Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is the process of maintaining certain temperature, relative humidity,
and air purity conditions in indoor spaces. This process is most commonly used to
achieve a more comfortable interior environment, typically for humans and other
animals; however, air conditioning is also used to cool and dehumidify rooms filled with
heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer servers, power amplifiers, and to
display and store some delicate products, such as artwork.

Psychrometric chart:
A psychrometric chart is a graph of the thermodynamic properties of moist air at a
constant pressure, often equated to an elevation relative to sea level. It depicts these
properties and is thus a graphical equation of state.
The following table introduces the properties found in a typical psychrometric chart:
Property Definition
Dry-bulb temperature The temperature of an air sample, as determined by an
(DBT) ordinary thermometer.
The temperature of an air sample after it has passed through
Wet-bulb temperature an ideal, adiabatic saturation process. In practice this is the
(WBT) reading of a thermometer whose sensing bulb is wrapped in
wet cloth evaporating into a rapid stream of the sample air.
The temperature at which a moist air sample would reach
Dew point temperature water vapor "saturation." At this point further removal of
(DPT) heat would result in water vapor condensing into liquid
water fog or, if below freezing point, solid hoarfrost.
The ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor to the mole
Relative humidity
fraction of saturated moist air at the same temperature and
(RH)
pressure.

Specific humidity The proportion of mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry
air at the given conditions. It is also known as the moisture
(𝜔)
content or humidity ratio.
Specific enthalpy The enthalpy of moist air (dry air plus water vapor) per unit
(ℎ) mass of dry air.
Specific volume The volume of moist air (dry air plus water vapor) per unit
(𝑣) mass of dry air.

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Locating properties on chart:

Property Location
Dry-bulb temperature This is the horizontal axis of the graph.
These are the oblique lines drawn diagonally downward
Wet-bulb temperature from left to right across the chart. They are approximately
parallel to specific enthalpy lines.
From the state point follow the horizontal line of constant
humidity ratio to the intercept of 100% RH, also known as
Dew point temperature
the saturation curve. The dew point temperature is equal to
the fully saturated dry bulb or wet bulb temperatures.
Relative humidity These are the hyperbolic lines shown in intervals of 10%.
Specific humidity This is the vertical axis of the graph.
These are the oblique lines that are approximately parallel
Specific enthalpy
to wet bulb temperature lines.
Specific volume These are the dashed oblique lines.

The protractor on the right side of the chart represents sensible heat factor (SHF) of
processes passing through the reference point (24℃ DBT & 50% RH).

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Basic processes:

Process Description
A Sensible heating.
B Heating and humidification.
C Humidification.
D Cooling and humidification.
E Sensible cooling.
F Cooling and dehumidification.
G Dehumidification.
H Heating and dehumidification.

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For any process, the sensible and latent heat transfer rates are given by:
𝑞sensible = ℎ𝑥 − ℎ2 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝,𝑎 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑞latent = ℎ1 − ℎ𝑥 = 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎfg
The sensible heat factor is defined as the ratio of sensible to total heat transfer rate:
𝑞sensible 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝,𝑎 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) ℎ𝑥 − ℎ2
SHF = = =
𝑞sensible + 𝑞latent 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝,𝑎 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎfg ℎ1 − ℎ2

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Common processes:
1) Sensible cooling:

During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant, but its temperature
decreases as it flows over a cooling coil. For moisture content to remain constant, the
surface of the cooling coil should be dry, and its surface temperature (𝑇3 ) should be
greater than the dew point temperature of air. The heat transfer rate during this process
is given by:
𝑞coil = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = 𝑞sensible = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝,𝑎 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
The bypass factor can be defined as the ratio of air which is unaffected by the coil to the
total quantity of air passing over the coil.
𝑇2 − 𝑇3
BF =
𝑇1 − 𝑇3
Similarly, the contact factor can be defined as the ratio of air which is affected by the
coil to the total quantity of air passing over the coil.
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
CF = = 1 − BF
𝑇1 − 𝑇3

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2) Sensible heating:

During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant and its temperature
increases as it flows over a heating coil. The heat transfer rate during this process is
given by:
𝑞coil = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 𝑞sensible = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝,𝑎 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
The contact and bypass factors are given by:
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
CF =
𝑇3 − 𝑇1
𝑇3 − 𝑇2
BF = = 1 − CF
𝑇3 − 𝑇1

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3) Cooling and dehumidification:

When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in contact with a cold
surface some of the water vapor in the air condenses and leaves the air stream as liquid,
as a result both the temperature and humidity ratio of air decreases. This is the process
air undergoes in a typical air conditioning system. In this process, the surface of the
temperature of the cooling coil (𝑇3 ) should be greater than the dew point temperature of
air. The cooling coil temperature (𝑇3 ) is also known as apparatus dew point (ADP)
temperature. The rate of moisture removal can be expressed as:
𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔1 − 𝜔2 )
The heat transfer rate during this process is given by:
𝑞coil = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = 𝑞sensible + 𝑞latent = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝,𝑎 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎfg
The contact and bypass factors are given by:
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝜔1 − 𝜔2
CF = =
𝑇1 − 𝑇3 𝜔1 − 𝜔3
𝑇2 − 𝑇3 𝜔2 − 𝜔3
BF = = = 1 − CF
𝑇1 − 𝑇3 𝜔1 − 𝜔3

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4) Cooling and humidification:

During this process, the air temperature drops and its humidity increases. This can be
achieved by spraying cool water in the air stream. The temperature of water should be
lower than the dry-bulb temperature of air but higher than its dew-point temperature to
avoid condensation. The effectiveness of the spray chamber is expressed in terms of air
washer efficiency (𝜂washer ) defined as:
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝜔2 − 𝜔1
𝜂washer = =
𝑇1 − 𝑇3 𝜔3 − 𝜔1
Adiabatic saturation (evaporative cooling):
Under a special case when the spray water is entirely recirculated and is neither heated
nor cooled, the make-up water is supplied at WBT (𝑇3 = WBT), then at steady-state,
the air undergoes an adiabatic saturation process (ℎ2 = ℎ1 ), during which its WBT
remains constant. The net transfer rate during this process is zero as the sensible heat
transfer from air to water will be equal to latent heat transfer from water to air. This
process is encountered in a wide variety of devices such as evaporative coolers and
cooling towers.

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5) Heating and dehumidification (chemical dehumidification):

This process can be achieved by using a hygroscopic material, which absorbs the water
vapor from moist air. If this process is thermally isolated, then the enthalpy of air
remains constant (ℎ2 = ℎ1 ), as a result the temperature of air increases as its moisture
content decreases. This hygroscopic material can be a solid or a liquid.

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6) Mixing:

During this process, two air streams mix adiabatically. The resulting air will have a
psychrometric state related to the mass proportions of each the stream:
𝑚̇1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇2 ℎ2 = (𝑚̇1 + 𝑚̇2 )ℎ𝑚
𝑚̇1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇2 𝜔2 = (𝑚̇1 + 𝑚̇2 )𝜔𝑚
𝑚̇1 𝑇1 + 𝑚̇2 𝑇2 = (𝑚̇1 + 𝑚̇2 )𝑇𝑚

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Problem 1:
30 m3/min of a stream of moist air at 15℃ DBT and 13℃ WBT is mixed with 12 m3/min
of a second stream at 25℃ DBT and 18℃ WBT. Determine the dry and wet bulb
temperature of the resulting mixture.

Solution

From chart:
ℎ1 = 36.6 kJ/kg, 𝑣1 = 0.827 m3 /kg
ℎ2 = 50.7 kJ/kg, 𝑣2 = 0.858 m3 /kg
Mass flow rates:
𝑉1̇ 𝑉̇2
𝑚̇1 = = 36.3 kg/min, 𝑚̇2 = = 14 kg/min
𝑣1 𝑣2
Enthalpy of mixture:
𝑚̇1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇2 ℎ2
ℎ𝑚 = = 40.5 kJ/kg
𝑚̇1 + 𝑚̇2
From chart:
𝑇𝑚 = 17.8℃, WBT𝑚 = 14.5℃

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Problem 2:
Air is brought to final condition of 22℃ DBT and 35% relative humidity form an initial
condition of -3℃ DBT and 90% relative humidity. In order to achieve the final
condition of air, it was preheated, adiabatically humidified to 80% RH and then
reheated. If 1200 kg of air per hour are handled, find:
a) The capacity of heaters in kW.
b) The quantity of water consumed in kg/hr.
c) The humidifying efficiency of the humidifier.

Solution

From chart:
ℎ1 = 3.6 kJ/kg, ℎ2 = ℎ3 = 23.6 kJ/kg, ℎ4 = 36.7 kJ/kg
𝜔1 = 𝜔2 = 0.0027, 𝜔3 = 𝜔4 = 0.0057
𝑇2 = 16.4℃, 𝑇3 = 9℃, 𝑇3′ = 7.2℃

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Capacity of heaters:
𝑞𝑐,1 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 6.67 kW, 𝑞𝑐,2 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ4 − ℎ3 ) = 4.36 kW
𝑞𝑐,𝑡 = 𝑞𝑐,1 + 𝑞𝑐,2 = 11 kW
Quantity of water consumed:
𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔3 − 𝜔2 ) = 3.6 kg/hr
Humidifier efficiency:
𝑇2 − 𝑇3
𝜂humidifier = = 80.4%
𝑇2 − 𝑇3′

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Problem 3:
Air at 35℃ DBT and 25℃ WBT is to be cooled and dehumidified by passing it over a
direct expansion coil. The air leaves the coil at 15℃ DBT and 90% relative humidity.
Find:
a) The moisture removed per kg of dry air.
b) The heat removed per kg of dry air.
c) The sensible heat factor.
d) The surface temperature of the cooling coil.
e) The bypass factor of the cooling coil.

Solution

From chart:
ℎ1 = 76 kJ/kg, ℎ2 = 39.5 kJ/kg, ℎ𝑥 = 60 kJ/kg
𝜔1 = 0.0158, 𝜔2 = 0.0096, 𝑇2′ = 11.6℃
Moisture removed:
∆𝜔 = 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 0.0062 kg 𝑤 /kg 𝑎
Heat removed:
𝑞𝑐 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 36.5 kJ/kg

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Sensible heat factor:

𝑞sensible ℎ𝑥 − ℎ2
SHF = = = 0.56
𝑞sensible + 𝑞latent ℎ1 − ℎ2
Coil surface temperature:
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇2′ = 11.6℃
Coil bypass factor:
𝑇2 − 𝑇2′
BF = = 0.145
𝑇1 − 𝑇2′

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Problem 4:
It is required to design an air conditioning system for an industrial process of the
following summer conditions:
• Outdoor conditions: 32℃ DBT and 65% RH.
• Required industrial conditions: 25℃ DBT and 60% RH.
• Amount of free air circulated: 250 m3/min.
• Cooling coil effective surface temperature: 13℃.
The required condition is achieved first by cooling and dehumidifying and then sensible
heating to 25℃ DBT and 60% RH. Calculate:
a) The cooling capacity of the cooling coil in kW and its bypass factor.
b) The heating capacity of the heating coil in kW and surface temperature of the
heating coil if the bypass factor is 0.3.
c) The mass of water vapor removed per hour.

Solution

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From chart:
ℎ1 = 83 kJ/kg, ℎ2 = 48.5 kJ/kg, ℎ3 = 55.5 kJ/kg, 𝑇2 = 17.8℃
𝜔1 = 0.0197, 𝜔2 = 𝜔3 = 0.012, 𝑣1 = 0.892 m3 /kg
Mass flow rate:
𝑉1̇
𝑚̇𝑎 = = 4.67 kg/s
𝑣1
Cooling coil:
𝑞𝑐,1 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = 6.67 kW
𝑇2 − 𝑇2′
BF1 = = 0.253
𝑇1 − 𝑇2′
Heating coil:
𝑞𝑐,2 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) = 32.7 kW
𝑇3′ − 𝑇3 𝑇3 − BF2 𝑇2
BF2 = ⟶ 𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇3′ = = 28.1℃
𝑇3′ − 𝑇2 1 − BF2
Moisture removed:
𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔1 − 𝜔2 ) = 2.16 kg/min

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Problem 5:
250 m3 of air is supplied per minute from outdoor conditions of 38℃ DBT and 25℃
WBT to an air-conditioned room. The air is dehumidified by a cooling coil having a
bypass factor of 0.35 and coil sensible heat factor of 0.65 and then by a chemical
dehumidifier (ℎ = constant). Air leaves the chemical dehumidifier at 25% RH. Air is
then passed over a cooling coil whose CSHF = 1, surface temperature is 13℃, and
bypass factor is 0.25. Calculate:
a) The capacities of the two cooling coils.
b) The mass of water vapor removed.

Solution

From chart:
ℎ1 = 76 kJ/kg, 𝑣1 = 0.902 m3 /kg, 𝜔1 = 0.146, 𝑇2′ = 12.2℃

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Air temperature after passing through the 1st cooling coil:

𝑇2 − 𝑇2′
BF1 = ⟶ 𝑇2 = 𝑇2′ + BF1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2′ ) = 21.2℃
𝑇1 − 𝑇2′
From chart:
ℎ2 = ℎ3 = 49 kJ/kg, 𝑇3 = 30.9℃, 𝜔3 = 𝜔4 = 0.0069
Air temperature after passing through the 2nd cooling coil:
𝑇4 − 𝑇4′
BF2 = ⟶ 𝑇4 = 𝑇4′ + BF2 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4′ ) = 17.5℃
𝑇3 − 𝑇4′
From chart:
ℎ4 = 35 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate:
𝑉1̇
𝑚̇𝑎 = = 4.62 kg/s
𝑣1
Capacity of cooling coils:
𝑞𝑐,1 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = 124.7 kW, 𝑞𝑐,2 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ3 − ℎ4 ) = 64.7 kW
𝑞𝑐,𝑡 = 𝑞𝑐,1 + 𝑞𝑐,2 = 189.4 kW
Moisture removed:
𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔1 − 𝜔4 ) = 38.56 kg/min

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