CHAPTER 5

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT THEORY AND ANALYSIS

5-1 General

In order to discuss various methods of circuit analysis, we must define a few basic terms that will
enable us to give a clear, concise description of a given circuit.

5-1-1 Node

A node is a point in a circuit where two or more circuit element join. It is usually marked with a
dot. The circuit in Figure 5-1 has the following nodes A, B, C, D, F and G. In general, a node in
an electric circuit specifies a certain voltage level (or potential energy level). Since connecting
wires used to connect one terminal of an element to another terminal of a second element are
usually considered to have zero resistance, the potential difference across such connecting wires
is zero. Thus connecting wires are essentially at the same potential level as the node to which
they are connected. Therefore, these connecting wires are considered to be part of the node, for
example, nodes D and F in Figure 5-1. The dashed lines indicate that the node in question
includes all connecting wires tired to it.

5-1-2 Branch

A branch is simply any element connected between two nodes. These elements could be voltage
sources, current sources, resistances or other type of elements, as will be discussed later. Figure
5-1 has 9 branches, 7 resistive branches, and two branches containing sources.

5-1-3 Loop

A loop is any closed path in a circuit. It is created by starting at a selected node and then tracing
through a set of connected branches in such a manner that we return to the original starting node
without passing through any intermediate node more than once. For example, A-B-C-F-A, A-B-
C-D-G-F-A, and C-D-F-C in Figure 5-1 are all loops. A mesh is a special type of a loop, that
does not contain any other loop within it; for example, A-B-C-F-A is mesh while A-B-C-D-G-F-
A, and A-B-C-D-F-A are loops and not meshes.

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 R1 R3 D
B C

R in R5

A R2 R4 G
I

E
R6

Figure 1: Circuit diagram used to define nodes, branches, loops and meshes

5-1-4 Essential node

Essential node is node in a circuit that join three or more branches. In Figure 5-1, node C, D and
F are essential nodes.

5-2 Ohm's Law

This law was discussed in details in chapter 3. It can usually be stated simply by the equation:

V = IR (5-1)

5-3 Kirchhoff's Laws

5-3-1 Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

KCL state that: The total current flowing towards a node is equal to the total current
flowing away from that node, that is, the algebraic sum of the currents
flowing towards a node is zero.

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 R1 I 1 I 3 R2
p

I 2

E1 E2 E3

Figure 2: Circuit to illustrate Kirchhoff’s Laws

Thus at node p in Figure 5-2

I 3 = I1 + I 2

or 0 = I1 + I 2 − I 3
in general:

I =0 (5-2)

where  represents the algebraic sum.

5-3-2 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

KVL states that: In a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the sources electromotive forces
(e.m.f.) equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops.

Thus for the closed circuit involving E1, E2 and R1 in Figure 5-2 applying KVL gives:

E1 − E2 = I1 R1
and applying KVL for closed circuit involving E1, E3, R1 and R2 gives:

E1 − E3 = I1 R1 + I 3 R2
in general:

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  E =  IR (5-3)

5-4 Superposition Theorem

When more than one source of e.m.f. excites a linear network, the resulting response may be
obtained as the sum of individual responses caused by each source acting alone while all other
sources are made zero. Thus by adding the responses due to sources applied one at time, we can
obtain the response due to all sources acting together. This theorem is known as superposition
theorem.

In using superposition theorem, all sources other than the one under consideration are set to zero.
Setting a voltage source to zero means making Es = 0, which is equivalent to replacing the
voltage source Es with a short circuit. Setting a current source to zero means making Is = 0,
which is equivalent to replacing the current source Is with an open circuit.

Example 5-1
Find the current through a 10 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Figure 5-3 using superposition
theorem.

10A

6 I CB

B C

I BD
4

6A 10 

100V

D I DC

Figure 3: Circuit diagram for example 5-1

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Solution
The circuit is first redrawn by considering only the voltage source, Figure 5-4 (a).
The circuit is then redrawn by considering only the 10 A current source, Figure 5-4 (b).
The circuit is again redrawn by considering only the 6 A current source, Figure 5-4 (c).

6

B C

I BD,1
4

10 

100V

(a)

Figure 4: (a) Circuit diagram of example 5-1 showing 100 V source acting alone

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 10A

6 I CB

B C

I BD,2
4

10 

D I DC

(b)

Figure 5: (b) Circuit diagram of example 5-1 showing 10 A source acting alone

6 I CB

B C

I BD,3
4

6A 10 

D I DC

(c)

Figure 6: (c) Circuit diagram of example 5-1 showing 100 V source acting alone

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hence by using Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) in the loop B-C-D-B of Figure 5-4 (a) gives:

100 V = I BD,1 ( 4 + 6 + 10 ) 

I BD ,1 = 5 A

When considering only the current source connected between node B and C, that is, using
Figure 5-4 (b). By Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) at node B.

ICB = I BD,2 + 10 A (i)

by Kirchhoff's voltage Law (KVL) around loop B-C-D-B gives:

0 = 10I BD,2 + 4I BD,2 + 6ICB

I CB = − (14 6 ) I BD,2 (ii)

substituting the value of ICB from Equation (ii) into Equation (i) gives:
14
− I BD ,2 = 10 + I BD ,2
6
I BD ,2 = −3 A

when considering only the current source connected between nodes B and D, that is, using Figure
5-4 (c), KCL at node B gives:

ICB = 6 A + I BD,3 (iii)

by KVL around loop B-D-C-B gives:

0 = 10 I BD,3 + ( 4 + 6 ) I CB
ICB = −I BD,3 (iv)
substituting the value of ICB from Equation (iv) into Equation (iii) gives:
− I BD ,3 = 6 A + I BD ,3

I BD ,3 = −3 A
but I BD = − I BD,1 + − I BD,2 + − I BD,3

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 = 5 A + ( −3 A ) + ( −3 A )

I BD = −1 A
hence the current through the 10 Ω resistor, that is, IBD will be 1 A flowing from node D to node
B.

Although, the same problem could easily be solved by using the two Kirchhoff's Laws. It has
been solved here using superposition theorem just to demonstrate the use of this theorem.

Example 5-2

Solve the problem in example 5-1 by using Kirchhoff's laws only.

Solution

KCL at node D in Figure 5-3 gives:

I DC = 6 A + I BD (v)

KCL at node C gives:

I CB = 10 A + I DC (vi)
using KVL around loop B-D-C-B gives:

100 V = I BD 10  + I DC  4  + I CB  6  (vii)

substituting Equations (v) and (vi) into Equation (vii) gives:

100 V = I BD 10  + ( 6 A + I BD )  4  + ( I BD + 6 A + 10 A )  6 

20 I BD = (100 − 24 − 96 ) V

I BD = −1 A

5-5 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuit Theorems

Any two-terminal linear network composed of resistors and sources can be equivalently
represented either as a voltage source in series with a resistors or as a current source in parallel
with a resistor. The former is called Thévenin equivalent representation and the equivalence is
shown in Figure 5-5. While the latter is called Norton equivalent representation, and the
equivalence is shown in Figure 5-6.

91
 R Th

A resistive network VTh

containing sources
a'

a'

(a) (b)

a
IN RN
A resistive network
containing sources
a'

a'

(a) (b)

Thus no matter how complicated the resistive network containing source is, it can be simplified
to one source and one resistor so that the terminal characteristics are indistinguishable from the
of the original network. Whether the Thévenin or the Norton equivalent circuit is used the
equivalent resistor is the same, that is, Req = RTh = RN
To determine the equivalent resistor, zero all independent sources in the resistive network, by
replacing voltage source by a short circuit and current sources by open circuits. Then calculate
or measure the resistance as seen from the terminals looking into the box. This resistance is the
equivalent resistance RTh for Thévenin equivalent circuit or RN for Norton equivalent circuit.

To obtain the Thévenin equivalent voltage VTh, open circuit terminals a-á (this step is not
necessary if the terminals are not loaded and calculate or measure the voltage across terminals a-
á. This open circuit voltage is VTh, that is, VOC = VTh

To obtain the Norton equivalent current, short-circuit terminals a-á and calculate or measure the

92
current through the short circuit. This short circuit current is IN, that is, I SC = I N . The Thévenin
and Norton equivalent circuits may sufficiently simplify circuit analysis to the point that voltage
and current can be determined by inspection.
By inspection it can be seen that,

VTh
= IN (5-4)
RTh

or I N RN = VTh (5-5)
To demonstrate the usefulness and the general applicability of these equivalent circuits consider
the following examples.

Example 5-2

Find the Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits as seen from terminals a-á in Figure 5-7.

20  10 
A
a

40V
20 

a'
A'
(a)
10 
a

15A 20  20 

a'

(b)

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 20  10  a 10 

40V 20  20  20  15A

a'

(c)
R R R R
a

40V R R R R

a'
(d) where R = 5 

20  10 
A
a

20 

a'
A'
(a)
20  10 
I A
a

40V 20 

a'
A'
(b)

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Solution for Figure 5-7 (a):

To calculate Req = RTh = RN , short circuit the voltage source and look into the terminals a-á shown
in Figure 5-8 (a).

Req = ( 20  20  ) + 10 
 Req = RTh = RN = 20 

from Figure 5-8 (b)

20 
Vaa ' = VAA ' =  40 V = 20 V
( 20 + 20 ) 

 VTh = Vaa ' = 20 V

VTh 20 V
Hence I N = = =1 A
RTh 20 

R Th
a a
20 

IN RN 20  VTh

a' a'

(a) (b)

solution for Figure 5-7 (b)

To calculate Req = RTh = RN , open circuit the current source and look into terminals a-á as shown
in Figure 5-10 (a)

Req = ( 20  20 )  + 10 

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  Req = RTh = RN = 20 

from Figure 5-10 (b) by inspection

15 A  ( 20 20 ) 
I SC = I N =
( 20 20 ) + 10  
= 7.5 A

since VTh = I N RTh

 VTh = 7.5 A  20 
VTh = 150 V
10 

20  20 

(a) 10 

20  I sc
20 
15A

(b)

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 R Th
a a

20 

VTh IN RN 20 
150V 7.5A

a' a'

(a) (b)

solution for Figure 5-7 (c)

The circuit to the left of nodes a-a' in Figure 5-7 (a) has the Norton equivalent circuit shown by
Figure 5-9 (a). While the circuit to the right of nodes a-á in Figure 5-7 (a) has the Norton
equivalent circuit shown by Figure 5.11 (b). Therefore Figure 5-7 (c) is equivalent to Figure 5-
12 (a).

1A 20  20  7.5A

a'
(a)

1A 20  20  7.5A

a'
(b)

To calculate Req = RTh = RN , open circuit the current sources of Figure 5-12 (b).
Req = ( 20  20 ) 
 Req = RTh = RN = 10 
To calculate IN, short circuit nodes a and á, which implies:

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 I N = (1 + 7.5 ) A = 8.5 A

since VTh = I N RN

= 8.5 A 10  = 85 V

a a
R Th 10 

VTh IN RN 10 
85V 8.5A

a' a'

(a) (b)

solution for Figure 5-7 (d)

Starting with the source end, we move to the right, one element at a time, and obtain
Thévenin equivalent circuit, thereby simplifying the problem as in Figure 5-14.

R 1 R R R 6 a
2 3 4 5

E R R R R

1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' a'

R
2
1

E
2

1'

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 R
2 R
1 2

E
2

1' 2'

3R
2 2 3

E
2 R

2' 3'

3R
5 R
3 4

E
5

3' 4'

8R
5 4 5

E
5 R

4' 5'

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 8R
13 R
5 6

E
13

5' 6'

21R
13 6 a

E
R
13

6' a'

21R
34
a

E
34

a'

E
 VTh = Vaa ' =
34

21
and RTh = R
34

100
 VTh E 34 E
hence I N = = =
RTh 21R 34 21R

R Th
a a

VTh IN RN

a' a'

(a) (b)

5-6 Maximum Power Transfer

Let us consider a network whose Thévenin equivalent circuit is shown as enclosed by dotted
rectangle (left of point a-á) in Figure 5-16. A variable load resistor RL is connected across
terminals a-á of the Thévenin equivalent circuit, then

VTh
I= (5-6)
( RTh + RL )

since all the power supplied by the network goes to the load resistor, let us calculate the power
received by RL,

2
 VTh 
PL = I RL = 
2
 RL (5-7)
 RTh + RL 

When RL equals zero or infinity, no power is delivered by the network. Clearly, for some value
of RL between zero and infinity, the power received by RL must peak as shown in Figure 5-17.

101
 R Th

V Th RL

Load

PL
[W]
P L,max

R Th
RL [ ]

To find the value of RL for which PL is maximum, we differentiate Equation (5-7) with respect to
RL, set the result to zero, and solve for RL.

dPL (VTh ) ( RTh + RL ) − 2 RL ( RRh + RL )

2
 2

= =0
( RTh + RL )
4
dRL
RL = RTh (5-8)

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Thus when the load resistance is matched (equal) to the Thévenin resistance of a network, the
network supplies to the load the maximum power that it can possible deliver. This power is
called the maximum available power and is obtained by substituting the value of RL from
Equation (5-8) into Equation 5-7 gives:
2
 VTh  VTh 2
PL ,max =  Th
R =
 RTh + RTh  4 RTh

It should be noted that

 d 2 PL 
 2 
 dRL  RL = RTh
is negative quantity, clarifying that this condition actually results in a maximum value, and not
minimum value.

Example 5-3
Find the maximum power that can be delivered by Figure 5-7 (a)

Solution

From example 5-2 (a), VTh = 20 V , and RTh = 20  using Equation (5-9) gives:

 ( 20 V )
2
V 2
PL ,max =  Th = =5 W
 4 RTh  4  20 

Therefore the maximum power that can delivered by the circuit is 5 W

Example 5-4

A battery has an open voltage of 12 V an internal resistance of 30 Ω. Calculate:

(a) The load resistance for maximum power transfer.
(b) The maximum power transfer and the corresponding terminal voltage.

Solution:

Let a-á be terminals of the battery in Figure 5-18. The battery internal resistance Ri = 30 Ω.
Therefore, the battery have Thévenin equivalent voltage VTh = 12 V, and RTh = Ri = 30 Ω.
(a) For maximum power transfer RL = RTh = 30 Ω
(b) The maximum available power from the battery is:

103
 PL =
VTh 2
=
(12 V ) = 1.2 W
4 RTh 4  30 

Ri a I

E RL

a'

E VTh 12 V
and I = = = = 0.2 A
Ri + RL RL + RTh ( 30 + 30 ) 

the terminal voltage of the battery is given by:

Vaa ' = IRL

= 0.2 A  30 
Vaa ' = 6 V

5-7 Delta - Star Equivalent Circuits

Another useful type of circuit transformation which replaces a given circuit with an equivalent
circuit applies to the three-terminal resistance networks of Figure 5-19. If we can state
conditions under which the delta Δ circuit of Figure 5-19 (a) is equivalent to the star or wye (Y)
circuit of Figure 5-19 (b), we can replace the delta circuit by an equivalent star circuit or vice
versa such that the terminal behaviour of the two configuration will be identical.

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 A A

Ra
R2 R3

Rc Rb

C B C B

R1

(a) (b)

5-7-1 Delta-star transformation

If we ignore terminal C for the moment, the resistance between terminals A and B must be the
same for both circuits. For Y circuit of Figure 5-19 (b), the resistance between A and B is a
simple series circuit given by;

RAB = Ra + Rb (5-10)

For Δ circuit of Figure 5-19 (a), the resistance between A and B is make up of two parallel
branches, that is,

RAB = ( R1 + R2 ) ( R3 )

R3 ( R1 + R2 ) R1R3 + R2 R3
RAB = = (5-11)
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3

In order for the circuits of Figure 5-19 (a) and 5-19 (b) to be equivalent to each other, the values
of RAB in Equations (5-10) and (5-11) must be equal.

R1 R3 + R2 R3
Ra + Rb = (5-12)
R1 + R2 + R3

similarly if terminals B and C are considered, then

R1R2 + R1R3
Rb + Rc = (5-13)
R1 + R2 + R3

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and if terminals C and A are considered,

R2 R3 + R1 R2
Rc + Ra = (5-14)
R1 + R2 + R3

subtracting Equation (5-13) from Equation (5-14), gives:

R2 R3 + R1R3
Ra − Rb = (5-15)
R1 + R2 + R3

adding Equation (5-12) to Equation (5-15), we get:

2 R2 R3
2 Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3

R2 R3
 Ra = (5-16)
R1 + R2 + R3
subtracting Equation (5-14) from Equation (5-12) gives:
R R + R1R2
Rb − Rc = 1 3 (5-17)
R1 + R2 + R3

adding Equation (5-13) to Equation (5-17), we get:

2 R1 R3
2 Rb =
R1 + R2 + R3

R1R3
 Rb = (5-18)
R1 + R2 + R3
adding Equation (5-15) to Equation (5-17), we get:

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