Machiavelli: Politics

UNIT 7 MACHIAVALLI: POLITICS AND and Morality

MORALITY⁎
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction: Life and Times of Machiavelli
7.1.1 The Renaissance and Machiavelli
7.1.2 The Life of Machiavelli
7.1.3 His Times
7.2 Machiavelli’s Attitude Towards Politics and Morality
7.2.1 Machiavelli’s Conception of Human Nature
7.2.2 Power and Politics
7.2.3 Religion as a Political Tool
7.2.4 Double Standards of Morality: Public and Private
7.3 Let Us Sum Up
7.4 References
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 OBJECTIVES
Niccolò Machiavelli, a child of Renaissance, not only dared to question the
prevailing moral assumptions of his own times but also posed challenges to
utopian tradition of political philosophy. Machiavelli is remembered for making
the first move for the scientific study of politics and also pointed to separate
religion from politics. But he is often misunderstood because of his advice to The
Prince where he justified the use of deception, force and violence to achieve the
desired political ends. Hence, the colloquial terms like Old Nick or Machiavellian
are ascribed to him. Such terms are byword for cunningness and duplicity and
often used for a person whose character appears to be dubious and shrewd
enough to manipulate any given situation to his/her own advantage. Interestingly,
even after 500 years of his death, whenever there is any discussion about
leadership or issues of political power, his name is often invoked in praise for his
political realism and pragmatism.

⁎
Rohit Sharma, Assistant Professor, PG Department of Political Science, Arya College,
Ludhiana

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 This unit will familiarize you with the 15th -16th century’s influential as well as
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI controversial philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli and his theory of politics and
morality. After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the time and context that shaped Niccolò Machiavelli’s
political philosophy
 Analyze - why Niccolò Machiavelli was concerned about separation of
morality and politics

7.1 INTRODUCTION- LIFE AND TIMES OF

MACHIAVELLI
7.1.1 The Renaissance and Machiavelli
As it says that a text without a context is a structure without a base; for that
reason Machiavelli can be better understood in the context of renaissance only. In
the wake of 14th century, Italy experienced greater changes in its social, cultural,
economic and political milieu. It was the time when the spirit of renaissance
impelled men to re-examine things from new ideas based on scientific reasoning
rather than of scholastic dogmas. Such changes not only laid the strong
foundation of intellectual and spiritual churning of ideas in Italy but also
gradually spread to the rest of Europe by the late fifteen century that liberated the
human spirit from the shackles of old beliefs and value system of life. Thus, it
can be seen as a departure from medieval Christian values that gave importance
to asceticism, humility and worthlessness of men on earth. Therefore, the concept
of eternity or next world, which was main guiding factor for humans in
medievalist’s era started fading away. This epoch of Italian renaissance
concentrated on this world only and liberated men from dogmas of medieval
times and ushered the new consciousness of life, idea of individual liberty and
sanguinity based on raison d’état. Further, the discoveries of new lands, printing
press, gun powder etc. stimulated the imagination of men and their old beliefs
were totally shaken up.
The renaissance made an attempt to defend the individual’s love for liberty by
reinstating pre-Christian approach that was based on the nature and humanism. It
was a clear indicator that the people were now no longer going to keep their faith
in medieval Christian values of renunciation and self-denial; rather they gave
importance to one’s own glory, happiness, fame and the spirit of individualism. It
also rejected the ecclesiastical supremacy of the priest and laid stress on the
intellectual emancipation of human spirit.
Machiavelli was always seen as the child of renaissance. His native city of
Florence was the axis of Italian renaissance and that immensely shaped his
intellectual and political ideas. Perhaps, it was only Machiavelli who could grasp
the dynamics of modern secular state and the new human that no longer tolerated
the suppression of one’s individuality, emotions and natural faculties. This may
be the reason that Machiavelli’s primary concerns of security and unity of State
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and liberty and republicanism clearly reflected in his major treaties- The Prince Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
and Discourses respectively.
On the whole, the renaissance was non-Salvationist; where the authority of God
was replaced by the authority of science and human rationale. More importantly,
it also signified the emergence of modern state based on the ideas of secularism
and nationalism. In its secular notion it signified the separation between religion
and politics, and the independence of the State from the control of the Church.
This marked the beginning of a new era in human history.

7.1.2 The Life of Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli was a nobleman by birth and a republican by his conviction.
He was born on 03 May 1469, in the Italian province of Tuscany, in the city of
Florence. Unlike many prominent figures of Italian Renaissance, there is not
much information available about the early life of Machiavelli. His father
Bernado was a lawyer and had ties to the city’s famed humanist circles. From an
early age, he studied Latin and humanistic studies of Cicero, that focused on
different moral situations of life like subordination of individual interest for the
common good with advice on how to follow an upright path to attain glory.
The year of 1498 to 1512 sketches an accurate picture of Machiavelli’s life. After
completing his education at the University of Florence, he entered public life
when he joined the frontline diplomatic service. Later on, he was elected second
chancellor of the Republic of Florence and engaged in a flurry of diplomatic,
military and administrative activities on behalf of Florence. For his diplomatic
assignments he travelled to France, Siena the Papal Court, the German emperor,
and to Cesare Borgia. It was Borgia that Machiavelli admired for his ruthless and
daring leadership. Machiavelli also served as advisor to Piero Soderini,
gonafaloniere after the Medici’s were driven out of power. Thus, he got an ample
opportunity to examine and experience the working of real politic.
In 1512 Machiavelli’s political career came to an end when Medici led a coup
d’état in the Republic of Florence. Machiavelli was dismissed from his position
and was ordered to be imprisoned and tortured on suspicion of conspiracy. Later
he was granted amnesty and as a token of gratitude he dedicated The Prince to
Lorenzo II de’ Medici. He lived there until his death on 22 June, 1527. The
works that Machiavelli penned made him immortal. Among his major works, the
most popular are- The Prince (1513), The Discourses (1516), The Art of War
(1521), History of Florence (1525) and a play Mandragola that explored the
relationship between ends and means, and ideas of immorality.

7.1.3 His Times

The Italian peninsula was divided into five states; the kingdom of Naples, the territory of the
Roman Catholic Church, the Duchy of Milan, and the republics of Venice and Florence. The
constant social conflicts and struggle between these city-states made Italy weak. The
Florence, Machiavelli’s homeland was prey to internal and external threats.
Internally, the Medici regime was powerful, corrupt and repressive. They also 97
used the political power to fulfil their personal motives only. Externally, the city-
 state of Florence was intruded by regional contenders such as Siena and Pisa and
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MACHIVELLI also by the French and the Spanish neighbours.
During the times of Machiavelli, a monarchic reaction had also set in, which destroyed
almost all aristocratic regimes in Europe. During this time the expression of nationalism was
dominant in political organizations. Therefore, Great States of Europe had started establishing
and organizing strong monarchies on their territories. For instance, Henry VII in England,
Louis IX, Charles VIII and Louis XII in France and Ferdinand in Spain had completely
destroyed the political power of the feudal assemblies in their respective territories and
established strong monarchies. At the same time, when every State of Europe was heading
towards expansion and consolidation, Italy did not make any progress because of endemic
hostility in Peninsula. Perhaps, this was the reason that Machiavelli’s ideals revolved around
the unification of Italy.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. How time and context influenced Machiavelli’s thinking and philosophy?
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7.2 MACHIAVELLI’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS

POLITICS AND MORALITY
As a great patriot Machiavelli had keen desire to see stability, peace and
prosperity in his homeland. To find its solution he turned to history as he had his
strong conviction that contemporary reality can be better understood with the
help of history. His approach to history was realistic and believed that history
tends to repeat itself. He stated that through ages the passions and desires of men
always remain the same and he tends to repeat the same conduct and is also likely
to find the same solutions with the help of same means.
Since, Machiavelli had strong desire to secure the unification of peninsula; he
read the history of ancient Rome in order to draw the causal inferences of the rise
of Rome’s imperial power and its downfall. He read the works of the Roman
historian Titus Livy and got convinced that Florence can attain the same glory by
emulating the example of Rome. From his study of past, he also inferred that the
governance is an art and has nothing to do with the morals. He held the view that the
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purpose of politics is to preserve and increase political power of State. For that reason, he was
always interested in the policies through which the problems of statecraft can be solved and Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
subsequently can increase their power. That’s the reason Machiavelli is considered the first
exponent of power politics. Machiavelli’s this attitude was influenced by his conception of
human nature.

7.2.1 Machiavelli’s Conception of Human Nature

The State cannot be imagined without men. So it is imperative to look at the relationship
between politics and human nature. Contrary to Aristotle and other thinkers of medieval
period, who presumed human nature as innately social, Machiavelli had taken a very
pessimistic idea of human nature. He alleged that human nature, throughout the ages, did not
change significantly and what men have done, they are on equal provocation liable to do
again. Men are generally unreasonable and their actions are guided by their emotions. They
have no general inclination towards morality and constantly in gesture to satisfy their desires.
At one place he says that men are prey to endless desires and one such desire is the love for
private property. He further stated that men would readily forgive the one who murdered his
father but not the abduction of his patrimony.
Machiavelli illustration of human nature was of a political animal whose inherent desire was
always to control and establish his supremacy over others. However, Machiavelli assigned
this trait to the Prince only and advised him to trust upon his own instincts and judgment
rather than his counsellors. Machiavelli’s conception about men had inevitably, highlighted
his theory of state, the ends of the State and his views regarding the methods of achieving
those ends. It also leads to divorce between morality and politics.

7.2.2 Power and Politics

Since the renaissance drove out the remnants of medievalism from Italy and awakened the
men, his emotions and his faculties which had remained dormant for long. The scientific
outlook and discoveries gave birth to the spirit of individualism which was totally in
opposition with the medieval concept of universalism in Church and State. It
signifies that new ideal of life now stands with the individual success where
success demanded self-assertion, ruthlessness and disregard of conventional
morality. It needed power which became the new deity. Power was seen as an
end in itself.
The earlier political thinkers never made an attempt to keep politics out of morals
and religion as Machiavelli did. Unlike, Aristotle, who might have regarded
politics and morality as constituting one whole science, where state power was
seen as a means to higher end conceived in moral terms. Machiavelli did not
uphold ethical purpose of the state rather he believed that the power of State is an
end in itself. Consequently, he confined his attention to the means best suited to
the acquisition, retention and expansion of power.
The political thought from Plato to Aristotle down to the close of the Middle
Ages believed that the use of political power was only rightful if it was exercised
by a sovereign whose character was virtuous. In a sense, it was assumed that
rulers can earn respect and the right to be obeyed if they showed themselves
virtuous and morally upright. In short, it was believed to follow standards of 99
 ethical goodness with that rulers can establish and maintain their power and
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI authority.
In his best-known treatise- The Prince, Machiavelli condemned moralistic
perspective of authority. For that reason, he emancipated politics from religion
and morality. Machiavelli did not hold the view that if there is any moral base to
adjudicate the difference between legitimate or illegitimate use of power. To a
certain extent, authority and power are correlated. It means if a person has power,
he also has the right to exercise the same. In a sense, integrity of a person does
not ensure power and the good person has no more authority by virtue of being
good. Thus, in direct opposition to a moralistic theory of politics, Machiavelli
says that the only real concern of the political ruler is the acquisition and
maintenance of power. In other words, Machiavelli opined that the only end
which man can legitimately put before him is the pursuit of his well being in this
life. This well-being needs not to be confined to the material realm; besides
health, security of life and property, it includes non-material values of life like
greatness, power and fame. But he definitely rejects the cultivation of virtues like
humility, lowliness and contempt for worldly goods on which Christianity laid
great stress, as the end of life.
In The Prince and The Discourses, he discussed the employment of all sorts of
violence, and brutality. At one place, for example, he says that while it is most
praiseworthy for a prince to be good, nevertheless one who wishes to maintain
his authority must be ready to put aside his morality as the circumstances. In
other sense, for the sake of maintaining political power, deceit and hypocrisy are
indispensable. There is no harm if The Prince showed up all his sincerity,
uprightness, and humanity but regardless to these virtues; he must also have
trained and disciplined his mind to act otherwise when State is in danger. But in
spite of this bitter and critical stance towards religion, he regarded religious
sentiments as a very important instrument for the success of State policy.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Write down Machiavelli’s views regarding human nature.
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2. How did Machiavelli look at the concept of politics?
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and Morality
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7.2.3 Religion as a Political Tool
Machiavelli was more attracted by the propagandist utility than by the doctrinal
virtues of religion. According to him, Religion can be used to serve the political
ends of the State. For instance, through religious canons of good and bad; reward
and punishment can determine proper human behaviour and conduct. In turn, it
can make people to abide by the civil laws. Once people will start following
rules, the State will become stable, strong and prosperous like ancient Rome. In
ancient Rome, religious sanctions always kept the Romans in check. A fear of
hell, evil and God kept them loyal for their State. Therefore, Machiavelli
accepted the public efficacy of the religion and also looked upon religion only as
a useful weapon in the hands of a statesman to be skillfully used in furtherance of
the ends of the State, to maintain law and order as well. Therefore, he also
advised the Prince to put in possible efforts to promote religious belief, even
though he himself may be atheist or had little faith in religion because the decline
of reverence for religion would surely bring in disaster. He meant that a wise
ruler can cash on religious sentiments and even can achieve the things which may
have been impossible, otherwise.
In other sense, for Machiavelli religion had no intrinsic or objective value; it was
just a mechanism which can be employed by the ruler to influence people to
pursue their desired ends. Machiavelli considered the religion and morality as
subordinate to the State, it is neither above nor besides it. The following reasons
may sum up why Machiavelli placed the State above religion and morality:
i) He held that State is the highest form of human organization and the most
necessary of all institutions for the protection and promotion of human
welfare. Thus, it cannot be placed at par with the private citizens and
governed by the same canons of morality by which their affairs are
regulated. It stands on a wholly different footing and must therefore be
judged by a different standard altogether. It may be a crime to kill a
fellow being but it’s justified for the State to kill someone if public safety
is endangered. Therefore, State is neither moral nor amoral entity. In a
sense it is not like an individual entity, hence, individual morals are also
not applicable to it.
ii) He was convinced with the fact that it may be out of the question to
control the inherently egoistic and aggressive tendencies of men. To keep
that under check, the State might have to imply the religious sentiments
only. Machiavelli was convinced that, man being what he is, the State
would never succeed if it were to rely on moral means only. He,
therefore, propounded the doctrine that where the safety of the country is 101
 at stake, there must be no consideration of what is just or unjust, right or
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MACHIVELLI wrong, glorious or shameful. Every means is justified if it is calculated to
lead to the desired end which is the security and safety of the State.
iii) Machiavelli could recommend the adoption of immoral means by the
State without any qualms of conscience because in his judgment the State
was neither moral nor immoral it could be called neuter gender.
Thus, religion and morality are social forces, working within the State, not over
it. That's why in the realm of statecraft the only criterion of determining whether
a given policy is sound or unsound is its probable effect on the peace and security
of the State.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. List the reasons why Machiavelli placed the State above morality?
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2. Why Machiavelli attaches only an instrumental value to religion?
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7.2.4 Double Standards of Morality: Public and Private

The aphorism like might is right, necessity knew no law and the end justifies the
means- had been the nucleus of Machiavelli’s idea of morality. Since, in the
realm of statecraft the safety and security of State justifies everything. Therefore,
he proposed two different strands of morality- one for the ruler and another for
the citizens. He argued that State actions cannot be judged by only individual
morals. For an individual telling a lie might be immoral but it may not be
necessary for a ruler. He may have to sometimes tell a lie in the interest of the
state because the state is a non-ethical entity.

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Machiavelli’s firsthand experience of his diplomatic assignments made him clear Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
with the understanding that ends can always justify the means. Therefore, he
contended that rulers need not to adhere with the notion of conventional morality.
A ruler must be judged on the basis that how successfully he ensures the well
being of its citizens, expand its territory and defend the national interest of the
State. Sometimes, for the survival and the safety of State, ruler may have to rely
upon immoral ways as well. He further stated that it may be an obligation for an
individual to exhibit his/her impeccable moral standards like trust, loyalty, purity
and simplicity that family or religious teachings nurtured. On the other hand, a
statesman can be always flexible as far as the conduct of state affairs was
concerned. In other words, in times of peace and stability, the ruler may exhibit
his high morals like humane compassion, love, faith etc. But can assert his power
to handle chaos and lawlessness by the use of force. In short, in politics,
depending upon time and circumstances, fair could be foul or foul could be fair.
Therefore, ruler must train himself to represent the judicious combination of the
lion and the fox.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Differentiate between Private and Public Morality.
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7.3 LET US SUM UP

To put in a nut shell, the radical changes that were taking shape during the
renaissance around the institutions and ideas about the system of governance are
clearly reflected in the major works of Machiavelli. He was the one who was
undoubtedly aware of the moral and political corruption of his times. He had the
nostalgia for a harmonious and peaceful social life like that of ancient Rome.
Prior to Machiavelli, political power was only considered to attain certain higher
ends like justice, law, good life and freedom, etc. He rejected all these ethical,
religious, and cultural ends of the State. He measured political power as an end
in itself and confined his enquiries to the means that suited to acquire, to retain
and to expand power. He separated the notion of power from that of morality,
and religion. He made a sharp distinction between politics and religious
principles and treated religion as a means to achieve State ends. By shaking the
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 foundation of politics based on moral values, Machiavelli set the tone for one of the main
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI themes of contemporary times that accepted both secularization and amoralization of politics.
The tendency of political thought of Machiavelli was to make men more
consistent and scientific in their political cunningness. Therefore, he made a
systematic attempt to dissociate politics from all standards of conduct, save
success in the establishment and extension of governmental power. The very
intention of his remarks on morality was to clear the path for the more general
acceptance of the kind of Statecraft that he had to teach. For this he is so much
abused for his sympathy with evil. It is by this that he is best known in the world.
In the words of Chester C. Maxey “He is perhaps the most universally reprobated figure in
the history of political literature; the man whose Precepts are universally disavowed in
principle, but regularly followed in practice”.

7.4 REFERENCES
Bevir, Mark. (Ed.) (2010). Encyclopaedia of Political Theory Vol.2.California:
Sage Publications,Inc.
Bhandari, D.R. (1975). History of European Political Philosophy. Bangalore:
Bangalore Printing & Publishing Co., Ltd.
Jha, Shefali. (2018). Western Political Thought: From the Ancient Greeks to
Modern Times. Noida: Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd.
McClelland, J.S. (2005). A History of Western Political Thought. London:
Routledge.
Morrow, John. (2005). History of Western Political Thought: A Thematic
Introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mukherjee, Subrata and S. Ramaswamy. (2007). A History of Political Thought:
Plato to Marx. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Ltd.
Singh, Sukhbir. (1994). History of Political Thought, Vol. I. Meerut: Rastogi and
Company.
Skinner, Quentin. (2000). Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Suda, J.P. (1970). A History of Political Thought: From Machiavelli to Burke,
Vol.II. Meerut: Jai Prakash Nath & Co.
Heywood, Andrew. (2013). Political Theory: An Introduction. Palgrave
Macmillan: New York.
Nederman, Cary. (2019). Niccolò Machiavelli. Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/

7.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
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1. Your answer should highlight following points
  Influence of Renaissance Movement Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
 The political context of Itlay

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Individuals are wicked, selfish and egoistic
 Human beings are basically ambitious, aggressive and acquisitive
 Fear and love dictates human actions
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Machiavelli’s thought is based on the concept that power is an end in
itself
 State is a non-ethical entity
 Real concern of the political ruler is the acquisition and maintenance
of power

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 State is the highest form of social organization
 Every means is justified if it is calculated to lead to the desired end-
the security and safety of the State
 State was neither moral nor immoral it could be called neuter gender

2. Your answer should highlight following points

 Religion as a useful weapon in the hands of a statesman
 Church only a department of the State and but not above or beside it

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 It may be an obligation for an individual to exhibit his/her impeccable
moral standards, Contrary, a statesman can be always flexible as far as
the conduct of state affairs was concerned

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