AGRI 51 LAB REVIEWER
 T - time
Chapter 1. The Origin of Soils
1.1 Factors of Soil Formation
 Soil
 is a natural, living, dynamic
system made up of minerals
and organic matter.
 not rocks but rocks can
develop into soil.
 forms at normal earth surface
temperature and pressure.
 development includes reducing
the size of the PM(rocks and
minerals) particles(phys.
weathering), rearranging the
mineral particles, adding
organic matter, changing the
composition and structure of
minerals(including clay
formation) through chemical
weathering, and the formation
of soil horizons.
 Individual soil is characterized by
a unique soil profile.
 Soil profile is a vertical
section(cross section) of the soil
exposing all of its horizons.
 Soil development or soil genesis
is a continuous but slow process.
 Soil horizon is a layer of soil or
soil material approximately
parallel to the land and differing
from adjacent horizons in
physical, chemical, and biological
properties.
 Five soil forming factors
 C - climate
 LO - living organism
 R - relief
 P – parent material
 Parent Material
 do not have to be a rock.
 can be materials transported
by wind, water, and ice.
 geologic map may show
different parent materials in an
area.
 soil properties such as texture,
base saturation, including
dominant clay minerals will
depend on the kind of parent
material that will transform
into soil.
 Two Types of Parent Material:
• Residual - if soil
developed directly from
the bedrock.
• Transported - PM that
was transported either
by water(alluvium),
wind(eolian),
gravity(colluvium), and
ice(glacial drift).
 Climate
 Two Major Components
• Temperature - as the
mean annual
temperature increases
the weathering of rocks
and minerals in the soil
will be faster. For every
10°C rise in temperature,
the rate of biochemical
reactions doubles.
• Precipitation - areas
with more rainfall will
have greater
weathering and greater
leaching. Areas that are
 cool and wet will have
more leaching than
areas that are hot and
wet. Leaching zone is
determined by the
location of CaCO3 in the
soil profile. CaCO3 reacts
with HCl to release CO2.
 Living Organism
 Biotic and climatic factors are
interrelated.
 Bioturbation is the mixing of
the soil caused by the
organisms living in it.
 Forested areas – soil develops a
thin surface horizon, a leached,
light colored zone below the
surface, and an accumulation
zone that is often brown or red
color.
 Grassland – thick, black surface
horizon that resulted from
thick grassland roots
contributing large amounts of
OM.
 Vegetation affects the
thickness and color of the
surface horizons.
 Relief/Topography
 Is related to the soil’s position
in the landscape.
 Refers to the shape or contour
of the land surface.
 Slope position will have a great
deal to do with soil
characteristics.
 Summit and shoulder -
generally develop horizons the
fastest.
 Backslope - develop soils slower
because: rainfall will run off
this slope position faster, there
is more erosion, and there is
less leaching.
 Footslope - slowed
development due to it
collecting sediment from
upslope that can bury the
horizons.
 Soils with deep water table are
considered well drained but as
the water table goes up closer
to the soil surface drainage
becomes poor to very poor.
 Soil with poor drainage will
show redoximorphic features
and are reflected in the soil as
splotches of red or gray and are
called mottles.
 Soils that are very poorly
drained the entire soil below
the dark surface will be gray in
color. Iron has been reduced
due to the low O2 levels.
 Time
 Age of soil is generally
considered to be the length of
time in years since the land
surface became stable.
 Length of time of soil
formation depends on the
intensity of the other active soil
forming factors of climate and
organisms, and how
topography and PM modify
their effect.
 Age of soil in general is NOT
considered in years but how
much development soil has
undergone.
 Young soils = minimal soil
development; few horizons.
  Old soils = well-developed
horizons.
 Conditions that increase rate of
soil development:
• permeable,
unconsolidated, PM
• warm, humid, climate
• forest vegetation
• summit or backslope
position that is well
drained
 Conditions that retard rate of
soil development:
• impermeable, hard,
consolidated, PM
• cold, dry, climate
• grassland vegetation
• steeply sloping
backslope or shoulders
 One-meter thick soil developed
from loess in temperate
country in 8, 000 years while in
tropical country it took 75, 000
years to form.
 Soil develops faster in
temperate countries than in
tropical or arid countries.
 The following happens with
time for a soil:
• thicker horizons that
sink deeper into the PM
• increased iron
accumulation making
the soils redder
• increased clay content
• increased acidity
• leaching of soil nutrients
1.2 Soil Profile and Common Parent
Materials
 PM is made up of partly
weathered rocks and minerals.
 A mineral consists of a chemical
combination of elements while a
rock is an aggregate of minerals.
 Three Major Classes of Rocks
 Igneous - formed from cooling
of molten magma; crystallized
combinations of primary
minerals; most abundant class
of rocks in earth’s crust.
 Sedimentary - derived from
earlier generations of rocks that
have been subjected to the
geological processes of
weathering, transportation,
and deposition; most abundant
on earth’s surface.
 Metamorphic - originated
from geochemical alterations
of igneous and sedimentary
rocks; transformation
process occurred while in
solid state, by heat, pressure,
and chemically active fluids.
 “Young” soils are likely to reflect
the properties of PM.
 Examples of distinguishing
properties of horizons:
 depth
 texture
 structure
 pH
 color
 consistency(degree of
cohesion)
  boundary between
horizons(abrupt, wavy, diffuse,
irregular)
 presence of mottles
 concretions(grains or pellets
that are cemented often by
calcium carbonate or iron oxide)
 iron content
 organic matter content
 cation exchange capacity
 One capital letter is used to
designate master horizons while
two are used for transitional
horizons
 Lowercase subscripts are used to
subdivide master and transitional
horizons and to designate
important horizon properties.
 Master horizons with two or
more subordinate horizons keep
the identical letter identification
and are numbered consecutively.
 Surface soil horizons are mainly
influenced by the addition of OM.
 OM is converted to humus and
becomes colloidal in size and
coats the mineral particles of the
soil.
 O horizon
 all OM and are mainly found in
forest soils
 contains very little mineral soil
 can also be found in peat bogs
of swamps and wetlands
 A horizon
 mineral horizon that is dark in
color due to the incorporation
of OM
 the darker the mineral soil the
greater the percent OM
 4 to 5% OM in soils that
developed under grasslands for
a depth of 25 cm or more
 Ap = plowed
 AB = transition horizon that is
more like A than B
 Subsurface horizons
 develop due to
transformations, translocation,
and losses
 zones of accumulation or
change in PM where color and
structure develop
 E horizon
• develops when
materials are eluviated
out of a zone in the soil
• lighter in color than
horizons above or below
it
• found mainly in forested
soils
• zone of eluviation
• not all soils have E
horizons
 B horizons
• below the E or A horizon
• zones of illuviation or
accumulations(Bt)
• some acid sandy soils
develop Bhs horizon
 which is often dark red  Texture of soils is determined by
in color relative proportion of sand(2.0
• Bw horizon - minimal mm - 0.05 mm), silt(0.05 mm -
illuviation but significant 0.002 mm), and clay(<0.002 mm).
transformations and  There are 12 textural classes of
develops different color soils that ranges from fine-
and structure from the textured(clayey), medium-
PM texture(loamy), and coarse-
• Bk - CaCO3 texture(sandy).
 C horizon  Soil texture determines other soil
• outside the zone of properties such as:
pedogenesis  porosity
• little altered by soil  ease of water movement
forming processes  water holding capacity
• PM of the soil  internal drainage
•  tillage property
 The solum describes A and B  nutrient retention
horizonz(zone of pedogenic  Soil texture can be approximated
activity) and does NOT include C by:
horizon.  feel method - rubbing a handful
 Physical Properties of Minerals: of moist soil; sand(gritty),
silt(smooth and floury),
 cleavage(splitting along
clay(sticky when wet, plastic
definite planes)
when moist)
 fracture(breaking irregulary)
 roll method - kneading a
 color moistened soil sample into a
 streak(“chalk mark” when soil wire/rod and molding it into
rubbed against unglazed a ring
porcelain)  hydrometer method - based on
 luster(reflection of ordinary the principle that when in water
light from its surface) suspension, sand, silt, and clay
 specific gravity(ratio of the can be separated due to the
weight of the substance to that difference in their settling
of an equal volume of water) velocity; Stoke’s Law
 hardness(Mohs Mineral  Sodium hexametaphosphate
Hardness Scale) (Na6P6O18) and sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) are dispersing agents
used when determining relative
Chapter 2. Soil Texture
proportions of sand, silt, and clay.
  Hydrometer is calibrated so that
the corrected reading gives the
concentration(g / 1000 mL) of soil
material in the suspension.
Concentration at the top
decreases with time.
 Corrected 4o secs hydrometer
reading = amount of silt plus clay.
 Corrected 6-hour reading =
amount of clay
Chapter 3. Soil Structure, Particle
Density, Bulk Density
 Soil structure describes the
clustering of soil particles into
aggregates of certain size, shape
and stability.
 OM, lime, and other binding
agents like Fe/Al oxides, clays,
and silica promote soil
aggregation.
 Soil aggregation lowers bulk
density.
 Bulk density provides indirect
measure of porosity and
compaction.
 105°C for at least 24 hours - oven
drying of soil to achieve moisture-
free sample
 Volume of pore space is excluded
in the calculation of particle
density
 Particle density is affected by the
mineral and OM content of the
soil.
 Mineral soil = particle density is
more of less constant since
Chapter 4. Soil Moisture
volume of particles is
incompressible.
 Particle density of MS = 2.65
g/cm3 or 2.65 g/m3
 Bulk density is greatly influenced:
 soil structure and texture
 changes in porosity
 improper tillage operation
 soil compaction
 decrease in OM constant
 Pore space is the fraction of the
soil volume occupied by air and
water
 Porosity is the term used to
signify the extent of pore spaced
expressed as percentage of the
bulk volume of the soil
 Distinctness and durability of
peds:
 structureless - no aggregation
or orderly arrangement
 weak - poorly formed
nondurable, indistinct peds that
break into mixture of a few
entire and many broken peds
and unaggregated materials
 moderate - well formed,
moderately durable peds,
indistinct in undisturbed soil
break into many entire and
some broken peds but little
unaggregated material
 strong - well-formed, durable,
distinct peds weakly attached
to each other that break almost
completely into entire peds
 Soil moisture constitutes the
primary source of water for
terrestrial plants
 Amount of water that the soil can
store and the ease of its
movement are governed by soil
properties such as:
 texture
 structure
 amount and size of pores
 Availability of water to plants is
determined by various forces
expressed as soil moisture
tension(SMT) which classifies
water as:
 hygroscopic water
 water at PWP (15 bar)
 water at FC (1/3 bar)
 water at saturation
 available water
 gravitational or drainage water
 Field capacity is an estimate of
the upper limit of the available
moisture and permanent wilting
point for the lower limit
 Soil moisture content can be
expressed as:
 percentage of the oven-dry
mass (percent by mass, %θm)
 percentage of the total bulk
volume (percent by volume,
%θv)
 percentage of the total volume
of pore space (degree of
saturation) of the soil
 depth of water
 Upward water movement or
capillary rise is largely governed
by capillary forces while
downward movement via
infiltration and percolation is
mainly by gravitational forces
 Infiltration is the downward entry
of water via the soil surface while
percolation is through the soil
 Determines the extent of
influence of capillary and
gravitational forces:
 soil texture
 structure
 porosity
 bulk density
 Soil moisture tension
 when liquid water is retained in
soil, the freedom of motion of
the water is reduced which is
commonly expressed in terms
of tension or suction
 tension increases when amount
of water stored or retained is
smaller
 ease with which stored or
retained water may be
released from soil decreases
with decreasing soil moisture
content(increasing soil
moisture tension or suction)
 moisture-release curve depicts
the nature of moisture release
from a soil; shows moisture
content, moisture tension, soil
characteristics
 Available moisture
 amount of water that a quantity
of soil can store and
subsequently release readily for
use by a plant
 varies directly with the total
amount of the pore spaces of
medium size present in the soil
 effective pore space diameter
range is 0.2 - 10
micrometers(0.0002 - 0.01 mm)
 pore space wider than 10
micrometers drain water
readily; no significant role in
water retention
 pore space narrower than 0.2
micron release water too
slowly; not much contribution
in supplying water to the plant
 total amount of medium-sized
pore spaces in a soil is
commonly referred to as the
available moisture capacity or
available moisture range of the
soil
 moisture content of the soil
when all of its pore spaces
except those wider than 10
microns are completely filled
with water is taken as the
upper limit of the available
moisture range of the soil
 Common estimates of the
upper limit of AMR:
• Field capacity(FC)
• moisture
equivalent(ME)
• one-third atmosphere
percentage(TAP)
 best to maintain soil moisture
content within the root-zone of
the plants as close as possible
to the upper limit of the AMR
 amount of water to be drained
from or added to the soil is
proportional to the difference
between the prevailing
moisture content and upper
limit of the AMR of the soil in
the root zone
 Infiltration is decreased as a
result of aggregate breakdown
when the soil at the surface has
low aggregate stability
 Presence of dense clay pan or
hard pan near the soil surface can
easily reduce infiltration and
percolation and bring about
formation of a perched water
table with plant root-zone after
heavy rain or irrigation
 Capillarity is the ability of a liquid
to flow against gravity.
 The smaller the diameter of
capillary tube, the higher is the
rise of the liquid.
Chapter 5. Characteristics of Soil
Colloids
 Colloids are minute particles
which are the site of various
chemical reactions. They are less
<0.001 mm in size.
 Colloidal particles in soils includes
organic(humus) and inorganic
colloids.
 Inorganic colloids are composed
of various clay types such as
 kaolinite
 montmorillonite
 vermiculite
 illite
 The chemical reactivity of
colloids is due to their large
specific area
 Colloids’ large specific area arises
from:
 their small particle size
 presence of both positive and
negative electric charges
 Soil properties that could be
attributed to their differences in
the amount and type of
dominant colloids:
 retention of nutrients
 swelling and shrinking
 stickiness
 Ca(OH)2 is a flocculating agent
while NaOH is a dispersing agent
of soil colloids
 Gentian violet is a positively
charged dye while Eosin red is
negatively charged.
 Clay colloids classification based
on structure:
 crystalline
• crystalline silicates
• crystalline Fe/Al
oxides(sesquioxides)
 amorphous
• amorphous silicates
• amorphous Fe/Al
oxides(sesquioxides)
 Crystalline silicate clays are
composed of sheet-structured
aluminosilicates of various types
depending on the ratio of silica
sheet to alumina sheet in the
crystal structure. They do not
occur in pure form in the clay
fraction of soil.
 1:1-type
• kaolinite
• halloysite
 2:1-expanding type or
smectites
• montmorillonite
 2:1-limited expansion type
• vermiculites
 2:1-nonexpanding type
• illites
 2:1:1 type
• chlorite
 Amorphous silicates are
represented by:
 allophane
 imogolite
 In PH, amorphous silicates are
usually associated with relatively
young soils derived from volcanic
ash with high OM
 Properties of inorganic soils
generally depend on the kind of
dominant clay mineral present.
Chapter 6. Cation Exchange
 Cation exchange is a process in
which positively charged ions in
soil solution ;eave the solution
and attach themselves loosely to
the solid phase which has a net
negative charge. Cations on the
solids enter the solution. It is a
 simultaneous and reversible exchange complex less easily
process. than large cations
 Weakly held cations in contact  highly charged ions are held
with soil solution are ready for more tightly than those that are
quick replacement and available less highly charged
for plants. They are held in the  regardless of size or charge,
“outer sphere complex”. cations present in large
 Basic cations: concentrations in the soil
 NH4+ solution are favored in the
 K exchange reaction
 Na  Cation exchange capacity is the
 Ca2+ total amount of exchangeable
 Mg2+ cations that can be held by a
 Acidic cations given mass of soil; expressed as
 H+ meq/100 g soil or cmolc / kg
 Al3+  CEC increases with increasing
 Fe(soils with pyrite) amount of clay and OM
 In cation exchange, one positive  Base saturation is the percentage
charge is balanced by one of the CEC that is occupied by the
negative charge. basic cations
 Cation exchange is important  Soils with high %BS have higher
because the exchangeable ions pH; thus, they are more buffered
are: against acid cations from plant
 because the exchangeable ions roots and soil processes that
are available to plants, acidify the soil(nitrification, acid
supplementing the small rain); contain greater amounts of
quantity in solution the essential plant nutrient
 ions are retained in soil and not cations K, Ca, and Mg for plant
lost with leaching water use
 Characteristics of cation
exchange:
 instantaneous - quick reaction
 reversible
 stoichiometric - there is a
proportion of exchange
 Properties that influence cation
exchange:
 small ions are held more tightly
and are replaced from the