IoT Foundations

Communication Model

SourceSystem Destination System

Trans-
Trans- Destination
Source mission Receiver
mitter
System

(a) General block diagram

Workstation Modem Modem Server

Public Telephone Network

(b) Example
Communications Tasks
 Data Communication Model

Digital bit Analog Analog Digital bit

stream signal signal stream
Text Text

Trans-
Trans- Destination
Source mission Receiver
mitter
System

1 2 3 4 5 6
Input Input data Transmitted Received Output data Output
information g(t) signal signal g'(t) information
m s(t) r(t) m'

Figure 1.4 Simplified Data Communications Model

Analog and Digital Signaling of Analog and Digital Data

Analog Signals: Represent data with continuously

varying electromagnetic wave

Analog Data Analog Signal

(voice sound waves)

Telephone

Digital Data Analog Signal

(binary voltage pulses) (modulated on
Modem carrier frequency)

Digital Signals: Represent data with sequence

of voltage pulses

Analog Data Digital Signal

Codec

Digital Data Digital Signal

Digital
Transceiver
 Electromagnetic Spectrum in Communications

Frequency
(Hertz) 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015
ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

Power and telephone Radio Microwave Infrared Visible

Rotating generators Radios and televisions Radar Lasers light
Musical instruments Electronic tubes Microwave antennas Guided missiles
Voice microphones Integrated circuits Magnetrons Rangefinders
Cellular Telephony

Twisted Pair
Optical
Fiber
Coaxial Cable

AM Radio FM Radio Terrestrial

and TV and Satellite
Transmission

Wavelength 106 105 104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–5 10–6
in space
(meters)

ELF = Extremely low frequency MF = Medium frequency UHF = Ultrahigh frequency

VF = Voice frequency HF = High frequency SHF = Superhigh frequency
VLF = Very low frequency VHF = Very high frequency EHF = Extremely high frequency
LF = Low frequency
 Point-to-Point Transmission
Characteristics of Guided Media

Frequency Typical Typical Delay Repeater

Range Attenuation Spacing
Twisted pair 0 to 3.5 kHz 0.2 dB/km @ 1 50 µs/km 2 km
(with loading) kHz
Twisted pairs 0 to 1 MHz 0.7 dB/km @ 1 5 µs/km 2 km
(multipair kHz
cables)
Coaxial cable 0 to 500 MHz 7 dB/km @ 10 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km
MHz
Optical fiber 186 to 370 THz 0.2 to 0.5 dB/km 5 µs/km 40 km

THz = terahertz = 1012 Hz

 Guided Transmission Media
twist
length
—Separately insulated
—Twisted together
—Often "bundled" into cables
—Usually installed in building
during construction (a) Twisted pair

Outer sheath
Outer conductor

Insulation

Inner
conductor

—Outer conductor is braided shield

—Inner conductor is solid metal
—Separated by insulating material
—Covered by padding
(b) Coaxial cable

Buffer
coating
Core Cladding

—Glass or plastic core Angle of Angle of

—Laser or light emitting diode Light at less than incidence reflection
—Small size and weight critical angle is
absorbed in bufer
coating
(c) Optical fiber

Figure 4.2 Guided Transmission Media

 Twisted Pair

Twisted pair is the least expensive and most widely used

guided transmission medium

➢ Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular

spiral pattern
➢ A wire pair acts as a single communication link
➢ Pairs are bundled together into a cable
➢ Most commonly used in the telephone network and for
communications within buildings
 30 3.0

25 2.5
26-AWG (0.4 mm)
Attenuation (dB/km)

Attenuation (dB/km)
24-AWG (0.5 mm)
20 22-AWG (0.6 mm) 2.0
19-AWG (0.9 mm)

15 1.5

10 1.0

5 0.5

0 0
102 103 104 105 106 107 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Frequency (Hz) Wavelength in vacuum (nm)

(a) Twisted pair (based on [REEV95]) (c) Optical fiber (based on [FREE02])

30 30

25 25
0.5 mm
Attenuation (dB/km)

Attenuation (dB/km)
twisted pair
20 20
3/8" cable
(9.5 mm)
15 15
9.5 mm
coax
10 10
typical optical
fiber
5 5

0 0
105 106 107 108 103 106 109 1012 1015
1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)

(b) Coaxial cable (based on [BELL90]) (d) Composite graph

Figure 4.3 Attenuation of Typical Guided Media

 Asynchronous and
Synchronous Transmission
➢ Asynchronous
⚫ Strategy is to avoid the timing
problem by not sending long,
uninterrupted streams of bits
⚫ Data are transmitted one
character at a time, where each
character is 5 to 8 bits in length
⚫ Timing or synchronization must
only be maintained within each
character
⚫ The receiver has the opportunity
to resynchronize at the
beginning of each new
character
➢ Synchronous
⚫ A block of bits is transmitted in a
steady stream without start and
stop codes
⚫ Block may be many bits in
length
⚫ To prevent timing drift between
transmitter and receiver, their
clocks must somehow be
synchronized
• Provide a separate clock line
between transmitter and receiver
• Embed the clocking information in
the data signal
⚫ Frame
• Data plus preamble, postamble,
and control information
 Transmission Impairments
➢ Signal received may differ from signal
transmitted causing:
⚫ Analog - degradation of signal quality
⚫ Digital - bit errors
➢ Most significant impairments are
⚫ Attenuation and attenuation distortion
⚫ Delay distortion
⚫ Noise
ATTENUATION
 10

1 Without

Attenuation (decibels) relative

equalization

to attenuatoin at 1000 Hz
5

2 With
equalization

–5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Frequency (Herz)
(a) Attenuation

4000
Relative envelope delay (microseconds)

1 Without
3000 equalization

2000

1000

2
With
equalization

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Frequency (Herz)
(b) Delay distortion
Figure 3.14 Attenuation and Delay Distortion Curves for a Voice Channel
 Delay Distortion
➢ Occurs in transmission cables such as twisted
pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber
⚫ Does not occur when signals are transmitted through
the air by means of antennas
➢ Occurs because propagation velocity of a signal
through a guided medium varies with frequency
➢ Various frequency components arrive at different
times resulting in phase shifts between the
frequencies
➢ Particularly critical for digital data since parts of
one bit spill over into others causing intersymbol
interference
Noise
Unwanted signals
inserted between
transmitter and
receiver

Is the major limiting

factor in
communications
system performance
Categories of Noise
 Categories of Noise
Crosstalk:
⚫ A signal from one line is
picked up by another
⚫ Can occur by electrical
coupling between nearby
twisted pairs or when
Impulse Noise: microwave antennas pick
up unwanted signals
⚫ Caused by external
electromagnetic interferences
⚫ Noncontinuous, consisting of
irregular pulses or spikes
⚫ Short duration and high
amplitude
⚫ Minor annoyance for analog
signals but a major source of
error in digital data
 Channel Capacity

Maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a

given communications channel under given conditions

Bandwidth
Error rate
The bandwidth
Data rate of the Noise The rate at
transmitted
which errors The main
signal as The greater the
occur, where an constraint on
The rate, in bits constrained by The average bandwidth of a
error is the achieving
per second the transmitter level of noise facility, the
reception of a 1 efficiency is
(bps) at which and the nature over the greater the cost
when a 0 was noise
data can be of the communications
transmitted or
communicated transmission path
the reception of
medium,
a 0 when a 1
expressed in
cycles per was transmitted
second, or hertz
 Nyquist Bandwidth
In the case of a channel that is noise free:
➢ The limitation of data rate is simply the bandwidth of the
signal
⚫ If the rate of signal transmission is 2B then a signal with
frequencies no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate
⚫ Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be
carried is 2B
➢ For binary signals, the data rate that can be supported
by B Hz is 2B bps
➢ With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formula becomes:
C = 2B log2M
➢ Data rate can be increased by increasing the number of
different signal elements
⚫ This increases burden on receiver
⚫ Noise and other impairments limit the practical value of M
 Shannon Capacity Formula
➢ Considering the relation of data rate, noise and
error rate:
⚫ Faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise
corrupts more bits
⚫ Given noise level, higher rates mean higher errors
➢ Shannon developed formula relating these to
signal to noise ratio (in decibels)
➢ SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
➢ Capacity C = B log2(1+SNR)
⚫ Theoretical maximum capacity
⚫ Get much lower rates in practice
 SNRdB
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30
10
Spectral efficiency (bps/Hz)

0.1

0.01

0.001
0.001 0.10 0.1 1 10 100 1000
SNR

Figure 3.16 Spectral Efficiency versus SNR

Transmission Lines
Capacity
The basic building block of
any communications facility
is the transmission line
Reliability

The business manager is

concerned with a facility Cost
providing the required
capacity, with acceptable Transmission
reliability, at minimum cost
Line
Transmission Mediums
Two mediums currently driving
the evolution of data communications
transmission are:

Fiber optic transmissions

and
Wireless transmissions
 Transmission Services
➢ Remain the most costly component of a
communications budget
➢ Two major approaches to greater efficiency:
 Wide Area Networks
Alternative technologies used include:
⚫ Circuit switching
⚫ Packet switching
⚫ Frame relay
⚫ Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
 Circuit Switching
➢ Uses a dedicated communications path
➢ Connected sequence of physical links
between nodes
➢ Logical channel dedicated on each link
➢ Rapid transmission
➢ The most common example of circuit
switching is the telephone network
 Packet Switching
➢ Data are sent out in a sequence of small
chunks called packets
➢ Packets are passed from node to node
along a path leading from source to
destination
➢ Packet-switching networks are commonly
used for terminal-to-terminal computer and
computer-to-computer communications
 Frame Relay

➢ Developed to take advantage of high data

rates and low error rates
➢ Operates at data rates of up to 2 Mbps
➢ Key to achieving high data rates is to strip
out most of the overhead involved with
error control
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM)
➢ Referred to as cell relay
➢ Culmination of developments in circuit
switching and packet switching
➢ Uses fixed-length packets called cells
➢ Works in range of 10s and 100s of Mbps
and in the Gbps range
➢ Allows multiple channels with the data rate
on each channel dynamically set on
demand
Local Area Networks (LAN)
 The Internet

➢ Internet evolved from ARPANET

➢ Developed to solve the dilemma of
communicating across arbitrary, multiple,
packet-switched networks
➢ Foundation is the TCP/IP protocol suite
 Router
Standalone
Wide Area Network
Mainframe
(e.g. ATM)

Local Area
Network Router
Router

Wide Area Network

(e.g. ATM) Local Area
Ethernet Network
switch
Ethernet
switch

Router

Information LAN PCs

server and workstations

Figure 1.5 Key Elements of the Internet

 Corporate
LAN

Residential
subscribers
Backbone Backbone
ISP ISP
Regional
ISP

g
pe erin
va te
Pri

Server

ISP Web
farm
LAN Regional
switch ISP
Regional
ISP
Server

Server
Corporate
LAN open circle = NAP
filled circle = POP

Figure 1.6 Simplified View of Portion of Internet

 The Need for a Protocol
Architecture
1.) The source must either
activate the direct 2.) The source system must
communications path or inform ascertain that the destination
the network of the identity of the system is prepared to receive
desired destination system data

To transfer data
several tasks
must be
performed:

3.) The file transfer application on

the source system must ascertain 4.) A format translation function
that the file management program may need to be performed by one
on the destination system is or the other system if the file
prepared to accept and store the formats used on the two systems
file for this particular user are different
 Functions of Protocol
Architecture
➢ Breaks logicinto subtask modules which
are implemented separately
➢ Modules are arranged in a vertical stack
• Each layer in the stack performs a
subset of functions
• Relies on next lower layer for primitive
functions
• Provides services to the next higher layer
• Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers
 Key Features of a Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules or conventions
that allow peer layers to communicate
The key features of a protocol are:
• Format of data
Syntax blocks

• Control
information for
Semantics coordination and
error handling

• Speed matching
Timing and sequencing
A Simple Protocol Architecture
 Communication Layers

Concerned with the exchange

of data between a computer
Network access layer
and the network to which it is
attached

Communication tasks are Collects mechanisms in a

organized into three relatively Transport layer common layer shared by all
independent layers: applications

Contains logic to support

Application layer
applications
 Applications
1 2
( ) ( )
ol Transport
protoc
n
lic atio
Ap p
col Network access
roto
sp ort p
n
Applications Tra
Computer A
1 2 3 4
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Transport
Network
accesss protocol Communications Port, or
Network access network Service access
point (SAP)
Computer C Applications
1 2 3
( ) ( ) ( )
Transport

Network address
Network access

Computer B

Figure 2.1 Protocol Architectures and Networks

 Computer A
n
io
at
ic
Entity X p pl
data A

1 2 t
( ) ( ) or
sp
"to port 2 on computer B" an
Tr
from to data
1 2
k
( ) or
t w ss
e e
"to computer B" N acc
a
dat from to from to data
to A B 1 2
m 2
fro
to 1
m B
fro
A

Communications
Network
fr A
om

Computer B
to

n
B

io
fr 1

at
om

ic
Entity Y p pl
data A
to
2

1 2
da

t
( ) ( ) or
ta

sp
an
from to data Tr
1 2
k
( ) or
t w ss
"this is to me" e e
N acc
from to from to data
A B 1 2

Figure 2.2 Protocols in a Simplified Architecture

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
 Application
Provides ccess to the
TCP/IP environment for SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP
users and also provides
distributed information
services.

Transport
Transfer of data between
end points. May provide TCP, UDP
error control, flow control,
congestion control, reliable
delivery.

Internet ICMP,
OSPF,
Shield higher layers from
RSVP
details of physical network IPv4, IPv6 ARP
configuration. Provides
routing. May provide QoS,
congestion control.

Network Access/
Data Link
Logical interface to network Ethernet, WiFi, ATM, frame relay
hardware. May be stream or
packet oriented. May
provide reliable delivery.

Physical
Transmission of bit stream;
specifies medium, signal Twisted pair, optical fiber, satellite,
encoding technique, data terrestrial microwave
rate, bandwidth, and
physical connector.

Figure 2.3 The TCP/IP Layers and Example Protocols

 Physical Layer
➢ Covers thephysical interface between
computer and network
➢ Concerned with issues like:
⚫ Characteristics of transmission medium
⚫ Nature of the signals
⚫ Data rates
Network Access/Data Link Layer
➢ Covers the exchange of data between an
end system and the network that it is
attached to
➢ Concerned with:
⚫ Access to and routing data across a network
for two end systems attached to the same
network
 Implements
procedures
needed to allow
data to travel
across multiple

Internet Layer
interconnected
networks

Internet Layer

Uses the
Implemented Internet
in end Protocol (IP)
systems and to provide
routers routing
function
Host-to-Host (Transport) Layer

• May provide reliable

TCP
end-to-end service
or merely an end-to- • Most commonly
end delivery service used protocol to
without reliability provide this
mechanisms functionality

Transmission
Control Protocol
 Application Layer
➢ Contains the logic needed to support the
various user applications
➢ A separate module is needed for each
different type of application that is peculiar
to that application
 Host A Host B

App X App Y
App Y App X
Port

1 2 3 2 4 6
Logical connection
(TCP connection)
TCP TCP
Global internet
IP address IP

Network Access Network Access

Protocol #1 Protocol #2
Logical connection
Physical Subnetwork attachment (e.g., virtual circuit) Physical
point address Router J
IP

NAP 1 NAP 2
Network 1 Network 2
Physical Physical

Figure 2.4 TCP/IP Concepts

TCP/IP Address Requirements
Two levels of addressing are needed:
 Application
User data
byte stream

TCP TCP
header segment

IP IP
header datagram

Network Network-level
header packet

Figure 2.5 Protocol Data Units (PDUs) in the TCP/IP Architecture

 Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)
➢ TCP is the transport layer protocol for most
applications
➢ TCP provides a reliable connection for transfer
of data between applications
➢ A TCP segment is the basic protocol unit
➢ TCP tracks segments between entities for
duration of each connection
 Bit: 0 4 8 16 31

Source Port Destination Port

Sequence Number

20 octets
Acknowledgement Number
Header
Reserved Flags Window
length

Checksum Urgent Pointer

Options + Padding

(a) TCP Header

Bit: 0 16 31

Source Port Destination Port

8 octets

Segment Length Checksum

(b) UDP Header

Figure 2.6 TCP and UDP Headers

 User Datagram Protocol
(UDP)
➢ Alternative to TCP
➢ Does not guarantee delivery, preservation of
sequence, or protection against duplication
➢ Enables a procedure to send messages to other
procedures with a minimum of protocol
mechanism
➢ Adds port addressing capability to IP
➢ Used with Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP)
➢ Includes a checksum to verify that no error occurs
in the data
 Bit: 0 4 8 14 16 19 31

Version IHL DS ECN Total Length

Identification Flags Fragment Offset

20 octets

Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source Address

Destination Address

Options + Padding

(a) IPv4 Header

Bit: 0 4 10 12 16 24 31

Version DS ECN Flow Label

Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit

 (a) IPv4 Header

Bit: 0 4 10 12 16 24 31

Version DS ECN Flow Label

Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit

Source Address
40 octets

Destination Address

(b) IPv6 Header

DS = Differentiated services field Note: The 8-bit DS/ECN fields were formerly
ECN = Explicit congestion notification field known as the Type of Service field in the IPv4
header and the Traffic Class field in the IPv6
header.

Figure 2.7 IP Headers

 MIME

BGP FTP HTTP SMTP SSH SNMP

TCP UDP

ICMP IGMP OSPF RSVP

IP

BGP = Border Gateway Protocol OSPF = Open Shortest Path First

FTP = File Transfer Protocol RSVP = Resource ReSerVation Protocol
HTTP = Hypertext Transfer Protocol SMTP = Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
ICMP = Internet Control Message Protocol SNMP = Simple Network Management Protocol
IGMP = Internet Group Management Protocol SSH = Secure Shell
IP = Internet Protocol TCP = Transmission Control Protocol
MIME = Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension UDP = User Datagram Protocol

Figure 2.8 Some Protocols in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite