CHAPTER 3

RESISTANCE AND OHM'S LAW

3-1 The Nature of Resistance

When a voltage source e.g. a battery is connected across a conducting material, the current
carriers (free electrons) will start flowing in the conducting material. The electrons will be
attracted towards the positive terminal of the voltage supply, therefore they accelerate and in so
doing they gain kinetic energy and momentum. There is a great probability that these electrons
may collide with the stationary atoms forming the crystalline structure of the material. On
collision, the electrons lose some of their kinetic energy, that is some of their kinetic energy is
transferred to the stationary atoms. The transferred kinetic energy is converted into heat, as in
electric iron element, or light as in incandescent lamps. After each collision, the electrons again
accelerate, and gain kinetic energy, and the process is repeated.

The collision process is the reason behind the property of the material which exhibit the flow of
current. This property is called the electrical resistance of the material and is denoted by the
symbol R.

3-1-1 Factors affecting resistance

Every material has a specific number of free electrons that may take part in the process of
electricity flow. Also, each material could have a different crystalline structure, some more
dense than others. Thus each material will oppose the flow of electric current differently. This
particular characteristics of the material is referred to as the specific resistivity of the material
and has a symbol ρ.
The physical dimensions of the material also affects its resistance. The longer the length of the
material, l, the more would be the probability of collisions, hence the larger the resistance
becomes. The larger the cross-sectional area A of the material, the easier it is for electrons to
flow through it, hence the lower the electric resistance becomes.

Thus the resistance R of the material is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area. The constant of proportionality is the specific resistivity
of this material. Therefore

L
R= (3-1)
A

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resistance can be express in mathematical form as:

Figure 3-1: A diagram showing a conductor with length, l and cross-section area, A

Table 3-1 gives the specific resistivity ρ for different materials at 20 oC.
From Table 3-1, it can be seen that silver is the best electric conductor, however it is very
expensive, therefore, copper which is almost as good as silver and a lot cheaper is the one which
is mostly used in almost all electrical wires. Aluminium is also cheap and light in weight and
therefore it is used as an electric conductor for the over head transmission lines. Insulators
provide very high resistances and thus allow an insignificant amount of current to flow. Such
materials are used to form the insulating coating for conductors so that they can be grouped
together without current flow between them. Insulators are also used in making capacitors as
well as being used to support power transmission lines and telephone lines. Germanium and
silicon are neither good insulator nor good conductors. They are called semiconductors. They
are used primarily in the production of diodes, transistors, and all types of integrated circuits.

Example 3-1
What is the resistance of copper wire having a diameter of 0.50 mm and length of 100 m at
normal room temperature of 20 oC.

Solution
d2
A =  r2 =
4
L 100
and R =  = 1.7 10−8  
A   4 10−6
0.52

R = 8.66 

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 Figure 3-2 (a) Showing resistor
(b) Showing short circuit
(c) Showing open circuit

In circuit diagrams, a resistive element is represented symbolically as shown in Figure 3-2 (a).
The zig-zag line emphasizes opposition to current flow. Two special cases occur quite often in
electric circuits. A short circuit is the case corresponding to R equals to zero ohms and
symbolically is shown as in Figure 3-2 (b). An open circuit is the case corresponding to R equals
to infinite resistance and symbolically, this situation correspond to no path between circuit
elements as shown in figure 3-2 (c).

Table 3-1: Resistivity of various materials at 200C

No Material Resistivity (Ω.m)

1 Conductors

1-1 silver 1.6 x 10-8

1-2 Copper 1.7 x 10-8

1-3 Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8

1-4 Tungsten 5.5 x 10-8

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 1-5 Nickel 7.8 x 10-8

1-6 Iron 12.0 x 10-8

1-7 Constantan 49.0 x 10-8

1-8 Nichrom 11 110.0 x 10-8

2 Semiconductors

2-1 Carbon 4 x 10-5

2-2 Germanium 4.5 x 10-1

2-3 Silicon 2.5 x 103

3 Insulators

3-1 Paper 1.0 x 1010

3-2 Mica 5.0 x 1011

3-3 Glass 1.0 x 1012

3-1-2 Conductance
Conductance is the ability of a material to allow electric current to flow. It is therefore just the
inverse of resistance. The symbol for conductance is G. The SI unit for conductance is the
siemens [S]. Another widely accepted unit of conductance is the mho, which is "ohm" spelled
backward and has the symbol . Thus:
1
G= S (3-2)
R
from Equation (3-1)
A A
G= = S (3-3)
L L
1
where  = specific conductivity =  MS  ( 3-4 )


3-1-3 Effect of temperature on resistance

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As the temperature of a metallic conductor is increased, its atoms will acquire a large amount of
kinetic energy, exhibited in the form of vibrations around their average positions. This increase
in the vibrations activity of the parent atoms makes the collision process of the electrons move
probable. Thus in general, the resistance of a metallic conductor (copper, aluminium, etc.)
increases with a rise in temperature.

For poor conductors (e.g. carbon) and semiconductors, a rise in temperature usually results in the
liberation of more electrons from their parent atoms as these electrons acquire sufficient amounts
of energy to enable them to overcome the binding force with the nucleus of the atom. An
increase in number of available current carriers means that the material is becoming more
conductive. This can more than make up for the increase in collisions between the current
carriers and the vibrating atoms. The overall result is that a rise in temperature would make these
materials more conductive. In other words, the resistance decreases with temperature.

For a moderate range of temperature say 100 o C, the change of resistance is usually proportional
to temperature in metallic conductors. The ratio of the change of resistance per degree change of
temperature to the resistance at some definite temperature adopted as standard, is termed the
temperature coefficient of resistance and is represented by the Greek letter .

A typical graphical representation of the variation of the resistance of a metallic wire with the
corresponding variation in temperature is shown in Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3: Variation of resistance of a metallic conductor with temperature

The resistance of any material is zero at the absolute zero temperature, where absolute zero
temperature equal to a temperature of minus 273 on Celsius scale, that is, 0 K = -273 oC. If the

40
approximately linear portion of the behaviour curve is extended (the dotted line), it will intersect
with temperature axis at a point called inferred zero temperature, denoted by To.

The slope of the linear portion of the curve can be expressed mathematically as:
R2 R1
slope = = (3-5)
T2 − To T1 − To

T − T 
Therefore R2 = R1  2 o 
 T1 − To 

T − T + T − T 
= R1  1 o 2 1 
 T1 − To 

= R1 1 +  (T2 − T1 ) (3-6)

1
where  = (3-7)
T1 − To
If a material having a resistance Ro at 0 o C (taken as a standard temperature), has a resistance R1
at T1 and R2 at T2 and if α0 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0 o C, then;
R1 = Ro 1 + o (T1 − 0 )
R1 = Ro 1 +  oT1  (3-8)
and R2 = Ro 1 +  oT2  (3-9)
dividing Equation 3-9 by Equation 3-8 gives;

R2 1 +  oT2
= (3-10)
R1 1 +  oT1
In some countries, the standard temperature is taken as 20 o C. Hence, for a material having a
resistance R20 at 20 o C and temperature coefficient of resistance 20 at 20 o C, has a resistance Rt
at Tt.
where Rt = R20 1 +  20 (Tt − 20 ) (3-11)

Table 3-2: Temperature coefficient of resistance (α) at 20 o C

Material α per degree Celsius

Silver 3.8 x 10-3

Copper 3.93 x 10-3
Aluminium 3.91 x 10-3
Tungsten 5.0 x 10-3

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 Carbon -5.0 x 10-4
Constantan 8.0 x 10-6

Example 3-2

A silver conductor has a resistance of 10 Ω at 20 o C. What is the resistance at 70 o C.

Solution

Using Table 3.2, 20 = 3.8 10−3 / o C for silver using Equation (3-11):
Rt = R20 1 +  20 (Tt − 20 ) 

R70 = 10 1 + 3.8 10−3 ( 70 − 20 )  

R70 = 11.9 

Example 3-3

An aluminium rod at 20 o C has a length of 0.5 m and a diameter of 4.00 mm. If the rod is drawn
out into a wire having a uniform diameter of 1.0 mm, calculate the resistance of the wire when
the temperature is 80 o C. Assume the resistivity to be unchanged and the temperature coefficient
of resistance of aluminium to be 0.004 per o C at 0 o C.

Solution

L L
R 20 = =
 d4
2
A
from Table 3-1
ρAL = 2.8 10−8 m
2.8 10−8  0.5
R 20 = 
  44 10−6
2

R20 = 1.114 mΩ

let R20 = R1

when a rod is drawn into a wire, its volume remains the same, therefore

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 A1 l1 = A2 l2

d12 d 2
 l1 =  2 l2
4 4
2
d 
l2 =  1  l1 ( length of a wire )
 d2 
2
l2  d1 
= 
l1  d 2 

if the resistance of the rod is given by:

l
R1 =  1
A1
and if the resistance of the wire is given by:

l2
R2 = 
A2
 l A 
= R1  2  2 
 A2 l1 
 l2  d41 
2

= R1  d 2  
 2 l 
 4 1 
l  d   2

= R1  2   1  
 l1  d 2  
 

2
l d 
substituting 2 =  1  in the above equation gives:
l1  d 2 
  d 2  d 2 
R2 = R1   1    1  
  d2   d2  
 
4
d 
= R1  1 
 d2 
4
4 −3
= 1.114 10    at 20 C
1
= 0.285  at 20 C

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since R20 = Ro (1 +  o 20 )
and R80 = Ro (1 +  o 80 )

hence R80 = R20

(1 +  o 80 )
(1 +  o 20 )
0.285
(1 + 0.004  80 )  = 0.348 
(1 + 0.004  20 )

3-2 Ohm's Law

The transfer of current carriers through a resistive element necessitates the expenditure of energy,
in the form of work done by an external electrical energy source such as a battery, to overcome
the opposition that the resistive element exhibits due to the collision mechanism discussed in
Section 3.1. This implies that the higher the value of the resistance (R), the more work that has
to be done. As work per unit charge is the voltage (V), then:
V R (3-12)
that is, voltage is directly proportional to the value of the resistance.

Also, for a specific value of a given resistive element, the higher the voltage, the more the kinetic
energy of the charges being transferred through this element. since the amount of charge
transferred per unit time is the electric current (I), then:
V I (3-13)
that is, voltage is directly proportional to the value of the resulting current flow. Combining
relations (3-12) and (3-13) gives:
V = kIR
where k is taken as unity, hence
V = IR (3-14)
The relationship was discovered by the Germany Physicist Georg Ohm and it is referred to as
Ohm's law. Ohm's law is a basis law in electric circuit.

3-3 Series and Parallel Connection Resistors

3-3-1 Series connected resistors

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 Figure 3-4: Showing n resistors in series and their corresponding equivalent resistor

In Figure 3-4 (a), n resistors are connected in series. At this point we should remind ourselves
that electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge. In metallic conductors, the
flow of electric charge consists of free electrons moving through a circuit as the result of electric
potential difference generated by a voltage source.

Common sense tells us that there cannot be more electrons entering R1 per second than leaving
R1 in a second. Similarly, the same number of electrons must pass through the source per second
as they pass through any other part of series circuit in the same time interval. Since we express
electrons per second in amperes, therefore the same current flows through all components of the
circuit of Figure 3-4.
By Ohm's Law, the voltage across R1, R2, ..., Rn are:

V1 = IR1

V2 = IR2

.
.
.
Vn = IRn

45
by Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (see 5-3-2), it can be shown that:
E = V1 + V2 + V3 + ... + Vn (3-15)

= IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + ... + IRn

= I ( R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn ) (3-16)

hence E can be expressed as:

E = IReq (3-17)

where Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn (3-18)

Therefore, the equivalent resistance of n resistors connected in series is the sum of the individual
resistances.

3-3-2 Parallel connected resistors

By Kirchhoff's current law (see 5-3-1), at node n in Figure 3-5, the current I is:
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + ... + I n (3-19)

where each current is substituted by the corresponding voltage divide by corresponding

resistance, which can simplify to:
E E E E E
= + + + ... +
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn

 1 1 1 1 
= E + + + ... + 
 R1 R2 R3 Rn 

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... + (3-20)
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn

Therefore when n resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is
the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. The reciprocal of any resistor Ri is called
the conductance Gi.
Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 + ... + Gn (3-21)

1
= (3-22)
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
R1 R2 R3 Rn
This means that any number of parallel resistors connected between two nodes, such as nodes n

46
and p, can be replaced by a single equivalent resistor (Req), such that the current entering or
leaving the nodes (n and p) in the original and in the equivalent circuits is the same.
The special case of only two resistance in parallel, shown in Figure 3-6 is important because of
its frequent occurrence.

Figure 3-5: Showing n resistors connected in parallel and their corresponding

equivalent resistor

Equation (3-22) can be simplified as:

1 R1 R2
Req = = (3-23)
1 R1 + 1 R2 R1 + R2
By applying KVL around the loops containing the voltage source E and R1 and R2 respectively as
shown in Figure 3-6 (a) gives;

E = I1 R1 (3-24)

and E = I 2 R2 (3-25)

Also, by KVL around the loop circuit of Figure 3-6 (b) gives:

47
 E = IT Req (3-26)

Dividing Equation (3-24) by Equation (3-25) gives:

E I R
= 1 1
E I 2 R2
which simplifies to:

I1 R G
= 2 = 1 (3-27)
I2 R1 G2

Figure 3-6: Two parallel resistor and the equivalent circuit

Thus the ratio of the current in two parallel branches is the same as the ratio of the two branch
conductances. Substituting the value of Req from Equation (3-23) into Equation (3-26) gives:

R1 R2
E = IT (3-28)
R1 + R2

substituting the value of E from Equations (3-24) and (3-25) respectively into Equation (3-28)
gives:

48
 R1 R2
I1 R1 = IT
R1 + R2

R1 R2
and I 2 R2 = IT
R1 + R2
which simplifies to:
IT R2
I1 = (3-29)
R1 + R2
IT R1
and I 2 = (3-30)
R1 + R2

Example 3-4
Determine the value of the source currents of the following circuits by first finding their
equivalent resistances.

49
 Figure 3-7: Circuit diagrams for example 3-4

Solution
for Figure 3-7 (a)
Req = ( 2 + 4 + 6 ) 

50
 Req = 12 

E 12 V
Ia = =
Req 12 

=1 A

for Figure 3-7 (b)

1
Req = 
1 1 1 1
+ + +
96 96 48 24
96
Req =  = 12 
1+1+ 2 + 4

E 12 V
Ib = =
Req 12 

=1 A
for Figure 3-7 (c)
Req = ( 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 )  = 8 

E 12 V
Ic = =
Req 8 

= 1.5 A

This shows that if all branches have equal resistance R, then the equivalent resistance Req in series
circuit is nR.
for Figure 3-7 (d)
1
Req =
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
R R R R R
R 10 
= = =2
5 2
E 12 V
Id = = =6A
Req 2 

This shows that if all branches have equal resistance R, then the equivalent resistance R eq in

51
 R
parallel circuit is
n
for Figure 3-7 (e)
1 1
Req = + +R
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
R R R R R
R R
= + +R
3 2
2 R + 3R + 6 R 11R 11 30 
= = = = 55 
6 6 6
E 110 V
Ie = =
Req 55 
=2A

Questions

3-1 Find the resistance of aluminium conductor at 20 0C, if the length and diameter of the
conductor are 1000 m and 4 mm respectively.

3-2 A carbon rod has a length of 10 cm, what should be its diameter to result in a
conductance of 0.05 mho at 20 0C.
3-3 Calculate the resistance in question 2-1 at;
(a) 100 0C,

(b) -50 0C.

3-4 Calculate the resistance in question 2-2 at;

(a) 100 0C,

(b) 0 0C.

3-5 A certain resistance was measured to be 50 Ω at 30 0C and 75 Ω at 60 0C. Find the

temperature coefficient at;
(a) 0 0C,

52
 (b) 20 0C.

3-6 What current will flow through 100 kΩ resistor connected across a 220 V source.

3-7 If 10 μA current passes through a resistor causing a voltage drop across the resistor to
be 30 mV. Find the resistance of a resistor.

3-8 An aluminium wire 12.5 m long is connected in parallel with a copper wire 10 m long.
When a current of 2.5 A is passed through the combination, it is found that the current in
the aluminium wire is 1.5 A. If the diameter of the aluminium wire is 0.8 mm, determine
the diameter of the copper wire. Assume the resistivity of copper and aluminium to be
0.018 Ωm and 0.028 Ωm respectively.

3-9 An aluminium conductor has a resistance of 5 Ω at 20 0C. What is its resistance at 70oC

if the temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium is 0.00403/ 0C at 20 0C?

3-10 An aluminium conductor has a resistance of 5 Ω at 20 0C. What is its resistance at 70 0C

if the temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium is 0.004/ 0C at 0 0C?

3-11 The insulated copper wire is connected directly across a 500 V supply. When the wire is at
20 0C, the current is 2.5 A. After the machine has been running for some time, the current
falls to 2.0 A, while the voltage remained the same. Calculate the average temperature
throughout the winding, assuming the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper to be
4.26 x 10-3/ 0C at 0 0C.

3-12 The field winding of a d.c. motor has a resistance of 300 Ω at 30 0C. After the machine

has been running for some time, the average temperature is found to be 60 0C. Assuming

the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper to be 4.26 x 10-3/ 0C at 0 0C, find the

resistance of the field winding at the new temperature of 60 0C.

3-13 A coil of insulated wire has resistance of 100 Ω at 30 0C. When the coil is connected

53
 across 230 volts supply, the current after several hours is 2 A. Calculate the average
temperature throughout the coil assuming the temperature coefficient of copper to be
0.00393 at 0 0C.

3-14 A coil of 40 Ω resistance is joined in parallel with a coil of R ohms resistance. This
combination is then joined in series with a piece of apparatus A, and the whole circuit
connected to 250 volts mains. What must be the value of R so that A shall dissipate 1000
watts with 10 amperes passing through it?

3-15 A load taking 120 amperes is supplied by copper and aluminium cables connected in
parallel. If the total length of conductor in each cable is 360 m, and each conductor has a
cross-sectional area of 72 mm2 calculate;
i) the voltage drop in the combined cables,
ii) the current carried by each cable,
iii) the power wasted in each cable.
Take the resistivity of copper and aluminium as 0.018Ωm and 0.028Ωm respectively.

3-16

Find
the
sourc
e
curre
nt IS in Figure 3-8.

Figure 3-8

3-17 For the circuit shown in Figure 3-9; R1 = 2800 Ω, and R2 = 5600 Ω. Find the current I

56
drawn from the source.

R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1

R2 R2 R2 R2 R2 R2 R1
112 V

Figure 3-9

57