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TN Board Samacheer Kalvi Class12 Business Mathematics and Statistics Vol 1 Book EM
TN Board Samacheer Kalvi Class12 Business Mathematics and Statistics Vol 1 Book EM
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
AND
STATISTICS
VOLUME - I
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
(ii)
HOW TO USE
THE BOOK ?
Book for References List of related books for further studies of the topic
(iii)
CAREER OPTIONS IN
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS and STATISTICS
Career chart for Higher Secondary students who have taken commerce with
Business Mathematics and Statistics.
Scope for further
Courses Institutions
studies
B.Com., B.B.A., B.B.M., B.C.A., • Government Arts & Science Colleges, C.A., I.C.W.A, C.S.
Aided Colleges, Self financing
B.Com (Computer), B.A. Colleges.
• Shri Ram College of Commerce
(SRCC), Delhi
• Symbiosis Society’s College of Arts &
Commerce, Pune.
• St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore
B.Sc Statistics • Presidency College, Chepauk, M.Sc., Statistics
Chennai.
• Madras Christian College, Tambaram
• Loyola College, Chennai.
• D.R.B.C.C Hindu College, Pattabiram,
Chennai.
(iv)
CONTENTS
Answers 199-206
(v)
SYLLABUS
1. APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS (20 periods)
Rank of a Matrix - Concept of Rank of a matrix- Elementary Transformations and
Equivalent matrices - Echelon form and Finding the rank of the matrix up to the
order of 3 x 4 -Testing the consistency of non homogeneous linear equations (two and
three variables) by rank method. Cramer’s Rule- Non - Homogeneous linear equations
up to3 Variables. Transition Probability Matrices -Forecasting the succeeding state
when theinitial market share is given.
Introduction
I
n our daily life, We
use Matrices for taking seismic
surveys. They are used for plotting graphs,
statistics and also to do Scientific studies in almost different
fields. Matrices are used in representing the real world data
Brahmagupta like the traits of people’s population, habits etc..
(c.598 AD(CE) - c.668 AD(CE)) Determinants have wonderful algebraic properties and
occupied their proud place in linear algebra, because of their
role in higher level algebraic thinking.
Learning Objectives
We have already studied the basic properties of matrices. In this chapter we will study
about the elementary transformations to develop new methods for various applications of
matrices.
1.1.1 Concept
With each matrix, we can associate a non-negative integer called its rank.
Definition 1.1
The rank of a matrix A is the order of the largest non-zero minor of A and is denoted
by r( A)
In other words, A positive integer ‘r’ is said to be the rank of a non- zero matrix A, if
(i) there is atleast one minor of A of order ‘r’ which is not zero and
(ii) every minor of A of order greater than ‘r’ is zero.
Note
(i) r( A) ≥ 0
(ii) If A is a matrix of order m × n , then r( A) ≤ minimum of {m, n}
(iii) The rank of a zero matrix is ‘0’
(iv) The rank of a non- singular matrix of order n × n is ‘n’
Example 1.1
1 5
Find the rank of the matrix
3 9
Solution:
1 5
Let A =
3 9
Order of A is 2 × 2 ∴r( A) ≤ 2 In cryptography, we are
using matrix concepts.
Consider the second order minor
1 5
= −6 ≠0
3 9
There is a minor of order 2, which is not zero. ∴r( A) = 2
∴ r (A) = 1
Example 1.3
0 −1 5
Find the rank of the matrix 2 4 −6
1 1 5
Solution:
0 −1 5
Let A = 2 4 −6
1 1 5
Order of A is 3 × 3 .
∴ r( A) ≤ 3 0 −1 5
Consider the third order minor 2 4 −6 = 6 ≠ 0
1 1 5
∴r( A) = 3.
Example 1.4
5 3 0
Find the rank of the matrix 1 2 −4
−2 −4 8
Order of A is 3 × 3 .
∴ r( A) ≤ 3.
5 3 0
Consider the third order minor 1 2 −4 = 0
−2 −4 8
∴ r( A) = 2.
Example 1.5
1 2 −1 3
Find the rank of the matrix 2 4 1 −2
3 6 3 −7
Solution:
1 2 −1 3
Let A = 2 4 1 −2
3 6 3 −7
A is a square matrix of
Order of A is 3 × 4 order 3. If A is of rank 2,
then adj A is of rank 1.
∴ r( A) ≤ 3.
1 2 3 2 −1 3
2 4 −2 = 0, 4 1 −2 = 0
3 6 −7 6 3 −7
∴r ( A) = 2.
(ii) Multiplication of each element of a row (or column) by any non-zero scalar
k : Ri → kRi ( or Ci → kCi )
(iii) Addition to the elements of any row (or column) the same scalar multiples of
corresponding elements of any other row (or column):
Ri → Ri + kR j .(or Ci → Ci + kC j )
Equivalent Matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent if one is obtained from the another
by applying a finite number of elementary transformations and we write it as A ~ B or
BA.
1.1.3 Echelon form and finding the rank of the matrix (upto the order of 3×4)
A matrix A of order m × n is said to be in echelon form if
(i) Every row of A which has all its entries 0 occurs below every row which has a
non-zero entry.
(ii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less then the
number of such zeros in the next row.
Example 1.6
1 2 3
Find the rank of the matrix A = 2 3 4
3 5 7
Solution :
The order of A is 3 × 3 .
∴ r( A) ≤ 3 .
1 2 3 2
R1 ↔ R 2
A = 0 1 2 1
3 1 1 3
1 2 3 2
~ 0 1 2 1
R 3 → R 3 − 3R1
0 −5 −8 −3
1 2 3 2
~ 0 1 2 1
R 3 → R 3 + 5R 2
0 0 2 2
The order of A is 3 × 4.
∴ r( A) ≤ 3.
1 1 1 1 R3 → R3 − R2
~ 0 −1 −2 1
0 0 0 −1
Consistency of Equations
System of linear equations in two variables
We have already studied , how to solve two simultaneous linear equations by matrix
inversion method.
Recall
Linear equations can be written in matrix form AX=B, then the solution is X = A −1B ,
provided A ≠ 0
(see Fig 1.1) In the first case, the system has a unique solution corresponding to the
single point of intersection of the two lines.
In the second case, the system has infinitely many solutions corresponding to the
points lying on the same line
Finally in the third case, the system has no solution because the two lines do not
intersect.
0 X 0 X 0 X
(a) Unique solution (b) Infinitely many solutions (c) No solution
Fig. 1.1
8 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
System of non Homogeneous Equations in three variables
A linear system composed of three linear equations with three variables x, y and z
has the general form
a1x + b1 y + c1z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 (2)
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
A linear equation ax + by + cz = d (a, b and c not all equal to zero) in three variables
represents a plane in three dimensional space. Thus, each equation in system (2) represents
a plane in three dimensional space, and the solution(s) of the system is precisely the
point(s) of intersection of the three planes defined by the three linear equations that make
up the system. This system has one and only one solution, infinitely many solutions, or
no solution, depending on whether and how the planes intersect one another. Figure 1.2
illustrates each of these possibilities.
P3 P3
P2
P1
P1
P2
P2
P3
P1
Fig.1.2
(a) A Unique solution (b) Infinitely many solutions (c) No solution
In Figure 1.2(a), the three planes intersect at a point corresponding to the situation
in which system (2) has a unique solution.
Figure 1.2 (b) depicts a situation in which there are infinitely many solutions to the
system. Here the three planes intersect along a line, and the solutions are represented by
the infinitely many points lying on this line.
In Figure 1.2 (c), the three planes are parallel and distinct, so there is no point in
common to all three planes; system (2) has no solution in this case.
Note
Every system of linear equations has no solution, or has exactly one solution
or has infinitely many solutions.
where x1, x2,.., xn are the unknowns and the subscripted a’s and b’s denote the
constants.
Augmented matrices
A system of ‘m’ linear equations in ‘n’ unknowns can be abbreviated by writing only
the rectangular array of numbers.
a11 a12 ... a1n b1
a b2
21 a22 ... a2n
am1 am2 ... amn bn a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2n
This is called the augmented matrix for the system and 21
is the
coefficient matrix.
am1 am2 ... amn
Consider the following system of equations
x + y + 2z = 9
2 x + 4 y − 3z = 1
3 x + 6 y − 5z = 0
1 1 2 x 9
2 4 −3 y = 1
3 6 −5 z 0
A X = B
1 1 2
A = 2 4 −3 is the coefficient matrix
3 6 −5
1 1 2 9
and [A, B] = 2 4 −3 1 is the augmented matrix.
3 6 −5 0
1.1.4 Testing the consistency of non homogeneous linear equations (two and
three variables) by rank method.
Consider the equations A X= B in ‘n’ unknowns.
10 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
( )
(i) If r A, B = r ( A) , then the equations are consistent.
( )
(iii) If r A, B = r ( A) < n , then the equations are consistent and have infinitely
many solutions.
( )
(iv) If r A, B ≠ r ( A) then the equations are inconsistent and has no solution.
Example 1.9
Solution:
r ( A) = 2 r ([ A, B ]) = 2
r ( A) = r ([ A, B ]) = 2 = Number of unknowns.
Solution:
r ( A) = 1 r ([ A, B ]) = 1
Let us take y = k , k ∈ R
⇒ 2x + k = 5
1
x = (5 − k )
2
1
2
(5 − k ) , y = k for all k ∈R
x=
Thus by giving different values for k, we get different solution. Hence the system
has infinite number of solutions.
Example 1.11
r ( A) = 1 r ([ A, B ]) = 2
(
∴ r A, B = 2, ) r ( A) = 1
(
r ( A) ≠ r A, B )
∴The given system is inconsistent and has no solution.
Example 1.12
Solution:
The matrix equation corresponding to the given system is
2 1 1 x 5
1 1 1 y = 4
1 −1 2 z 1
A X = B
Augmented matrix [A,B] Elementary Transformation
2 1 1 5
1 1 1 4
1 −1 2 1
1 1 1 4
R1 ↔ R2
2 1 1 5
1 −1 2 1
Obviously the last equivalent matrix is in the echelon form. It has three non-zero
rows.
( )
r ( A) = r A, B = 3 = Number of unknowns .
To find the solution, let us rewrite the above echelon form into the matrix form.
1 1 1 x 4
0 −1 −1 y = −3
0 0 3 z 3
x+ y+z=4 (1)
y+z=3 (2)
3z = 3 (3)
(3) ⇒ z = 1
(2) ⇒ y = 3 − z = 2
(1) ⇒ x = 4 − y − z
x =1
∴ x = 1, y = 2, z = 1
Example 1.13
Show that the equations x + y + z = 6, x + 2 y + 3z = 14, x + 4 y + 7 z = 30 are consistent
and solve them.
Solution:
The matrix equation corresponding to the given system is
1 1 1 x 6
1 2 3 y = 14
1 4 7 z 30
A X = B
r ( A) = 2, r ([ A, B ]) = 2
Obviously the last equivalent matrix is in the echelon form. It has two non-zero
rows.
∴ ( )
r A, B = 2, r ( A) = 2
( )
r ( A) = r A, B = 2 < Number of unknowns.
1 1 1 x 6
0 1 2 y = 8
0 0 0 z 0
x+ y+z=6 (1)
y + 2z = 8 (2 )
(2) ⇒ y = 8 − 2z ,
(1) ⇒ x = 6 − y − z = 6 − (8 − 2z ) − z = z − 2
Example 1.14
r ( A) = 2, r ([ A, B ]) = 3
The last equivalent matrix is in the echelon form. [A, B] has 3 non-zero rows and
[A] has 2 non-zero rows.
∴ ( )
r A, B = 3, r ( A) = 2
r ( A) ≠ r ( A, B )
The system is inconsistent and has no solution.
Example 1.15
Find k, if the equations x + 2 y − 3z = −2, 3x − y − 2z = 1, 2 x + 3 y − 5z = k are
consistent.
Solution:
The matrix equation corresponding to the given system is
1 2 −3 x −2
3 −1 −2 y = 1
z
k
2 3 −5
A X = B
16 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Augmented matrix [A,B] Elementary Transformation
1 2 −3 −2
3 −1 −2 1
2 3 −5 k
1 2 −3 −2
R2 → R2 − 3R1
0 −7 7 7
0 −1 1 4 + k R3 → R3 − 2R1
1 2 −3 −2
0 −7 7 7
0 0 0 21 + 7k R3 → 7 R3 − R2
( )
r ( A) = 2, r A, B = 2 or 3
( )
For the equations to be consistent, r A, B = r ( A) = 2
∴ 21 + 7k = 0
7k = −21 .
k = −3
Example 1.16
Solution:
The matrix equation corresponding to the given system is
1 1 1 x 7
1 2 3 y = 18
0 1 k z 6
A X = B
Augmented matrix [A,B] Elementary Transformation
1 1 1 7
1 2 3 18
0 1 k 6
(
r A, B ≠ r ( A)
)
It is possible if k − 2 = 0 .
∴ k = 2
Example 1.17
Investigate for what values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ the following system of equations
x + y + z = 6, x + 2 y + 3z = 10, x + 2 y + az = b have
(i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.
Solution:
The matrix equation corresponding to the given system is
1 1 1 x 6
1 2 3 y = 10
1 2 a z b
A X = B
Augmented matrix [A,B] Elementary Transformation
1 1 1 6
1 2 3 10
1 2 a b
1 1 1 6
0 1 2 4 R2 → R2 − R1
0 1 a − 1 b − 6
1 1 1 6
0 1 2 4
0 0 a − 3 b − 10
R3 → R3 − R1
i.e when r ( A) = r ([ A, B ]) = 3
Which is possible only when a − 3 ≠ 0 and b may be any real number as we can
observe .
Example 1.18
The total number of units produced (P) is a linear function of amount of over
times in labour (in hours) (l), amount of additional machine time (m) and fixed
finishing time (a)
i.e, P = a + bl + cm
From the data given below, find the values of constants a, b and c
6,725 = a + 35b + 9c
r ( A) = 3, r ([ A, B ]) = 3
= 7625 units.
Exercise 1.1
1 1 −1 1 −2 3
2. If A = 2 −3 4 and B = −2 4 −6 , then find the rank of AB and the rank
3 −2 3 5 1 −1
of BA.
7. The price of three commodities X,Y and Z are x,y and z respectively Mr.Anand
purchases 6 units of Z and sells 2 units of X and 3 units of Y. Mr.Amar purchases a
unit of Y and sells 3 units of X and 2units of Z. Mr.Amit purchases a unit of X and
sells 3 units of Y and a unit of Z. In the process they earn `5,000/-, `2,000/- and
`5,500/- respectively Find the prices per unit of three commodities by rank method.
In 1750 he published Cramer’s Rule, giving a general formula for the solution of
certain linear system of n equations in n unknowns having a unique solution in terms of
determinants. Advantages of Cramer’s rule is that we can find the value of x, y or z without
knowing any of the other values of x, y or z. Cramer’s rule is applicable only when D ≠ 0
( ∆ is the determinant value of the coefficient matrix) for unique solution.
a1x + b1 y = d1
a2 x + b2 y = d2
a1 b1 d1 b1 a1 d1
Let D= Dx = D y =
a2 b2 d2 b2 a2 d2
The solution of unknown by Cramer’s rule is
Dx Dy
x = , y= provided D ≠ 0
D D
(b) Consider the system of three linear equations with three unknowns
a1x + b1 y + c1z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
Let D = a2 b2 c2 ≠ 0 Dx = d2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3
a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
D y = a2 d2 c2 Dz = a2 b2 d2
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
Dx Dy Dz
Solution of unknown by Cramer Rule is x = , y= ,z =
D D D
Example 1.19
Solution:
The equations are
2x + 3 y = 7
3x + 5 y = 9
Applications of Matrices and Determinants 23
2 3
Here D = =1
3 5
≠0
∴ we can apply Cramer’s Rule
7 3 2 7
Now Dx = = 8 Dy = = −3
9 5 3 9
∴ By Cramer’s rule
Dx 8 Dy −3
x=
= = 8 y= = = −3
D 1 D 1
∴ Solution is x = 8, y = −3
Example 1.20
The following table represents the number of shares of two companies A and B
during the month of January and February and it also gives the amount in rupees invested
by Ravi during these two months for the purchase of shares of two companies. Find the
the price per share of A and B purchased during both the months
Number of Shares of Amount invested by Ravi
Months the company
A B (in `)
January 10 5 125
February 9 12 150
Solution:
Let the price of one share of A be x
Let the price of one share of B be y
∴ By given data, we get the following equations
10 x + 5 y = 125
9 x + 12 y = 150
10 5 125 5 10 125
D= = 75 ≠ 0 Dx = = 750 Dy = = 375
9 12 150 12 9 150
∴ By Cramer’s rule
Dx 750 Dy 375
x = = = 10 y = = =5
D 75 D 75
The price of the share A is `10 and the price of the share B is `5.
Example 1.22
Solve by Cramer’s rule x + y + z = 4, 2 x − y + 3z = 1, 3x + 2 y − z = 1
Solution:
1 1 1
Here D = 2 −1 3 = 13 ≠ 0 If |A|=0, then the system of
3 2 −1 equations has either no solution
∴ We can apply Cramer’s Rule and the or infinitely many solutions.
system is consistent and it has unique solution.
4 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4
Dx = 1 −1 3 = −13 D y = 2 1 3 = 39 Dz = 2 −1 1 = 26
1 2 −1 3 1 −1 3 2 1
∴ By Cramer’s rule
Dx −13 Dy 39 Dz 26
x = = = −1 y= = =3 z= = =2
D 13 D 13 D 13
∴ The solution is ( x , y , z ) = ( −1, 3, 2)
∴ By Cramer’s rule
Dx −240 Dy −300 Dz −360
x = = = 120 y= = = 150 z= = = 180
D −2 D −2 D −2
∴ The cost of a Business Mathematics book is ₹120,
the cost of a Accountancy book is ₹150 and
the cost of a Commerce book is ₹180.
Example 1.24
An automobile company uses three types of Steel S1, S2 and S3 for providing three
different types of Cars C1, C2 and C3. Steel requirement R (in tonnes) for each type of car
and total available steel of all the three types are summarized in the following table.
Types of Car Total Steel
Types of Steel C1 C2 C3 available
S1 3 2 4 28
S2 1 1 2 13
S3 2 2 1 14
26 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Determine the number of Cars of each type which can be produced by Cramer’s
rule.
Solution:
3 2 4 28 2 4
Here D = 1 1 2 = −3 ≠ 0 Dx = 13 1 2 = −6
2 2 1 14 2 1
3 28 4 3 2 28
D y = 1 13 2 = −9 Dz = 1 1 13 = −12
2 14 1 2 2 14
∴ By Cramer’s rule
Dx −6 Dy −9 Dz −12
x = = =2 y= = =3 z = = =4
D −3 D −3 D −3
∴ The number of cars of each type which can be produced are 2, 3 and 4.
Exercise 1.2
2. A commodity was produced by using 3 units of labour and 2 units of capital, the
total cost is ₹62. If the commodity had been produced by using 4 units of labour
and one unit of capital, the cost is ₹56. What is the cost per unit of labour and
capital? (Use determinant method).
4. At marina two types of games viz., Horse riding and Quad Bikes riding are available
on hourly rent. Keren and Benita spent ₹780 and ₹560 during the month of May.
Number of hours Total amount spent
Name
Horse Riding Quad Bike Riding (in `)
Keren 3 4 780
Benita 2 3 560
Find the hourly charges for the two games (rides). (Use determinant method).
6. A total of `8,500 was invested in three interest earning accounts. The interest rates
were 2%, 3% and 6% if the total simple interest for one year was ₹380 and the amount
invested at 6% was equal to the sum of the amounts in the other two accounts, then
how much was invested in each account? (use Cramer’s rule).
The Occurrence of an event at a specified point in time, put the system in state Sn;
if after the passage of one unit of time, another event occurs, that is the system moved
from the state Sn to Sn+1. This movement is related to a probability distribution, there is a
probability associated with each (move) transition from event Sn to Sn+1. This probability
distribution is called one stage transition probability.
The transition Probabilities Pjk satisfy Pjk > 0, ∑ Pjk = 1 for all j
k
These probabilities may be written in the matrix form
P11 P12 P13
P P22 P23
21
P=
This is called the transition probability matrix
Example 1.25
Solution:
Transition probability matrix
A B
A 0.9 0.1
T=
B 0.3 0.7
At equilibrium, ( A B) (
T= A B ) where A + B = 1
0.9 0.1
( A B ) 0.3 0.7
(
= A B )
0. 9 A + 0. 3 B = A
0.9 A + 0.3 (1 − A) = A
0.6A + 0.3 = A
0.4A = 0.3
0.3 3
A = =
0.4 4
Example 1.26
Parithi is either sad (S) or happy (H) each day. If he is happy in one day, he is sad on
the next day by four times out of five. If he is sad on one day, he is happy on the next day
by two times out of three. Over a long run, what are the chances that Parithi is happy on
any given day?
Solution: 4 1
The transition porbability matrix is T = 5 5
2 1
4 1 3 3
( )
At equilibrium, S H 5 5 = (S H) where S + H = 1
2 1
3 3
4 2
S+ H = S
5 3
4 2
S + (1 − S ) = S
5 3
On solving this, we get
10 3
S = and H =
13 13
10
In the long run, on a randomly selected day, his chances of being happy is .
13
Example 1.27
Akash bats according to the following traits. If he makes a hit (S), there is a 25%
chance that he will make a hit his next time at bat. If he fails to hit (F), there is a 35%
chance that he will make a hit his next time at bat. Find the transition probability matrix
for the data and determine Akash’s long- range batting average.
Solution:
0.25 0.75
The Transition probability matrix is T =
0.35 0.65
0.25 0.75
At equilibrium, (S F ) = (S F) where S + F = 1
0.35 0.65
0.25 S + 0.35 F = S
0.25 S + 0.35 (1 – S) = S
30 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
0.35
On solving this, we get S =
1.10
⇒ S = 0.318 and F = 0.682
Example 1.28
80% of students who do maths work during one study period, will do the maths
work at the next study period. 30% of students who do english work during one study
period, will do the english work at the next study period.
Initially there were 60 students do maths work and 40 students do english work.
Calculate,
(i) The transition probability matrix
(ii) The number of students who do maths work, english work for the next
subsequent 2 study periods.
Aliter
Solution M E M E
2
(i) Transition probability matrix M 0.8 0.2
M E
(60 40 ) E 0.7 0.3
M 0.8 0.2 M E M E
T=
E 0.7 0.3
M 0.78 0.22
After one study period, (60 40 ) E 0.77 0.23
M E M E M E = (46.8 + 30.8 13.2 + 9.2)
M 0.8 0.2
60 40 ( ) E 0.7 0.3
(
= 76 24 ) = (77.6 22.4)
So in the very next study period, there will be 76 students do maths work and
24 students do the English work.
= 77.6 ( 22.4 )
After two study periods there will be 78 (approx) students do maths work and 22
(approx) students do English work.
1. The subscription department of a magazine sends out a letter to a large mailing list
inviting subscriptions for the magazine. Some of the people receiving this letter
already subscribe to the magazine while others do not. From this mailing list, 45%
of those who already subscribe will subscribe again while 30% of those who do
not now subscribe will subscribe. On the last letter, it was found that 40% of those
receiving it ordered a subscription. What percent of those receiving the current
letter can be expected to order a subscription?
2. A new transit system has just gone into operation in Chennai. Of those who use the
transit system this year, 30% will switch over to using metro train next year and 70%
will continue to use the transit system. Of those who use metro train this year, 70%
will continue to use metro train next year and 30% will switch over to the transit
system. Suppose the population of Chennai city remains constant and that 60% of
the commuters use the transit system and 40% of the commuters use metro train
this year.
(i) What percent of commuters will be using the transit system after one year?
(ii) What percent of commuters will be using the transit system in the long run?
3. Two types of soaps A and B are in the market. Their present market shares are 15%
for A and 85% for B. Of those who bought A the previous year, 65% continue to
buy it again while 35% switch over to B. Of those who bought B the previous year,
55% buy it again and 45% switch over to A. Find their market shares after one year
and when is the equilibrium reached?
4. Two products A and B currently share the market with shares 50% and 50% each
respectively. Each week some brand switching takes place. Of those who bought A
the previous week, 60% buy it again whereas 40% switch over to B. Of those who
bought B the previous week, 80% buy it again where as 20% switch over to A. Find
their shares after one week and after two weeks. If the price war continues, when is
the equilibrium reached?
Exercise 1.4
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 5 6 8
2 0
4. If A = , then r ( A) is
0 8
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) n
1 1 1
5. The rank of the matrix 1 2 3 is
1 4 9
1
8. If A = 2 then the rank of AAT is
3
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
l −1 0
9. If the rank of the matrix 0 l −1 is 2. Then l is
−1 0 l
16. In a transition probability matrix, all the entries are greater than or equal to
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) 3
20. If A ≠ 0, then A is
(a) non- singular matrix (b) singular matrix
(c) zero matrix (d) none of these
is
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ −∆ −∆
(a) 2 , 3 (b) 3 , 2 (c) 1 , 1 (d) 1 , 1
∆1 ∆1 ∆1 ∆1 ∆2 ∆3 ∆2 ∆3
24. An×n = 3 adjA = 243 then the value n is
1 −3 4 7
1. Find the rank of the matrix A = .
9 1 2 0
−2 1 3 4
2. Find the rank of the matrix A = 0 1 1 2 .
1 3 4 7
4 5 2 2
3. Find the rank of the matrix A = 3 2 1 6 .
4 4 8 0
8. The cost of 2kg. of wheat and 1kg. of sugar is `100. The cost of 1kg. of wheat and
1kg. of rice is `80. The cost of 3kg. of wheat, 2kg. of sugar and 1kg of rice is `220.
Find the cost of each per kg., using Cramer’s rule.
9. A salesman has the following record of sales during three months for three items
A,B and C, which have different rates of commission.
10. The subscription department of a magazine sends out a letter to a large mailing list
inviting subscriptions for the magazine. Some of the people receiving this letter
already subscribe to the magazine while others do not. From this mailing list, 60%
of those who already subscribe will subscribe again while 25% of those who do
not now subscribe will subscribe. On the last letter it was found that 40% of those
receiving it ordered a subscription. What percent of those receiving the current
letter can be expected to order a subscription?
36 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Summary
In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of
zz Rank of a matrix
The rank of a matrix A is the order of the largest non-zero minor of A
zz The rank of a matrix A is the order of the largest non-zero minor of A
zz r( A) ≥ 0
zz If A is a matrix of order m × n , then r( A) ≤ minimum of {m, n}
zz The rank of a zero matrix is ‘0’
zz The rank of a non- singular matrix of order n × n is ‘n’
zz Equivalent Matrices
Two Matrices A and B are said to be equivalent if one can be obtained from another
by a finite number of elementary transformations and we write it as A ~ B .
zz Echelon form
A matrix of order m × n is said to be in echelon form if the row having all its entries
zero will lie below the row having non-zero entry.
Step – 1 : Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra
work Book named “12th Standard Business Mathematics ” will open. In the work book there are
two Volumes. Select “Volume-1”.
Step 1
Step 2
Introduction
G
eorg Friedrich
Bernhard Riemann
(Nineteenth century) was an inspiring
German mathematician. He was very much recognised for
his contribution in calculus.
The word ‘integrate’ literally means that ‘to find the sum’. So, we believe that the
name “Integral Calculus” has its origin from this process of summation. Calculus is the
mathematical tool used to test theories about the origins of the universe, the development
of tornadoes and hurricanes. It is also used to find the surplus of consumer and producer,
identifying the probability density function of a continuous random variable, obtain an
original function from its marginal function and etc., in business applications.
In this chapter, we will study about the concept of integral and some types of method
of indefinite and definite integrals.
Definition 2.1
A function F (x ) is said to be a primitive function of the derived function f (x ) , if
d
dx
[ F ( x )] = f ( x )
Now, consider the following examples which are already known to us.
d 3
dx
( )
x = 3x 2 ,
d
dx
( )
x 3 + 5 = 3x 2 ,
d
dx
( )
x 3 − 23 = 3x 2 ,
d
dx
( )
x 3 + e = 3x 2 ,
d
dx
( )
x 3 − p = 3x 2 , ...
Integral Calculus – I 41
From the above examples, we observe that 3x 2 is the derived function of the primitive
functions x 3 , x 3 + 5 , x 3 − 23 , x 3 + e , x 3 − p , ... and which indicates that the primitive
functions are need not be unique, even though the derived function is unique. So we come
to a conclusion that x 3 + c is the primitive function of the derived function 3x 2 .
∴ For every derived function, there are infinitely many primitives by choosing c
arbitrarily from the set of real numbers R. So we called these integrals as indefinite
integrals.
d
In general, F ( x ) = f ( x ) ⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx = F (x ) + c,
dx
where c is called the constant of integration.
Remarks
zz If two different primitive functions F ( x ) and G ( x ) have the same derived
function f ( x ) , then they differ only by a constant term.
zz ∫ f (x) dx is called as indefinite integral.
zz The symbol looks like an elongated S [ ∫ ], which stands for “summation” is the
sign of integration.
zz ∫ f (x) dx is read as integral of f ( x ) with respect to x.
zz f ( x ) in ∫ f (x) dx [i.e. the function to be integrated] is called as integrand.
zz x in ∫ f (x) dx is the variable of integration.
zz The term integration means the process of finding the integral.
zz The term constant of integration means any real number c , considered as a
constant function.
Definition 2.2
The process of determining an integral of a given function is defined as integration of a
function.
Note
Here, we discuss only the first three methods of integration, because the method
of integration by successive reduction is beyond the scope of the syllabus.
Note
The integrals which are directly obtained from their corresponding derivatives
are known as the standard results of integration.
Type: I
x n+1 y = ∫ f (x ) dx = F (x ) + c
∫ x dx =
n
(i) + c , n ≠ −1
n +1 denotes family of curves
(ax + b)n+1 having parallel tangents at
(ii) ∫ (ax + b ) dx =
n
+ c , n ≠ −1
a (n + 1) x=k
Example 2.1
ax 2 + bx + c
Evaluate ∫ x
dx
Solution:
ax 2 + bx + c 23 1
−
1
∫ ∫ ax + bx + cx dx
2 2
dx =
x ∫ dx = x + c
Integral Calculus – I 43
3 1 1
−
= a ∫ x dx + b∫ x dx + c ∫ x
2 2 2
dx
5 3
2 2 1
2ax 2bx 2
= + + 2c x + k
5 3
Example 2.2
Evaluate ∫ 2 x + 1 dx
Solution:
1
2
∫ 2 x + 1 dx = ∫ (2 x + 1) dx ∫ a (ax + b)
n
dx = ∫ (ax + b ) d (ax + b )
n
3
=
( ax + b )
n+1
+c
(2 x + 1)
2
n +1
= +c
3
Example 2.3
dx
Evaluate ∫ (2x + 3)2
1 1
Solution: (i) ∫ dx = − +c , n ≠1
x n
(n − 1) x n −1
dx −2
∫ (2x + 3)2 = ∫ (2x + 3) dx
(ii) a d (ax + b )
1
∫ (ax + b)n dx = ∫ (ax + b)n
=− +c
2(2 x + 3) 1
=− +c , n ≠1
Example 2.4 (n − 1) (ax + b)n−1
2
1
Evaluate ∫ x + dx
x
Solution:
2
1 2 1
∫ x + x dx = ∫ x + 2 + x 2 dx
1
= ∫ x 2dx + 2 ∫ dx + ∫ dx
x2
x3 1
= + 2x − +c
3 x
Example 2.5
∫ (x )( )
3
Evaluate + 7 x − 4 dx
∫ (x )( ) ∫ (x )
3 4
+ 7 x − 4 dx = − 4 x 3 + 7 x − 28 dx
x5 4 7x
2
= −x + − 28 x + c
5 2
Example 2.6
2 x 2 − 14 x + 24
Evaluate ∫ dx
x −3
Solution:
2 x 2 − 14 x + 24 ( x − 3) (2x − 8) dx By factorisation,
∫ x − 3 dx = ∫ x −3 2 x 2 − 14 x + 24 = ( x − 3) (2 x − 8)
= ∫ (2x − 8) dx
= x 2 − 8 x + c
Example 2.7
− 1
( )
1
x+2 1 2 1 2 x + 3 + 1
dx = ∫ (2 x + 3) + (2 x + 3) dx
2
∫ 2x + 3 2
=
2
1
(2 x + 3 )
2
3
2 1
= 2 ( 3 ) + ( 2 x +3 ) + c
1 2 x +3 1 − 12
1
2
= (2 x + 3) + (2 x + 3)
2
2
Example 2.8
1
Evaluate ∫ x +2 − x −2
dx
Solution: By rationalisation,
1 1 1 x +2 + x −2
= ×
∫ x +2 − x −2
dx
x +2 − x −2 x +2 − x −2 x +2 + x −2
x +2 + x −2 x +2 + x −2
=∫ dx =
4 4
3 3
1 2 2
= 6 ( x +2 ) + ( x −2 ) + c
Integral Calculus – I 45
Exercise 2.1
Type: II
1
(i) ∫ x dx = log x + c
1 1
(ii) ∫ ax + b dx =
a
log ax + b + c
Example 2.9
3x 2 + 2 x + 1
Evaluate ∫ x
dx
Solution:
3x 2 + 2 x + 1 1
∫ x
dx = ∫ 3x + 2 + x dx
3x 2
= + 2 x + log x + c
2
Example 2.10
2
Evaluate ∫ 3x + 5 dx
Solution:
2 1 a d (ax + b )
∫ 3x + 5 dx = 2 ∫ 3x + 5 dx ∫ ax + b ∫ ax + b
dx =
2 = log ax + b + c
= log 3x + 5 + c
3
Example 2.11
x 2 + 2x + 3
Evaluate ∫ x + 1 dx
46 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Solution: Split into simple integrands
x 2 + 2x + 3 2
∫ x + 1 dx = ∫ ( x + 1) + x + 1 dx (2
x 2 + 2x + 3 x + 2x + 1 + 2
=
)
x +1 x +1
x2 2
=
2
+ x + 2 log x + 1 + c = ( x + 1) +
x +1
Example 2.12
x 3 + 5x 2 − 9
Evaluate ∫ x + 2 dx
Solution:
By simple division,
3 2
x + 5x − 9 2 3 x 3 + 5x 2 − 9 3
∫ x+2 dx = ∫ x + 3 x − 6 +
x + 2 dx
x+2
= x 2 + 3x − 6 +
x+2
3 2
x 3x
= + − 6 x + 3 log x + 2 + c
3 2
Example 2.13
7x − 1
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 5x + 6 dx
Solution:
By partial fractions,
7x − 1 20 13
∫ x 2 − 5x + 6 dx = ∫ x − 3 − x − 2 dx 7x − 1
2
=
A
+
B
x − 5x + 6 x − 3 x − 2
dx dx
= 20∫ − 13∫ ⇒ 2
7x − 1
=
20
−
13
x −3 x −2
x − 5x + 6 x − 3 x − 2
= 20 log x − 3 − 13 log x − 2 + c
Example 2.14
3x + 2 By partial fractions,
Evaluate ∫ ( x − 2)2 ( x − 3) dx
3x + 2 A B C
= + +
Solution:
( x − 2 ) ( x − 3)
2
( x − 2 ) ( x − 2 ) ( x − 3)
2
3x + 2 3x + 2 11 8 11
∫ ( x − 2)2 ( x − 3) dx ⇒ =− − +
( x − 2)2 ( x − 3) ( x − 2) ( x − 2)2 ( x − 3)
11 8 11
=∫ −
− + dx
( x − 2 ) ( x − 2)2
( x − 3 )
dx dx dx
= −11∫ − 8∫ + 11∫
( x − 2) ( x − 2)
2
( x − 3)
8 x −3 8
= −11 log x − 2 + + 11 log x − 3 + c = 11 log + +c
x −2 x −2 x −2
Integral Calculus – I 47
Example 2.15
3x 2 + 6 x + 1
Evaluate ∫ ( x + 3)( x 2 + 1) dx
Solution:
3x 2 + 6 x + 1 1 2x
∫ ( x + 3) x 2 + 1
(
dx = ∫ ( x + 3) x 2 + 1 dx
)
+
( )
By partial fractions,
dx 2x
=∫
( x + 3) ∫ x 2 + 1
+ dx
( ) 3x 2 + 6 x + 1
=
A Bx+C
+ 2
= log x + 3 + log x 2 + 1 + c ( x + 3) ( x 2 + 1) (
( x + 3) x + 1 )
2
3x + 6 x + 1 1 2x
( )
= log ( x + 3) x 2 + 1 + c ⇒
( x + 3) ( x 2 + 1)
= + 2
(
( x + 3) x + 1 )
3 2
= log x + 3x + x + 3 + c
Exercise 2.2
3x 2 − 2 x + 5 1 p
7. 8. If f ′(x ) = and f (1) = , then find f (x )
( x − 1) x + 5
2
( ) x 4
Type: III
1
∫e ∫e
ax +b
(i) x
dx = e x + c (ii) dx = e ax +b + c
a
1
∫a
x
(iii) dx = a x + c , a > 0 and a ≠ 1
log a
1
∫ a dx = m log a a + c , a > 0 and a ≠ 1
mx +n mx +n
(iv)
Example 2.16
∫3
2 x +3
Evaluate dx dx = ∫ amx +n d (mx + n)
∫ ma
mx +n
Solution: 1 mx +n
= a +c,
log a
∫3 dx = ∫ 32 x ⋅ 33 dx
2 x +3
a > 0 and a ≠ 1
32x
= 27 +c
2 log 3
Example 2.17
ex + 7
Evaluate ∫ e x dx
Solution:
ex + 7
∫ e x dx = ∫ 1 + 7e dx
−x
( )
= x − 7e − x + c
Example 2.18
5 + 5e 2 x
Evaluate ∫ e x + e − x dx
Solution:
5 + 5e 2 x ex e−x + ex ( )
∫ e x + e − x dx = 5∫ e x + e − x dx
= 5∫ e x dx
= 5e x + c
Example 2.19
2
x 1
Evaluate ∫ e + e x dx
Solution:
∫ (2ax + b) e
2
ax +bx + c
dx
( )
2
x 1 2x 1 = ∫ e ax
2 +bx + c
d ax 2 + bx + c
∫ e + e x dx = ∫ e + e2 x + 2 dx
∫ (e )
2 +bx + c
= 2x
+e
− 2x
+ 2 dx = e ax +k
e 2 x e −2 x
= − + 2x + c
2 2
Exercise 2.3
a x − e x log b
( )
2
x log a a log a n log x
1. e +e −e 2. x log a x 3. e x + 1 e x
e b
Integral Calculus – I 49
1
e 3 x − e −3 x e3x + e5x x+
1 − 1 e x
4. 5. 6.
ex ex + e−x x2
1
7. 8. If f ′(x ) = e x and f (0) = 2, then find f (x )
x ( log x )
2
Type: IV
1
(i) ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c (ii) ∫ sin(ax + b) dx =−
a
(
cos ax + b + c)
1
(iii) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c (iv) ∫ cos(ax + b) dx = a
sin(ax + b) + c
1
∫ sec (vi) ∫ sec2 (ax + b) dx = tan(ax + b) + c
2
(v) x dx = tan x + c
a
1
(vi) ∫ cosec
2
x dx = − cot x + c (viii) ∫ cosec2 (ax + b ) dx = − cot (ax + b ) + c
a
Example 2.20
Evaluate ∫ (2 sin x − 5 cos x ) dx
Solution:
( )
∫ 2 sin x − 5 cos x dx = 2∫ sin x dx − 5∫ cos x dx
= −2 cos x − 5 sin x + c
Example 2.21
Change into simple integrands
∫ sin
2
Evaluate x dx
cos 2 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x
Solution: 1
1 ∴ sin2 x = (1 − cos 2 x )
∫ sin ∫ 2 (1 − cos 2x ) dx 2
2
x dx =
1
dx − ∫ cos 2 x dx
2 ∫
=
1 sin 2 x
= x − +c
2 2
Example 2.22
Change into simple integrands
cos 2 x
Evaluate ∫ 2 dx
sin x cos2 x cos 2 x cos2 x − sin2 x
=
Solution: sin2 x cos2 x sin2 x cos2 x
cos 2 x
∫ sin2 x cos2 x dx = ∫ cosec x − sec x dx
2 2
( ) = 2 −
1
sin x cos2 x
1
= − cot x − tan x + c
= cosec2 x − sec2 x
50 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Example 2.23
Evaluate ∫ 1 + sin 2 x dx
Solution:
∫ (sin x + cos x ) dx
2
Change into simple integrands
∫ 1 + sin 2 x dx =
1 + sin 2 x = sin2 x + cos2 x + 2 sin x cos x
= ∫ (sin x + cos x ) dx
( )
2
= sin x + cos x
= − cos x + sin x + c
Example 2.24
Change into simple integrands
∫ cos x dx
3
Evaluate
cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
Solution:
1
1 3
cos3 x =
4
[cos 3x + 3 cos x ]
∫ cos x dx = 4∫ 4∫
3
cos 3 x dx + cos x dx
1 3
= cos 3x + cos x
sin 3x 3 sin x 4 4
= + +c
12 4
Exercise 2.4
d dv du
then (uv ) = u +v .
dx dx dx
Integrate on both sides with respect to x .
d dv du
∫ dx (uv ) dx = ∫ dx
u dx + ∫ dx dx
v
⇒ ∫ d (uv) = ∫ u dv + ∫ v du
uv = ∫ udv + ∫ vdu
∴ ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
Integral Calculus – I 51
This method is very useful when the integrand is a product of two different types of
functions or a function which is not directly integrable. The success of this method
depends on the proper choice of u . So we can choose the function u by using the following
guidelines.
(i) If the integrand contains only a function which is directly not integrable, then
take this as u.
(ii) If the integrand contains both directly integrable and non integrable functions,
then take non integrable function as u.
(iii) If the integrand contains both the functions are integrable and one of them is
of the form x n , n is a positive integer, then take this x n as u.
(Or) we can also choose u as the function which comes first in the word “I L A T E”
Where,
I stands for the inverse trigonometric function
(2) If u and v are functions of x , then ∫ udv = uv − u′v1 + u′′v2 − u′′′v3 + ...
where u ′, u ′′, u ′′′, . . . are the successive derivatives of u and
v1 , v2 , v3 , . . . are the repeated integrals of v.
Note
� The above mentioned formula is well known as Bernoulli’s formula.
� Bernoulli’s formula is applied when u = x n where n is a positive integer.
Example 2.25
∫ xe
x
Evaluate dx
Solution:
∫ xe dx = ∫ udv
x
= e x (x − 1) + c
Example 2.26
∫ x e dx
3 x
Evaluate
and dv = e x dx
∫ x e dx = ∫ udv
3 x
Take u = x 3 v = ex
= uv − u ′v1 + u ′′v2 − u ′′′v3 + ... u ′ = 3x 2 v1 = e x
= x 3e x − 3x 2 e x + 6 xe x − 6e x + c u ′′ = 6 x v2 = e x
u ′′′ = 6 v3 = e x
(
= e x x3 −3x2 +6 x −6 + c )
Example 2.27
Evaluate ∫ x 3 log x dx
Solution:
∫x log x dx = ∫ udv
3
Take u = log x and dv = x 3dx
x4 1 1 x4
= log x − ∫ x 3 dx du = dx v=
4 4 x 4
x4 1 x4
= log x − + c
4 4 4
x4 1
=
4 log x − 4 + c
Example 2.28
2
Evaluate ∫ (log x ) dx
Integral Calculus – I 53
Solution:
Take u = (log x )2 and dv = dx
2
∫ (log x ) dx = ∫ udv Differentiate Integrate
1
= uv − ∫ vdu du = (2 log x ) dx v =x
x
= x ( log x ) − 2 ∫ log x dx ... (*)
2
= x ( log x ) − 2 ∫ udv
2
For ∫ log x dx in (*)
= x ( log x ) − log x 2 + 2 + c
2
Example 2.29
∫( )
Successive derivatives Repeated integrals
Evaluate x 2 − 2 x + 5 e − x dx
and dv = e − x dx
Solution: Take u = x 2 − 2 x + 5 v = − e−x
∫ (x )
− 2 x + 5 e − x dx = ∫ udv
2
u′ = 2x − 2 v1 = e − x
( )( )
= x 2 − 2 x + 5 −e − x − (2 x − 2) e − x + 2 −e − x + c ( )
= e − x − x 2 −5 + c ( )
Exercise 2.5
1. xe − x 2. x 3e 3 x 3. log x 4. x log x
2
5. x n log x 6. x 5e x
1. ∫ f ( x ) f ′(x) dx = n + 1 + c, n ≠ −1
f ′( x )
2. ∫ f (x )
dx = log f (x ) + c
f ′( x )
3. ∫ f (x )
dx = 2 f (x ) + c
∫e
x
4. f (x ) + f ′(x ) dx = e x f (x ) + c
∫e
ax ax
5. a f (x ) + f ′(x ) dx = e f (x ) + c
Example 2.30
x
Evaluate ∫ x 2 + 1 dx
Solution: Take f (x ) = x 2 + 1
x 1 2x
∫ x 2 + 1 dx = ∫ 2
2 x +1
dx ∴ f ′( x ) = 2 x
1 f ’(x )
= ∫ dx
2 f (x )
1
= log [ f (x )] + c
2
1
= log x 2 + 1 + c nax n−1 d ax n + b ( )
2 ∫ ax n + b dx = ∫ ax n + b
Example 2.31 = log ax n + b + c
x
Evaluate ∫ x2 + 1
dx
Solution:
Take f (x ) = x 2 + 1
x 1 2x
∫ x2 + 1
dx =
2 ∫ x2 + 1
dx
∴ f ′( x ) = 2 x
1 f ′( x )
2 ∫ f (x )
= dx
1
= 2 f (x ) + c nax n−1 (
d ax n + b )
2 ∫ ax n + b
dx = ∫
ax n + b
= x2 + 1 + c = 2 ax n + b + c
Integral Calculus – I 55
Example 2.32
Evaluate ∫x x 2 + 1 dx
Solution:
1
1
( )
2
∫x x 2 + 1 dx =
2 ∫ x2 + 1 (2x ) dx Take f (x ) = x 2 + 1
1
1 2 ∴ f ′( x ) = 2 x
= ∫ f ( x ) f ′(x ) dx
2
3
1 [ f ( x )]
2
= +c
2 3
2
3
1 2
( )
2
= x +1 + c
3
Example 2.33
x3
Evaluate ∫ dx
( x + 1)
3
2
Solution:
x3 x2
∫ dx = ∫ x dx
( ) ( ) Take z = x 2 + 1
3 3
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
1 z −1 ∴ x 2 = z − 1 and
2 ∫ z3
= dz
dz = 2 x dx
1 1 1
= ∫
2 z 2
− 3 dz
z ⇒
dz
= x dx
2
1 1 1
= − + 2 + c
2 z 2z
1 1
= − +c
2
4 x +1 (
2
2 x 2
+ 1) ( )
Example 2.34
dx
Evaluate ∫ x ( x 3 + 1)
dx x2
∫ x ( x 3 + 1) =∫
(
x3 x3 + 1 )
dx
Take z = x 3 and by partial fractions,
1 dz
= ∫
3 z ( z + 1)
dz
∴ dz = 3x 2 dx
1 A
= +
B
z ( z + 1) z z + 1
1 1 1 dz 1 1 1
= ∫ −
3 z z + 1
dz ⇒
3
= x 2 dx ⇒ = −
z ( z + 1) z z + 1
1
= log z − log z + 1 + c
3
1 z
= log +c
3 z +1
1 x3
= log 3 +c
3 x +1
Example 2.35
2 Take z = x 2
∫ x e dx
3 x
Evaluate
∴ dz = 2 x dx
Solution: dz
⇒ = x dx
3 x2 2 x2 2
∫x e dx = ∫x e (x dx )
1
2∫
= z e z dz
1
= e z (z − 1) + c [By applying Integration by parts]
2
1 2
= e x (x 2 − 1) + c
2
Example 2.36
Evaluate ∫e
x
(x 2
)
+ 2 x dx
Solution:
∫e
x
(x 2
)
+ 2 x dx = ∫ e x f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) dx Take f (x ) = x 2
= e x f (x ) + c ∴ f ′ (x ) = 2x
= ex x2 + c
Integral Calculus – I 57
Example 2.37
xe x
Evaluate ∫ (1 + x )2 dx
Solution:
() ()
= ∫ e x f x + f ′ x dx
= e x f (x ) + c
ex
= +c
1+ x
Example 2.38
2x − 1
∫e
2x
Evaluate 4 x 2 dx
Solution:
2x − 1
∫e
2x
4 x 2 dx
1 1 −1 2x − 1 1 −1 and Take a = 2,
= ∫ e 2 x 2 + 2 dx Here, = +
4 x x 4x2 2x 4 x 2 1
f (x ) =
1 1 1 −1 x
= ∫ e ax a f (x ) + f ′(x ) dx = 2 +
4 4 x x2 1
1 ∴ f ′ (x ) = −
= e ax f (x ) + c x2
4
1 2x
= e +c
4x
Example 2.39
1 1
Evaluate ∫ log x (log x )2 dx
−
Solution:
1 1 1 1 z
∫ log x (log x )2 dx = ∫ z − z 2 e dz
−
= ez + c
z 1
and f (z ) =
x z
= +c 1
log x ∴ f ′ (z ) = − 2
z
Exercise 2.6
1. 2
2x + 5
2. 4
e 3 log x
3. 2 x
e2 x
4.
(log x ) 3
x + 5x − 7 x +1 e −2 x
x + e x −1
e −1
6x + 7
( )
5
5. 6. ( 4 x + 2) x 2 + x + 1 7. x 8 1 + x 9 8.
3x 2 + 7 x − 1 xe + ex
9.
1
x log x
10. 4
x
2 x − 3x − 2 2
11. e x (1 + x ) log xe x ( )
12.
1
x x2 + 1 ( )
1 2 x −1 3 x 3x − 1
13. e x 2 − 3 14. e x 3 15. e 9x 2
x x (x + 1)
Type: VII
dx dx
To evaluate the integrals of the form ∫ ax 2 + bx + c , ∫
ax 2 + bx + c
and
dx 1 a+x dx 1 x −a
1. ∫ a2 − x 2 2a a − x + c
= log 2. ∫ x 2 − a2 2a x + a + c
= log
dx dx
3. ∫ 2
x −a 2
= log x + x 2 − a2 + c 4. ∫ 2
x +a 2
= log x + x 2 + a2 + c
x 2 a2
5. ∫ x 2 − a2 dx =
2
x − a 2 − log x + x 2 − a2 + c
2
x 2 a2
6. ∫ x 2 + a2 dx =
2
x + a2 + log x + x 2 + a2 + c
2
Integral Calculus – I 59
Example 2.40
dx
Evaluate ∫ 16 − x 2
Solution:
dx dx
∫ 16 − x 2 =∫
4 − x2
2
1 4+x
= log +c
2 (4) 4−x
1 4+x
= log +c
8 4−x
Example 2.41
dx
Evaluate ∫ 1 − 25x 2
Solution:
dx 1 dx
∫ 1 − 25x 2 = ∫
25 1 2 2
5 − x
1
+ x
1 1
= log 5 +c
25 1 1
−x
2 5 5 ∫
m
2
dx = ∫
d( mx )
a2 −( mx ) a2 −( mx )2
1 1 + 5x 1
= log +c = 2a log aa+−mx
mx
+c
10 1 − 5x
Example 2.42
dx
Evaluate ∫ 2 + x − x2
Solution: By completing the squares
dx dx 2 + x − x 2 = 2 − x 2 − x
∫ 2 + x − x2 =∫ 2
3 1
2
2 − x − 2 1
2
1
= 2− x − −
2 4
3+ x − 1
1 2 2 2
3 1
2
= log +c = −x −
2 3 3 − x − 1 2 2
2 2 2
dx
Evaluate ∫ 4x2 − 1
Solution:
dx dx
∫ 4x2 − 1 = ∫ 1
4 x2 −
4
1 dx
= ∫
4 2 1 2
x −
2
1
1 1 x −
= log 2 +c
4 1 1
2 x +
dx = ∫ ( 2 ) 2
2 m d mx
2 ∫
( mx ) −a
2 2
( mx ) −a
2x − 1 1 −a + c
1
= log +c = 2a log mx
mx +a
4 2x + 1
Example 2.44
x2
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 25 dx
Solution:
x2 (
x 2 − 25 + 25)
∫ x 2 − 25 dx = ∫ x 2 − 25 dx
25
= ∫ 1 + 2 dx
x − 25
dx
= ∫ dx + 25 ∫ 2
x − 25
1 x −5
= x + 25 log +c
2 (5 ) x+5
5 x −5
= x + log +c
2 x+5
Integral Calculus – I 61
Example 2.45
dx
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 3x + 2
Solution:
dx dx
∫ x 2 − 3x + 2 = ∫ 2
3 1
2
x − 2 − 2
By completing the squares
3 1 3 9
2
x− − 2
x − 3x + 2 = x − − + 2
1 2 2 2 4
= log +c
1 3 1 2
2 x − 2 + 2 3 1
2 = x − −
2 4
2 2
2x − 4 3 1
= log +c = x − −
2x − 2 2 2
x −2
= log +c
x −1
Example 2.46
dx
Evaluate ∫ 4x2 − 9
Solution:
dx dx
∫ 4x2 − 9
=∫
9
4 x2 − m d (mx )
4 ∫ dx = ∫
1 dx
(mx )2 − a2 (mx )2 − a2
2∫
=
2
3
2
x −
2
= log mx + (mx )2 − a2 +c
2
1 3
= log x + x 2 − + c
2 2
1 9
= log x + x 2 − + c
2 4
Note
1
= log 2 x + 4 x 2 − 9 + c m log n ± k = c
2
Example 2.47
dx
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 3x + 2
62 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Solution: By completing the squares
dx dx
∫ x 2 − 3x + 2
=∫
2 2 2 3 9
2
3 1 x − 3x + 2 = x − − + 2
x − 2 − 2 2 4
2 2
3 1
3 3 1
2 2
= x − −
= log x − + x − − + c 2 2
2 2 2
3
= log x − + x 2 − 3x + 2 + c
2
Example 2.48
dx
Evaluate ∫ x 2 + 25
Solution:
dx dx
∫ x 2 + 25
=∫
x 2 + 52
= log x + x 2 + 52 + c = log x + x 2 + 25 + c
Example 2.49
dx
Evaluate ∫ x2 + 4x + 8
Solution:
dx dx By completing the squares
∫ =∫
x2 + 4x + 8 ( x + 2)2 + 22 x 2 + 4 x + 8 = ( x + 2) − 4 + 8
2
= log ( x + 2) + ( x + 2)2 + 22 +c
= ( x + 2 ) + 22
2
= log ( x + 2) + x 2 + 4 x + 8 + c
Example 2.50
x 3dx m d (mx )
Evaluate ∫ ∫ dx = ∫
x8 + 1 (mx )2 + a2 (mx )2 + a2
Solution:
x 3dx 1 4 x 3dx
∫ = ∫ = log mx + (mx )2 + a2 +c
4
(x )
8 2
x +1 4
+12
1
( )
2
= log x 4 + x 4 + 12 + c
4
1
= log x 4 + x 8 + 1 + c
4
Integral Calculus – I 63
Example 2.51
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 16 dx
Solution:
∫ x 2 − 16 dx = ∫ x 2 − 42 dx
x 2 42
= x − 4 − log x + x 2 − 42 + c
2
2 2
x 2
= x − 16 − 8 log x + x 2 − 16 + c
2
Example 2.52
Evaluate ∫ x 2 + 5 dx
Solution:
( )
2
∫ x 2 + 5 dx = ∫ x 2 + 5 dx
( 5)
2
+ ( 5) + ( 5)
x 2 2 2
= x log x + x 2 + +c
2 2
x 2 5
= x + 5 + log x + x 2 + 5 + c
2 2
Example 2.53
Evaluate ∫ 4 x 2 + 9 dx
Solution:
∫ m (mx ) + a dx = ∫ (mx ) + a d (mx )
2 2 2 2
∫ 4 x 2 + 9 dx
=
mx
(mx ) + a2 +
2 a2
log mx + (mx )2 + a2 +c
1 2 2
=
2∫
(2x )2 + 32 d (2x )
1 2x 32
=
2 2
(2x ) + 3 + 2 log 2x +
2 2
(2x )2 + 32 + c
x 9
= 4 x 2 + 9 + log 2 x + 4 x 2 + 9 + c
2 4
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 4 x + 3 dx
By completing the squares
Solution:
x 2 − 4 x + 3 = ( x − 2) − 4 + 3
2
∫ x 2 − 4 x + 3 dx
= ( x − 2) − 12
2
( x − 2)2 − 12 dx ∴ x 2 − 4 x + 3 = ( x − 2) − 12
2
=∫
( x − 2) x − 2 2 − 12 − 1 log x − 2 + x − 2 2 − 12 + c
=
2
( ) 2
( ) ( )
=
( x − 2) x2 − 4x + 3 −
1
log ( x − 2) + x 2 − 4 x + 3 + c
2 2
Example 2.55
1
Evaluate ∫x− x2 − 1
dx
Solution:
1
∫x− x2 − 1
dx
By rationalisation,
= ∫ x + x 2 − 1 dx 1
=
1
×
x + x2 − 1
x − x2 − 1 x − x2 − 1 x + x2 − 1
= ∫ xdx + ∫ x − 1 dx 2
= x + x2 − 1
x2 x 2 1
= + x − 1 − log x + x 2 − 1 + c
2 2 2
Exercise 2.7
1 1 ex 1
5. 6. 7. 8.
2
x + 3x + 2 2
2x + 6x − 8 e2x − 9 9x 2 − 7
1 1 x3
9. 10. 11. 12. 1 + x + x 2
2 2 8
x + 6 x + 13 x − 3x + 2 x −1
1
13. x 2 − 2 14. 4x2 − 5 15. 2x 2 + 4 x + 1 16.
x + x2 − 1
Integral Calculus – I 65
2.2 Definite integrals
So for we learnt about indefinite integrals on elementary algebraic, exponential,
trigonometric and logarithmic functions. Now we are going to study about the definite
integrals.
b
Geometrically, definite integral ∫ f (x) dx represents the limit of a sum. It is also
a
represented as the area bounded the curve y = f (x ) , the axis of x, and the ordinates x = a
and x = b.
Note
b x
variable x.
Example 2.56
1
∫ (x )
3
Evaluate + 7 x 2 − 5x dx
0
Solution:
1
( )
1
= log 5x 2 + 1
5 0
1
= log 6 − log 1
5
1
= log 6
5
Example 2.58
1
∫ (e )
x
Evaluate − 4a x + 2 + 3 x dx
0
Solution:
1
1 x
4
( a
) x 3
∫ e − 4a + 2 + x dx = e − 4 log a + 2x + 3 4
x x 3 x
0
0
4a 3 4
=e − +2+ −1+
log a 4 log a
4 (1 − a ) 7
=e + +
log a 4
Example 2.59
p
3
Evaluate ∫ sin x dx
p
6
Integral Calculus – I 67
Solution:
p
p
3
= [ − cos x ]
3
∫p sin x dx p
6
6
p p
= − cos − cos
3 6
=
1
2
3 −1 ( )
Example 2.60
p
2
∫ cos
2
Evaluate x dx
0
Solution:
Change into simple integrands
p p
2 2
1 cos 2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1
∫ cos = ∫ [1 + cos 2 x] dx
2
x dx
0 0
2 1
p ∴ cos2 x = [1 + cos 2 x ]
1 sin 2 x 2 2
= x+
2 2 0
1 p p
= + 0 =
2 2 4
Example 2.61
1
Evaluate ∫ e a log x + e x log a dx
0
Solution:
1 1 Note
∫ e
a log x
+e x log a
dx
(
= ∫ x a + a x dx )
0 0 e a log x = x a
1
x a +1 ax
= +
a + 1 log a 0
1 a 1
= + − 0+
a + 1 log a log a
1 a 1
= + −
a + 1 log a log a
=
1
+
(a −1 )
a + 1 log a
∫ ∫ (x )
2
2
dx = + x −2 dx
2
x 2
3
x3 1
= −
3 x 2
1 8 1 13
= 9 − − − =
3 3 2 2
Example 2.63
1
∫ (x ) (x )
3
3
Evaluate + 3x 2 2
+ 2 x dx
−1
Solution:
1
( )
4
1 x 3 + 3x 2 [ f ( x )]
n+1
∫ (x )( )
3 1 n
3
+ 3x 2
x + 2 x dx =
2 ∫ [ f (x )] f ′(x ) dx = + c
3 4 n +1
−1
−1
1
=
3
(64 − 4)
= 20
Example 2.64
b
log x
Evaluate ∫ x
dx a, b > 0
a
Solution:
1
b
log x b 2
dx n
∫ [ f (x )] f ′(x ) dx =
[ f ( x )]
n+1
∫ x
dx = ∫ (log x ) x n +1
+ c
a a
b
3
( log x )
2
3
3
= 2 log b 2 = log b but,
3 2
3
3
a (log b) ≠ 2
log b Further,
2 3
2 3 3
3 3
= ( log b ) 2 − ( log a ) 2
b 2
(log b)2 − (log a )2 ≠ log
3 a
Integral Calculus – I 69
Example 2.65
1
Evaluate ∫x x + 1 dx
−1
Solution:
1 2
∫x x + 1 dx = ∫ (t − 1) t dt
Take t = x + 1
0 −1
2 3 dt = dx
1
∫
= t2 dt
−t2 and
0
2 x –1 1
5 3
2t 2 2t 2 t 0 2
= −
5 3
0
8 2 4 2
= −
5 3
4 2
=
15
Example 2.66
∞ x
−
Evaluate ∫e 2 dx
0
Solution:
x ∞
∞
−
x
−
∫e 2 dx = − 2 e
2
0
0
= − 2 [0 − 1] = 2
Example 2.67
∞
3
∫ x e dx
2 −x
Evaluate
0
Solution:
∞ ∞
dt
∫ x e dx = ∫ e −t
3
2 −x
Take x 3 = t
0 0
3
1 ∞ 3x 2 dx = dt
= −e −t
3 0 dt
⇒ x 2 dx = and
−1 3
=
3
[0 − 1] x 0 ∞
1 t 0 ∞
=
3
70 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Example 2.68
2
1
Evaluate ∫ ( x + 1) ( x + 2) dx
1
Solution:
2 2
1 1 1
∫ ( x + 1) ( x + 2) dx =∫
x + 1
−
x + 2 dx
By partial fractions,
1 1
2 1 A B
= +
= log x + 1 − log x + 2
1
( x + 1) ( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
3 2 1 1 1
⇒ = −
= log
4
− log
3 ( x + 1) ( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
9
= log
8
Example 2.69
e
Evaluate ∫ logx dx
1
Solution:
e e
= (e − 0) − (e − 1)
=1
Example 2.70
p
2
Evaluate ∫ x sin x dx
0
Solution:
Take u = x and dv = sin x dx
p p
2 2
Differentiate Integrate
∫ x sin x dx = ∫ udv du = dx v = − cos x
0 0
Integral Calculus – I 71
p
2
p
= [uv ] − ∫ vdu
2
0
0
p
p 2
2
= − x cos x + ∫ cos x dx
0
0
p
= 0 + [sin x ]0 =1
2
Example 2.71
a
If ∫ 3x 2 dx = −1 , then find the value of a ( a ∈ R ).
1
Solution:
a
Given that ∫ 3x 2 dx = –1
1
a
x 3 = –1
1
a3 − 1 = –1
a3 = 0 ⇒ a = 0
Example 2.72
b b
If ∫ dx = 1 and ∫ x dx = 1, then find a and b
a a
Solution:
b
Given that ∫ dx =1
a
b
[x ] a
=1
b − a = 1 … (1)
b
Now, ∫ x dx =1
a
b
x2
=1
2 a
b2 − a 2 = 2
(b + a ) (b − a ) =2
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2b = 3
3
∴b =
2
3
Now, − a = 1 from (1)
2
1
∴a =
2
Example 2.73
4
7 x + 3, if 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
Evaluate ∫ f ( x ) dx , where f ( x ) =
1 8 x , if 3 ≤ x ≤ 4
Solution:
4 3 4
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
1 1 3
3 4
= ∫ (7 x + 3) dx + ∫ 8 x dx
1 3
3 4
7x 2
8x 2
= + 3x +
2 1 2 3
63 13
= +9 − + 64 − 36
2 2
= 62
Example 2.74
x2 , −2 ≤ x < 1
If f (x ) = x , 1 ≤ x < 2 , then find the following
x − 4, 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
1 2 3 1. 5 3
(i) ∫ f (x )dx (ii) ∫ f (x ) dx (iii) ∫ f (x ) dx (iv) ∫ f (x ) dx (v) ∫ f (x ) dx
−2 1 2 −2 1
Solution:
1 1 1
x3 1 −8
∫ f (x ) dx = ∫ x dx
2
(i) = = − = 3
−2 −2 3 −2 3 3
2 2 2
x2 4 1 3
(ii) ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ xdx =
2 1
= − =
2 2 2
1 1
Integral Calculus – I 73
3 3 3
x2 9 4 15 −3
(iii) ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ ( x − 4) dx = 2 − 4 x = 2 − 12 − 2 − 8 = − 2 + 6 = 2
2 2 2
1. 5 1 1. 5 1. 5
(iv) ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x )dx = 3 + ∫ xdx using (i)
−2 −2 1 1
1. 5
x2 2.25 1 1.25
= 3+ = 3+ − = 3+ = 3.625
2 1 2 2 2
3 2 3
(v) ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (x )dx + ∫ f (x ) dx
1 1 2
3 −3
= + = 0 using (ii) and (iii)
2 2
Exercise 2.8
∫ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx
a a a
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a c
a a
(v) ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (a − x)dx
0 0
Proof:
a
R.H.S. = ∫ f (a − x )dx
0 Take
0
= ∫ f (t )(−dt ) a − x = t ⇒ dx = −dt
a
a
x 0 a
= ∫ f (t )dt t a 0
0
a
= ∫ f (x )dx [using the Property (i)]
0
= L.H.S.
a a
(vi) (a) If f ( x ) is an even function, then ∫ f (x )dx = 2 ∫ f (x )dx
−a 0
a
(b) If f ( x ) is an odd function, then ∫ f (x )dx = 0
−a
Proof :
Take − x = t ⇒ dx = −dt
x –a 0
t a 0
Integral Calculus – I 75
a 0 a
∴ ∫ f (x ) dx = ∫ f (t ) ( −dt ) + ∫ f ( x )dx Apply the above mentioned
substitution only in first
−a a 0
a a
part of integral of the R.H.S
= ∫ f (t ) dt + ∫ f ( x ) dx
0 0
a a
= ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx [using the Property (i)]
0 0
a
= 2 ∫ f (x ) dx
0
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
−a −a 0
0 a
= ∫ − f (− x) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx using (2)
−a 0
Take − x = t ⇒ dx = −dt
x –a 0
t a 0
a 0 a Apply the above mentioned
∴ ∫ f (x ) dx = − ∫ f (t ) ( −dt ) + ∫ f (x ) dx
substitution only in first
−a a 0
a a
part of integral of the R.H.S
= − ∫ f (t ) dt + ∫ f (x) dx
0 0
a a
= − ∫ f (x ) dx + ∫ f (x) dx [using the Property (i)]
0 0
= 0
b b
(vii) ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (a + b − x) dx
a a
Proof:
Let a + b − x = t and t =a+b−x
−dx = dt x a b
dx = −dt t b a
b a b
∴ ∫ f (a + b − x ) dx = − ∫ f (t ) dt = ∫ f (t ) dt
a b a
b
= ∫ f ( x ) dx [using the Property (i)]
a
b b
∴ ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f (a + b − x ) dx
a a
Example 2.75
1
x 5 dx
Evaluate ∫ a2 − x 2
−1
Solution:
x5
Let f (x ) =
a2 − x 2
f (− x ) =
( − x )5 =
−x5
= − f (x )
a2 − ( − x )
2
a2 − x 2
Here f (x ) = − f (x )
∴ f (x ) is an odd function
1
x 5 dx
⇒ ∫ a2 − x 2 =0
−1
Example 2.76
p
2
Evaluate ∫p cos x dx
−
2
Solution:
Let f ( x ) = cos x
f ( − x ) = cos ( − x ) = cos x
⇒ f (x ) = − f (x )
∴ f ( x ) is an even function
p p
2 2
∴ ∫p cos x dx = 2 ∫ cos x dx
0
− p
2
2
= 2 sin x
0
p
= 2 sin − sin 0
2
= 2
Integral Calculus – I 77
Example 2.77
1
∫ (x )
2
Evaluate + x dx
−1
Solution:
1 1 1
∫ (x ) ∫x dx + ∫ x dx
2 2
+ x dx =
−1 −1 −1
1
= 2 ∫ x 2 dx + 0 [ x 2 is an even function and x is an odd function]
0
1
x3 1
=2 = 2 3 − 0
3 0
2
=
3
Example 2.78
p
2
sin x
Evaluate ∫ sin x + cos x dx
0
Solution:
p
2
sin x
Let I =∫ dx … (1)
0
sin x + cos x
p
p
2 sin − x a a
2
I = ∫ p p
dx ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (a − x )dx
0
0 sin − x + cos − x 0
2 2
p
2
cos x
= ∫ cos x + sin x dx …(2)
0
(1) + (2) ⇒
p
2
sin x cos x
2I =∫ + dx
0
sin x + cos x cos x + sin x
p
2 p
2
p
= ∫ dx = [x ] =
0
0 2
p
∴ I =
4
78 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Example 2.79
5
x
Evaluate ∫ x + 7−x
dx
2
Solution:
5
x
Let I = ∫ x + 7−x
dx …(1)
2
5
2 + 5− x b b
I = ∫ 2 + 5 − x + 7 − (2 + 5 − x )
dx ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (a + b − x )dx
a
2 a
5
7−x
I = ∫ 7−x + x
dx …(2)
2
(1) + (2) ⇒
5
x 7−x
2I = ∫ + dx
2 x + 7 − x 7 − x + x
5
x + 7−x
= ∫ dx
2 x + 7 − x
5 5
= ∫ dx = [x ] = 3
2
2
3
∴ I =
2
Exercise 2.9
p
1 1
2
sin7 x 1 x
4. ∫ 7 dx 5. ∫ log − 1 dx 6. ∫ dx
0
sin x + cos 7
x 0
x 0
3
(1 − x )
4
Integral Calculus – I 79
First, let us know about the concepts of indefinite integrals, proper definite integrals
and improper definite integrals
Indefinite integral:
Example: ∫ e −t dt
Proper definite integral is an integral function, which has both the limits a and b are
finite and the integrand f(x) is continuous in [a, b].
1
∫e
−t
Example: dt
0
∫e
−t
Example: dt
0
Definition 2.3
∞
For n > 0, ∫ x n−1e − x dx is known known as Gamma function and is denoted by G (n) [read
0
as Gamma of n ].
Note
∞
n!
If n is a positive integer, then ∫ x ne − ax dx = is the particular case of Gamma
an +1
0
Integral.
Properties:
1. G (n) = (n − 1) G (n − 1) , n > 1
G (1) = 1
2. G (n + 1) = n G (n) , n > 0
4. G ( 12 ) = p
Example 2.80
∞ ∞
Evaluate (i) G (6) (ii) G ()
7
2
(iii) ∫e
−2 x 5
x dx (iv) ∫e
− x2
dx
0 0
Solution:
(i) G (6) = 5!
= 120
7 5 5
(ii) G = G
2 2 2
5 3 3
= G
2 2 2
5 3 1 1
= G
2 2 2 2
531 15
= p = p
222 8
(iii) we know that
∞
n!
∫
n − ax
x e dx = n +1 a
0
∞
5! 5!
∴ ∫ e −2 x x 5 dx = 5+1
= 6
0
2 2
∞
(iv) G (n) = ∫ t n−1 e −t dt
0
Put t = x 2 ⇒ dt = 2 xdx
∞
( )
n −1
G (n) =
2
∫e x
−x 2
∴ 2 x dx
0
∞
2
= ∫ e − x x 2n−2 2 x dx
0
∞
2
= 2∫ e − x x 2n−1 dx
0
1
Put n = , we have
2
Integral Calculus – I 81
∞
1 2
G = 2∫ e − x dx
2 0
∞
2
⇒ p = 2∫ e − x dx
0
∞
2 p
∴ ∫ e − x dx =
0
2
Exercise 2.10
x e , x ≥ 0
2 −2 x ∞
2. If f ( x ) = , then evaluate ∫ f (x)dx
0 , otherwise 0
The following results are very useful in evaluating definite integral as the limit of a sum
n (n + 1) n
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ......n = = ∑r
2 r =1
n (n + 1) (2n + 1) r =n
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + ......n2 = = ∑ r2
6 r =1
n (n + 1)
2
r =n
3 3 3 3
(iii) 1 + 2 + 3 + ......n = = ∑ r3
2 r =1
Example 2.81
1
Evaluate the integral as the limit of a sum: ∫ x dx
0
b − a 1− 0 1
Here a = 0, b = 1, h = = = and f ( x ) = x
n n n
r r r
Now f (a + rh ) = f 0 + = f =
n n n
1 n
= lim ∑ r
n→∞ n2 r =1
1 n (n + 1)
= lim
n→∞ n2 2
1
n2 1 +
1 n
= lim 2 ⋅
n→∞ n 2
1+ 0 1
= =
2 2
1
1
∴ ∫ x dx =
2
0
Example 2.82
2
Evaluate the integral as the limit of a sum: ∫ (2x + 1) dx
1
Solution:
b n
∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∑ h f (a + rh )
n→∞ r =1
a h →0
b − a 2 −1 1
Here a = 1, b = 2, h = = = and f ( x ) = 2 x + 1
n n n
r
f (a + rh ) = f 1 + ]
n
r
= 2 1 + + 1
n
2r
= 2 + + 1
n
Integral Calculus – I 83
2r
f (a + rh ) = 3 +
n
2
1
n 2r
∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∑ 3 +
n→∞ r =1 n n
1
n 3 2r
= lt ∑ + 2
n→∞ r =1 n n
3 n 2 n
= lim ∑ 1 + 2 ∑ r
n→∞ n r =1 n r =1
3 2 n (n + 1)
= lim . n + 2
n←∞ n n 2
1
= 3 + lim 1 +
n→∞ n
2
∫ f ( x ) dx = 3 +1 = 4
1
Example 2.83
2
Evaluate the integral as the limit of a sum: ∫ x 2 dx
1
Solution:
b n
∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∑ h f (a + rh )
n→∞ r =1
a h →0
b − a 2 −1 1
Here a = 1, b = 2, h = = = and f ( x ) = x 2
n n n
2
r r 2r r 2
Now f (a + rh ) = f 1 + = 1 + = 1+ + 2
n n n n
2
1 n 2r r 2
∫ x dx = nlim
2
∴ ∑ 1 + n + n2
→∞ r =1 n
1
1 2r r 2 n
= lim ∑ + 2 + 3
n→∞ r =1 n n n
1 n 2 n 1 n
= lim ∑ 1 + 2 ∑ r + 3 ∑ r 2
n→∞ n r =1 n r =1 n r =1
1 2 n (n + 1) 1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= lim (n) + 2 + 3
n←∞ n n 2 n 6
= 1 + 1 +
(1)(2)
6
2
7
∴ ∫ x 2 dx =
1
3
Exercise 2.11
Exercise 2.12
Choose the correct answer:
1
1. ∫ 3 dx is
x
−3 −1 −1 −2
(a) 2 + c (b) 2 + c (c) 2
+ c (d) 2 + c
x 2x 3x x
∫ 2 dx
x
2. is
x x 2x log 2
(a) 2 log 2 + c (b) 2 + c (c ) + c (d) +c
log 2 2x
sin 2 x
3. ∫ 2 sin x dx is
1 1
(a) sin x + c (b) sin x + c (c) cos x + c (d) cos x + c
2 2
sin 5x − sin x
4. ∫ cos 3x dx is
1
(a) − cos 2x + c (b) − cos 2x + c (c) − cos 2 x + c (d) −4 cos 2 x + c
4
log x
5. ∫ x dx , x > 0 is
1 2 1 2 2 2
(a) ( log x ) + c (b) − ( log x ) (c) 2 + c (d) +c
2 2 x x2
ex
6. ∫ 1+ e x
dx is
ex
(a) +c (b) 2 1 + e x + c (c) 1 + e x + c (d) e x 1 + e x + c
1 + ex
Integral Calculus – I 85
7. ∫ e x dx is
1 x 1
(a) e x + c (b) 2 e x + c (c) e + c (d) +c
2 2 ex
∫e
2x
8. [2x 2 + 2 x]dx
x 2e x
(a) e 2 x x 2 + c (b) xe 2 x + c (c) 2 x 2e 2 + c (d) +c
2
ex
9. ∫ e x + 1 dx is
ex ex + 1
(a) log x +c (b) log +c (c) log e x + c (d) log e x + 1 + c
e +1 ex
9 1
10. ∫ x − 3 − x + 1 dx is
(a) log x − 3 − log x + 1 + c (b) log x − 3 + log x + 1 + c
2x 3
11. ∫ 4 + x 4 dx is
1 1 2x 3
(a) log 4 + x 4 + c (b) log 4 + x 4 + c (c) log 4 + x 4 + c (d) log +c
2 4 4 + x4
dx
12. ∫ x 2 − 36
is
2x + 3
13. ∫ x 2 + 3x + 2
dx is
(a) x 2 + 3x + 2 + c (b) 2 x 2 + 3x + 2 + c
3
( ) 2
( )
2
(c) log x 2 + 3x + 2 + c (d) x 2 + 3x + 2 +c
3
1
14. ∫ (2x + 1) dx is
0
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
4
dx
15. ∫ x is
2
(a) log 4 (b) 0 (c) log 2 (d) log 8
86 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
∞
∫e
−2 x
16. dx is
0
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d)
2
1
4
∫ x e dx is
3 x
17.
−1
1
4 4
(a) 1 (b) 2 ∫ x 3 e x dx (c) 0 (d) e x
0
c b
18. If f ( x ) is a continuous function and a < c < b ,then ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx is
a c
b c c b
(a ) ∫ f ( x ) dx − ∫ f ( x ) dx (b) ∫ f ( x ) dx − ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a a a
b
(c) ∫ f ( x ) dx (d) 0
a
p
2
19. The value of ∫p cos x dx is
−
2
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 4
1
x 4 (1 − x ) dx is
2
20. ∫
0
1 −7 7 −1
(a) 12
(b) 12
(c) 12
(d) 12
1 1 1 1
∫ f ( x ) dx = 1, ∫ x f ( x ) dx = a and ∫ x f ( x ) dx = a ∫ (a − x ) f ( x ) dx is
2 2 2
21. If , then
0 0 0 0
(a) 4 a2 (b) 0 (c) 2 a2 (d) 1
3 3
22. The value of ∫ f (5 − x ) dx − ∫ f ( x ) dx is
2 2
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) −1 (d) 5
4
1
23. ∫ x+ dx is
x
0
20 21 28 1
(a) (b) (c) (d )
3 3 3 3
p
3
24. ∫ tan x dx is
0
(a) log 2 (b) 0 (c) log 2 (d) 2 log 2
Integral Calculus – I 87
25. Using the factorial representation of the gamma function, which of the following is
the solution for the gamma function G (n) when n = 8
26. G (n) is
27. G (1) is
3
29. G
2
p 3
(a) p (b) (c) 2 p (d)
2 2
∞
∫x e
4 −x
30. dx is
0
(a) 12 (b) 4 (c) 4! (d) 64
Miscellaneous problems
1 dx
1. ∫ x+2 − x+3
dx 2. ∫ 2 − 3x − 2x 2
dx
3. ∫ e x + 6 + 5e − x 4. ∫ 2 x 2 − 3 dx
∫ ( x + 1)
2
5. ∫ 9 x 2 + 12 x + 3 dx 6. log x dx
∫ log ( x − )
1
∫ x ( x − 1) dx
2
7. x − 1 dx 8.
0
1 3
x dx
∫ x e dx 10. ∫
2 −2 x
9.
−1 0 x + 1 + 5x + 1
∫ a f (x) dx = a ∫ f (x) dx
∫ f (x ) ± g (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g (x) dx
zz Standard results of indefinite integrals:
x n+1 1
1. ∫ x n dx = +c 2. ∫ dx = log x + c
n +1 x
1
3. ∫ e x dx = e x + c 4. ∫ a x dx = a x + c, a > 0 and a ≠ 1
log a
5. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c 6. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
∫ sec ∫ cosec
2 2
7. x dx = tan x + c 8. x dx = − cot x + c
n [ f ( x )]
n+1
9. ∫ f ( x ) f ′(x) dx = n + 1 + c, n ≠ −1
f ′( x ) f ′( x )
10. ∫ f (x )
dx = log f (x ) + c 11. ∫ f (x )
dx = 2 f (x ) + c
dx dx
16. ∫ x 2 − a2
= log x + x 2 − a2 + c 17. ∫ x 2 + a2
= log x + x 2 + a2 + c
Integral Calculus – I 89
zz Definite integral:
Let f (x ) be a continuous function on [a,b] and if F(x) is anti derivative of f (x ) ,
b
then ∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a
zz Properties of definite integrals:
b b b a
(i) ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t )dt (ii) ∫ f ( x ) dx = −∫ f ( x ) dx
a a a b
b b b b c b
(iii) ∫ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx (iv) ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a a a a c
a a b b
(v) ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (a − x)dx (vi) ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (a + b − x) dx
0 0 a a a a
zz Results:
n (n + 1) n
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ......n = = ∑r
2 r =1
n (n + 1) (2n + 1) r =n 2
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + ......n2 = = ∑r
6 r =1
n (n + 1)
2
r =n
3 3 3 3 3
(iii) 1 + 2 + 3 + ......n = = ∑r
2 r =1
Integral Calculus – I 91
Integrator த�ொகைப்பான்
Inverse trigonometric function நேர் மாற்று க�ோணவியல் சார்பு / நேர்மாறு திரிக�ோணமிதி சார்பு
Logarithmic function மடக்கை சார்பு
Lower limit கீழ் எல்லை
Marginal function இறுதிநிலைச் சார்பு
Natural logarithm இயல் மடக்கை
Open interval திறந்த இடைவெளி
Ordinate குத்தாயம் / நிலைத் தூரம்
Parallel tangents இணைத் த�ொடுக�ோடுகள்
Partial fraction பகுதிப் பின்னம்
Positive integer மிகை முழு எண்
Power rule அடுக்கு விதி
Primitive function மூலமுதலான சார்பு / த�ொடக்க நிலைச் சார்பு
Quantity கணியம் / அளவு
Rationalisation method காரணக்காரீய முறை
Reduction குறைப்பு / சுருக்கல்
Repeated integral த�ொடர் முறைத் த�ொகையீடு / மீண்டும் மீண்டும் த�ொகையிடப்பட்ட
Reverse process எதிர் மறை செயல்
Standard form திட்ட வடிவம்
Substitution பிரதியிடல் / ஈடு செய்தல்
Successive அடுத்தடுத்த / த�ொடர்ச்சியான
Successive derivatives த�ொடர் வகையிடல்கள் / அடுத்தடுத்த வகையிடல்கள்
Suitable ஏற்புடைய / ப�ொருத்தமான
Summation கூடுதல் / கூட்டல் த�ொகை
Technique உத்தி / நுட்பம்
Trigonometric function முக்கோண கணிப்பு சார்பு / திரிக�ோணமிதிச்சார்பு
Unique function ஒருமைத் தன்மை க�ொண்ட சார்பு
Upper limit மேல் எல்லை
Variable of integration த�ொகையிடல் மாறி
Step – 1 : Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra
work Book named “12th Standard Business Mathematics ” will open. In the work book there are
two Volumes. Select “Volume-1”.
Step - 2 : Select the worksheet named“ Integration-Gamma Integral”. There is a problem based
on Gamma Integral and Improper definite Integral. Move the sliders to change “a” and “n” value.
Observe the graph.
Step 1
Step 2
Integral Calculus – I 93
3 Integral Calculus – II
Introduction
H
istory of
integration begins over
2500 years ago. The first Greek
Mathematician Antiphon (around 430 BC(BCE))
introduced the “method of exhaustion” to find areas of
Archimedes simple polygons and more complicated curves. (method
of exhaustion means dividing the given area into infinite
(287 BC(BCE)-217 BC(BCE))
number of triangles).Though Antiphon invented the method
of exhaustion to find area bounded by complicated curves,
the mathematician Eudoxus did the logical development in
this method of exhaustion. Later Euclid used this method to
calculate the area of circle.
Using the same method of exhaustion Archimedes (287 BC(BCE)-217 BC(BCE))
find the area bounded by parabola. Thus using integration area bounded by curves is
developed. We will see the method of finding area by using integration in this chapter.
Learning Objectives
Suppose we want to find out the area of the region which is bounded above by a
curve y = f ( x ) , below by the x − axis and the lines x = a and x = b .
Now from Fig 3.1 let the interval a b is divided into n subintervals x , x
i −1 i
of equal length ∆xi i.e xi − xi −1 = ∆ xi for any x ′ ∈ x , x let f ( xi′) be the height
i i −1 i
of n rectangles having xi − xi −1 = ∆xi as its base. Then area Ai = ∆xi f ( xi′) . Now the total
n
area A = ∑ f ( xi′) ∆xi
i =1
Y
(x , f (x ))
*
n
*
n (x , f (x ))
*
n
*
n
y = f(x)
Q
f(x)
O X
a = x0 b = xn
Dx
Fig. 3.1
∫ f ( x ) dx =
∆xi → 0 ∑ f ( xi′) ∆xi
a i =1
The area under the curve is exhausted by increasing the number of rectangular
strips to ∞
Thus the geometrical interpretation of definite integral is the area under the curve
between the given limits.
The area of the region bounded by the curve y=f(x), with x- axis and the ordinates at
x = a and x = b given by Y
A y = f(x) B
b
Area A = ∫ ydx
x=b
x=a
a
b C
D X
= ∫ f (x)dx Fig.3.2
a
Integral Calculus – II 95
Note
Y
D C
(i) The area of the region bounded by the curve X
x=a
x=b
y = f (x ) between the limits x = a , x = b and lies
A
below x -axis, is y = f(x) B
b b Fig.3.3
A = ∫ − y dx = − ∫ f (x )dx
a a
Y
y=d
D B
(ii) The area of the region bounded by the curve x = f ( y)
x = f(y)
between the limits y = c and y = d with y − axis and the
area lies lies to the right of y- axis, is C A
y=c
d d
Fig.3.4 X
A = ∫ xdy
= ∫ f ( y )dy
c c
Y
B y=d
(iii) The area bounded by the curve x = f ( y ) between the limits D
y = c and y = d with y − axis and the area lies to the left x = f(y)
of y- axis, is A C
d d y=c
A = ∫ − xdy = − ∫ f ( y )dy X Fig.3.5
c c
Example 3.1
Find the area bounded by y = 4 x + 3 with x- axis between the lines x = 1 and x = 4
+3
Area
4x
y=
1
4
= ∫ ( 4 x + 3) dx
1
4
= 2 x 2 + 3x = 32 + 12 − 2 − 3
1
O x=1 x=4 X
Fig.3.7
= 39 sq.units
Y
Example 3.2
0
2=
y=2
–1
2y
Solution:
x–
x − 2 y − 12 = 0 O X
x = 2 y + 12 Fig.3.8
Required Area
5
= ∫ x dy
2
5
5 The area bounded by the line
= ∫ (2 y + 12) dy = y 2 + 12 y y = mx+c with x-axis between
2
2
lines x = 0 and x = a is
= (25 + 60) − ( 4 + 24 ) = 57 sq.units 1
= | [a][(value of y at x = 0)
2
Example 3.3 +[(value of y at x = a)]|
Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = 4 − x 2 , x − axis and the lines
x = 0, x = 2 Y
Solutions:
y = 4 − x2
2 2
∫ ydx = ∫ (4 − x
2
Required area = )dx
o x=2 X
0 0
2
x3 8
= 4x − = 8 −
30 3
Fig. Fig.3.9
16
= sq.units
3
Integral Calculus – II 97
Example 3.4
Find the area bounded by y = x between the lines x = −1and x = 2 with x -axis.
Solution: Y
0 2
Required area = ∫ − xdx + ∫ x dx
−1 0
x = –1
0 x=2 X
2 0 2 2
x x 1 4
= − + = − 0 − + − 0
2 −1 2 0 2 2
5 Fig.3.10
= sq.units
2
Example 3.5
Solution
y 2 = 8 x (1)
2
Comparing this with the standard form y = 4ax ,
4a = 8
a= 2
Equation of latus rectum is x = 2
Required Area = 2[Area in the first quadrant between the limits x = 0 and x = 2]
2
= 2∫ y dx
0 Y
2 2
( )∫ x
1
= 2∫ 8 xdx = 2 2 2 2 dx
0 0
2 F(2, 0)
3 3 X
2x
2 2 2
= 4 2 = 4 2 × 2 ×
3 3
0
Fig.3.11
32
= sq. units.
3
−3 0
( x + 3)2 ( x + 3)2 9 9
= − + = − 0 − + − 0 = 9 sq. units
2 2 2 2
−6 −3
Example 3.7
Using integration find the area of the circle whose center is at the origin and the
radius is a units.
Y
Solution
⇒ x = ± a
Y′
Since equation (1) is symmetrical about both the axes Fig.3.13
The required area = 4 [Area in the first quadrant between the limit 0 and a.]
a
= 4∫ y dx
0
a a
x 2 a2 x
= 4∫ 2
a − x dx = 4 2 2
a −x + sin −1
0 2 2 a 0
a2 −1 a a2 −1 a2 p
= 4 0 + sin = 4 sin (1) = 4 .
2 a 2 2 2
= pa 2 sq. units
Integral Calculus – II 99
Example 3.8
Using integration find the area of the region bounded between the line x = 4 and the
parabola y 2 = 16 x.
Y
Solution:
The equation y 2 = 16 x represents a parabola (Open rightward)
b
Required Area = 2 ∫ ydx O F(4, 0) X
a
4
= 2 ∫ 16 x dx
0
Fig.3.14
4
3
4
x2
16 3 128
( 4 ) 2 = 3. sq. units
1
= 8 ∫ x dx = 8 =
2
3 3
0
2 0
Exercise 3.1
1. Using Integration, find the area of the region bounded the line 2 y + x = 8, the x axis
and the lines x = 2, x = 4.
3. Calculate the area bounded by the parabola y 2 = 4ax and its latusrectum.
4. Find the area bounded by the line y = x, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 1, x = 2.
5. Using integration, find the area of the region bounded by the line y − 1 = x , the x axis
and the ordinates x = –2, x = 3.
6. Find the area of the region lying in the first quadrant bounded by the region
y = 4 x 2 , x = 0, y = 0 and y = 4.
Cost function C = ∫ ( MC ) dx + k
Example 3.9
Solution:
Given,
Marginal cost MC = 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2
C = ∫ MC dx + k
= ∫ 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2 dx + k ( )
= 6 x + 5x 2 − 2 x 3 + k (1)
when x = 2, C = 12 (given)
12 = 12 + 20 − 16 + k
k = −4
C = 6 x + 5x 2 − 2 x 3 − 4
C 6 x + 5x 2 − 2 x 3 − 4
Average cost = =
x x
4
= 6 + 5x − 2 x 2 −
x
A company has determined that the marginal cost function for a product of a
x2
particular commodity is given by MC = 125 + 10 x − where C rupees is the cost of
9
producing x units of the commodity. If the fixed cost is ₹250 what is the cost of producing
15 units.
Solution:
x2
MC = 125 + 10 x −
9
C = ∫ MC dx + k
x
2
= ∫ 125 + 10 x − dx + k
9
x3
= 125x + 5x 2 − + k
27
Fixed cost k = 250
2 x3
C = 125x + 5x − + 250
27
When x = 15
+ 250
27
= 1875 + 1125 − 125 + 250
C = ₹3,125
Example 3.11
The marginal cost function MC = 2 + 5e x (i) Find C if C (0)=100 (ii) Find AC.
Solution:
Given MC = 2 + 5e x
C = ∫ MC dx + k
= ∫ 2 + 5e x dx + k ( )
= 2 x + 5e x + k
x = 0 ⇒ C = 100 ,
( )
100 = 2 (0) + 5 e 0 + k
k = 95
102 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
C = 2 x + 5 e x + 95.
C 2 x + 5e x + 95
Average cost = =
x x
x
5e 95
AC = 2 + + .
x x
Rate of growth or sale
If the rate of growth or sale of a function is a known function of t say f(t) where t is
a time measure, then total growth (or) sale of a product over a time period t is given by,
r
Total sale = ∫ f (t ) dt , 0 ≤ t ≤ r
0
Example 3.12
Solution:
4
∫ (100 − 90 e ) dx
−x
Total sale =
0
( )
4
= 100 x + 90 e − x
0
= 400 + 90 e −4 − (0 + 90)
= 400 + 90(0.018) − 90
= 311.62 units
Example 3.13
A company produces 50,000 units per week with 200 workers. The rate of change of
productions with respect to the change in the number of additional labour x is represented
2
as 300 − 5x 3 . If 64 additional labours are employed, find out the additional number of
units, the company can produce.
Solution:
= 16128
Example 3.14
= 6988 units
= 781 units
Total sales due to the advertisement campaign.
∞
3000 −0.3t ∞
= ∫ 3000 e −0.3t dt = e
0
0
−0 . 3
= −10000 [0 − 1]
= 10,000 untis.
Example 3.15
The price of a machine is 6,40,000 if the rate of cost saving is represented by the
function f(t) = 20,000 t. Find out the number of years required to recoup the cost of the
function.
Solution:
t
Saving Cost S(t) = ∫ 20000 t dt
0
= 10000 t2
To recoup the total price,
10000 t2 = 640000
t2 = 64
t =8
For the marginal revenue function MR = 35 + 7 x − 3x 2 , find the revenue function and
demand function.
Solution:
Given MR = 35 + 7 x − 3x 2
R = ∫ ( MR ) dx + k
∫ (35 + 7 x − 3x ) dx + k
2
=
7
R = 35x + x 2 − x 3 + k
2
Since R = 0 when x = 0, k= 0
7
R = 35x + x 2 − x 3
2
R
Demand function P =
x
7
P = 35 + x − x 2 .
2
Example 3.17
a
A firm has the marginal revenue function given by MR = − c where x is the
( x + b)
2
a
output and a, b, c are constants. Show that the demand function is given by x = −b.
b ( p + c)
Solution:
MR = a ( x + b ) − c
−2
Given
R = ∫ a ( x + b)
−2
dx − c ∫ dx
a ( x + b)
−1
R =−cx +k
−1
a
R = − −cx +k
x +b
When x = 0, R = 0
106 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
a
∴ 0 = − − c (0 ) + k
b
a
k =
b
a a
R = − −cx +
x +b b
−ab + a ( x + b )
= −cx
b ( x + b)
ax
R = −cx
b ( x + b)
R
Demand function P =
x
a
P = −c
b ( x + b)
a
P+c =
b ( x + b)
a
b(x+b) =
P +c
a
x = −b.
b (P + c )
To find the Maximum Profit if Marginal Revenue and Marginal cost function are given:
dP d dR dC
If ‘P’ denotes the profit function, then =
dx dx
( R − C) = −
dx dx
= MR − MC
Example 3.18
Given ( )
C(x) = ∫ C ′ x dx + k1
⇒ k1 = 200
x2
Cost function is C(x) = 50 x + + 200 (1)
100
The Revenue R ′(x ) = 60
R(x) = ∫ R ′(x ) dx + k2
= ∫ 60 dx + k2
= 60x + k2
i.e. When x = 0, R = 0.
− 200
100
= 2300
Profit = ` 2,300.
Example 3.19
The marginal cost and marginal revenue with respect to commodity of a firm are
given by C ′ ( x ) = 8 + 6 x and R ′ ( x ) = 24. Find the total Profit given that the total cost at
zero output is zero.
Solution:
Given MC = 8 + 6x
C(x) = ∫ (8 + 6x ) dx + k1
= 8 x + 3x 2 + k1 (1)
∴ C(x) = 8 x + 3x 2 (2)
Given that MR = 24
∫ MR dx + k2 R(x) =
= ∫ 24 dx + k2
= 24x + k2
Revenue = 0, when x = 0 ⇒ k2 = 0
P(x) = 24 x − 8 x − 3x 2
= 16 x − 3x 2
Example 3.20
∫ (10 + e ) dx
−0.05 x
R =
0
100
e −0.05 x
= 10 x +
−0.05 0
e −5 100
= 1000 − − 0 −
0.05 5
= 1000 + 20 − (20 × 0.0067)
= 1019.87
= `10,19,870
Example 3.21
The price of a machine is `5,00,000 with an estimated life of 12 years. The estimated
salvage value is ₹30,000. The machine can be rented at ₹72,000 per year. The present
value of the rental payment is calculated at 9% interest rate. Find out whether it is advisable
to rent the machine. (e −1.08 = 0.3396) .
Solution:
t
The present value of payment for t year = ∫ 72000 e −0.09 t dt
0
12
∫ 72000 e
−0.09 t
Present value of 12 years = dt
0
12
e −0.09 t
= 72000
−0.09
0
72000 −0.09 (12) 0
= e −e
− . 0 09
= 5, 28, 320
Inventory :
Given the inventory on hand I ( x ) and the unit holding cost (C1), the total inventory
T
carrying cost is C1 ∫ I (x )dx , where T is the time period under consideration.
0
Example 3.22
Solution:
C1 = ₹ 3.5
T = 30
r 30
Total inventory carrying cost = C1 ∫ I ( x ) dx = 3.5 ∫ (200 − 0.2 x ) dx
0 0
30
0. 2 x 2
= 3.5 200 x − = 20,685
2
0
Amount of an Annuity
The amount of an annuity is the sum of all payments made plus all interest
accumulated. Let an annuity consist of equal payments of Rs. p and let the interest rate of
r percent annually be compounded continuously.
N
Amount of annuity after N payments A = ∫ pe rt dt
0
Example 3.23
Mr. Arul invests ₹10,000 in ABC Bank each year, which pays an interest of 10% per
annum compounded continuously for 5 years. How much amount will there be after 5
(
years. e 0.5 = 1.6487 )
Integral Calculus – II 111
Solution:
p = 10000, r = 0.1, N = 5
5
Annuity = ∫ 10000 e
0.1t
dt
0
10000 0.1t
( )
5
= e
0. 1 0
= 100000 e − e0
0. 1 × 5
= 100000 e 0.5 − 1 ( )
= 100000 [0.6487 ]
= ₹ 64,870
Y
Consumption of a Natural Resource
consumption
Suppose that p(t) is the annual consumption of a P(1) =P0ekt
natural resource in year t. If the consumption of the
resource is growing exponentially at growth rate k, then the
P0
total consumption of the resource after T years is given by
T
p0 kT
∫ p0 e dt =
kt
k
e −1 ( ) O year
Fig. 3.15
T X
0
Where p0 is the initial annual consumption at time t = 0.
Example 3.24
In year 2000 world gold production was 2547 metric tons and it was growing
exponentially at the rate of 0.6% per year. If the growth continues at this rate, how many
tons of gold will be produced from 2000 to 2013? [e0.078 = 1.0811)
Solution:
Annual consumption at time t = 0 (In the year 2000) = p0 = 2547 metric ton.
13
∫ 2547 e
0.006 t
Total production of Gold from 2000 to 2013 = dt
0
2547 0.006 t 13
= e
0.006 0
= 424500 e 0.078 − 1 ( )
= 34,426.95 metric tons approximately.
112 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
3.2.3 The demand functions from elasticity of demand
Elasticity of the function y = f ( x ) at a point x is defined as the limiting case of
ratio of the relative change in y to the relative change in x .
∆y dy
E y lim y y
∴ h= = =
Ex ∆ x → 0 ∆x dx
x x
x dy
⇒ h = .
y dx
− p dx
Elasticity of demand hd =
x dp
−dp dx 1
= .
p x hd
Integrating both sides w.r. to x
dp 1 dx
−∫
hd ∫ x
=
p
Equation yields the demand function ‘p’ as a function of x.
The revenue function can be found out by using integration.
Example 3.25
x
When the Elasticity function is . Find the function when x = 6 and y = 16.
x −2
Solution:
Ey x
=
Ex x −2
x dy x
=
y dx x −2
dy x dx
= .
y x −2 x
dy dx
∫ y
= ∫ x −2
log y = log( x − 2) + log k
y = k(x–2)
when x = 6, y = 16 ⇒ 16 = k(6–2)
k =4
y = 4 (x–2)
Integral Calculus – II 113
Example 3.26
p + 2 p2
The elasticity of demand with respect to price p for a commodity is hd = .
100 − p − p2
Find demand function where price is ₹5 and the demand is 70.
Solution
p + 2 p2
hd =
100 − p − p2
− p dx p (2 p + 1)
=
x dp 100 − p − p2
−dx − (2 p + 1)
= 2 dp
x p + p − 100
dx 2p +1
∫ x
= ∫ p2 + p − 100 dp
log x = log( p2 + p = 100) + log k
∴ x = k( p2 + p − 100)
When x = 70, p = 5,
70 = k(25 + 5 − 100)
⇒ k = –1
Hence x = 100 − p − p2
R = px
Exercise 3.2
1. The cost of over haul of an engine is ₹10,000 The operating cost per hour is at the
rate of 2 x − 240 where the engine has run x km. Find out the total cost if the engine
run for 300 hours after overhaul.
Ey Ey −7 x
2. Elasticity of a function is given by = . Find the function
Ex Ex (1 − 2 x ) (2 + 3x )
3
when x = 2, y = .
8
7. The marginal cost function is MC = 300 x 5 and fixed cost is zero. Find out the total
cost and average cost functions.
a
8. If the marginal cost function of x units of output is and if the cost of output
ax + b
is zero. Find the total cost as a function of x.
9. Determine the cost of producing 200 air conditioners if the marginal cost (is per
x2
unit) is C ′ ( x ) = +4.
200
10. The marginal revenue (in thousands of Rupees) functions for a particular commodity
−0.03 x
is 5 + 3 e where x denotes the number of units sold. Determine the total revenue
from the sale of 100 units. (Given e −3 = 0.05 approximately)
11. If the marginal revenue function for a commodity is MR = 9 − 4 x 2 . Find the demand
function.
4
12. Given the marginal revenue function − 1 , show that the average revenue
4 (2 x + 3 )2
function is P = − 1.
6x + 9
− x 10 x
13. A firm’s marginal revenue function is MR = 20 e 1 − . Find the corresponding
10
demand function.
15. If the marginal revenue function is R ′ ( x ) = 1500 − 4 x − 3x 2 . Find the revenue function
and average revenue function.
16. Find the revenue function and the demand function if the marginal revenue for x
units is MR= 10 + 3x − x 2 .
14000
17. The marginal cost function of a commodity is given by MC = and the fixed
7x + 4
cost is ₹18,000.Find the total cost and average cost.
18. If the marginal cost (MC) of a production of the company is directly proportional to
the number of units (x) produced, then find the total cost function, when the fixed
cost is ₹ 5,000 and the cost of producing 50 units is ₹ 5,625.
This theory was developed by the great economist Marshal. The demand function
reveals the relationship between the quantities that the people would buy at a given price.
It can be expressed as p = f (x )
Let us assume that the demand of the product x = x 0 when the price is p 0 . But there
can be some consumer who is ready to pay q 0 which is more than p 0 for the same quantity
x0 . Any consumer who is ready to pay the price more than p 0 gains from the fact that the
price is only p 0 . This gain is called the consumer’s surplus.
Solution:
Given y = 36 − x 2 and y0 = 11
11 = 36–x2
x2 = 25
x =5
x
CS = ∫ ( demand function)dx – (Price × quantity demanded)
0
∫ (36 − x ) dx
2
= − 5 × 11
0
5
x3
= 36 x − − 55 The point of intersection of
3 0 demand and supply curves is
53 called equilibrium point.
= 36(5) − − 55
3 At equilibrium point qd = qs
125 250
= 180 − − 55 =
3 3
250
Hence the consumer’s surplus is = units.
3
3.2.5 Producer surplus
Y PS
A supply function g(x) represents the quantity that can B P
be supplied at a price p. Let p0 be the market price for the
corresponding supply xo . But there can be some producers
Price
P0
who are willing to supply the commodity below the market
price gain from the fact that the price is p0. This gain is
called the producer’s surplus. It is represented in the
O X0 A X
following diagram. Quantity
Fig. 3.17
Mathematically, producer’s surplus (PS) can be defined as,
PS = (Area of the rectangle OAPB) − (Area below the supply function from x = 0 to x = x 0 )
x0
PS = x0 p0 – ∫ g (x)dx
0
p0 = 4(5) + 8 = 28
x0
PS = x0 p0 – ∫ g (x)dx
0
5
= (5 × 28) − ∫ (4 x + 8)dx
0
5
x2
= 140 − 4 + 8 x
2 0
= 140 – (50 + 40)
= 50 units
Hence the producer’s surplus= 50 units.
Example 3.29
Solution:
2
Given Pd = 18 − 2 x − x ; Ps = 2 x − 3
∴ p0 = 18 − 2(3) −(3)2 = 3
x
CS = ∫ f ( x ) dx − x0 p 0
0
3
∫ (18 − 2x − x
2
= ) dx − 3 × 3
0
118 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
3
2− x
3
= 18 x − x −9
3 0
33
= 18(3) − (3)2 − − 9
3
CS = 27 units
x
PS = x0 P0 − ∫ g (x ) dx
0
3
= (3 × 3) − ∫ (2 x − 3) dx
0
( )
3
2
= 9 − x − 3x
0
= 9 units
Hence at equilibrium price,
(i) the consumer’s surplus is 27 units
(ii) the producer’s surplus is 9 units.
Exercise 3.3
4. The demand function for a commodity is p = e − x . Find the consumer’s surplus when
p = 0. 5.
6. If the supply function for a product is p = 3x + 5x 2 .Find the producer’s surplus when
x = 4.
36
7. The demand function for a commodity is p = . Find the consumer’s surplus
x+4
when the prevailing market price is `6.
8. The demand and supply functions under perfect competition are pd = 1600 − x 2 and
ps = 2 x 2 + 400 respectively. Find the producer’s surplus.
10. The demand equation for a products is x = 100 − p and the supply equation is
p
x = − 10. Determine the consumer’s surplus and producer’s surplus, under market
2
equilibrium.
11. Find the consumer’s surplus and producer’s surplus for the demand function
pd = 25 − 3x and supply function ps = 5 + 2 x.
Exercise 3.4
1. Area bounded by the curve y = x ( 4 − x ) between the limits 0 and 4 with x − axis is
30 31 32 15
(a) sq.units (b) sq.units (c) sq.units (d) sq.units
3 2 3 2
2. Area bounded by the curve y = e −2 x between the limits 0 ≤ x ≤ ∞ is
1
(a)1 sq.units (b) sq.unit (c) 5 sq.units (d) 2 sq.units
2
1
3. Area bounded by the curve y = between the limits 1 and 2 is
x
(a) log2 sq.units (b) log5 sq.units (c) log3 sq.units (d) log 4 sq.units
−x
4. If the marginal revenue function of a firm is MR= e 10 , then revenue is
−x −x
−x
−x
(a) −10e 10 (b) 1 − e 10 (c)10 1 − e 10 (d) e 10 + 10
5. If MR and MC denotes the marginal revenue and marginal cost functions, then the
profit functions is
(a) P = ∫ ( MR − MC ) dx + k (b) P = ∫ ( MR + MC ) dx + k
(c) P = ∫ ( MR )( MC ) dx + k (d) P = ∫ ( R − C ) dx + k
11. For the demand function p(x), the elasticity of demand with respect to price is unity
then
(a) revenue is constant (b) cost function is constant
(c) profit is constant (d) none of these
13. When x 0 = 5 and p0 = 3 the consumer’s surplus for the demand function pd = 28 − x 2
is
250 251 251
(a) 250 units (b) units (c) units (d) units
3 2 3
14. When x0 = 2 and P0 = 12 the producer’s surplus for the supply function Ps = 2 x 2 + 4
is
31 31 32 30
(a) units (b) units (c) units (d) units
5 2 3 7
15. Area bounded by y = x between the lines y = 1, y = 2 with y = axis is
1 5 3
(a) sq.units (b) sq.units (c) sq.units (d) 1 sq.unit
2 2 2
20. If MR and MC denote the marginal revenue and marginal cost and
MR − MC = 36 x − 3x 2 − 81 , then the maximum profit at x is equal to
(a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 9 (d)5
21. If the marginal revenue of a firm is constant, then the demand function is
dp dx
22. For a demand function p, if ∫ p
= k∫
x
then k is equal to
−1 1
(a) hd (b) −hd (c) (d)
hd hd
23. Area bounded by y = e x between the limits 0 to 1 is
1 1
(a)( e − 1) sq.units (b)( e + 1) sq.units (c) 1 − sq.units (d) 1 + sq.units
e e
24. The area bounded by the parabola y 2 = 4 x bounded by its latus rectum is
16 8 72 1
(a) sq.units (b) sq.units (c) sq.units (d) sq.units
3 3 3 3
25. Area bounded by y = x between the limits 0 and 2 is
1. A manufacture’s marginal revenue function is given by MR= 275 − x − 0.3x 2 . Find the
increase in the manufactures total revenue if the production is increased from 10 to
20 units.
2. A company has determined that marginal cost function for x product of a particular
x2
commodity is given by MC = 125 + 10 x − . Where C is the cost of producing x
9
units of the commodity. If the fixed cost is ₹ 250 what is cost of producing 15 units
2 2x
3. The marginal revenue function for a firm is given by MR= − + 5. Show
x + 3 ( x + 3)2
2
that the demand function is P = + 5.
x+3
4. For the marginal revenue function MR = 6 − 3x 2 − x 3 , Find the revenue function and
demand function.
x
5. The marginal cost of production of a firm is given by C ′ ( x ) = 20 + the marginal
20
revenue is given by R ′ ( x ) = 30 and the fixed cost is ₹ 100. Find the profit function.
10. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y 2 = 27 x 3 and the lines x = 0, y = 1
and y = 2.
Summary
zz The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f ( x ) between limits
b
x = a and x = b with x –axis if area lies above x-axis is = ∫ y dx .
a
zz The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f ( x b) between the limits x = a
and x = b with x − axis if area lies below x − axis is = ∫ − ydx
a
zz If the rate of growth or sale of a function is a known function of t say f(t) where
t is a time measure, then total growth (or) sale of a product over a time period t
is given by,
r
Total sale = ∫ f (t ) dt , 0 ≤ t ≤ r
0
− p dx
zz Elasticity of demand is hd =
x dp
T
zz Total inventory carrying cost = c1 ∫ I ( x ) dx
0 N
zz Amount of annuity after N Payment is A = ∫ pe rt dt
zz Cost function is C = ∫ ( MC ) dx + k.
o
C
zz Average cost function is AC = , x ≠ 0
x
zz Revenue function is R = ∫ MR dx + k. ( )
R
zz Demand function is P =
x
zz Profit function is =MR–MC = R′ ( x ) − C ′ ( x )
x0
zz Consumer’s surplus = ∫ f ( x ) dx − x0 p0
0 x0
zz Producer’s surplus = x0 p0 − ∫ p ( x ) dx
0
GLOSSARY
Cost function செலவுச்சார்பு
Marginal cost function இறுதிநிலை செலவுச்சார்பு
Integration த�ொகையீடல்
Average cost function சராசரி செலவுச்சார்பு
Fixed cost மாறாச்செலவு
Out put வெளியீடு
Reveunue function வருவாய்ச்சார்பு
ICT Corner
Expected Result is shown
in this picture
Step 1
Step 1
Step 2
Introduction
D
ifferential equations, began
with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz. He was
a Germen Philosopher, mathematicians, and
logician.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
In lower class, we have studied algebraic equations li ke
(1 July 1646 - 5x − 3 ( x − 6) = 4 x , x 2 − 7 x + 12 = 0, 18 x − 5 = 3 . The goal
st
14 November 1716)
th
here was to solve the equation, which meant to find the value
(or values) of the variable that makes the equation true.
For example, x = 9 is the solution to the first equation because only where 9 is
substituted for x both sides of the equation are identical.
In general each type of algebraic equation had its own particular method of solution;
quadratic equations were solved by one method equations involving absolute values by
another, and so on. In each case, an equation was presented, and a certain method was
employed to arrive at a solution, a method appropriate or the particular equation at hand.
These same general ideas carry over to differential equations, which are equations
involving derivatives. There are different types of differential equations, and each type
requires its own particular solution method.
For example,
2
dy dy 1 − x2 d2 y dy d2x
(i) = x+5 (ii) = (iii) + 2 = 0 (iv) 2 + m2 x = 0
dx dx 2 − y2 dx 2
dx dt
Degree is the highest power of the highest order derivative in the differential
equation, after the equation has been cleared from fractions and the radicals as for as the
derivatives are concerned.
Differential Equations 127
For example, consider the differential equation
5 3
d 3 y d 2 y dy
+ + + y =7
dx 3 dx 2 dx
d3 y
Here the highest order derivatives is 3 ( i.e 3rd order derivative). So the order of the
dx
differential equation is 3.
d3 y
Now the power of highest order derivative is 1.
dx 3
∴ The degree of the differential equation is 1.
Example 4.1
2
d2 y dy
(i) + 3 + 4 y = 0 Order and degree
dx 2
dx (if defined) of a
d2 y differential equation
Highest order derivative is
dx 2 are always positive
∴ order = 2 integers.
d2 y
Power of the highest order derivative 2 is 1.
dx
∴ Degree =1
d2 y dy
(ii) 2
− 2 + 3y = 0
dx dx
d2 y
Highest order derivative is
dx 2
∴ order =2
6
d3 y dy
(iii) − 3 + 2 y = x2
dx 3
dx
∴ order =3, Degree =1
3
d 2
y
d2 y 2
(iv) 1 + 2 = a 2
dx dx
Here we eliminate the radical sign.
Squaring both sides, we get
3 2
d2 y d2 y
1 + 2 = a2 2
dx dx
∴ Order=2, degree =3
(v) y ′ + ( y ′′ ) = ( x + y ′′ )
2 2
y ′ + ( y ′′ ) = x 2 + 2 xy ′′ + ( y ′′ )
2 2
2 dy 2 d2 y
y ′ = x + 2 xy ′′ ⇒ = x + 2x 2
dx dx
∴ Order=2, degree=1
1
d 3 y dy 2
(vi) − =0
dx 3 dx
Here we eliminate the radical sign.
∴ Order=3, degree=2
∴ order=1, degree=3
Family of Curves
Sometimes a family of curves can be represented by a single equation with one or
more arbitrary constants. By assigning different values for constants, we get a family of
curves. The arbitrary constants are called the parameters of the family.
For example,
(i) y 2 = 4ax represents the equation of a family of parabolas having the origin as
vertex where ‘a’ is the parameter.
Eliminate the arbitrary constant c from (1) and its derivative. Then we get the
required differential equation.
Note
The order of the differential equation to be formed is equal to the number of
arbitrary constants present in the equation of the family of curves.
Solution:
y=
–2
x+
Now we eliminate m from (1) and (2)
c
Fig. 4.1
For this substitute (2) in (1)
dy
y=x +c
dx
dy
x − y + c = 0 which is the required differential equation of first order .
dx
twice we get y
y= –2
dy
=m
dx
y= x
d2 y
y=
–x
=0
–2
x
dx 2
+4
Fig. 4.3
Here m and c are eliminated from the given equation.
d2 y
= 0 which is the required differential equation.
dx 2
a
Find the differential equation of the family of curves y = + b where a and b are
x
arbitrary constants.
Solution:
a
Given y=
+b
x
Differentiating w.r.t x , we get
dy −a
=
dx x 2
dy
x2 = −a
dx
Again differentiating w.r.t x we get
d2 y dy 2
x 2
+ 2x = 0
dx dx
2
d y dy
⇒ x 2 + 2 = 0 which is the required differential equation
dx dx
Example 4.4
Solution:
Given y = ae 4 x + be − x . (1)
dy
From (1), = 4ae 4 x − be − x (2)
dx
d2 y
and = 16ae 4 x + be − x (3)
dx 2
dy
(1)+(2) ⇒ y+ = 5ae 4 x (4)
dx
dy d 2 y
(2)+(3) ⇒ + = 20ae 4 x
dx dx 2
= (
4 5ae 4 x )
dy
= 4 y +
dx
132 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
dy d 2 y dy
+ 2 = 4y + 4
dx dx dx
2
d y dy
⇒ 2
− 3 − 4 y = 0, which is the required differential equation.
dx dx
Example 4.5
Find the differential equation of the family of curves y = e x (a cos x + b sin x ) where a
and b are arbitrary constants.
Solution :
y = e x (a cos x + b sin x ) (1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t x, we get
dy
= e x (a cos x + b sin x ) + e x ( −a sin x + b cos x )
dx
= y + e x (−a sin x + b cos x ) (from (1))
dy
⇒ − y = e x (−a sin x + b cos x ) (2)
dx
Again differentiating, we get
d 2 y dy
− = e x (−a sin x + b cos x ) + e x (−a cos x − b sin x )
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dy
− = e x (−a sin x + b cos x ) − e x (a cos x + b sin x )
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dy dy
− = − y − y (from (1) and (2))
dx 2 dx dx
d2 y dy
⇒ 2 − 2 + 2y = 0, which is the requited differential equation.
dx dx
Exercise 4.1
4. Find the differential equation of the family of all straight lines passing through the
origin.
5. Form the differential equation that represents all parabolas each of which has a latus
rectum 4a and whose axes are parallel to the x axis.
6. Find the differential equation of all circles passing through the origin and having
their centers on the y axis.
7. Find the differential equation of the family of parabola with foci at the origin and
axis along the x-axis.
The relation between the dependent and independent variables not involving
derivatives is called the solution of the differential equation.
Solution of the differential equation must contain the same number of arbitrary
constants as the order of the equation. Such a solution is called General (complete)
solution of the differential equation.
Solution:
∫ (x + x + 1)dx + ∫ ( y − y + 3) dy = c
2 2
x3 x2 y3 y2
3 + + x + − + 3 y = c
2 3 2
Example 4.7
dy x−y
Solve =e + x 2e − y
dx
Solution :
dy
Given = e x − y + x 2e − y = e − y e x + e − y x 2
dx
(
= e− y ex + x2 )
(
Separating the variables, we get e y dy = e x + x 2 dx )
∫ e dy = ∫ (e )
y x
Integrating, we get + x 2 dx
x3
e y = ex + +c
3
Example 4.8
p
Solve 3e x tan ydx + (1 + e x )sec2 ydy = 0 given y (0) =
4
Solution:
3e x sec2 y
dx = − dy
1 + ex tan y
(
log 1 + e x tan y = log c )
3
(1 + e x )3 tan y = c (1)
p p
Given y (0 ) = (i.e ) y= at x = 0
4 4
p
(1) ⇒ (1 + e 0 )3 tan =c
4
23 (1) = c
⇒ c =8
Example 4.9
Solution:
sec2 x sec2 y
dx + dy = 0
tan x tan y
Integrating, we get
sec2 x sec2 y
∫ tan x dx + ∫ tan y dy = c
log tan x + log tan y = log c
tan x tan y = c
Example 4.10
3
Solve ydx − xdy − 3x 2 y 2e x dx = 0
ydx − xdy 3
Given equation can be written as 2
− 3x 2e x dx = 0
y
ydx − xdy 3
Integrating, ∫ y 2
− ∫ 3x 2e x dx = c
x
∫ y − ∫ e dt = c
t
d (where t = x 3 and dt = 3x 2dx )
x t
−e = c
y
x x3
−e = c
y
Example 4.11
dx dx
Solve : x − y = a x2 +
dy dy
Solution:
dx dx
Given x − y = a x2 +
dy dy
dx dx
x−y = ax 2 + a
dy dy
dx dx
x − ax 2 = a + y
dy dy
dx
x (1 − ax ) = (a + y )
dy
By separating the variables, we get
dx dy
=
x(1 − ax ) a+ y
a 1 dy
− + dx = a y
1 ax x +
a 1 dy
Integrating, ∫ + dx =
1 − ax x a+ y
− log (1 − ax ) + log x = log(a + y ) + logc
x
log
1 − ax
(
= log c (a + y ) )
x
= c (a + y )
1 − ax
x = (1 − ax )(a + y )c which is the required solution
Solution:
Given MC = 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2
dc
i.e., = 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2
dx
dc = (6 + 10 x − 6 x 2 )dx
∫ dc ∫ (6 + 10x − 6x
2
= ) dx + k
x2 x3
c = 6 x + 10 −6 +k
2 3
2 3
c = 6 x + 5x − 2 x + k (1)
⇒ k = 84
∴ (1) ⇒ c (x ) = 6 x + 5x 2 − 2 x 3 + 84
c 84
Average Cost AC = = 6 + 5x − 2 x 2 +
x x
Example 4.13
The normal lines to a given curve at each point ( x , y ) on the curve pass through the
point (1,0). The curve passes through the point (1,2). Formulate the differential equation
representing the problem and hence find the equation of the curve.
Solution:
dx
Slope of the normal at any point P ( x , y ) = −
dy
Let Q be (1,0)
y2 − y1
Slope of the normal PQ is
x2 − x1
y −0 y
i.e., =
x −1 x −1
∫ (1 − x ) dx = ∫ ydy + c
x2 y2
x− = + c (1)
2 2
Since it passes through (1,2)
1 4
1− = +c
2 2
1 3
c = −2 = −
2 2
−3
Put c = in (1)
2
x2 y2 3
x− = −
2 2 2
2x − x 2 = y 2 − 3
Example 4.14
The sum of `2,000 is compounded continuously, the nominal rate of interest being
5% per annum. In how many years will the amount be double the original principal?
(log e 2 = 0.6931)
Solution:
dP 5
= P = 0.05P
dt 100
dP
⇒ ∫ P = ∫ 0.05 dt + c
log e P = 0.05t + c
P = e 0.05t e c
2 = e 0.05t
0.05t = log2
0.6931
t = = 14 years (approximately)
0.05
Exercise 4.2
dy 1 + x2 dy
1. Solve: (i) = ae y (ii) = xy
dx 1+ y dx
dy
2. Solve : y(1 − x ) − x =o
dx
dy
3. Solve: (i) ydx − xdy = 0 (ii) + e x + ye x = 0
dx
4. Solve: cos x(1 + cos y )dx− sin y (1 + sin x )dy = 0
5. Solve: (1 − x )dy − (1 + y ) dx = 0
dy dy
6. Solve: (i) = y sin2 x (ii) log = ax + by
dx dx
x −a
7. Find the curve whose gradient at any point P (x , y ) on it is and which passes
y −b
through the origin.
dy y
Homogeneous differential can be written as = F .
dx x
( ) ( )
Check f x , y and g x , y are homogeneous functions of same degree.
dy y
i.e. =F
dx x
dy dv
Put y = vx and =v+x
dx dx
dv
The given differential equation becomes v + x = F (v )
dx
Separating the variables, we get
dv dv dx
x = F (v ) − v ⇒ =
dx F (v ) − v x
By integrating we get the solution in terms of v and x.
y
Replacing v by we get the solution.
x
Note
Sometimes it becomes easier by taking the Homogeneous differential
dx x
equation as = F (1)
dy y
dx dv
In this method we have to substitute x = vy and =v+x then (1)
dy dy
reduces to variable separable type. By integrating, we get the solution in terms
x
of v and y. The solution is deduced by replacing v = .
y
Example 4.15
Solution
y 2dx + (xy + x 2 ) dy = 0
(xy + x 2 ) dy = − y 2dx
dy − y2
= (1)
dx xy + x 2
It is a homogeneous differential equation, same degree in x and y
dy dv
Put y = vx and =v+x
dx dx
Differential Equations 141
∴ (1) becomes
dv −v 2 x 2
v+x =
dx x vx + x 2
−v 2
=
v +1
dv −v 2
x = −v
dx v +1
−v 2 − v 2 − v
=
v +1
x
dv
=
(
− v + 2v 2 )
dx 1+ v
Now, separating the variables
1+ v −dx
dv =
v (1 + 2v ) x
(1 + 2v ) − v dv −dx
v (1 + 2v )
=
x
( 1 + v = 1 + 2v − v )
1 1 −dx
− dv =
v 1 + 2v x
On Integration we have
1 1 dx
∫ v 1 + 2v
− dv = − ∫x
1
log v − log (1 + 2v ) = − log x + log c
2
v c
log = log
1 + 2v x
v c
=
1 + 2v x
y
Replace v = we get
x
y
x c
= Note
2y x
1+
x 1+ v
y x
∫ v 2 + 2v
dv can be done by
=c the method of partial
x + 2y
fraction also.
y 2x
=k
x + 2y
where k = c2
142 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Example 4.16
dy x − y
Solve the differential equation = .
dx x + y
Solution:
dy x − y
= (1)
dx x + y
This is a homogeneous differential equation.
dy dv
Now put y = vx and
=v+x
dx dx
dv x − vx
∴ (1) ⇒ v+x =
dx x + vx
1− v
=
1+ v
dv 1− v
x = −v
dx 1+ v
1 − 2v − v 2
=
1+ v
1+ v −dx
dv =
v 2 + 2v − 1 x
Multiply 2 on both sides
2 + 2v dx
2
dv = −2
v + 2v − 1 x
On Integration
2 + 2v dx
∫ v 2 + 2v − 1 dv = −2∫
x
2
log (v + 2v − 1) = −2 log x + log c
c
v 2 + 2v − 1 =
x2
x 2 (v 2 + 2v − 1) = c
y
Now, Replace v =
x
2 y2 2 y
x 2+ − 1 = c
x x
y 2 + 2 xy − x 2 = c is the solution.
Solution
x 2dy + y ( x + y ) dx = 0
x 2dy = − y ( x + y ) dx
dy − (xy + y 2 )
= (1)
dx x2
dy dv
Put y = vx and =v+x in (1)
dx dx
dv − (x vx + v 2 x 2 )
v+x =
dx x2
= − v + v 2 ( )
dv
= −v 2 − v − v x
dx
= − (v 2 + 2v )
dv −dx
=
v 2 + 2v x
dv −dx
=
v (v + 2 ) x
1 (v + 2 ) − v −dx
dv =
2 v (v + 2 ) x
1 1 1 dx
∫ −
2 v v+2
dv = − ∫
x
1
log v − log (v + 2) = − log x + log c
2
1 v c
log = log
2 v+2 x
We have
v c2
= 2
v+2 x
1
∴ (2) ⇒ k =
1+ 2
1
k =
3
∴ The solution is 3x 2 y = 2 x + y
Example 4.18
Solution:
dy −(3xy + y 2 )
= (1)
dx 2
x + xy
dy dv
Put y = vx and =v+x in (1)
dx dx
dv − (3x vx + v 2 x 2 )
v+x =
dx x 2 + x vx
− (3v + v 2 )
=
1+ v
dv −3v − v 2
Now, x = −v
dx 1+ v
−3v − v 2 − v − v 2
=
1+ v
dv −4v − 2v 2
x =
dx 1+ v
1+ v dx
∫ dv = − ∫
4v + 2v 2 x
Now, multiply 4 on both sides
4 + 4v dx
∫ dv = −4 ∫
4v + 2v 2 x
log (4v + 2v 2 ) = −4 log x + log c
c
4v + 2v 2 =
x4
x 4 (4v + 2v 2 ) = c
y
Replace v =
x
4
y y2
x 4 + 2 = c
x x 2
4 xy + 2 y 2
x 4 =c
x 2
c = 2 x 2 (2 xy + y 2 ) (2)
(i.e) y = 12 when x = 2
c = 8 [ 48 + 144 ] = 1536
Example 4.19
dy q 2 + 3 y 2
The marginal revenue ‘y’ of output ‘q’ is given by the equation = . Find
dq 2q y
the total Revenue function when output is 1 unit and Revenue is `5.
Solution:
dy q2 + 3 y 2
Given that MR = = (1)
dq 2q y
146 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
dy dv
Put y = vq and =v+q in (1)
dq dq
dv q2 + 3v 2q2
v+q =
dq 2q vq
1 + 3v 2
=
2v
dv 1 + 3v 2
q = −v
dq 2v
1 + 3v 2 − 2v 2
=
2v
1 + v2
=
2v
2v dq
dv =
1 + v2 q
On Integration
2v dq
∫ dv = ∫
1 + v2 q
log (1 + v 2 ) = log q + log c
1 + v 2 = cq
y
Replace v =
q
y2
1+ = cq
q2
q2 + y 2 = c q3 (2)
∴ (2) ⇒ 1 + 25 = c ⇒ c = 26
dy dy
1. x = x + y 2. (x − y ) = x + 3y
dx dx
dy dy 3x − 2 y
3. x − y = x 2 + y 2 4. =
dx dx 2 x − 3 y
5. ( y 2 − 2 xy ) dx = (x 2 − 2 xy ) dy
e∫
pdx
is known as an integrating factor and is denoted by I.F.
Note
dx
For the differential equation + Px = Q (linear in x) where P and Q are
dy
functions of y alone, the solution is xe ∫ = ∫ Qe ∫ dy + c
pdy pdy
Example 4.20
dy y
Solve + = x3
dx x
Solution:
dy 1
Given + y = x3
dx x
148 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
dy
It is of the form + Py = Q
dx
1
Here P = , Q = x 3
x
1
∫ Pdx = ∫ x dx = log x
I.F = e ∫ = e log x = x
pdx
yx = ∫ x 3 .x dx + c
= ∫ x 4dx + c
x5 A linear differential
= +c equation is always of
5
first degree but every
x5 differfential equation
∴ yx = +c
5 of the first degree need
Example 4.21 not be linear
d 2 y 3dy
dy − + 2 y2 = 0
Solve cos2 x + y = tan x dx 2
dx
dx
is not linear.
Solution:
dy 1 tan x
The given equation can be written as + y =
dx cos2 x cos2 x
dy
+ y sec2 x = tan x sec2 x
dx
dy
It is of the form + Py = Q
dx
Here P = sec2 x , Q = tan x sec2 x
I.F = e ∫ = e tan x
pdx
Put tan x = t
= ∫ td(e t ) + c
= te t − e t + c
tan x
= tan x e tan x − e +c
Example 4.22
Solve ( x + 1) dx
2 dy
+ 2 xy = 4 x 2
Solution:
dy 2x 4x2
+ 2 y = 2
dx x + 1 x +1
dy
It is of the form + Py = Q
dx
2x 4x2
Here P = , Q =
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2x
∫ Pdx = ∫ x 2 + 1 dx = log( x 2 + 1)
I.F = e ∫
pdx
=e
( ) = x2 + 1
log x 2 +1
4x2
y(x 2 + 1) = 2
(
∫ x 2 + 1 x + 1 dx + c )
2 4x3
y(x + 1) = +c
3
Example 4.23
dy p
Solve − 3 y cot x = sin 2 x given that y = 2 when x =
dx 2
Solution:
dy
Given − (3 cot x ) . y = sin 2 x
dx
1
∫ Pdx = ∫ −3 cot xdx = −3 log sin x = − log sin x = log sin3 x
3
1
log
sin3 x 1
I.F. = e =
sin3 x
The required solution is y ( I .F ) = ∫ Q(I .F )dx + c
1 1
3
= ∫ sin 2 x dx + c
y
sin x sin3 x
1 1
y 3 = ∫ 2 sin x cos x × 3 dx + c
sin x sin x
1 cos x
= 2 ∫ × dx + c
sin x sin x
= 2 ∫ cos ecx cot xdx + c
1
y = −2cos ecx + c (1)
sin3 x
p
Now y = 2 when x =
2
1
(1) ⇒ 2 = −2 × 1 + c ⇒ c = 4
1
1
∴ (1) ⇒ y 3 = −2 cos ecx + 4
sin x
Example 4.24
A firm has found that the cost C of producing x tons of certain product by the
dC 3
equation x = − C and C = 2 when x = 1. Find the relationship between C and x.
dx x
Solution:
dC 3
x = −C
dx x
dC 3 C
= 2−
dx x x
dC C 3
+ = 2
dx x x
dC 1 3
i.e., + C = 2
dx x x
Differential Equations 151
dC
It is of the form + PC = Q
dx
1 3
Here, P =
,Q= 2
x x
1
∫ Pdx = ∫ x dx = log x
I.F = e ∫ = e log x = x
pdx
The Solution is
C(I.F) = ∫ Q ( I .F ) dx + k where k is constant
3
Cx = ∫ x 2 xdx + k
1
= 3∫ dx + k
x
Cx = 3log x + k (1)
Given C = 2 When x = 1
(1) ⇒ 2×1 = k ⇒ k = 2
Cx = 3 log x + 2
Exercise 4.4
dy y dy
1. − = x 2. + y cos x = sin x cos x
dx x dx
dy 4 dy 3x 2 1 + x2
3. x + 2 y = x 4. + y=
dx dx 1 + x 3 1 + x3
dy y dy
5. + = xe x 6. + y tan x = cos3 x
dx x dx
dy p
7. If + 2 y tan x = sin x and if y = 0 when x = express y in terms of x
dx 3
dy y
8. + = xe x
dx x
9. A bank pays interest by continuous compounding , that is by treating the interest
rate as the instantaneous rate of change of principal. A man invests `1,00,000 in the
bank deposit which accures interest, 8% per year compounded continuously. How
much will he get after 10 years.
152 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
4.3 Second Order first degree differential equations with constant coefficients:
d2 y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f (x )
dx dx
d d2
a D 2 y + b Dy + cy = f ( x ) , where = D, 2 = D 2
dx dx
f ( D ) y = f ( x ) (1)
To solve the equation (1), we first solve the equation f ( D ) y = 0. The solution so
obtained is called complementary function (C.F).
1
Next we operate on f ( x ) with , the solution so obtained is called particular
f (D )
integral (P.I)
1
PI = f (x )
f (D )
General solution is y = C.F + P .I
Type 1 : f(x) = 0
(i.e ) f (D ) y = 0
To solve this, put f ( D ) = 0
Solve (D 2 − 3D − 4) y = 0
Solution:
Given ( D 2 − 3D − 4) y = 0
m2 − 3m − 4 = 0
⇒ (m − 4) (m + 1) =0
m = −1, 4
Example 4.26
Solve 9 y ′′ − 12 y ′ + 4 y = 0
Solution:
Given (9 D 2
)
− 12D + 4 y = 0
(3m − 2)2 = 0
2 2
(3m − 2) (3m − 2) = 0 ⇒m = ,
3 3
Roots are real and equal.
2
x
The C.F. is ( Ax + B ) e
3
2
x
The general solution is y = ( Ax + B ) e
3
Example 4.27
d2 y dy
Solve 2
− 4 + 5y = 0
dx dx
154 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Solution:
d2 y dy
Given 2
− 4 + 5y = 0
dx dx
( 2
)
D − 4D + 5 y = 0
m2 − 4m + 5 = 0
⇒ (m − 2) − 4 + 5 = 0
2
(m − 2)2 = –1
m − 2 = ± −1
m = 2 ± i , it is if the form α ± iβ
Example 4.28
d 2 x 3dx dx
Solve 2 − + 2 x = 0 given that when t = 0, x = 0 and =1
dt dt dt
Solution:
d2x dx
− 3 + 2x = 0
dt 2 dt
d
Given (D 2 − 3D + 2) x = 0 where D =
dt
A.E is m2 − 3m + 2 = 0
(m − 1)(m − 2) = 0
m = 1,2
C.F = Ae t + Be 2t
(1) ⇒ 0 = A + B (2)
dx
= Ae t + 2 Be 2t
dt
dx
When t=0, =1
dt
A + 2 B = 1 (3)
∴ (1) ⇒ x = –et+e2t
(i.e.) x = e2t–et
Type II : f ( x ) = e ax ( i.e )f ( D ) y = e ax
1 ax
P.I = e
f (D )
Replace D by a, provided f ( D ) ≠ 0 when D = a
If f ( D ) = 0 when D = a, then
1
e ax
P.I = x
f′ (D )
Replace D by a, provided f ′ ( D ) ≠ 0 when D = a
If f ′ ( D ) = 0 when D = a, then
1
P.I = x 2 e ax and so on
f ′′ ( D )
Example 4.29
( )
Solve : D 2 − 4 D − 1 y = e −3 x
Solution:
(
D 2 − 4 D − 1 y = e −3 x )
The auxiliary equation is
m2 − 4m − 1 = 0
(m − 2)2 − 4 − 1 =0
m−2 = ± 5
m = 2± 5
C.F = Ae
(2+ 5 )x + Be(2− 5 )x
1
f (x )
PI =
f (D )
1
= 2 e −3 x
D − 4D − 1
1
= (
e −3 x Replace D by − 3 )
( −3) − 4 ( −3) − 1
2
1
= e −3 x
9 + 12 − 1
e −3 x
=
20
Hence the general solution is y = C.F+P.I
⇒ y = Ae
(2+ 5 )x + Be(2− 5 )x + e −3 x
20
Example 4.30
( )
Solve: D 2 − 2D + 1 y = e 2 x + e x
Solution:
(D 2
)
− 2D + 1 y = e 2 x + e x
m2 − 2m + 1 = 0
⇒ (m − 1) (m − 1) =0
m = 1, 1
C.F = ( Ax + B ) e x
PI =
1
f (D )
f (x ) = 2
1
D − 2D + 1
(
e2 x + e x )
1
Now, P .I1 = 2 e2x
D − 2D + 1
1
and ex
P .I 2 = 2
D − 2D + 1
1
= ex
(D − 1)2
Replace D by 1. ( D − 1) = 0 when D = 1
2
1
∴ ex
P .I 2 = x.
2 ( D − 1)
Replace D by 1. ( D − 1) = 0 when D = 1
1
∴ P .I 2 = x 2 e x
2
The general solution is
y = C.F+P.I 1 +P.I 2
x2 x
y = ( Ax + B ) e x + e 2 x + e
2
Example 4.31
−7
( )
x
2 3
Solve: 3D + D − 14 y = 4 − 13e
Solution:
−7
( 3D )
x
2 3
+ D − 14 y = 4 − 13e
3m2 + m − 14 = 0
(3m + 7)(m − 2) = 0
−7
m = ,2
3
−7
x
C.F = Ae 3 + Be 2 x
1 1 −7
x
f (x ) =
3
⇒ PI = 4 − 13e
f (D ) 3D 2 + D − 14
1
P.I1 = 2
4e 0 x
3D + D − 14
1
= 4e 0 x (Replace D by 0)
0 + 0 − 14
−4
P.I1 =
14
−7
x
1
× ( −13) e
3
P .I 2 =
3D 2 + D − 14
−7 7
Replace D by Here 3D 2 + D − 14 = 0 when D = −
3 3
1 x
−7
3
∴ P .I 2 = x. −13e
6D + 1
−7
Replace D by
3
1 −7
3
x
∴ P .I 2 = x −13e
−7
6 +1
3
1
−7
x
3
= x −13e
−13
−7
x
3
= xe
dp d 2 p
Suppose that the quantity demanded Qd = 29 − 2 p − 5 + and quantity supplied
dt dt 2
Qs = 5 + 4 p where p is the price. Find the equilibrium price for market clearance.
Solution:
For market clearance, the required condition is Qd = Qs
m2 − 5m − 6 = 0
(m − 6)(m + 1) = 0
⇒ m = 6, –1
C.F = Ae6t + Be −t
1
P.I = f (x )
f (D )
1
= 2 ( −24) e0t
D − 5D − 6
−24
= (Replace D by 0)
−6
= 4
= Ae 6t + Be −t + 4
Exercise 4.5
d2 y dy d2 y dy
(1) − 6 + 8 y = 0 (2) − 4 + 4y = 0
dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
d2 y
(3) ( 2
)
D + 2D + 3 y = 0 (4) 2 − 2k + k 2 y = 0
dx
dy
dx
d2 y
(5) ( 2
)
D − 2D − 15 y = 0 given that
dy
dx
= 0 and
dx 2
= 2 when x = 0
d2 y
(6) ( )
4 D 2 + 4 D − 3 y = e 2 x (7) 2 + 16 y = 0
dx
160 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
(8) (D − 3D + 2) y = e which shall vanish for x = 0 and for x = log 2
2 3x
−3
dp d 2 p
(13) Suppose that the quantity demanded Qd = 13 − 6p + 2 + 2 and quantity supplied
dt dt
Qs = −3 + 2 p where p is the price. Find the equilibrium price for market clearance.
Exercise 4.6
d2 y dy
2. The order and degree of the differential equation = + 5 are respectively
dx 2 dx
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 3 and 2 (c) 2 and 1 (d) 2 and 2
3
d2 y 2 dy
3. The order and degree of the differential equation 2 − − 4 = 0 are
dx dx
respectively.
(a) 2 and 6 (b) 3 and 6 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
1 3
dx
4. The differential equation + 2 y 2 = x is
dy
(a) of order 2 and degree 1 (b) of order 1 and degree 3
(c) of order 1 and degree 6 (d) of order 1 and degree 2
dy
12. If sec2 x is an integrating factor of the differential equation + Py = Q then P =
dx
(a) 2 tan x (b) sec x (c) cos2 x (d) tan2 x
dy
13. The integrating factor of x − y = x 2 is
dx
−1 1
(a) (b) (c) log x (d) x
x x
dy
14. The solution of the differential equation + Py = Q where P and Q are the function
dx
of x is
(a) y = ∫ Qe ∫ (b) y = ∫ Qe ∫ dx + c
Pdx − Pdx
dx + c
(c) ye ∫ = ∫ Qe ∫ (d) ye ∫ = ∫ Qe ∫ dx + C
Pdx Pdx Pdx − Pdx
dx + c
15. The differential equation formed by eliminating A and B from y = e −2 x ( A cos x + B sin x )
is
(a) y2 − 4 y1 + 5 = 0 (b) y2+ 4y – 5 = 0
(c) y2 − 4 y1 − 5 = 0 (d) y2 + 4 y1 + 5 = 0
x 2 ax x ax
(a) e (b) xe ax (c) e (d) x 2e ax
2 2
17. The differential equation of x 2 + y 2 = a2
d 2 y dy
18. The complementary function of 2 − = 0 is
dx dx
(a) A + Be x (b) ( A + B ) e x (c) ( Ax + B ) e x (d) Ae x + B
x 2x x2 2x
(a) e (b) xe 2 x (c) e (d) 13xe 2 x
2 2
dy
20. The general solution of the differential equation = cos x is
dx
(a) y = sin x + 1 (b) y = sin x - 2
(c) y = cos x + c, c is an arbitrary constant
(d) y = sin x + c, c is an arbitrary constant
dy y
21. A homogeneous differential equation of the form = f can be solved by
dx x
making substitution,
dx x
22. A homogeneous differential equation of the form = f can be solved by
dy y
making substitution,
dy y ( x − y ) dy dv
23. The variable separable form of = by taking y = vx and =v+x is
dx x ( x + y ) dx dx
2 v2 dx 2 v2 dx
(a) dv = (b) dv = −
1+ v x 1+ v x
2 v2 dx 1+ v dx
(c) dv = (d) 2
dv = −
1− v x 2v x
(
(c) y 2 dx + x 2 − xy − y 2 dy = 0 ) (d) ( x + y ) dx = ( y + x ) dy
2 2
y
f
dy y x
25. The solution of the differential equation = + is
dx x y
f ′
x
y y y y
(a) f = k x (b) x f = k (c) f = k y (d) y f = k
x x x x
Miscellaneous Problems
dP d 2 P
1. Suppose that Qd = 30 − 5P + 2 + and Qs = 6 + 3P . Find the equilibrium price
dt dt 2
for market clearance.
8. Solve
dy
dx
+ y cos x + x = 2 cos x
2
(3 3
)
9. Solve x ydx − x + y dy = 0
dy
10. Solve = xy + x + y + 1
dx
Summary
zz A differential equation is an equation with a function and one or more of its
derivatives.
dy d 2 y
(i.e) an equation with the function y = f ( x ) and its derivatives , ... is called
dx dx 2
differential equation.
zz Order of the highest order derivative present in the differential equation is the
order of the differential equation.
zz A function which satisfies the given differential equation is called its solution. The
solution which contains as many arbitrary constants as the order of the differential
equation is called a general solution and the solution free from arbitrary constants
is called particular solution.
zz In an equation it is possible to collect all the terns of x and dx on one side and
all the terms of y and dy on the other side, then the variables are said to be separable.
Thus the general form of such an equation is f (x )dx = g ( y )dy (or)
f (x )dx + g ( y )dy = 0 By direct integration, we get the solution.
dy
zz A differential equation which can be expressed in the form = f ( x , y ) or
dx
dx
= g ( x , y ) where f ( x , y ) and g ( x , y ) are homogeneous function of degree zero
dy
is called a homogeneous differential equation.
GLOSSARY
Differential equation வகைக்கெழுச் சமன்பாடுகள்
Ordinary differential equation சாதாரண வகைக்கெழுச் சமன்பாடுகள்
Partial differential equation பகுதி வகைக்கெழுச் சமன்பாடுகள்
Order வரிசை
Degree படி
Variable மாறி
Constant மாறிலி
Fixed constant நிலையான மாறிலி
ICT Corner
Expected Result is shown
in this picture
Step 1
Step 1
Step 2
Introduction
Learning Objectives
The symbol D is called the forward difference operator and pronounced as delta.
Proof: Let f (x ) = c
∆ f (x ) = f (x + h) − f (x )
Dc = c − c = 0
= f (x + h) + g (x + h) − f (x ) − g (x )
= f (x + h) − f ( x ) + g ( x + h) − g ( x )
= ∆f (x ) + ∆g (x )
Proof: D[c f (x )] = c f ( x + h ) − c f ( x )
= c [ f (x + h) − f (x )]
= c Df (x )
2. ∆ f (x ) g (x ) = f (x )∆g (x ) + g (x ) ∆f (x )
f (x ) g (x )∆f (x ) − f (x ) ∆g (x )
3. ∆ =
g (x ) g (x ). g (x + h).
The differences of the first differences denoted by D2 y0 , D2 y1 ,..., D2 yn are called
second differences, where
D2 yn = D (Dyn ) = D ( yn+1 − yn )
D2 y0 = Dy1 − Dy0
D3 y n = D2 y n+1 − D2 yn , n = 0,1,2,…
In particular,
D3 y0 = D2 y1 − D2 y0
D3 y0 = D2 y2 − D2 y1 Note
Dk yn = Dk −1 y n+1 − Dk −1 yn , n = 0,1,2,…
Numerical Methods 169
It is convenient to represent the above differences in a table as shown below.
x y ∆y ∆2 y ∆3 y ∆4 y ∆5 y
x0 y0
∆y0
x1 y1 ∆ 2 y0
∆y1 ∆ 3 y0
x2 y2 ∆ 2 y1 ∆ 4 y0
∆y2 ∆ 3 y1 ∆ 5 y0
x3 y3 ∆ 2 y2 ∆ 4 y1
∆y3 ∆ 3 y2
x4 y4 ∆ 2 y3
∆y 4
x5 y5
y1 − y0 = ∇y1
yn − yn−1 = ∇yn
∇f ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( x − h)
First differences: ∇f ( x + h) = f ( x + h) − f ( x )
Second differences:
∇2 f (x + h) = ∇(∇f (x + h) = ∇( f (x + h) − f ( x ))
= ∇f (x + h) − ∇f (x )
Third differences:
∇ 3 f ( x + h) = ∇ 2 f ( x + h) − ∇ 2 f ( x )
∇3 f (x + 2h) = ∇2 f (x + 2h) − ∇2 f (x + h)
∇f (x + 2h) = f (x + 2h) − f (x + h) = Df (x + h)
∇2 f (x + 2h) = ∇f (x + 2h) − ∇f (x + h) = Df (x + h) − Df (x )
= D2 f (x )
In general, ∇n f (x + nh) = Dn f (x )
In general ,
Note
1. D ≡ E −1
∆f (x ) = f (x + h) − f ( x )
and E[ f (x )] = f (x + h)
∆f (x ) = f (x + h) − f (x )
∆f (x ) = Ef (x ) − f (x )
⇒ D f (x ) = (E − 1) f (x )
∆ ≡ E −1
∴ E ≡ 1+ ∆
2. E∆ ≡ ∆ E
Proof:
E ( ∆f (x )) = E f (x + h) − f (x )
= E f ( x + h) − E f ( x )
= f (x + 2h) − f (x + h)
= ∆f (x + h)
= ∆Ef (x )
E −1
3. ∇≡
E
Proof:
∇f (x ) = f (x ) − f (x − h)
= f (x ) − E −1 f (x )
= (1 − E −1 ) f (x )
⇒ ∇ ≡ 1 − E −1
(i) (1 + ∆ ) (1 − ∇) = 1
1
i.e., ∇ ≡ 1− (ii) ∆∇ ≡ ∆ − ∇
E
E −1 (iii) ∇ ≡ Ε −1∆
Hence, ∇ ≡
E
Example 5.1
x 0 10 20 30
y 0 0.174 0.347 0.518
Solution:
The Forward difference table is given below
x y Dy D2 y D3 y
0 0
0.174
10 0.174 -0.001
0.173 -0.001
20 0.347 -0.002
0.171
30 0.518
Example 5.2
Solution
y = f(x) = x 3 + 2 x + 1 for x =1,2,3,4,5
Example 5.3
By constructing a difference table and using the second order differences as constant,
find the sixth term of the series 8,12,19,29,42…
Solution:
Let k be the sixth term of the series in the difference table
x y D D2
1 8
4
2 12 3
7
3 19 3
10
4 29 3
13
5 42 k–55
k–42
6 k
∴
k – 55 = 3
k = 58
Solution:
(i) ∆e ax = e a( x +h) − e x
= e ax . e h − e ax m+n m n
a = a . a
= e ax e h − 1
(ii) ∆ 2e x = ∆. ∆e x
= ∆ e x +h − e x = ∆ e x e h − e x
= ∆e x e h − 1
( )
= e h − 1 ∆e x
= (e − 1) . (e − 1) . e
h h x
= (e − 1) .e
2
h x
5x + 12 A B
= +
x 2 + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
5x + 12 −15 + 12 −3
A =
x+2
[ x = −3] =
−1
= =3
−1
176 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
5x + 12
x =− 2 B =
x+3
2
= =2
1
5x + 12 3 2
2
= +
x + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
5x + 12 3 2
D 2 = D x + 3 + x + 2
x + 5x + 6
3 3 2 2
= − + −
x + 1+ 3 x + 3 x + 1+ 2 x + 2
1 1 1 1
= 3 − + 2 −
x + 4 x + 3 x + 3 x + 2
−3 2
= −
(x + 4)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 2)
−5 x − 14
=
( x + 2)( x + 3)( x + 4)
Example 5.6
1
Evaluate D2 by taking ‘1’ as the interval of differencing.
x
Solution:
1 1
D2 = D D
x x
1 1 1
Now D = −
x x +1 x
1
n
D =
( −1) n !
n
1 1 1
∆2 = ∆ − x x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) ...... ( x + n)
x 1+ x x
1 1
= ∆ − ∆
1+ x x
1 2
Similarly D2 =
x x ( x + 1) ( x + 2)
Example 5.7
Prove that f (4) = f (3) + Df (2) + D2 f (1) + D3 f (1) taking ‘1’ as the interval of
differencing.
Example 5.8
Solution :
∆ 4U 0 = ( E − 1) U 0
4
(
= E 4 − 4 E 3 + 6E 2 − 4 E + 1 U 0 ) 1
1 1
= E 4U 0 − 4 E 3U 0 + 6 E 2U 0 − 4 EU 0 + U 0
1 2 1
= U 4 − 4U 3 + 6U 2 − 4U1 + U 0 1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
= 29 − 4(28) + 6 (21) − 4 (11) + 1.
= 156–156 = 0
Example 5.9
Solution :
Given y3 = 2, y 4 = −6, y5 = 8, y6 = 9 and y7 = 17
D4 y3 = (E − 1)4 y3
= (E 4 − 4 E 3 + 6 E 2 − 4 E + 1) y3
= E 4 y3 − 4 E 3 y3 + 6 E 2 y3 − 4 Ey3 + y3
= y7 − 4 y6 + 6 y5 − 4 y 4 + y3
Example 5.10
x 2 3 4 5 6
f(x) 45.0 49.2 54.1 - 67.4
Solution:
Since only four values of f(x) are given, the polynomial which fits the data is of
degree three. Hence fourth differences are zeros.
(ie) D4 y0 = 0 , ∴ (E − 1)4 y0 = 0
(E 4 − 4 E 3 + 6 E 2 − 4 E + 1) y0 = 0
E 4 y0 − 4 E 3 y0 + 6 E 2 y0 − 4 Ey0 + y0 = 0
y 4 − 4 y3 + 6 y2 − 4 y1 + y0 = 0
240.2 = 4 y3 ∴ y3 = 60.05
Example 5.11
Estimate the production for 1964 and 1966 from the following data
Solution:
Since five values are given, the polynomial which fits the data is of degree four.
i.e., (E 5 − 5E 4 + 10 E 3 − 10 E 2 + 5E − 1) y k = 0
E 5 y k − 5 E 4 y k + 10 E 3 y k − 10 E 2 y k + 5Ey k − y k = 0 (1)
Put k = 0 in (1)
y5 − 5 y 4 + 10 y3 − 10 y2 + 5 y1 − y0 = 0
y5 + 10 y3 = 3450 (2)
Put k = 1 in (1) 1
1 2 1
E 5 y1 − 5E 4 y1 + 10 E 3 y1 − 10 E 3 y1 − y1 = 0
1 3 1 3
y6 − 5 y5 + 10 y 4 − 10 y3 − y1 = 0 1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
430 − 5 y5 + 10 (350) − 10 y3 + 5 (260) − 220 = 0
5 y5 + 10 y3 = 5010 (3)
y5 = 390
10 y3 = 3450 – 390
y3 ≅ 306
Exercise 5.1
1. Evaluate D(log ax ) .
1
5. Evaluate D by taking ‘1’ as the interval of differencing
( x + 1) ( x + 2)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = f(x) 0 - 8 15 - 35
5.2 Interpolation
Consider the profit of a manufacturing company in various years as given below
The profit for the year 1989 is not available .To estimate the profit for 1989 we use
the technique called interpolation. Let x denote the year and y denote the profit. The
independent variable x is called the argument and the dependent variable y is called the
entry. If y is to be estimated for the value of x between two extreme points in a set of
values, it is called interpolation.
We are given the ‘n’ values of x and the corresponding values of y for given function
y = f (x ) . we plot these n observed points ( xi , yi ) , i = 1, 2, 3.... and draw a free hand curve
passing through these plotted points. From the graph so obtained, we can find out the
value of y for any intermediate value of x. There is one drawback in the graphic method
which states that the value of y obtained is the estimated value of y. The estimated value
of y differs from the actual value of y.
Example 5.12
Using graphic method, find the value of y when x = 38 from the following data:
x 10 20 30 40 50 60
y 63 55 44 34 29 22
Solution:
From the graph in Fig. 5.1 we find that for x = 38, the value of y is equal to 35
points. 20
10
Note
Newton’s forward interpolation formula is used when the value of y is required
near the beginning of the table.
Note
Newton’s backward interpolation formula is used when the value of y is required
near the end of the table.
Using Newton’s formula for interpolation estimate the population for the year 1905
from the table:
Solution
To find the population for the year 1905 (i.e) the value of y at x = 1905
Since the value of y is required near the beginning of the table, we use the Newton’s
forward interpolation formula.
1891+n(10)=1905 ⇒ n = 1.4
x y Dy D2 y D3 y D4 y
1891 98,752
33,533
1901 1,32,285 2,258
35,791 –10,435
1911 1,68,076 -8,177 41,376
27,614
1921 1,95,690 30,941
22,764
50,360
1931 2,46,050
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 2 4 10 16 20 24 38
Estimate the value of y (3.2) using forward interpolation formula by choosing the
four values that will give the best approximation.
Solution:
Since we apply the forward interpolation formula,last four values of f (x ) are taken
into consideration (Take the values from x = 3).
1
∴ n=
5
The difference table is
x y ∆y ∆2 y ∆3 y
3 16
4
4 20 0
4 10
5 24 10
14
6 38
1 −4 1 −4 −9
1
5 5 5 5 5
y(x=3.2) = 16 + (4) +
5 2
(0 ) + 6
× 10
= 16 + 0.8 + 0 + 0.48
= 17.28
From the following table find the number of students who obtained marks less than 45.
Solution:
Let x be the marks and y be the number of students
By converting the given series into cumulative frequency distribution, the difference
table is as follows.
x y Dy ∆2 y ∆3 y D4 y
Less than 40 31
42
50 73 9
51 –25
60 124 -16 37
35 12
70 159 -4
31
80 190
1 −1 −3 −5
2 2 2 2
+ × (37 )
24
9 25 37 × 15
= 31 + 21 − − −
8 16 128
= 47.867 ≅ 48
Using appropriate interpolation formula find the number of students whose weight
is between 60 and 70 from the data given below
Solution:
Let x be the weight and y be the number of students.
x y Dy ∆2 y ∆3 y D4 y
Below 40 250
120
60 370 –20
100 –10
80 470 –30 20
70 10
100 540 –20
50
120 590
Let us calculate the number of students whose weight is below 70. For this we use
forward difference formula.
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
1! 2! 3!
To find y at x = 70 ∴ x0 + nh = 70 , x0 = 40, h = 20
Solution:
x 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
y 20 24 29 36 46 51
Here we find the population for year1946. (i.e) the value of y at x=1946. Since
the value of y is required near the beginning of the table, we use the Newton’s forward
interpolation formula.
x y Dy ∇2 y ∇3 y D5 y
∇4 y
1941 20
4
1951 24 1
5 1
1961 29 2 0
7 1 -9
1971 36 3 -9
10 -8
1981 46 -5
5
1991 51
= 21.69 lakhs
Example 5.18
Solution:
Since the pressure required is at the end of the table, we apply Backward interpolation
formula. Let temperature be x and the pressure be y.
x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y ∇4 y
140 3.685
1.169
150 4.854 0.279
1.448 0.047
160 6.032 0.326 0.002
1.774 0.049
170 8.076 0.375
2.149
180 10.225
Calculate the value of y when x = 7.5 from the table given below
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y 1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512
Solution:
Since the required value is at the end of the table, apply backward interpolation
formula.
x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y ∇4 y
1 1
7
2 8 12
19 6
3 27 18 0
37 6
4 64 24 0
61 6
5 125 30 0
91 6
6 216 36 0
127 6
7 343 42
169
8 512
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3!
To find y at x = 7.5∴ xn + nh = 7.5 , xn = 8, h = 1 ⇒ n = –0.5
Example 5.20
From the following table of half- yearly premium for policies maturing at different
ages. Estimate the premium for policies maturing at the age of 63.
Age 45 50 55 60 65
Premium 114.84 96.16 83.32 74.48 68.48
−2 −2 −2 −2 −2 −2
+ 1 + 1 + 2
5 5 5 5 5 5
y (x =63) = 68.48 +
1!
( −6) +
2!
2.84 +
3!
( −1.16)
−2 −2 −2 −2
+ 1 + 2 + 3
5 5 5 5
+
3!
(0.68)
= 68.48 + 2.4 – 0.3408 + 0.07424 – 0 – 0.028288
y(63) = 70.437
Example 5.21
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 29
Solution:
We will use Newton’s backward interpolation formula to find the polynomial.
y (x ) = 29 + ( x − 7 )(7 ) +
( x − 7 ) ( x − 6) 1
2
()
= 29 + 7 x − 49 +
1 2
2
x − 13x + 42 ( )
1
= 58 + 14 x − 98 + x 2 − 13x + 42
2
1
= x 2 + x + 2
2
5.2.4 Lagrange’s interpolation formula
The Newton’s forward and backward interpolation formulae can be used only when
the values of x are at equidistant. If the values of x are at equidistant or not at equidistant,
we use Lagrange’s interpolation formula.
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y
y = f ( x ) =
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 )... ( x0 − xn ) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 )... ( x1 − xn ) 1
0
+... +
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ... ( x − xn−1 ) y
( xn − x0 ) ( xn − x1 )... ( xn − xn−1 ) n
192 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
Example 5.22
Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula find y(10) from the following table:
x 5 6 9 11
y 12 13 14 16
Solution:
Here the intervals are unequal. By Lagrange’s interpolation formula we have
x0 = 5, x1 = 6, x2 = 9, x3 = 11
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y
y = f (x ) =
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ( x1 − x3 ) 1
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) × y
( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) 2 ( x3 − x0 ) ( x3 − x1 ) ( x3 − x2 ) 3
( x − 6) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 12 + ( x − 5) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 13
=
(5 − 6) (5 − 6) (5 − 11)
( ) (6 − 5 ) (6 − 9 ) (6 − 9 ) ( )
( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 11) 14 + ( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 9) 16
+
(9 − 5) (9 − 6) (9 − 11)
( ) (11 − 5) (11 − 6) (11 − 9) ( )
Put x = 10
y (10) = f (10) =
4 (1) ( −1) (5)(1) ( −1) 13 + 5 (4) ( −1) 14 + (5)(4)(1) 16
(12) + ( ) 4 3 −2 ( ) 6 5 2 ( )
( −1) ( −4) ( −6) (1) ( −3) ( −5) ( )( ) ( )( )
1 13 5 (14 ) 4 × 16
=
6
(12) − +
3 3×2
+
12
= 14.6663
Exercise 5.2
1. Using graphic method, find the value of y when x = 48 from the following data:
x 40 50 60 70
y 6.2 7.2 9.1 12
2. The following data relates to indirect labour expenses and the level of output
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
Units of output 200 300 400 640 540 580
Indirect labour
2500 2800 3100 3820 3220 3640
expenses (Rs)
Estimate the expenses at a level of output of 350 units, by using graphic method.
Numerical Methods 193
3. Using Newton’s forward interpolation formula find the cubic polynomial.
x 0 1 2 3
f(x) 1 2 1 10
4. The population of a city in a censes taken once in 10 years is given below. Estimate
the population in the year 1955.
Year 1951 1961 1971 1981
Population in lakhs 35 42 58 84
7. The following data gives the melting point of a alloy of lead and zinc where ‘t’ is the
temperature in degree c and P is the percentage of lead in the alloy
P 40 50 60 70 80 90
T 180 204 226 250 276 304
9. Using interpolation estimate the output of a factory in 1986 from the following data
Year 1974 1978 1982 1990
Output in 1000 tones 25 60 80 170
10. Use Lagrange’s formula and estimate from the following data the number of workers
getting income not exceeding Rs. 26 per month.
Income not exceeding (`) 15 25 30 35
No. of workers 36 40 45 48
Exercise 5.3
1. ∆ 2 y0 =
2. ∆f ( x ) =
3. E≡
4. If h=1, then ∆ x 2 = ( )
(a) 2x (b) 2 x − 1 (c) 2 x + 1 (d) 1
5. If c is a constant then ∆c =
8. E f (x ) =
10. ∇ f (a ) =
(a) f (a ) + f (a − h ) (b) f (a ) − f (a + h )
(c) f (a ) − f (a − h ) (d) f (a )
( ) (
11. For the given points x0 , y0 and x1 , y1 the Lagrange’s formula is)
x − x1 x − x0 x1 − x x − x0
(a) y ( x ) = y0 + y (b) y ( x ) = y0 + y
x0 − x1 x1 − x0 1 x0 − x1 x1 − x0 1
x − x1 x − x0 x −x x − x0
(c) y ( x ) = y1 + y (d) y ( x ) = 1 y1 + y
x0 − x1 x1 − x0 0 x0 − x1 x1 − x0 0
12. Lagrange’s interpolation formula can be used for
(a) equal intervals only (b) unequal intervals only
(c) both equal and unequal intervals (d) none of these.
Miscellaneous Problems
3. A second degree polynomial passes though the point (1,-1) (2,-1) (3,1) (4,5). Find
the polynomial.
7. The area A of circle of diameter ‘d’ is given for the following values
D 80 85 90 95 100
A 5026 5674 6362 7088 7854
Find the approximate values for the areas of circles of diameter 82 and 91 respectively.
10. Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula find a polynomial which passes through the
points (0, –12), (1, 0), (3, 6) and (4,12).
Summary
In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of
zz ∆f ( x ) = f ( x + h ) − f ( x )
z z ∇f ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( x − h )
zz ∇f ( x + h ) = ∆f ( x )
zz Ef ( x ) = f ( x + h )
zz E n f ( x ) = f ( x + nh )
zz Newton’s forward interpolation formula:
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
1! 2! 3!
zz Newton’s backward interpolation formula:
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn +
∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3!
zz Lagrange’s interpolation formula:
y = f (x ) =
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y +...
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 )... ( x0 − xn ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 )... ( x1 − xn ) 1
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ... ( x − xn−1 ) y
( xn − x0 ) ( xn − x1 )... ( xn − xn−1 ) n
Numerical Methods 197
GLOSSARY
Numerical எண்ணியியல்
Interpolation இடைச்செருகல்
Extrapolation புறச்செருகல்
Graphic method வரைபட முறை
Algebraic methods இயற்கணித முறைகள்
Finite differences திட்டமான வேறுபாடுகள்
Gregory- Newton’s formulae கிரிக�ோரி-நியுட்டனின் சூத்திரங்கள்
Lagrange’s formula இலக்ராஞ்சியின் சூத்திரம்
Forward difference operator முன்நோக்கு வேறுபாட்டுச் செயலி
Backward difference operator பின்நோக்கு வேறுபாட்டுச் செயலி
Shifting operator இடப்பெயர்வுச் செயலி
Policy காப்பீடு
ICT Corner
Expected Result is shown
in this picture
Step 1
Step 1
Step 2
2. r ( AB ) = 3, r ( BA) = 2 3. x = 1, y = 3, z = 5
1 1 −7
4. x =
11
( 7 − 16k ) , y = (3 + k ) , z = k 5. x = 2, y = 1, z = 0, , 6. l =
11 2
7. x = 1000 , y = 2000, z = 500 8. x = 1000, y = 2200, z = 1800
Exercise 1.2
1.(i) x = 8, y = -3 (ii) x = 1, y = 4 (iii) (x , y , z ) = (2, − 1, 0)
1 1
(iv) (x , y , z ) = (1, 2, 3) (v) (x , y , z ) = −1, ,
2 3
2. Cost per unit of labour is ₹10 Cost per unit of capital is ₹ 16
3 1
3. Amount invested at 4 % is ₹7,300 Amount invested at 6 % is ₹1,300
4 2
4. hourly charges for horse riding is ₹100 and AVT riding is ₹120
5. ( x , y , z ) = (2, 3,1)
6. Amount invested at 2% is ₹250
Amount invested at 3% is ₹4,000
Amount invested at 6% is ₹4,250
Exercise 1.3
1. 36% 2.(i) 54% , 46% (ii) 50%
Answers 199
Exercise 1.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(d) (b) (a) (c) (d) (b) (b) (d) (a) (c) (c) (b) (c)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(b) (c) (c) (b) (b) (a) (b) (b) (c) (d) (c) (a)
Miscellaneous problems
1. r( A) = 2 2. r( A) = 3 3. r( A) = 3
4. The given system is inconsistent and has no solution. 5. k = 8.
6. The equations are inconsistent when k assumes any real value other than 0.
7. x = 1, y = 2 and z = 2
8. Cost of wheat is ₹30/kg, Cost of sugar is ₹40/kg and Cost of rice is ₹50/kg.
9. The rates of commission for A,B and C are ₹2, ₹4 and ₹11 respectively
10. 39%
2. Integral Calculus – I
Exercise: 2.1
3
2 81x 5 16 13x 2 5x 3
1. (3x + 5) + c
2
2. − 3 − 72 x + c 3. 6 x − − +c
9 5 3x 2 3
3 1
9 5
(4 x + 7) (4 x + 7)
2 2
3
2x 2 4x 2
4. − + 2x 2 +c 5. +c −
9 5 3 2
1 2
3 3
13 x 2 13
6. ( x + 1) − ( x − 1) + c 7. b = , c = −2, f ( x ) =
2
+ x −2
3 2 2 2
8. c = −20, f ( x ) = 2 x 4 − x 2 − 20
Exercise: 2.2
1 x 4 x3
1. x 2 + log x − 2 x + c 2. + + 2 log x − 1 + c
2 4 3
x3 x3
3. − x 2 + 4 x − 8 log x + 2 + c 4. − x 2 + 3x − 4 log x + 5 + c
3 3
2
5. 11 log x − 3 − 8 log x − 2 + c 6. log x + 1 + 3 log x − 3 + +c
( x + 1)
p p
7. log x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 5 + c 8. c = , f ( x ) = log x +
4 4
4.
e 2 x e −4 x
+ +c 5.
e4x
+c 6.
(e x + 1x ) + c
2 4 4
1
7. − +c 8. c = 1, f ( x ) = e x + 1
log x
Exercise: 2.4
3 1
1. 2 sin x + 3 cos x + 4 tan x + 5 cot x + c 2. − cos x + cos 3x + c
4 12
3. tan x + c 4. tan x − cot x + c 5. − [sin x + cos x ] + c
Exercise: 2.5
x 3 x 2 2x 2
1. −e −x
( x + 1) + c 3x
2. e − + − +c 3. x ( log x − 1) + c
3 3 9 27
x2 x n+1
1 1
( )
2
4. log x − 2 + c 5. log x − +c 6. e x x 4 − 2 x 2 + 2 + c
2 n +1 n + 1
Exercise: 2.6
1 1
1. log x 2 + 5x − 7 + c 2. log x 4 + 1 + c 3. log e 2 x − 2 + c
4 2
3
(log x )4 + c 4 2
( )
2
2
4. 5. 2 3x + 7 x − 1 + c 6. x + x +1 + c
4 3
1
( ) 1
6
7. 1 + x9 +c 8. log x e + e x + c 9. log log x + c
54 e
x2 − 2
10.
1
10
log 2
2x + 1
+c
( )
11. xe x log xe x − 1 + c
1
12. log x − log x 2 + 1 + c
2
ex ex e 3x
13. 2 + c 14. +c 15. +c
x ( x + 1) 2
9x
Exercise 2.7
1 3 + 4x 1 9+ x 1 2x − 3
1. log +c 2. log +c 3. log +c
24 3 − 4x 10 1− x 6 2 2x + 3
1 x −2 x +1 1 x −1
4. log +c 5. log +c 6. log +c
3 x +1 x+2 10 x+4
1 ex − 3 1
7. log x +c 8. log 3x + 9 x 2 − 7 + c 9. log ( x + 3) + x 2 + 6 x + 13 + c
6 e +3 3
3 1
10. log x − + x 2 − 3x + 2 + c 11. log x 4 + x 8 − 1 + c
2 4
Answers 201
1
x + 2 3 1
12. 1 + x + x 2 + log x + + 1 + x + x 2 + c
2 8 2
x 2 1
13. x − 2 − log x + x 2 − 2 + c 14. 2 x 4 x 2 − 5 − 5 log 2 x + 4 x 2 − 5 + c
2 4
x + 1 2
15. 2x 2 + 4 x + 1 − log 2 ( x + 1) + 2 x 2 + 4 x + 1 + c
2 4
x2 x 2 1
16. − x − 1 + log x + x 2 − 1 + c
2 2 2
Exercise 2.8
1 2 1 1 5 1 + e 3
I:1. e − 1 2. 3. log 4. log
2 6 2 2 2
1 3 11 1
5. [e − 1] 6. 7. log 8. 2 9. [2 log 2 − 1]
2 8 5 2
II:1. 37 2. 0 3. 1 4. c = 4
Exercise 2.9
p p 16
1. 0 2. 3. 0 4. 5. 0 6.
2 4 5
Exercise 2.10
1.( i) 6 (ii)
105 p
16
(iii)
6!
m7
(iv)
3
128
( )
(v) 26 5 ! 2.
1
4
Exercise 2.11
9 3 1
1. 2. 3. 14 4.
2 2 3
Exercise 2.12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(b) (c) (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (a) (d) (c) (b) (b) (b) (b) (c)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(d) (c) (c) (b) (a) (b) (b) (c) (a) (a) (a) (b) (d) (b) (c)
Miscellaneous problems
2 2
3 3
1 2+ x 1 ex + 1
( x + 2) + ( x + 3) + c 2. log
2
1. +c 3. log x +c
15 5 1 − 2x 4 e +5
x 3 2
4. 2x 2 − 3 − log 2 x + 2 x 2 − 3 + c
2 4
( )
7. x log x − x 2 − 1 + x 2 − 1 + c
1 e4 − 5
8. 0 9. 2
4 e
10.
14
15
3. Integral Calculus – II
Exercise 3.1
8a2 3
1. 5 sq.units 2. 2 sq.units 3. sq.units 4. sq.units
3 2
17 8 8 2 1
5. sq.units 6. sq.units 7. sq.units 8. sq.units
2 3 3 3
Exercise 3.2
2x − 1
1. ₹28,000 2. y = 3. P = 8 − 2 x , R = 8 x − 2 x 2
3x + 2
4. ₹4,419 5. ₹5,680
Exercise 3.3
0.1x 3
2 x 2 500
1. Total cost = 100 x − 5x + + 500 , Average Cost= = 100 x − 5x + +
3 30 x
7 2
1500 5 1500 5
2. Total Cost = x , Average Cost = x
7 7
3. Cost function C = 2 ax + b − 2 b 4. ₹14,133.33
4x2
5. Total Revenue=₹5.95 6. Demand function P = 9 −
3
x
−
8. Demand function P = 20e 10 9. Profit function = 13x − 0.065x 2 − 120
3x 2 x 3 3x x 2
11. Revenue function R = 10 x + − , Demand function P = 10 + −
2 3 2 3
4000 10000
12. Total Cost C = 4000 7 x + 4 + 10000 , Average Cost A.C = 7x + 4 +
x x
2 2
x 5x
13. C = + 5000 14. Revenue function R = 20 x − + x3
4 2
2
15. Demand function P = 14 − 3x + 3x
Answers 203
Exercise 3.4
1. cs= 400 units 2. C.S=378 units 3. C.S=562.50 units
1 25
4. C.S= 1-log e 2 units 5. P.S= units. 6. P.S=237.3 units
2 2
3 32000 1
7. C.S = 36 log − 12 units 8. = units 9. C.S = (8 log 2 − 4 ) units, P.S= units
2 3 4
1024
10. C.S= units, P.S=64 units 11. C.S=24 units, P.S=16 units
3
Exercise 3.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(c) (b) (a) (c) (a) (a) (d) (c) (b) (a) (a) (a) (b)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(c) (c) (b) (a) (b) (a) (c) (a) (c) (a) (b) (c)
Miscellaneous problems
x4
3 2 x3
1. `1,900 2. C= `3,125 4. R = 6 x − x − , p = 6 − x −
4 4
x2
5. Profit function is 10 x − − 100.
40
40 32
6. C.S = units, P .S = units. 7. 52,770 units
9 9
1 3
5
3
x 76
8. P = 11 − 9. sq.units 10. (2) − 1 sq.units
3 3 5
4. Differential Equations
Exercise 4.1
1.(i) (1 , 1) (ii) (3 , 1) (iii) (2 , 2) (iv) (3 , 1)
(v) (3 , 3) (vi) (2 , 1) (vii) (1 , 4).
2 3
dy dy dy dy dy dy
2.(i) y = x + − (ii) − 4 xy + 8 y 2 = 0 (iii) y + x =0
dx dx dx dx dx dx
2 2 3
dy d 2
y
dy dy
(iv) x + y =0 3. r 2 2 = 1 + 4. y = x
dx dx dx dx
3 2
d 2 y dy 2 2 dy dy dy
5. 2a 2 + = 0 6. y = x + 2 xy 7. y = 2 x + y
dx dx dx dx dx
Exercise 4.2
x2 y2 y3
1.(i) e − y + ax + C = 0 (ii) log x + = + + C 2. log x − x = log y + C
2 2 3
3.(i) x = Cy (ii) log(1 + y ) = −e x + C 4. (1 + sin x ) = C(1 + cos y )
204 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statisics
− cos 2 x e ax −e by
5. (x − 1)( y + 1) = C 6.(i) log y = +C (ii) = +C
2 a b
7. ( y − b)2 = (x − a)2 + b2 − a2
Exercise 4.3
y −2 x
x+ y
1. x = Ce x 2. x + y = Ke 3. y + x 2 + y 2 = x 2C
4. 3 y 2 − 4 yx + 3x 2 = x 3C (
5. xy − y 2 x = C ) 6. y y 2 − x 2 = 2 3 x 5
x2
2
7. y = ce 2 y
Exercise 4.4
y sin x sin x x6 2
1. = x +C 2. ye = e (sin x − 1) + C 3. x y = +C
x 6
x3
(
4. y 1 + x 3 = x +) 3
+C ( )
1
5. xy = e x x 2 − 2 x + 2 + C 6. y sec x = x +
2
sin 2 x
2
+C
7. y sec2 x = sec x − 2 8. x 2e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + c 9. ` 2,22,550
Exercise 4.5
1. y = Ae 2x
+ Be 4x
2. y = ( Ax + B)e 2 x 3. y = e − x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x )
1 3
kx e −3 x e 5 x x x e2x
4. y = ( Ax + B)e 5. y = + 6. y = Ae 2 + Be 2 +
12 20 4
3x
7 e
7. y = A cos 4 x + B sin 4 x 8. y = 3e x − e 2 x +
2 2
−3 x 2x e 3 x x −3 x 1
9. y = Ae + Be + − e 10. y = ( Ax + B)e 5 x + 2 xe 5 x +
6 5 5
−3 −5 3 −7
x x − x x
2x
11. y = Ae 2 + Be 2 + 4 xe 2 12. y = Ae + Be 3 + xe 2 x
13. P = Ae −4t + Be 2t + 2
Exercise 4.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(a) (d) (a) (b) (a) (a) (d) (c) (a) (c) (b) (a) (b)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(c) (d) (a) (d) (a) (b) (d) (a) (a) (d) (c) (a)
Miscellaneous Problems
d2 y
1. p = Ae −4 t
+ Be + 3 2t
2. x
dx
2
2
− 2x
dy
dx
+ 2 y = 0 3. e x x 2 − 2 x + 2 + log y = c ( )
1
3 y2 3 2 x6
4. x 1 + 2 = c 5. yx = +c 6. cm2 = 2(m+6)
x 6
Answers 205
( ) (
7. 6 y = e 2 + e e x − e 2 + e + 1 e 2 x + e 4 x) 8. ye sin x = 2e sin x + c
x3 x2
9. log y = 2 + c 10. log 1 + y = x + +c
3y 2
5. Numerical Methods
Exercise 5.1
h
1. log 1 +
ax
2
x y Dy ∇2 y ∇3 y D5 y
∇4 y
0 -1
1
1 0 3
4 8
-3
2 5 11 -4
15 5
3 20 16 1
31 6
4 51 22
5 104
−2
5. 6. 31 7. 445 lakhs 8. 3 and 24
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
Exercise 5.2
1. 6.8 2. `2,900 3. f ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x + 1
4. 36.784 (lakhs) 5. 197 6. 15.45
7. 286.96 8. 22.0948 9. 100 (Thousand tones)
10. 42persons 11. 444.7Lakhs 12. 53
Exercise 5.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(a) (c) (a) (c) (d) (a) (c) (c) (c) (c) (a) (c) (b) (b)
Miscellaneous Problems
3. f ( x ) = x 2 − 3x + 1 4. 14.25, 23.5 5. 128.5