & editing, N.Z.; Visualiza-
tion, N.Z.; Supervision, H.L.; Project administration, L.R.; Funding acquisition, L.Z. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant
number 52277016.
Data Availability Statement: The data of the simulation is unavailable because of the privacy issue
of the data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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