PIN Diode:

It is composed of three sections. These are the usual P and N-regions

but sandwiched between them is an intrinsic layer or I-layer of pure
silicon. Being an intrinsic (or un-doped) layer, it offers relatively
high resistance. This high-resistance region gives it two advantages
as compared to an ordinary P-N diode.
The advantages are:
1. Decrease in capacitance CT because capacitance is inversely
proportional to the separation of P-and N-regions. It allows the
diode a faster response time. Hence, PIN diodes are used at high
frequencies (more than 300 MHz);
2. Possibility of the greater electric field between the P-and N-
junctions. It enhances the electron-hole pair generation thereby
enabling the PIN diode to process even very weak input signals.
 Schottky Diode
It is also called the Schottky barrier diode or hot-carrier diode.
It is mainly used as a rectifier at signal frequencies exceeding
300 MHz. It has a more uniform junction region and is more
rugged than the PIN diode its main rival.
(a) Construction:
It is a metal-semiconductor junction diode with no depletion
layer. It uses a metal (like gold, silver, platinum, tungsten, etc.)
on the side of the junction and usually an N-type doped silicon
semiconductor on the other side.
(b) Operation:
When the diode is unbiased, electrons on the N-side have lower energy
levels than electrons in the metal. Hence, they cannot surmount the
junction barrier (called the Schottky barrier) for going over to the metal.
When the diode is forward-biased, conduction electrons on N-side gain
enough energy to cross the junction and enter the metal. Since these
electrons plunge into the metal with very large energy, they are commonly
called ‘hot carriers. That is why this diode is often referred to as a hot
carrier diode.
(c) Applications:
This diode possesses two unique features as compared to an ordinary P-N
junction diode:
1. It is a unipolar device because it has electrons as majority carriers on
both sides of the junction. An ordinary P-N junction diode is a bipolar
device because it has both electrons and holes as majority carriers;
2. Since no holes are available in metal, there is no depletion layer or stored
charges to worry about. Hence, the Schottky diode can switch OFF faster
than a bipolar diode.
Because of these qualities, the Schottky diode can easily rectify
signals of frequencies exceeding 300 MHz As shown in Fig. 42, it can
produce an almost perfect half-wave rectified output. The present
maximum current rating of the device is about 100 A. It is commonly
used in switching power supplies that operate at frequencies of 20
GHz. Another big advantage of this diode is its low noise figure
which is extremely important in communication receivers and radar
units etc. It is also used in clipping and clamping circuits, computer
gating, mixing and detecting networks used in communication
systems.

Fig.42: Schottky diode used as HWR of frequencies exceeding 300

MHz systems.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction that emits visible light
when energized. Charge carrier recombination takes place when electrons from
the N-side cross the junction and recombine with the holes on the P-side. Now,
electrons are in the higher conduction band on the N-side whereas holes are in the
lower valence band on the P-side. During recombination, some of the energy
difference is given up in the form of heat and light (i.e. photons). For Si and Ge
junctions, the greater percentage of this energy is given up in the form of heat so
that the amount emitted as light is insignificant. But in the case of other
semiconductor materials like gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP),
and gallium-arsenide-phosphide (GaAsP), a greater percentage of energy released
during recombination is given out in the form of light.

Fig. 43: Light-emitting diode (LED);

If the semiconductor material is translucent, light is
emitted and the junction becomes a light source i.e. a light-
emitting diode (LED) as shown schematically in Fig. 43
The color of the emitted light depends on the type of
material used as given in the table below.
(b) Construction:
Broadly speaking, LED structures can be divided into two
categories:
1.Surface-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction
perpendicular to the PN-junction plane.
2.Edge-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel
to the PN-junction plane. Fig. 44 shows the construction of a surface-
emitting LED.

Fig. 44: The construction of a surface-emitting LED.

(c) Working:
The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a
silicon PN-junction diode. Typically the maximum forward voltage for
LED is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V depending on the device. Reverse
breakdown voltage for the LED is of the order of 3 V to 10 V. Fig. 45 (a)
shows a simple circuit to illustrate the working of the LED. The LED emits
light in response to a sufficient forward current. The amount of power
output translated into the light is directly proportional to the forward
current as shown in Fig. 45 (b). It is evident from this Figure that the
greater the forward current, the greater the light output.

Fig. 45: The working of the Light Emitting Diode .

(d) Applications:
1. LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems;
2. For solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing
cathode-ray tubes (CRT);
3. In image sensing circuits used for ‘picture phone’;
4. In the field of optical fiber communication systems where
high-radiance GaAs diodes are matched into the silica-fiber
optical cable;
5. In data links and remote controllers;
6. In arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric
(letters and numbers) or supplying input power to lasers or
for entering information into optical computer memories;
7. For numeric displays in hand-held or pocket calculators.
The Varactor Diode:
The junction capacitance of diodes varies with the amount of reverse
bias. Varactor diodes are specially designed to take advantage of this
characteristic and are used as voltage-controlled capacitors rather
than traditional diodes. These devices are commonly used in
communication systems. Varactor diodes are also referred to as
varicaps or tuning diodes. A varactor is a diode that always operates
in reverse bias and is doped to maximize the inherent capacitance of
the depletion region. The depletion region acts as a capacitor
dielectric because of its nonconductive characteristic. The P and N
regions are conductive and act as the capacitor plates, as illustrated
in Fig. 46.

Fig. 46: The reverse-biased varactor diode acts as a variable capacitor.

Basic Operation:
The capacitance (𝐶) is determined by the parameters of plate area
(A), dielectric constant (𝜖), and the plate separation (d), as expressed
in the following formula:
𝜺𝑨
𝑪 = 𝒅
(30)
As the reverse-bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens,
effectively increasing the plate separation, thus decreasing the
capacitance. When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the depletion
region narrows, thus increasing the capacitance. This action is
shown in Fig 47 (a) and (b). A graph of diode capacitance (𝐶T) versus
reverse voltage for a certain varactor is shown in Fig. 47 (c). For this
particular device, 𝐶T varies from 30 pF to slightly less than 4 pF as
𝑉R varies from 1 V to 30 V. In a varactor diode, these capacitance
parameters are controlled by the method of doping near the PN-
junction and the size and geometry of the diode’s construction.
Nominal varactor capacitances are typically available from a few
Pico farads to several hundred Pico farads. Fig. 48 shows a common
symbol for a varactor.
Fig. 47 : Varactor diode capacitance varies with reverse voltage.

. Fig.48: Varactor diode symbol

An Application:
A major application of varactors is in tuning circuits. For
example, VHF, UHF, and satellite receivers utilize varactors.
Varactors are also used in cellular communications. When used in
a parallel resonant circuit, as illustrated in Fig. 49, the varactor
acts as a variable capacitor, thus allowing the resonant frequency
to be adjusted by a variable voltage level. The varactor diode
provides the total variable capacitance in the parallel resonant
band-pass filter. The varactor diode and the inductor form a
parallel resonant circuit from the output to ac ground. The
capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 have no effect on the filter’s frequency
response because their reactances are negligible at the resonant
frequencies. 𝐶1 prevents a DC path from the potentiometer wiper
back to the AC source through the inductor and 𝑅1. 𝐶2 prevents a
dc path from the wiper of the potentiometer to a load on the
output. The potentiometer 𝑅2 forms a variable dc voltage for
biasing the varactor. The reverse-bias voltage across the varactor
can be varied with the potentiometer. The parallel resonant
frequency is:
𝟏
𝒇𝒓 ≅
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
Fig. 49: A resonant band-pass filter using a varactor diode for adjusting the
resonant frequency over a specified range.
 The Photodiode
The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias, as
shown in Fig. 50 (a), where 𝐼𝜆 is the reverse light current.
The photodiode has a small transparent window that
allows light to strike the PN-junction. Some typical
photodiodes are shown in Fig. 50 (b). An alternate
photodiode symbol is shown in Fig. 50 (c).

Fig. 50: Photodiode.

A rectifier diode, when reverse-biased, has a very small reverse leakage current.
The same is true for a photodiode. The reverse-biased current is produced by
thermally generated electron-hole pairs in the depletion region, which are swept
across the PN-junction by the electric field created by the reverse voltage. In a
rectifier diode, the reverse leakage current increases with temperature due to an
increase in the number of electron-hole pairs. A photodiode differs from a rectifier
diode in that when its PN-junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases
with the light intensity. When there is no incident light, the reverse current, 𝐼𝜆, is
almost negligible and is called the dark current. An increase in the amount of light
intensity, expressed as irradiance (𝒎𝑾/𝒄𝒎𝟐), produces an increase in the reverse
current, as shown by the graph in Fig. 51.

Fig. 51: Typical photodiode characteristics.