TEACHING PROFESSION

October 14,2023

Foundational Philosophies of Education

1. IDEALISM
Idealism is a school of philosophy that emphasizes that “ideas or concepts are the essence of all that is
worth knowing” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 87). In other words, the only true reality is that of ideas. Based
on the writings of Plato, this school of philosophy encourages conscious reasoning in the mind.
Furthermore, idealists look for, and value, universal or absolute truths and ideas. Consequently, idealists
believe that ideas should remain constant throughout the centuries.

Key Philosophers

Plato (ca. 427 – ca. 347 BCE):

Plato believed that truth was the central reality. However,

Plato did not believe that people created knowledge, instead they “discovered it” (Johnson et. al., 2011).
In his book, The Republic, Plato talked about two worlds: the spiritual or mental world and the world of
appearance. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a fo- cus on the physical and sensory
world, Plato called for education to “develop in the body and the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all
the perfection he is capable of.” (Cohen, 1999, p. 1). In addition, to understand truth, Plato believed you
must first understand knowledge.

Socrates (ca. 470 – ca. 399 BCE):

Socrates’ work is only known through the works of Plato. Plato observed Socrates questioning a

slave boy to help him understand what he knew about a specific concept.
This questioning technique became known as the Socratic Method and was presented in chapter one.
When applied in classrooms, the Socratic method actively engages students in the learning process,
improves understanding, and promotes higher-order thinking.

Educational Implications of Idealism

When translated to the classroom, teachers with an Idealist school of though would emphasize being
role models of these absolute truths, ideas, and values. Curriculum would focus on broad ideas,
particularly those contained in great works of literature and/or scriptures. Teaching methods used within
idealism include: lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue. Essential to these teaching methods is posing
questions that generate thoughts and spark connections.

Paul (n/d) suggests the following six types of Socratic questions:

 Questions for clarification

o How does this relate to our discussion?

 Questions that probe assumptions

o What could we assume instead?

 Questions that probe reasons and evidence

o What would be an example?

 Questions about viewpoints and perspectives

o What is another way to look at it?

 Questions that probe implications and consequences

o What are the consequences of that assumption?

 Questions about the question

o What was the point of this question?

2. REALISM
Realism philosophy is the view that an object or thing really exists and has certain attributes,
independently of what people think about it. In other words, realism is the view that an object or thing
has mind-independent reality.

Realism is a school of philosophy with origins in the work of Aristotle. This philosophy emphasizes that
“reality, knowledge, and value exist independent of the human mind” (Johnson, 2011, p. 89). Realists
argue for the use of the senses and scientific investigation in order to discover truth.

What is realism in simple words?

Realism is an approach to life that means dealing with the way things are. If you see the world through
the lens of realism, you accept what's in front of you and don't pretend it's otherwise.

Realism is a school of philosophy with origins in the work of Aristotle. This philosophy emphasizes that
“reality, knowledge, and value exist independent of the human mind” (Johnson, 2011, p. 89). Realists
argue for the use of the senses and scientific investigation in order to discover truth. The application of
the scientific method also allows individuals to classify things into different groups based on their
essential differences.

Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE):

Aristotle is known as the father of realism and the Scientific Method. His pragmatic approach to
understanding an object, by understanding is form, is an example of how he investigated matter. To
understand this concept, consider the following example: A plant can exist without being physically
present, but it still shares properties with all other plants (form). Aristotle also believed that everything
had a purpose or function. For example, a fishes purpose is to swim. A birds purpose is to fly. A humans
purpose is to think. If we are not thinking, or thinking unintelligently, we are going against our purpose.
Finally, Aristotle was the “first to teach logic as a discipline in order to be able to reason about physical
events and aspects” (Cohen, 1999, p. 1).

Locke (1632 – 1704):

John Locke believed in the tabula rasa, or blank tablet, view of the mind. According to this view, a child’s
mind is a blank slate when they are born. All the sensory experiences they have after birth fill up the
slate through the impressions that are made upon the mind.

Educational Implications of Realism

Within a realist educational philosophy, the curricular focus is on scientific research and development as
Realists’ consider education a matter of reality rather than speculation. The teacher role is to teach
students about the world they live in. Realists view the subject expert as the source and authority for
determining the curriculum.

Outcomes of this thinking in classrooms today include the appearance of standardized tests, serialized
textbooks, and specialized curriculum (Johnson et. al., 2011). Teaching methods used in realism include:

 Demonstration

 Recitation

 Critical thinking

 Observation

 Experimentation

3. PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism is “a process philosophy that stresses evolving and change rather than being” (Johnson et.
al., 2011, p. 91). In other words, pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing so we learn best
through experience.

According to pragmatists, the learner is constantly conversing and being changed by the environment
with whom he or she is interacting. There is “no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what
works” (Cohen, 1999, p.1). Based on what is learned at any point and time, the learner or the world in
which he or she is interacting can be changed.

Key Philosophers

Peirce (1839 – 1914):

Charles Sanders Peirce is one of the first pragmatic thinkers. He introduced the pragmatic method in
which students are supplied a procedure for constructing and clarifying meanings. In addition, this
system helps to facilitate communication among students.

Dewey (1859 – 1952):

John Dewey linked pragmatism to evolution by explaining that “human beings are creatures who have
to adapt to one another and to their environment” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 93). Therefore, learners
within the classroom need to adapt to one another and their learning community.

Dewey also believed that the application of the “scientific method” could solve an array of problems. He
saw ideas as the instruments to solving problems and advocated for the application of the following
steps to meet this goal:

Recognize that the problem exists.

Clearly define the problem.

Suggest possible solutions.

Consider the potential consequences of the possible solutions.

Carry out further observation and experiment leading to the solution’s acceptance or rejection. (Timm,
2020)

For more information on John Dewey, please watch the video below. As you watch the video, please
consider the following questions:

1. What did the “new” or “Romantic” side believe about education? What did the “old” or
“traditional” side believe about education? Which side(s) did Dewey lean toward and why?

2. What else did Dewey think we should take into account? Why is this so important to Dewey?

3. Why did Dewey want to connect education with society?

4. What is the question of education according to Dewey? Do you agree? Why or why not?
Educational Implications of Pragmatism

According to a Pragmatic school of thought, curriculum should be so planned in such a way that it
teaches the learner how to think critically rather than what to think. Teaching should, therefore, be more
exploratory in nature than explanatory. To promote this approach to teaching, students should be
actively engaged in the learning process and be challenged to solve problems. The teachers job is to help
support students learning by promoting questioning and problem-solving during the natural course of
lesson delivery.

The curriculum is also interdisciplinary. Teaching methods used in pragmatism include:

Hands-on problem solving

Experimenting

Projects

Cooperative Learning

4. EXISTENTIALISM
Nietzsche (1844-1900):

Friedrich Nietzcshe stressed the importance of the individuality of each person. According to Johnson et.
al. (2011), his work provided a “strategy to liberate people from the oppression of feeling inferior within
themselves, and a teaching of how not to judge what one is in relation to what one should be” (p. 95).

Educational Implications of Existentialism

Within an existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students understand
and appreciate themselves for who they are as individuals. The teacher’s role is to help students accept
individual responsibility for their personal thoughts, feelings, and actions. To do this, the teacher is
responsible for creating an environment in which student may freely choose their own preferred way of
learning by giving students latitude in their choice of subject matter.

Furthermore, answers come from within the individual in an existential classroom, not from the teacher.
For this reason, Existentialists strongly oppose standardized assessments which measure or track student
learning. Instead, they want the educational experience of the student to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self-actualization of the whole person, not just the mind (Cohen,
1999).

In an Existentialist classroom, curriculum is structured to provide students with experiences that will
help unleash their own creativity and self-expression through an emphasis on teaching humanities. For
example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon the actions of historical
individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students’ own behavior. Math and science
may be de-emphasized because their subject matter would be considered “cold,” “dry,” “objective,” and
therefore less fruitful to self-awareness. In teaching art, existentialism encourages individual creativity
and imagination more than copying and imitating established models.

As described above, Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed,
and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and
honestly. Although elements of existentialism occasionally appear in public schools, this philosophy has
found wider acceptance in private schools and in alternative public schools founded in the late 1960s
and early 1970s.

5. PERENNIALISM
Perennialism is identified as a very conservative theory of education. Rooted in the following schools of
thought: idealism, realism, and neo-Thomism, the educational focus of Perennialism is on finding
universal truths and absolutes associated with reason and faith (Webb et. al., 2010). According to this
theory of education, truth is universal and does not change.

The literal definition of perennial means “everlasting” or something that “returns year after year.” As
implied by its name, Perennialism is based upon the belief that there are everlasting ideas and universal
truths. Therefore, the primary goal of education within this philosophy is to search for and disseminate
truth. In addition, this philosophy of education advocates for the cultivation of human intellect.

his philosophy of education is rooted in the philosophy of pragmatism. Unlike Perennialism, which
emphasizes a universal truth, progressivism favors “human experience as the basis for knowledge rather
than authority” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 114). By focusing on human experience as the basis for
knowledge, this philosophy of education shifts the focus of educational theory from school to student.

6. PROGRESSIVIM
Progressivism is a very student-centered philosophy of education. Rooted in pragmatism, the
educational focus of progressivism is on engaging students in real-world problem- solving activities in a
democratic and cooperative learning environment (Webb et. al., 2010). In order to solve these problems,
students apply the scientific method. This ensures that they are actively engaged in the learning process
as well as taking a practical approach to finding answers to real-world problems.

Progressivism was established in the mid-1920s and continued to be one of the most influential
philosophies of education through the mid-1950s. One of the primary reasons for this is that a main
tenet of progressivism is for the school to improve society. This was supposed to be achieved by
engaging students in tasks related to real-world problem-solving. As a result, Progressivism was deemed
to be a working model of democracy (Webb et. al., 2010).

Dewey (1963), who is often referred to as the “father of progressive education,” believed that all aspects
of study (i.e., arithmetic, history, geography, etc.) need to be linked to materials based on students
every- day life-experiences.

However, Dewey (1938) cautioned that not all experiences are equal:

The belief that all genuine education comes about through experience does not mean that all
experiences are genuinely or equally educative. Experience and education cannot be directly equated to
each other. For some experiences are mis-educative. Any experience is mis-education that has the effect
of arresting or distorting the growth or further experience
(p. 25).

An example of miseducation would be that of a bank robber. He or she many learn from the experience
of robbing a bank, but this experience can not be equated with that of a student learning to apply a
history concept to his or her real-world experiences.

FEATURES OF A PROGRESSIVE CURRICULUM

There are several key features that distinguish a progressive curriculum. According to Lerner (1962),
some of the key features of a progressive curriculum include:

Action Centered

o A focus on the student

o A focus on peers

o An emphasis on growth

o Action centered

o Process and change centered

o Equality centered

o Community centered

TEACHERS ROLE

Progressivists view teachers as a facilitator in the classroom. As the facilitator, the teacher directs the
students learning, but the students voice is just as important as that of the teacher. For this reason,
progressive education is often equated with student-centered instruction.
To support students in finding their own voice, the teacher takes on the role of a guide. Since the student
has such an important role in the learning, the teacher needs to guide the students in “learning how to
learn” (Labaree, 2005, p. 277). In other words, they need to help students construct the skills they need
to understand and process the content.

In order to do this successfully, the teacher needs to act as a collaborative partner. As a collaborative
partner, the teachers works with the student to make group decisions about what will be learned,
keeping in mind the ultimate out- comes that need to be obtained. The primary aim as a collaborative
partner, according to Progressivists, is to help students “acquire the values of the democratic system”
(Webb et. al., 2010, p. 75).

Some of the key instructional methods used by Progressivist teachers include:

 Promoting discovery and self-directly learning.

 Engaging students in active learning.

Collaboration: Teacher to Student

 Integrating socially relevant themes.

 Promoting values of community, cooperation, tolerance, justice, and democratic equality.

 Encouraging the use of group activities.

 Promoting the application of projects to enhance learning.

 Engaging students in critical thinking.

 Challenging students to work on their problem solving skills.

 Developing decision making techniques.

 Utilizing cooperative learning strategies. (Webb et. al., 2010).

STUDENTS ROLE

Students in a Progressivist classroom are empowered to take a more active role in the learning process.
In fact, they are encourage to actively construct their knowledge and understanding by:
 Learning by Doing

 Interacting with their environment.

 Setting objectives for their own learning.

 Working together to solve problems.

 Learning by doing.

 Engaging in cooperative problem solving.

 Establishing classroom rules.

 Evaluating ideas.

 Testing ideas.

The examples above clearly demonstrate that in the Progressive classroom, the students role is that of
an active learner.

7. BEHAVIORISM
This educational philosophy is based on the belief that human behavior can be explained based on
response to external stimuli. When translated into a classroom setting, Behaviorists believe that the best
educational environment can be obtained when student behavior is shaped by arranging specific
conditions for learning.

To better understand Behaviorism, this chapter will provide an overview of the key characteristics of
Behaviorism. Information related to how this philosophy of education is reflected in the curriculum and
its instructional methods will also be presented. Within this presentation, a discussion of the role of the
teacher and role of the learner will be discussed. Finally, key proponents of Behaviorism and their
contributions to this philosophy of education will be presented.

When you hear the term “Behaviorism,” what comes to mind? For many people, the first thing that
comes to mind is shaping behavior in response to a specific stimuli. In the classroom, Behaviorism is
often linked to “rewards” or positive reinforcement.
According to Zirpoli (2005), the basic principles or philosophical foundations of behaviorism are as
follows:

Model of Behaviorism

1. Most behaviors are learned.

2. Most behaviors are stimulus specific.

3. Most behaviors can be taught, changed, or modified.

4. Behavior change goals should be specific and clearly defined.

5. Behavior change programs should be individualized.

6. Behavior change programs should focus on the here and now.

7. Behavior change programs should focus on the child’s environment (p. 13).

As demonstrated by these philosophical foundations, Behaviorism is focused on the study of observable

behaviors.

The focus of the curriculum in a Behaviorist classroom is not the curriculum itself. Rather, it is on the
environmental variables within the classroom (i.e., the teaching materials, instructional methods, and
teacher- classroom behaviors), as each of these variables directly influence the learner’s behavior
(Witrock, 1987). An example of an environmental variable would be the disciple plan. As demonstrated
in the picture below, this behavior chart outlines what the behavioral expectations are for the students
in the classroom. In order to stay “blue,” the students need to be following all the rules of the classroom
and be behaving in an amazing manor. “Green” indicates that students are following the rules of the
classroom as expected and doing a great job. “Yellow” shows that the student gets a warning for not
following one or more of the classroom rules and needs to get back on track. “Orange” means that the
student gets a time out. Finally, “red” means that the student looses a privilege.

TEACHERS ROLE

The teacher is the center of instruction in the Behaviorist classroom. It is his or her role to ensure that
the classroom is properly managed in order to ensure that student learning can take place. According to
research by Emmer (1987), there are two general management principles that a Behaviorist teachers
must follow in the classroom:
 1. Identify expected student behavior so that behaviors that are appropriate and inappropriate are
identified before instruction begins.

2. Translate expectations into procedures and routines by creating basic rules of conduct for the
classroom.

In addition to these two general management principles, other roles of the teacher include: monitoring
classroom events, timely and accurate addressing of inappropriate behavior, apply a reward and
accountability system, creating a checklist for completed assignments, and monitoring class
participation/engagement (Emmer, 1987).

All of these roles require skill on the part of the Behaviorist teacher in order to implement successfully.
For example, the teacher needs to know about educational psychology in order to establish an
appropriate behavioral reward system in the classroom (Webb et. al., 2010). This includes knowing what
would be appropriate reinforcers and how best to set up a proper schedule of reinforcement. Since
Behaviorism also emphasizes empirical verification, teachers must also be trained in the scientific
method (Webb et. al., 2010).

These systems of student monitoring and tracking are used in many classrooms across the country today.
Particularly for students on Instructional Education Plans (IEPs) who many need more one-on-one
monitoring and feedback. Which is why behaviorist teachers are sometimes referred to as “the
controllers of behavior” and the “arrangers of contingencies” (Webb et. al., 2010, p. 80). No matter what
name they are assigned, teachers applying this philosophy of education have a very big responsibility
when it comes to classroom and student management.

STUDENTS ROLE

According to research by Webb et. al. (2010), the behaviorist philosophy assumes the following two
things about students:

 First, every student is capable of, and predisposed too, modifying or changing his or her
behavior.

 Second, every student is capable of learning new behavior.

Based on these two assumptions, the students role is to learn to modify or change a learned behavior
based on the introduction of specific stimuli from the teacher.

The students success is measured via specified “behavioral objectives (e.g., the behaviors of knowledge
that students are expected to demonstrate or learn) that are observable and preferably measurable”
(Webb et. al., 2010, p. 79). For students, better classroom performance is achieved through behavior
modification when the following six basic components are in place:

1. Clear articulation of the desired outcome including stating what students must changed and how
behavior will be evaluated. For example, increased student participation in class discussions as
measured by tally marks teacher notes each time a student participates in class.

2. Development of a positive and nurturing environment where students feel safe and comfortable.
For example, calling on a student to share an answer when you know they can successfully
provide the correct answer.
 3. Identification and application of appropriate intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Note – each student
may require a different type of reward.

4. Reinforcement of desired behavior until the student is able to independently apply behaviors in
class.

5. Gradual reduction of rewards so the student does not require them to display desired behaviors.

6. Evaluation and assessment of behavior modification techniques to ensure teacher expectations

and student results are what are desired (Brewer, Campbell, & Petty, 2000).

8. ESSENTIALISM
The educational philosophy that will be examined in this chapter is Essentialism. This is a teacher-
centered educational philosophy that emphasizes learning skills through traditional subjects like reading,
writing, math, and science. In the classroom, Essentialists value a focus on these core subjects over a
wider array of subjects, as they believe students are able to gain deeper knowledge when exposed to
fewer core subjects.

To better understand the foundation of Essentialism, this chapter will begin with an overview of the key
characteristics of Essentialism. Information related to how this philosophy of education approaches the
curriculum and what it believes about instructional methods will also be presented. Within this
presentation, a discussion of the role of the teacher and role of the learner will be discussed. Finally, key
proponents of Essentialism and their contributions to this philosophy of education will be presented.

Pulling from the philosophies of idealism and realism, the Essentialist philosophy is focused on bring
education back to its most essential points. Essentialism began in the 1930s as a result of the “perceived
decline of intellectual rigor and moral standards in the schools” (Webb et. al., 2010, p. 80).

Essentialist believed it was important to increase the educational standards in American Education so
that we could compete with countries like Japan and Germany. When our students were compared to
students in countries like Japan and Germany in the 1930s, our students were not as academically
competent as their counterparts. Essentialist believed this had a lot to do with the watered down nature
of the American curriculum. Therefore, Essentialists proposed a teacher-centered approach to teaching
and learning. When translated into practice, the teacher is the one who takes primary responsibility for
organizing the classroom, curriculum, instruction, and assessment.

According to Johnson et. al. (2011), the three basic principles of Essentialism are:

1) a core of information,
2) hard work and mental discipline, and
3) teacher-centered instruction.

An example of these principles in practice would be in the “back-to-the-basics” movement that took
place in the 1970’s. This movement also emphasized:
  Holding teachers accountable for student learning.

 Providing instruction geared toward organized learning through textbooks.

 Teaching methods that center on regular assignments, homework, recitations, and testing.

After mastering these principles and basic disciplines, advocates of this movement claimed that students
could use the knowledge they gained to solve personal, social, and civic problems. In other words, they
would have the skills they would need to become civilized members of society.

As demonstrated by these examples, the curriculum within an essentialist classroom is focused on

teaching core content. Subjects outside of these areas are perceived to weaken academic rigor and
thought to destroy schools.

Johnson et. al. (2011) found that Essentialism “assigns the schools the task of conserving the heritage
and transmitting knowledge of the physical world” (p. 110). The emphasis on conserving heritage is
particularly important, for it demonstrates the value this philosophy places on individual students
existing cultural backgrounds.

Given the emphasis on teaching the core curriculum, traditional instructional strategies are used in the
Essentialist classroom. Examples of some of these instructional strategies include:

 Lecture

 Recitation

 Discussion

 Socratic dialogues

 Written communication

 Oral communication

 Examination (Webb et. al., 2010)

Additional materials used by the teacher to promote the effective delivery of instruction include
traditional textbooks, reading books and technology.

Essentialist teachers approach instruction with very specific objectives in mind. This information is
usually shared with students in the form of a detailed syllabi or class objectives. Because “activities that
require mastering facts and information about the physical world are a significant aspect of Essentialist
methodology,” (Johnson et. all, 2011) instruction may also include:

 Field trips

 Laboratories

 Audiovisuals materials, and

 Nature Study.
All of these instructional strategies promote students understanding of the core knowledge Essentialists
have determined to be most important for an educated person to have.

9. SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIVISM
Social Reconstructionism is an educational philosophy focused on reconstructing society. This
educational philosophy was spear headed by a group of progressive educators known as the “Frontier
Thinkers” in the 1920s and 1930s (Webb et. al., 2010). The goal of the Frontier Thinkers was to create a
more “equitable” society. To achieve such a society, the Frontier Thinkers called for social reform because
they believed the educational system was not adequately addressing critical societal issues like war,
prosperity, and depression (Webb et. al., 2010).

This chapter will provide an overview of the key characteristics of Social Reconstructionism as well as key
information related to how this philosophy of education approaches the curriculum. Information on the
instructional methods used within this philosophy and a discussion of the role of the teacher and role of
the learner will also be provided. Finally, key proponents of Social Reconstructionism and their
contributions to this philosophy of education will be presented.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM

The philosophy of Social Reconstructionism is a student-centered philosophy. This philosophy is rooted in

the belief that education should be focused on reconstructing society. This emphasis is a result of the
perceived lack leadership on the part of schools to create an equitable society.

According to Webb et. al. (2010), this philosophy of education can also be traced to the philosophies of
both pragmatism and existentialism. Pulling from these philosophies, Social Reconstructivists call for a
critical examination of all cultural and educational institutions (Webb et. al., 2010). Based on this
examination,areas that are found to be lacking should be identified and recommendations for change
and/or reform should be made according to this philosophy.

This philosophy is also very idealistic in nature, in that it encourages schools to teach students to dream
about “what might be” rather than settle for “what is” (Webb et. al., 2010). As such, students are
encouraged to be “change agents” by challenging the norm and seeking to make society a better place
for everyone. In order to be a change agent, student are asked to look at inequities in society and think
of ways to address these inequities by taking action. For example, students might discover that a local
animal shelter is going to be shut down due to lack of funds so they might work together to raise the
money to keep the shelter in business.

Sadker and Zittleman (2010) expand on this example by stating that the purpose of education, according
to this philosophy of education, is to encourage “schools, teachers, and students to focus their studies
and energies on alleviating pervasive social inequities and, as the name implies, reconstruct society into
a new and more just social order” (p. 284). This focus on eliminating social injustices is indeed the
cornerstone of Social Reconstructionism.

Social Reconstructivists firmly believe in the power of democracy to change society for the better.
Therefore curriculum within the Social Reconstructivist classroom reflects “democratic ideals and
emphasizes civic education” (Webb et. al., 2010, p. 87). Based on this emphasis, the curriculum provides
students with the opportunity to engage in service learning opportunities that would provide them with
first-hand experiences to study social problems and controversial issues.

Service Learning Model

In addition, the curriculum in a Social Reconstructivist classroom emphasizes critical theory and the
development of critical literacy or critical thinking skills (Webb et. al., 2010). This means that students
are challenged to think critically by reflecting on inequities found in society and exploring them. For
example, students might be studying the issue of gender inequity in the past and be asked to relate it to
gender inequity issues that are still going on today. The key, according to Reeves (2013), is that the
curriculum material presented to the students not only sheds light upon social inequities, it should also
provoke an emotional response within the students so that they feel called up to take action and come
up with ways to address the inequities they identify.

Blake & Masschalein (2003) note that a Social Reconstructivist curriculum challenges all unequal power
relationships and focuses on power as applied to class, gender, sexuality, race, and nationalism. One of
the most unequal power relationships that is currently challenged by this curriculum is that which
exists within schools. This unequal power is disguised in the hidden curriculum that is taught every day
to students. This hidden curriculum “represents the knowledge, claims, and values of the dominant
group or class that controls the schools” (Gutek, 2004, p. 319). This hidden curriculum is brought to light,
explored, and challenged within the Social Reconstructivist curriculum.

In summary, the nature of the curriculum within the Social Reconstructivist classroom, should:

 Inform students.

 Stir emotions within students.

 Shed light upon social inequities.

 Improve students abilities to think critically.

 Charge students to take action. (Reeves, 2013)

In doing all of these things, the curriculum will not only improve students abilities to think critically
about problems in society, it will also help them become the responsible citizens the founders of this
philosophy envisioned. Students studying this curriculum will be able to take matters into their own
hands and make positive changes that will improve society for the better.

Social Reconstructivism is focused on looking at what is wrong is society and seeing how it can be
improved. Therefore, the instructional methods used in the classroom are focused on problem solving,
critical thinking, research, and cooperative learning (Webb et. al., 2010). Unlike other philosophies
where teachers approach instruction with very specific objectives in mind, Social Reconstructivist
teachers are less authoritarian and more focused on meeting the individual needs of the student (Sadker
and Zittleman, 2010). In other words, this method of instruction is more student-centered.

Within this student-centered approach to instruction, Reeves (2013) found that Social Reconstructionist
instructors:

 Spend less time lecturing and more time allowing students to work in cooperative groups.

 Facilitate instruction, guiding students in the direction they need to go, but never mandating the
direction students should take.

 Encourage student to form their own opinions based on what they think and what their research
has told them, not what they are told to think by the teacher.

Based on this approach to instruction, students are supposed to have the skills they need to take action
make changes that will positively improve society.

TEACHERS ROLE

The role of the Social Reconstructivist teacher is constantly changing as a result of the changing nature of
society. Consequently, metaphors like “shaper of a new society,” “transformational leader,” and “change
agent” have been used to describe the Social Reconstructionist teacher (Webb et. al., 2010). In order to
be an effective Social Reconstructivist teacher, teachers must be willing to undergo constant change and
updating of their personal and professional lives and have a very high tolerance for ambiguity.

According to research by Revees (2013), the teachers role in the Social Reconstructivist classroom
includes:
  Creating a safe and democratic environment for their students so that lessons and topics may be
discussed, debated, and all students voices will be heard.

 Presenting students with material that looks into social injustices so that their students know
that these injustices exist.

 Creating lessons to inform students but also evoke an emotional response from their students.

 Being fearless in presenting material to students.

 Setting up a democratic environment in the classroom.

 Inspiring students to be the change they wish to see in the world.

 Helping to shed light on social inequities.

 Providing students with the knowledge they need and the critical thinking skills to process it in
meaningful ways so they can make positive changes in society.

In order to accomplish all of these tasks, Social Reconstructivist teachers have to take on a leadership
role in the classroom so that they can effectively facilitate student learning.

STUDENTS ROLE

Within this philosophy, students are called upon to be “change agents.” As such, they are guided by their
instructors to explore issues of inequality in society and figure out ways to address them. People who do
not believe in this philosophy would say that students can not really have any significant impact on
society. However, “Social Reconstructionist believe that students are the critical element in bringing
about social change” (Webb el. al., 2010, p. 85).

With the guidance of the teacher, it is the role of the student to initiate change by first identifying
inequities in society. They then work together with their peers to research and problem solve ways to
address these inequities. Finally, they engage in active, project-based learning, or service learning
outside the school to become immersed in the societal problem they have identified and apply the
possible solutions they have developed (Webb et. al., 2010). Please take a moment to reflect on the
information you have learned about instruction and the teacher and students roles in a Social
Reconstructionist classroom.