Received: 28 September 2022 Revised: 5 April 2023 Accepted: 27 April 2023 The Journal of Engineering

DOI: 10.1049/tje2.12270

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

A guide to unmanned aerial vehicles performance analysis—the

MQ-9 unmanned air vehicle case study

Erietta Zountouridou1 George Kiokes2 Aris Dimeas1 John Prousalidis3

Nikos Hatziargyriou1

1
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
National Technical University of Athens, Athens,
Greece
2
Merchant Marine Academy, Aspropyrgos, Attica,
Greece
3
School of Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering, National Technical University of
Athens, Athens, Greece
Correspondence
John Prousalidis, School of Naval Architecture and
Marine Engineering, National Technical University
of Athens, Athens 15780, Greece.
Email: jprousal@naval.ntua.gr
Abstract
Great efforts are devoted for integrating Renewable Energy Sources (RES) on the propul-
sion system of Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs). This is applicable to small UAVs, having a
horizon to expand to large UAVs within the next decades. For the conventional propulsion
systems to be replaced, the required power needs of the aircraft should first be examined.
The required power depends on the UAV’s flight stage from takeoff to landing, whereas
its calculation varies with regard to the propulsion system type, which is separated into
two main categories, the propelled-driven engines and the jet engines. Two obstacles are
arising. First, the parameters needed for the power estimation are commercially sensitive
and second the analysis alters with respect to the engine’s type. This paper focuses on
the mathematical analysis of the required power for both the main propulsion systems,
presented extensively for each flight phase, proposing, at the same time, a parameter esti-
mation method which is applicable to any UAV type. The main purpose of this paper is
to act as a guide for the calculation of any type UAV’s required power at any flight stage.
To validate the analysis, the MQ-9 Reaper/Predator B, a High Altitude Long Endurance
(HALE) turboprop UAV produced by General Atomics is analysed. Its unknown param-
eters are estimated and based on a selected flight profile, the required power in terms of
horsepower from takeoff to landing is assessed, for two scenarios regarding the aircraft’s
initial weight. In the first scenario the UAV has the maximum gross takeoff weight, whereas
in the second scenario it does not carry any payload. The estimated required shaft power
per flight phase for each scenario is then marked into the TPE331-10 turboprop engine
characteristic curves.

1 INTRODUCTION (UAVs), while there is a choice of brushless dc electrical motors,

Unmanned aircraft are used in multiple aspects of daily appli-
cations, from hostile forces surveillance and espionage missions
to detection of environmental phenomena, crops surveillance,
surveillance of transport lines/pipelines, policing and search
and rescue missions [1, 2]. They constitute a very attrac-
tive choice due to the low manufacturing and operating costs
compared to small conventional aircraft.
Their propulsion systems have no difference from the tra-
ditional manned aircraft, comprising a variety of choices such
as propellers connected to internal combustion engines, wankel
engines or jet engines for the bigger Unmanned Air Vehicles
fuel cells (FCs), solar, and batteries for the smaller UAVs. Hybrid
powered UAVs, comprising electric generators driven by inter-
nal combustion propulsion engines, are also investigated [3, 4].
Subject to the condition that the UAV is powered completely
by fuel cells, batteries, or other renewable energy sources (RES)
such as solar [5–8], it emits zero pollutants, while it achieves the
much needed silent operation in flight.
Among RES that are explored for use on transportation sys-
tems [9–13], the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells
propulsion system is applicable to small UAV platforms up
to 1.5 kW [14], with the fuel cell’s specific energy density to
range between 0.7 and 1 kWh/kg. This tends to increase up to

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
© 2023 The Authors. The Journal of Engineering published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.

J. Eng. 2023;2023:e12270. wileyonlinelibrary.com/iet-joe 1 of 15

https://doi.org/10.1049/tje2.12270
2 of 15
10 kWh/kg the next 10 to 15 years and up to 20 kWh/kg within
20 to 30 years, enabling the all-electric flight of large aircraft
[15]. The biggest High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) UAV
powered by fuel cells is the Global Observer, manufactured
by Aerovironment in collaboration with NASA. It is a hybrid
UAV, with a maximum takeoff weight of 3980 lb and maximum
speed and altitude of 23 knots and 65,000 ft, respectively. Its
propulsion system comprises liquid hydrogen-powered fuel cells
combined with high efficiency electric motors [16]. At the same
time, a non-UAV, the HY4 prototype, developed by the German
Aerospace Center, a hybrid four seated aircraft, is powered by
an 80-kW electric motor supplied by fuel cells and lithium bat-
teries system. It has 3300-lb maximum weight, with 108 knots
maximum speed and range up to 810 nmi [17].
For conventional powered UAVs, converting part of, or all the
propulsion system with an electric powered one, in order to have
renewable and more silent systems, the aircraft’s performance
analysis of every flight stage should first be examined [18]. The
performance analysis per flight stage results in the estimation of
the mechanical power needed, in terms of horsepower, for each
flight phase. Further to this analysis, the electric power system
that will replace the conventional propulsion system, partially or
in total, can then be decided.
The performance analysis per flight stage of the aircraft
depends on its aerodynamics and the type of the propulsion
mechanism, which is divided into two main categories, the pro-
pelled driven-reciprocating engines and the jet engines [18]. The
requirements in propulsion are rated in terms of power in the
first case and in terms of thrust in the second case, leading to a
different mathematical approach. Further to say, the necessary
parameters of the aircraft under study are often difficult to find,
requiring detail knowledge of the aircraft’s structure and the
parameters by the manufacturers, which are usually proprietary.
Literature regarding UAVs propulsion system’s performance
is limited, as the majority of literature focuses on the UAVs
communication systems [19–27] or their flight control sys-
tems and morphing applications [28–30]. Among the power
supply systems and performance analysis papers found in lit-
erature, [31] presents a hybrid small UAV of 30 lb, comprising a
DC brushless motor powered by a combination of PEM FC
and a Li-ion battery, with their energy management system.
The hybrid system aims to replace the 48-W Wankel engine.
For the proper estimation of its propulsion power, the flight’s
power profile is investigated. However, the study follows the
Golfstream-like aircraft design example presented in [18] altered
for a propelled-driven aircraft, with an NACA 23012 airfoil and
known parameters. Energy management strategies for hybrid
solar/batteries UAVs are proposed in [32], aiming to fully uti-
lize the solar energy for long endurance. For the study, the
UAV’s parameters are again considered known. Reference [33]
improves an existing reference electrical machine for an electric
commercial 12 passenger aircraft, of 550-kW required output
power, with known requirement and boundaries.
This paper focuses on the mathematical analysis of the UAV’s
performance, thrusted out by either a propelled engine or a
jet engine, based on the analysis presented in [18, 32, 34–38].
The main purpose is to act as a guide for the calculation of
ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL.
the power required of any UAV type, at any flight stage. Τhe
unknown parameters, which are commercially sensitive, are esti-
mated quickly and easy, without the need of time-consuming
specialized analysis, given that the focus of this study is the
power estimation of already-flying UAVs and not the detailed
design of a new aircraft. The equations and methodology pre-
sented in this paper are valid for all aircraft types and sizes, not
limited to UAVs.
To validate the analysis, the HALE MQ-9 Reaper/Predator B
UAV of General Atomics is used. Its unknown parameters are
estimated using mainly data from its specification sheet, facili-
tating the calculation of the needed power per flight phase. The
method is validated, through the comparison of the results with
the aircraft’s engine characteristic curves, indicating the firm-
ness of the presented method, as the resulted shaft estimated
power is in accordance with the depicted engine’s available shaft
power.
The main contribution of this paper is to
∙ aggregate all the needed equations for the estimation
of the mechanical power or thrust, for either propelled
driven-reciprocating engine or jet engines aircraft.
∙ render the necessary data for the commercially sensitive
parameter estimation, applicable in all aircraft types.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 pro-
vides the mathematical analysis for the range and the endurance
estimation, of the two main propulsion categories, as well as
the UAV’s technical characteristics estimation. In Section 3,
the mathematical analysis of the required power or thrust esti-
mation, from takeoff to landing, for both the propelled and
jet-driven aircraft, is presented. Section 4 gives an insight analy-
sis of the MQ-9 Reaper flight profile and parameter estimation,
based on the equations of the previous sections. To validate the
analysis, the estimated power per flight stage is compared with
the Reaper’s turboprop engine characteristic curves. Section 5
presents the conclusions.
2 UAV’S TECHNICAL PARAMETER
ANALYSIS
High-altitude surveillance UAVs, are large aircraft with high-
aspect-ratio wings and wingspans powered by propulsion
systems, such as reciprocating engine/propeller, turboprop, tur-
bofan, and turbojet. The selection of the appropriate propulsion
device depends on the design and desired performance of the
aircraft, as there is a tradeoff between the thrust and efficiency.
The propeller is the most efficient propulsive device but at high
speeds it becomes highly ineffective as the thrust is limited by
the propeller’s tip speed [18]. On the contrary the gas turbine jet
engine produces the appropriate thrust for transonic and super-
sonic velocities but is less efficient than the propeller. Because
of this tradeoff, low-speed aircraft are powered by a combi-
nation of reciprocating engine/propeller, whereas high-speed
aircraft are powered by jet engines. Turbofan engines, a large
fan driven by a turbojet, are designed in order to generate the
ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL. 3 of 15

Breguet equation, in order for a propeller-driven aircraft to have

PA max the maximum possible range, it should have the highest possible
propeller efficiency and gross to empty weight ratio, the lowest
Power

Power
PA max specific fuel consumption and fly at maximum lift to drag ratio,
as given in Equation (1) [18].
PR PR
npr ( L ) w0
R pr = ⋅ ln (1)
Velocity Velocity cp D max wempty
(a) (b)
The Breguet Equation (2) for a jet aircraft [34] defines that
FIGURE 1 Available (PA ) versus required (PR ) power for (a) jet-powered, for the maximum possible range (R), the aircraft should fly at
1∕2
(b) propeller-driven, aircraft. maximum CL ∕CD ratio and high altitude where the specific
atmospheric density is small, carry a lot of fuel and have the
lowest specific fuel consumption [18].
thrust of jet engines combined with propellers efficiency. Tur-
boprop engines, a propeller driven by a gas turbine, are suitable ⎛ 12 ⎞ ( 1 )
√
2 ⎜ CL ⎟
1
for aircraft with velocities ranging between 300 and 400 mi/h 2
RJet = ⋅ w0 − wempty
2 2
𝜌i S ⎜⎜ CD ⎟⎟
[18]. (2)
cth
In the propeller-based engines (piston and turboprop ⎝ ⎠max
engines) the generated thrust is variable, whereas the available
power from the propulsion system is constant as the velocity The above equation for jet engine aircraft can be rewritten
changes. Moreover, the power can be considerable even if the in case that the aircraft cruises with constant speed and con-
aircraft is stationary, so it can be measured. For this reason, stant angle of attack, that is the angle between the plane and the
the propeller-driven aircraft are rated in terms of power. On direction of flight, as [35]
the other hand, the jet-based engines (turbojets and turbofans)
are rated in terms of thrust, as their thrust is independent Vmax_R L w0
of the speed and it can be measured even if the aircraft is RJet = ⋅ ln (3)
cth D wempty
on the ground still, with the engines running, whereas the
available power increases linearly with the velocity, as depicted
where the velocity for maximum range (Vmax_R ) is the velocity
in Figure 1. For this reason, the jet aircraft are rated in terms
at the given altitude, at which the airplane is flying at a ratio of
of thrust [38]. In both cases the aircraft’s maximum velocity is 1∕2
CL
defined by the curves intersection of the available and required ( ) , given as [18, 35]
CD max
power for the aircraft to stay in the air [18, 34].
Regarding the effects of temperature and operating altitude ( √ )1∕2
on efficiency of the propulsion systems, for propeller-driven air- 2 3𝜅 wi
Vmax_R = for CD,0 = 3KCL2 (4)
craft, an increase in the intake temperature reduces the output 𝜌i CD,0 S
power, because the mass flow through the engine is reduced,
due to reduced air density. Moreover, at a constant air speed, as The endurance, the amount of time that the aircraft can stay
the altitude increases, the power output falls due to the decrease in the air on one load of fuel, has different flight conditions from
in air density [18]. The rate of the power reduction is mitigated the ones of maximum range mentioned previously, depending
by the fall in air temperature, up to the Tropopause, above which again on the aircraft’s propulsion system, as depicted in Figure 2
it reduces more sharply [39]. and given below [34]:
For jet aircraft, as temperature increases, air density decreases For propeller aircraft:
and this results in a decrease in air mass flow and therefore a
C ( −1∕2 )
3∕2
decrease in thrust. As altitude is increased, at a constant rpm, the npr √ −1∕2
density decreases and therefore the mass flow decreases, which E pr = 2𝜌i S L wempty − w0 (5)
cp CD
leads to a reduction in thrust [18]. Decreasing temperature
slightly offsets this [39]. For jet aircraft:
1 (L) w0
EJet = ⋅ ln (6)
2.1 Range and endurance cth D max wempty

Two parameters that are crucial for the aircraft performance

are the range and the endurance. The maximum range (R), 2.2 Technical characteristics estimation
the maximum distance an aircraft can fly on one load of fuel,
is given from Breguet equation, modified properly for each The wing area (S) of unswept wings of the UAV is calculated as
propulsion system (Equations (1) to (3)). With regard to the follows, based on the schematic analysis of Figure 3.
4 of 15 ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL.

It should be taken into account that the aircraft’s fuel tank at

PR
Propeller -driven UAVs
the end of the flight is not completely empty, but there is a 6%
amount in reserve and trapped fuel in the supply system [18]. So
3/2 the weight of the fuel left at the end of the flight (wfrsrvd ) is
(CL/CD)max 2
1 (L/D)max
PRmin wfrsrvd = 0, 06 ⋅ wfuel (10)

Thus the weight of the aircraft at the end of the flight wfinal
is not wempty , but is estimated as follows, considering no other
Vmax_E changes in the UAV’s weight except for the fuel.
Vmax_R V
TR

Jet -driven UAVs wfinal = w0 − (wfuel − wfrsrvd ) (11)

Another very important parameter in aviation is the lift

coefficient (CL ). As depicted in Figure 4a, the lift coefficient of
4 an airfoil is increasing linearly with the angle of attack (α), until
3 1 /2 it reaches high angles where it becomes non-linear, reaches a
TRmin
(CL/CD)max maximum value, denoted as CLmax , and then drops, as the angle
of attack is further increasing. This is because of the flow sepa-
ration occurring on the top surface of the airfoil and the airfoil
Vmax_E Vmax_R V then is stalled.
The speed that the airfoil stalls, called stall speed (Vstall _i ),
FIGURE 2 Conditions of maximum range and endurance for depends on the air density (𝜌i ) of the cruise altitude (i),
propelled-driven and jet aircraft. the weight of the aircraft there (wi ), and the maximum lift
coefficient (CLmax_i ) [34]:
√
2 wi 1
Vstall _i = (12)
𝜌i S ⋅CLmax_i
Wing area (S)

2.3 Flight weight analysis per flight stage

FIGURE 3 Wingspan (b), wing area (S), wing tip (ct ), and root (cr ), as
defined in an unswept wing.
S ( c + cr ) ⋅ b 2
= t
2 2
The aircraft’s gross takeoff weight (w0 ) is the sum of the
crew weight (wcrew ), the payload weight (wpayload ), the fuel weight
(wfuel ), and the weight of the aircraft when it is empty (wempty ).
w0 = wcrew + wpayload + wfuel + wempty
Knowing the gross takeoff weight, payload, and fuel weight
from the UAV’s specification sheet, given that crew weight is
zero, the weight of the UAV when it is empty is found from
Equation (8).
Having the weight of aviation gasoline, the fuel tank capacity
is
wfuel
Tank capacity =
wgas
The calculation of the range and the endurance analysed
before entail the estimation of the weight at the end of the flight.
The UAV’s weight constantly changes, due to fuel consumption
during the flight. The flight is divided into k segments, from
takeoff to landing, in which the required power is estimated sep-
arately. According to the mission profile, each flight segment is
(7) related with its weight fraction, which is the weight at the end of
the segment (wj ) divided by the weight at the beginning of the
segment (wj−1 ), as
wj
Segment weight ratio = (13)
wj−1
(8)
So the UAV’s weight at the end of k segments (wk ) is related
to its initial weight (w0 ), as follows [18]:
wk w w w w
= 1 2 k−1 ⋯ k (14)
w0 w0 w1 w2 wk−1
The weight ratios for takeoff, climb, and landing segments are
estimated based on historical data and their values are given in
Table 1. In the loiter segments, where the aircraft descends from
(9)
cruise altitude either to lower altitude or to landing approach,
the weight ratio is approximated based on the assumption that
the fuel consumption is negligible and the horizontal distance
covered is part of the total range [18]. In all other stages, the
ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL. 5 of 15

FIGURE 4 (a) The stall point of the generic lift curve and (b) the effect of flaps on the lift curve [36].

TABLE 1 UAV estimated weight values per flight stage [18] TABLE 2 Maximum lift coefficients for cruise, takeoff, and landing [37]

Weight ratio Weight ratio Aircraft type CLmax CLmax,TO CLmax,L

Segment value Segment value
Single-engine propeller driven 1.3–1.9 1.3–1.9 1.6–2.3
Takeoff 0.97 Loiter 1
Twin-engine propeller -driven 1.2–1.8 1.4–2.0 1.6–2.5
Climb 0.985 Landing 0.995
Fighter 1.2–1.8 1.4–2.0 1.6–2.6
Supersonic cruise 1.2–2.8 1.6–2.0 1.8–2.2
Jet transport 1.2–1.8 1.6–2.2 1.8–2.8
weight fraction in each flight segment results from the Breguet
Business jet 1.4–1.8 1.6–2.2 1.6–2.6
equation for range Equations (1) and (3) respectively, as follows
[35]:
Propeller aircraft

wj − 1 cp Rj−1, j
ln = (15)
wj npr (L∕D ) max

Jet engines

wj−1 cth Rj−1, j

ln = (16)
wj Vmax_R (L∕ D )

where Rj−1, j is the distance covered during the flight segment. FIGURE 5 Aircraft’s takeoff phase.

3 UAV’S MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS on the wing edges and alter the airfoil camper, therefore the lift
PER FLIGHT STAGE (Figure 4b). The necessary values of the lift coefficients dur-
ing cruise, takeoff, and landing for different types of aircraft are
As the necessary UAV’s thrust or power changes, depending on given in Table 2.
the flight stage from takeoff to landing, the flight is divided into For the take-off phase, because the UAV must create the nec-
phases. For each phase, the required power/thrust is estimated essary lift in order to take off as quickly as possible, it has the
for propelled -driven and jets UAVs, separately, based mainly flaps down so as to obtain the maximum lift coefficient, denoted
on the analysis as presented in [18]. The power required for as CLmax_TO . The stall speed at takeoff (Vstall _TO ) is given from
manoeuvres is not investigated, as it is out of the scope of this Equation (12) altered as follows:
study. √
2 w0 1
Vstall _TO = (17)
3.1 Takeoff phase 𝜌0 S ⋅CLmax_TO

The CLmax depends on the airfoil design, but it can be dynami- The takeoff distance (STO ) consists of the ground roll seg-
cally changed through the use of the flaps, which are mounted ment and the airborne distance [18, 37], as depicted in Figure 5.
6 of 15 ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL.

STO = Sa + Sg (18) TABLE 3 Equivalent skin-friction drag coefficient for subsonic Cfe [42].

Aircraft type Cfe Aircraft type Cfe

The ground roll distance is the distance before the aircraft Single-engine light aircraft 0.0055 Jets 0.003–0.004
becomes airborne, given as
Twin-engine light aircraft 0.0045 Twins 0.004–0.007

1, 21w0∕ S Fighter air force 0.0035 Singles 0.005–0.007

Sg = (19)
g ⋅ 𝜌0 ⋅ CLmax_TO ⋅ T∕ w0 Fighter navy 0.0040 Sailplane 0.003
Supersonic cruise aircraft 0.0025
Referring to Figure 5, the flight radius R is [38] Transport bomber and civil 0.0030
Military cargo 0.0035
6, 96
R = ⋅ Vstall
2
_TO (20) Seaplane propeller 0.0065
g
Seaplane jet 0.0040

The distance covered over the ground after the aircraft

is airborne (Sa ), before it clears a 50-ft obstacle (ht f ) for mil- where 550 ft⋅Ib/s = 1 hp. From the literature [18, 32, 37] pro-
itary aircraft or 35-ft obstacle for commercial aircraft [37], peller efficiencies between 0.80 and 0.9 founded, so a value of
depends on the included flight path angle Θt f , as depicted in 0.85 for this study is a reasonable assumption.
Figure 5: 3.1.2 Jet-driven UAVs
( )
ht f For turbojet aircraft VTO = Vli fto f f , the required power
Θt f = cos −1 1− (21)
R during takeoff is given as
( )
Sa = R ⋅ sin Θt f (22) PR_TO = T ⋅ VTO (26)

The ratio T∕ w0 is constant for turbojet aircraft. For propeller For the jet UAVs, the max thrust available at sea level TA,0 is
or for high-bypass-ratio turbofan UAVs, as the thrust (T) varies usually given by the manufacturers. Hence, the available power
with velocity, the value of T∕ w0 in Equation (19) is assumed to during takeoff PA_TO (hp) (550 ft⋅Ib/s = 1 hp) is
be a constant to an average value, equal to its value at a velocity
VTO = 0, 7 ⋅ Vli fto f f , where Vli fto f f = 1, 1 ⋅ Vstall _TO. [18] TA,0
PA_TO = ⋅ VTO (27)
Combining Equations (18), (19), and (22), the thrust to 550
weight ratio at takeoff (T∕ w0 ) is found. The UAV’s takeoff veloc-
ity (VTO ), which is the velocity for the required T∕ w0 at takeoff,
is estimated as a proportion of the stalling velocity at takeoff, 3.2 Climb phase
for propeller or for high-bypass-ratio turbofan:
In this phase, the UAV climbs from sea level to cruise altitude,
VTO = 0, 7 ⋅ 1, 1 ⋅ Vstall _TO (23) with a given climb rate. The zero-lift drag coefficient CD,0 , that
is the parasite drag that exists when the lift of the airplane is
zero, is estimated as
3.1.1 Propeller-driven UAVs Swet
CD,0 = C (28)
Sref fe
At this velocity, the minimum required power during takeoff
for the propeller-driven aircraft (PR_TO ) is given in terms of the where C fe is the skin-friction coefficient given in Table 3 and
thrust to weight ratio as Swet
is the wetted to the wing reference area ratio. The wet-
Sref
T ted area Swet is the total surface area of the aircraft that would
PR_TO = T ⋅ VTO = ⋅ w0 ⋅ VTO (24) get wet, if it was dipped into water and is estimated from
w0
Equation (29) as [40]
At takeoff, but also for every flight phase, the required power ( )
Atop + Aside
(PR ) is considered as equal to the available power from the Swet = 3, 4 (29)
propulsion system (PA ) of the aircraft. 2
Taking into account the propeller efficiency, the available Alternatively, the ratio for different types of aircraft can be
shaft horsepower Psha ft _TO (hp) during takeoff, that is the horse- found from Figure 6.
power provided by the engine directly to the shaft, emerges The coefficient Κ is defined as
from Equation (24).
1
PA_TO K = ( )2 (30)
Pshaft_TO = (25) 4 ⋅ CD,0 ⋅
L
npr ⋅ 550 D max
ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL. 7 of 15

where
√
3
Z = 1+ 1+ ( )2 (34)
2
TR_CL ∕w0 (L∕D )max

The required power of the jet aircraft for maximum climb

rate is estimated as

PR,CL = TA,0max ⋅ VCL,max − CRmax ⋅ w0 (35)

where the aircraft’s velocity for maximum climb rate (VCL,max )

is
( √ )1∕2
2 K w0
VCL,max = (36)
𝜌o 3CD,O S
FIGURE 6 Wetted surface area to reference area ratio for different types
of aircraft [41]. Figures 7 and 8 depict the block diagram of power estimation
procedure, for takeoff and climb phase, respectively.

3.3 Cruise at steady flight

3.2.1 Propeller-driven UAVs
The required power during climb for the propeller-driven UAV
(PR_CL ) at sea level is estimated in Equation (31), ignoring the
small amount of the consumed fuel during takeoff.
The aircraft cruises in steady level flight at a given velocity and
altitude. The requirement for the aircraft to maintain these flight
conditions is the generated thrust (T ) from the propulsion sys-
tem, to exactly overcome the drag (D) so as to keep the aircraft
going [34, 38].

( √ )1∕2
PR_CL T = D and L = W (37)
2 K w0 1, 155
= CRmax + (31)
w0 𝜌o 3CD,O S (L∕D )max
The total drag coefficient (CD ) is associated with the lift,
through the following equation called drag polar:
Thus, the minimum available shaft horsepower during climb
phase, considering that PR_CL = PA_CL , is CD = CD0 + K ⋅ CL2 (38)
PA_CL
Pshaft_CL = (32) where CD is the total drag coefficient, CD0 is the zero-lift drag
npr ⋅ 550 coefficient, K ⋅ CL2 is the drag due to lift.
The power estimation block diagram for cruise phase, as
where 550 ft⋅Ib/s = 1 hp analysed next, is depicted in Figure 9.

3.2.2 Jet-driven UAVs 3.3.1 Propeller-driven UAVs

The required thrust during climb for the jet UAV (TR_CL ) is esti- The thrust to weight ratio is estimated at the end of the k cruise
mated from Equation (33), ignoring the small amount of the segment, at a given speed Vk and aircraft weight wk , for the air
consumed fuel during takeoff. density of the altitude 𝜌k , as
1
T 1 CD,O 2K wk
⎛ w0 Z ⎞ 2 ( T )3 = 𝜌kVk2 + (39)
wk∕ S
2
=⎜ ⎟ wk 2 𝜌kVk2 S
S R_CL
CRmax
⎜ 3𝜌i CD,O ⎟ w0
⎝ ⎠
The minimum power of the propeller-driven aircraft is
⎛ ⎞
⎜1 − Z − 3 ⎟ (33) T
⎜ 6 ( )2 2 ⎟ PR_CR = ⋅ wk ⋅ Vk (40)
⎝ 2Z TR_CL ∕w 0 ( L∕D )max ⎠ wk
8 of 15 ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL.

FIGURE 7 Power estimation block diagram, for propeller-driven and jet UAVs—takeoff phase.

FIGURE 8 Power estimation block diagram, for propeller-driven and jet UAVs—climb phase.

FIGURE 9 Power estimation block diagram, for propeller-driven and jet UAVs—cruise at steady flight.
ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL. 9 of 15

Thus, the available shaft horsepower during cruise phase, TABLE 4 Typical values of ¯ per ground surface [43]
considering that PRCR = PACR (550 ft⋅Ib/s = 1 hp), is 𝛍
PRCR Ground surface Brakes off Brakes on
Pshaft_CR = (41)
npr ⋅ 550
Asphalt/dry concrete 0.03–0.05 0.3–0.5
Asphalt/wet concrete 0.05 0.15–0.3

3.3.2 Jet-driven UAVs Asphalt/Icy concrete 0.02 0.06–0.1

Hard turf 0.05 0.4
The jet engines, such as turbojets and turbofans, are rated in Firm dirt 0.04 0.3
terms of thrust, rather than power. For turbojets, the available Soft turf 0.07 0.2
thrust from the engine (TA ) remains constant with the velocity Wet grass 0.08 0.2
for subsonic speeds
𝜌
TA = TA,0 i (42)
𝜌0
The minimum required power is then
where TA,0 is the thrust available at sea level given by the
manufacture and 𝜌0 is the standard sea-level air density. √
√ 3 2
√ 2w C
In turbofun engines with high-bypass-ratio, the available PR_CR =√ i D (48)
thrust from the engine (TA ) is 𝜌i SCL3
( )m
𝜌i
TA = TA,0 (43) where wi and 𝜌i are the aircraft weight and air density
𝜌0
respectively at the i altitude.
where m parameter has values around 1 depending on the engine
design. A value of 0.6 dictates a turbofan engine with good high-
3.4 Landing
altitude performance [18].
In case that the given TA,0 is the max thrust available at sea
During landing the engine thrust is in idle or in reverse and the
level, through Equation (42) the maximum thrust (TA )max is esti-
aircraft deploys 25% of its power for corrective manoeuvres and
mated, for the given altitude. For the calculations, the aircraft’s
other operations. From this phase the landing distance is esti-
required thrust (TR ) for cruising at steady level flight with the
mated. Because there is no need for power estimation, this value
maximum velocity is considered to be the (TA )max .
is out of the scope of this paper. For the estimation of the land-
The max velocity Vmax for cruising at i altitude, with the
ing distance of propeller and jet aircraft, the reader may refer to
(TA )max , is given as
[18, 34, 37], with values of the rolling friction coefficient 𝜇, as
√( )2 1∕2 depicted in Table 4.
⎡ (TA )max wi wi (T A )max
⎤
⎢ w S + − 4CD,O K ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
i S wi
Vmax (44)
⎢ 𝜌i CD,O ⎥ 4 MQ9 REAPER/PREDATOR B
⎢ ⎥ PARAMETER ESTIMATION-
⎣ ⎦
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
The power of the jet aircraft in case that the maximum thrust
is needed, is estimated as To validate the methodology presented above, the MQ-9 UAV
aircraft is selected. The shaft power per flight phase is calcu-
PA,max = TA,max ⋅ Vmax (45) lated, using the parameter estimation as described in Sections 2
and 3 and data found on the manufacture’s sheet. The estimated
In case that the jet aircraft cruises with the minimum required power is then compared with the power given by the propulsion
power, the following condition is valid [34]: system’s characteristic curve.
The MQ-9 Reaper/Predator B (Figure 10) is a HALE
( 3∕2 ) ( )3∕4 UAV produced by General Atomics, used for high-altitude
CL 1 3 surveillance and ground attack missions, by militaries and orga-
= (46)
CD 4 3∕2 nizations all over the world [44–50]. The aircraft is powered
max K ⋅ CD0
by the TPE331-10 turboprop engine of 940 shp, designed by
The corresponding velocity for this case is Honeywell [50, 51]. The takeoff and landing distance is typi-
√ cally 2000 ft [48]. Regarding its airfoil design, the MQ-9 Reaper
√ √
√2 w has the Drela GW-19/−25 wing root and the Drela GW-27
VPR_min = √ i K
(47) airfoil wing tip, designed by Dr. Drela, MIT [45].The techni-
𝜌i S 3CD,O
cal characteristics of the aircraft are given in Table 5, whereas
10 of 15 ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL.

FIGURE 10 MQ-9 Reaper dimensions (ft) [54].

TABLE 5 MQ-9 reaper technical characteristics [44–50]

Parameter Value Parameter Value

Max altitude 50,000 ft Max gross takeoff 10,500 lb

weight (w0 )
Cruise altitude 25,000 ft Fuel weight (wf ) 3900 lb
Vmax 40,507 ft/s (240 Payload weight 3850 lb
Knots) (wp )
Vcruise 26,975 ft/s (160 Take off /landing 2000 ft
Knots) length
Climb rate ≥2000 ft/min Range 1.181–3.682 mi
Max endurance 27 h (L∕D)max 16.7
Wing span (b) 66 ft Fuel consumption 0.534 lb/(hp·h)
(c p )
Length 36 ft Aviation gasoline 6.67 lb/US gal
weight (wgas )

the propulsion system’s characteristic curve is depicted in

Figure 11.
In order to investigate the required power for the aircraft to
stay in the air at any flight phase, the flight profile of Figure 12
is considered, based on [52, 53]. The flight is divided into
segments. The UAV takes off (segment 0–1) and then climbs
(segment 1–2) at 30.000 ft, where it flies with maximum speed
(segment 2–3) until it reaches its mission target area. There,
it loiters at 25,000 ft (segment 3–4) and cruises (segment 4–
5) having a speed of 157 knots, in order to inspect an area of
2.133 km. Then, it climbs back at 30,000 ft (segment 5–6) and
returns to base with maximum speed (segment 6–7), where it
loiters (segment 7–8) and lands (segment 8–9).
Based on the mathematical analysis of Sections 2 and 3 for
propeller-driven engines, the Reaper’s unknown parameters and
power required are found for each flight phase. The estimated
values are given in Tables 6 to 10.
FIGURE 11 TPE331-10 turboprop engine curves [51]. The estimated
required power is marked with red dots for the first scenario and green dots for
the second scenario.
There is a discrepancy in the literature regarding the maxi-
mum range of the MQ-9 Reaper, with references values to range
between 1.181 and 3.682 mi [46, 47]. Based on Equation (1)
for the propeller-driven aircraft, the maximum range of MQ-9
Reaper for flight profile selected can be estimated, and the value
is given in Table 6, taking into account that the equation leads
to an overestimation of range [18].
ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL. 11 of 15

FIGURE 12 MQ-9 Reaper flight profile.

TABLE 6 MQ-9 reaper general technical estimated parameters TABLE 7 MQ-9 reaper take off parameter evaluation

Parameter Value Parameter Value Scenario 1—full load Scenario 2—no payload

wfinal 6.834 lb npr 0.85 Parameter Value Parameter Value

′
wfinal 2.984 lb g 32.2 ft/s2 ′
w0 10.500 lb w0 6.650 lb
ct 2.4 ft CRmax 33.33 ft/s
𝜌0 0.002377 𝜌0 0.002377
cr 5.4 ft cp 2,696 × 107 lb/(ft⋅lb/s)
CLmax,TO 1.9 CLmax,TO 1.9
b∕2 33 ft S 257.4 ft2
Vstall _TO 134.4 ft/s Vstall _TO′ 106.96 ft/s
Range 2.456 mi
Sg 1.377 ft Sg′ 1.505 ft
R 3.904,8 ft R′ 2.473 ft
Θt f 9,179˚ Θt f ′ 11.54˚
Based on the wing dimensions (Figure 8), the MQ-9 Reaper’s
wing area is found through Equation (7) for wingspan of 66 ft. Sa 622,88 ft Sa′ 494.6 ft
T∕w0 0.246 T∕w0 ′ 0.143
Knowing the gross takeoff weight, payload, and fuel weight
from the specification sheet (Table 5), given that the crew weight VTO 103.49 ft/s VTO ′ 82.36 ft/s
for the UAV is zero, the weight of the Reaper when it is empty Pshaft_TO (Point A, 573 hp ′
Pshaft_TO (Point 167.3 hp
(wempty ) is found through Equation (8). Figure 11) A′ , Figure 11)
Two scenarios are examined, regarding the MQ-9’s initial
weight, indicating the strong effect of weight with the aircraft’s
performance. In the first scenario the aircraft has its maximum
gross takeoff weight (w0 ), whereas in the second scenario the From Equations (18) to (22) the thrust to weight ratio at
aircraft does not carry any payload, resulting in degradation in takeoff (T∕ w0 ) is found for the two scenarios, whereas Equa-
the weight (w0 ′ ). In both cases the aircraft have the same fuel tion (23) provides the takeoff velocity. Knowing the velocity
weight. The estimated required shaft power for each flight phase and the thrust to weight ratio at this velocity for the two sce-
is marked into the MQ-9 Reaper’s engine characteristic curves of narios, the propulsion’s system power at takeoff is estimated
Figure 11 (points A–E). through Equations (24) and (25). The values of the estimated
parameters are depicted in Table 7 and the propulsion system’s
required power at takeoff is denoted with the points A and A´ in
4.1 Takeoff phase (Segment 0–1) Figure 11. In both cases the turboprop efficiently provides the
required power for takeoff, while the weight reduction of the
For the takeoff phase, the MQ-9 Reaper has the flaps down second scenario greatly affects the needed power for takeoff.
at the takeoff position to obtain the maximum lift coeffi-
cient, denoted as CLmax_TO . As the Drela airfoil parameters are
proprietary, the value for CLmax_TO is chosen from Table 2, 4.2 Climb phase (Segment 1–2)
for single propeller engine aircraft. The stall speed at take-
′
off (VstallTO or Vstall ) for the two scenarios is given from At this phase, the MQ-9 Reaper climbs from sea level to
TO
Equation (17) estimated for w0 and w0′ , respectively. 30,000 ft, with climb rate as given in Table 5. For the zero-lift
The takeoff distance STO is 2000 ft [48] consisting of the drag coefficient, estimated in Equation (28), the ratio of wet-
ground roll segment and the airborne distance ted area to the wing reference area from Figure 6 is selected,
for the wing loading value (w0 ∕S ) as given in Table 8. The
Sa + Sg = 2000 (49) skin-friction coefficient for single-engine general aviation air-
12 of 15 ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL.

TABLE 8 MQ-9 reaper climb parameter evaluation At the beginning of this phase, the aircraft is flying with the
Full load No payload maximum velocity, at the desired flight altitude of 30,000 ft, with
air density ρ1 . During steady level flight the propulsion equals
Parameter Value Parameter Value the drag force and the weight of the aircraft at the end of each
′
w0 ∕s 40,792 w0 ∕s 25,835 segment using Equation (14) is
Swet
4
Swet
4
For segment 2 and 3
Sref Sref
C fe 0.005 C fe 0.005 w3 w w w
= 1 2 3 (50)
CD,0 0.02 CD,0 0.02 w0 w0 w1 w2
K 0.045 K 0.045
′ For segment 6 and 7
PshaftCL (Point B, 1016 hp PshaftCL (Point B′ , 609.09 hp
Figure 11) Figure 11)
w7 w w w w w w w
= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (51)
w0 w0 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6

TABLE 9 MQ-9 reaper estimated weight values per flight stage The thrust to weight ratio for cruise, at maximum speed for
Segment (from Figure 12) Range (ft) Weight ratio Value
the two segments using Equation (39), is
w1
0–1 takeoff 0.97 T 1 CD,O 2K w3
= 𝜌1Vmax +
w0 2
w2 (52)
1–2 climb
w1
0.985 w3 2 w3∕ S 𝜌1Vmax
2 S
w3
2–3 cruise max speed 1.220.472,44 0.977
w2
(372 km) and
w4
3–4 loiter 1
w3
T 1 CD,O 2K w7
4–5 cruise surveillance 7,000,000 (2133 km)
w5
0.875 = 𝜌1Vmax
2 + (53)
w4 w7 2 w7∕ S 𝜌1Vmax
2 S
w6
5-6 climb 0.985
w5
w7 Combining Equations (40) and (41) the shaft power of the
6-7 cruise max speed 1.220.472,44 0.977
w6
(372 km) propeller-driven aircraft is estimated for w3 and w7 weights of
w8 the two segments, respectively. The values of the estimated
7-8 loiter 1
w7
w9 parameters are depicted in Table 10 and the propulsion system’s
8-9 landing 0.995
w8
w9
required power for cruise with maximum speed is denoted with
Total 0.782 points C and C´, for segment 2 to 3 and E, E´ for segment 6
w0
to 7, in Figure 11, respectively. Ratiocinating from the result-
ing horsepower of point C (Figure 11), the UAV cannot fly at
30,000 ft with max speed at full load. It should decelerate by
craft is found from Table 3. The K coefficient is then calculated
20 knots. Then, having the speed of 220 knots, the required
by Equation (30). The required power during climb for the
power estimated from Equations (40) and (41) is reduced to
propeller-driven MQ-9 Reaper (PR_CL ) is computed in Equa-
468 hp.
tions (31) and (32), ignoring the small amount of the consumed
fuel during takeoff. The estimated values are depicted in Table 8
and the propulsion system’s required power during climb is
denoted with points B and B´ in Figure 11. In the first scenario, 4.4 Cruise at steady flight/mission
of the fully loaded MQ-9 Reaper, the turboprop is fully charged execution (Segment 4–5)
(point B), in order to provide the necessary for climb power, at
sea level. The velocity of the aircraft during the area of interest surveil-
lance is kept at cruising speed and the flight altitude is reduced
to 25,000 ft, with air density of ρ2 value. The aircraft’s weight
4.3 Cruise at steady flight/max velocity at the end of the segment (w5 ) is found from Equation (14)
(Segments 2–3 and 6–7) and the weight ratios of Table 9, from w0 up to w5 weight,
as
The MQ-9 Reaper’s weight constantly changes, due to fuel con- w5 w w w w w
sumption during the flight. According to the mission profile = 1 2 3 4 5 (54)
w0 w0 w1 w2 w3 w4
of Figure 12, each flight segment is related to its weight frac-
tion, which is the weight at the end of the segment, divided by The thrust to weight ratio is given as
the weight at the beginning of the segment [18, 55]. For cruise
phase, the weight ratio is calculated through Equation (15), T 1 CD,O 2K w5
whereas for the rest of the phases has the values given in Table 1. = 𝜌2Vcruise
2
+ (55)
w5 2 w5∕ S 𝜌2Vcruise
2 S
The weight ratio results are depicted in Table 9.
ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL. 13 of 15

TABLE 10 MQ-9 reaper cruise parameter evaluation followed by the mathematical analysis of the required power or
Full load No payload thrust assessment, customized for both propelled driven and jet
engines. As the aircraft’s energy demand alters depending on the
Parameter Value Parameter Value flight phase, this paper focuses on each flight stage, from take-
Cruise with Vmax at 30,000 ft (Segment 2–3) off to landing, aiming to be a guide for the UAV performance
𝜌1 0.00089068 𝜌1 0.00089068
analysis.
′ To validate the mathematical analysis and parameter estima-
w3 ∕w0 0.933 w3 ∕w0 0.933
′
tion, the HALE MQ-9 Reaper produced by General Atomics,
w3 9.801 w3 6.207 a turboprop UAV, is used. Using the workflow presented in this
′
w3 ∕s 38,078 w3 ∕s 24.11 paper, the unknown parameters of the aircraft are estimated and
′
T ∕w3 0.061 T∕w3 0.075 based on a selected flight profile, the power demand in terms
PshaftCR (Point C, 525 hp Pshaft_CR_3 ′ 406 hp of horsepower from takeoff to landing is assessed. Two sce-
3
Figure 11) (Point C′ , narios are examined regarding the aircraft’s initial weight; the
Figure 11) first considers the maximum gross takeoff weight and the sec-
Cruise with Vcruise at 25,000 ft (Segment 4–5) ond have no payload. The estimated required shaft power per
𝜌2 0.0010663 𝜌2 0.0010663 flight phase for each scenario is then marked into the TPE331-
w5 ∕w0 0.817
′
w5 ∕w0 0.817
10 turboprop engine characteristic curves. These curves depict
′ the shaft horsepower change of the turboprop, due to change
w5 8.581 w5 5.434
′
of the airscraft’s airspeed and altitude.
w5 ∕s 33,337 w5 ∕s 21.11 In the first scenario, where the UAV has the maximum gross
′
T∕w5 0.0619 T∕w5 0.0612 weight, the estimation power procedure revealed that the air-
Pshaft_CR_5 (Point D, 306 hp Pshaft_CR_5 ′ 192 hp craft should reduce its speed by 20 knots from the maximum
Figure 11) (Point D′ , speed so as to cruise at 30,000 ft. The estimated required power
Figure 11) during the phases of takeoff, climb, cruise with cruise speed at
Cruise back with Vmax at 30,000 ft (Segment 6–7) 25,000 ft and cruise back with maximum speed at 30,000 ft,
′
w7 ∕w0 0.786 w7 ∕w0 0.786 is in accordance with the power provided by the TPE331-10,
′
w7 8.260 w7 5.231 indicating the firmness of the presented method. The aviation
w7 ∕s 32.08
′
w7 ∕s 20.32
parameters estimation and hence the power demand calcula-
′ tion presented in this paper enables the future investigation of
T ∕w7 0.0653 T ∕w7 0.0844
RES integration on the conventional propulsion system of any
Pshaft_CR_7 (Point E, 467 hp Pshaft_CR_7 ′ 383 hp aircraft, with unknown commercially sensitive parameters.
Figure 11) (Point E′ ,
Figure 11)

NOMENCLATURE
R range (mi)
Combining Equations (40) and (41) the shaft power of the E endurance (h)
propeller-driven aircraft is estimated for w5 weight. The values npr propeller efficiency
of the estimated parameters are depicted in Table 10 and the cp power-specific fuel consumption (s−1 ).
propulsion system’s required power at cruise with cruise speed cth thrust-specific fuel consumption (s−1 ).
is denoted with the points D and D´, in Figure 11. w0 gross takeoff weight (lb)
wempty empty weight (lb)
wgas weight of aviation gasoline (lb/gal)
5 CONCLUSIONS L L
, ( )max lift to drag ratio, lift to drag max ratio
D D
As great effort is given towards conversion of conventional CL ∕CD lift to drag coefficient ratio
powered UAVs, to hybrid or total electric UAVs, the perfor- S wing area (ft2 )
mance of their propulsion system in terms of required power Vmax aircraft maximum velocity (ft/s)
or thrust needs to be examined. The mathematical analysis dif- Vcru aircraft’s cruise velocity (ft/s)
fers for propelled driven/reciprocating propulsion devices, such ct wing tip (ft)
as piston engines and turboprops, which are rated in terms of cr wing root (ft)
power and the jet propulsion devices, such as turbofans and b wingspan (ft)
turbojets which are rated in terms of thrust, leading to time- CLmax max value of lift coefficient
consuming calculations. Another problem arising is related to W∕ S wing to load ratio (lb∕ft2 )
the UAVs’ necessity for the calculation parameters, as their val- 𝜌o air density at sea level (slugs/ft3 )
ues are commercially sensitive. To overcome the adversities, 𝜌1 air density at 30,000 ft altitude (slugs/ft3 )
in this paper, a parameter estimation, applicable in the main 𝜌2 air density at 25,000 ft altitude (slugs/ft3 )
propulsion systems and aircraft types, UAVs or not, is presented, Vstall stalling velocity (ft∕s)
14 of 15 ZOUNTOURIDOU ET AL.

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How to cite this article: Zountouridou, E., Kiokes,
G., Dimeas, A., Prousalidis, J., Hatziargyriou, N.: A guide
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