Lecture 10

Rainwater harvesting – runoff computation - rational formula - runoff water

harvesting - farm ponds and percolation ponds

Water harvesting
It is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. It means capturing rain where it falls or
capturing the run off in the watershed and taking measures to keep that water clean. The
rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater.
Water harvesting principles
The design principle of water harvesting structures is similar to the other hydraulic structures
requiring a wide range of input.
For hydrological design,
 The size of the watershed is assessed by the field survey or from topographic map of
the catchment.
 In some places, the thumb rule varies from 1:5 to 1:40 depending on rainfall
magnitudes and its distribution, watershed characteristics, runoff coefficient and water
requirements of the crops.
 The ratio of the catchment area to the cultivated area” is followed.

Crop water requirement: It is the function of specific crops to be grown and the given
climatic condition. Computation can be performed from pan evaporation data and
coefficients.
Design Rainfall (DR): It is defined as the volume of rainfall for which the water harvesting
project is designed.
Runoff coefficient (RC): It denotes the percent of rainwater, which flows down the land
slope as surface runoff.
Efficiency factor (EF): It is a factor, determined by taking into account the difference of
rainfall pattern and the rate of water consumption by the crop. Its value ranges from 0.25 to
0.85.
Water harvesting Techniques
The harvesting techniques are classified as,
I. Roof harvesting
II. Runoff harvesting
a. Short term runoff harvesting techniques
1. By contour bund
2. By semi-circular hoop
3. By trapezoidal bunds
4. By graded bunds
5. By rock catchment
6. By ground catchment
b. Long term harvesting techniques:
1. Dug out ponds
a. Farm pond

2. Embankment type reservoirs

a. Irrigation dam
b. Silt detention dam
c. High level bund
 d. Farm pond
e. Water harvesting ponds
f. Percolation dam
III. Flood water harvesting
a. By diverting to graded bund
b. By check dam
c. By sand dam
d. By subsurface dam
e. Flood control reservoir
Farm ponds are small tank or reservoir like constructions are constructed for the purpose of
storing the surface runoff, generated from the catchment area. The farmponds are water
harvesting structures, solve several purposes of farm needs such as supply of the water for
irrigation, cattle feed, fish production etc.
Types of farm pond
1. Embankment type
Farm ponds are generally constructed across the stream or water course. Such ponds consists
of an earthen dam, which dimensions are evaluated on the basis of volume of water to be
stored etc. these farm ponds are usually built in that area where land slope ranges from gently
to moderately steep and also where valleys are sufficiently depressed to permit a maximum
storage volume with least earthwork.
2. Excavated type or dugout type
Farm ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground, relatively in level areas.
The depth of pond is decided on the basis of its desired capacity which is obtained almost by
excavation. The use of this pond is suitable where a small supply of water is required.
Farm ponds also divided into two more types
(based on the sources of water available for feeding the farmpond)
1. Spring or creek fed – the spring or creck fed ponds are generally found in hilly areas,
where natural crecks or springs are available to supply the water.
2. Off stream storage pond – off stream storage ponds are constructed in the side of
ephemeral streams, in which water flow seasonally. This seasonal water is stored in
these ponds.
Components of farm pond
A farm pond consists of following components
1. Pondage or storage area
2. Earthen embankment
3. Mechanical and emergency spillways
The mechanical spill way is used for letting out the storage water from the pond. It acts as an
outlet for safe disposal of water from the storage area of the pond.
The emergency spillway is used as safeguard for earthen dam against overtopping, when
volume of inflow water becomes greater than the pondage capacity of the farm pond.
Design of farm pond
Design of farmpond consists of following parameters for determination
1. Site selection for farm pond
Important features for site selection of a farm pond are,
1. From an economic point of view, a pond should be located at that site where the
largest storage volume can be obtained with least amount of earthwork.
2. If ponds are constructed for the purpose of live-stock storage the transportation
distance of water will not be more than one quarter mile in rough areas.
3. Water can be conveyed from various uses such as for irrigation or fire protection very
easily
4. Ponds to be used for fishing or other forms of recreation should be readily accessible
by transportation facilities.
 5. For selecting the pond site, a check should also be made to ensure that there is no
buried pipe lines or cables at the construction site.
2. Pond capacity:
The capacity of farm pond is determined with the help of contour map of the watershed area,
contributing the runoff to the site of pond construction. From the contour plan of the site, the
capacity of pond is computed for different stages, using area estimating formula. Generally
Trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules are used for the purpose. The Simpson rule gives more
accurate value than the Trapezoidal rule.
For determination of pond’s capacity, the area enclosed by each contour line is measured
with the help of planimeter and by using Trapezoidal or Simpson rule the pond’s capacity is
determined. According to the Trapezoidal rule, the volume (V) formed by two successive
contour lines spaced at distance (H) with the area A1, A2 is given by,
Trapezoidal Rule:

Simpson’s rule computes the volume as

The simpson’s rule is also known as Prismodial rule. For using Simpson rule, the number of
contours should be in odd numbers or the number of contour intervals should be in even
number.
3. Design of Ponds embankment
Data required
1. Hydrologic data: Stream flow, flood data, ground water table, water requirement and
various losses such as conveyance, seepage, evaporation
2. Climatic data: Rainfall, temperature, Evaporation, Humidity, Sunshine hour, wind
velocity
3. Geologic data: Types of aquifer, exposed gravel, geological cross sections,
topography of the area
The embankment design suitable to farm pond consists of following parameters for design
purposes
Foundation:
The foundation should be such that, it can provide a stable support to the dam and also can
create a resistance to the passage of water through the dam section. Good foundation
materials should always be used as they provide stability and imperviousness both to the
foundation.
Core wall:
To check the seepage loss from the foundation of the earthen dam, a core wall of impervious
material is provided. For construction of core wall, a core trench is dug along the centre line
of the dam site, atleast 60 cm deep into the sub-soil. The minimum width of the core trench is
kept about 120 cm at the bottom with a side slope 1:1. The core trench formed so, is filled in
layers using impervious materials.
Cross section:
The cross section of earthen embankment depends upon the nature of the foundation and fill
materials, available at the construction site. The following parameters are considered for the
cross section
a. Side slope: the side slopes of earthen dam are dependent upon dam height, nature of
foundation materials as well as the nature of fill materials used for construction. The side
slope which is commonly used for average quality fill material is 3:1 and 2:1 towards
upstream and downstream side respectively, for a dam height of 15 m.
b. Height – The height of dam is determined after fixing the position of spillway in the dam
section. The dam should be extended up to the height ranges from 60 to 100 cm above the
spillway.
Earthwork
For computing the volume of earth work, made under dam construction, the end area method
is commonly used, which implies that, the volume between two successive cross sections, is
equal to the average of their end areas, multiplied by the distance between them. This is
expressed as,

Where
V –volume of earth work in cu.m
A1&A2 – end are of the respective cross sections, sq.m
L – distance between the two cross sections, metres
4. Seepage through embankment
The loss of water from the pond mainly occurs due to seepage phenomena from the section of
embankment. It should be controlled not only to remove the water loss but also to ensure the
safety of the embankment. When water is filled in the pond, a seepage or phreatic line is
established in the dam section.
The phreatic line is the line below which, there is positive hydrostatic pressure and negative
pressure above it.
5. Design of mechanical spill way
A pond having watershed area less than 4 hectares, the vegetative spill way can be used for
the purpose.
If the water shed area is from 4 to 12 hectares a combination of vegetative and mechanical
spillway is preferred.
If watershed area is more than 12 hectares then the mechanical spillway is preferred.
If the drop height is less than 4 meter and there is less possibility of silt deposition, then drop
spillway may be used
When drop height exceeds 4 meter and there is chance of silt accumulation, then drop inlet
type spillways are mostly preferred
When a drop structure is used in embankment in farm pond then it is also referred by the
name of Surplus weir.
6. Emergency spillway
The main function of emergency spillway is to protect the embankment from overtopping
action due to unexpected increase of inflow into the pond storage. The emergency spillway
should be located at one end of the embankemet. The bottom of the emergency spillway
should be fixed at the maximum expected flood level for the selected frequency of runoff
used for design of the pond.
The peak flow rate for the design of emergency spillway are determined on the basis of
runoff rate to be disposed through it.

Where,
Q – Discharge rate, m3/s
C – Coefficient of discharge
H – Head on the crest, m
L – Length of weir’s crest,m
m – Exponent
1. Calculate the capacity of farm pond. The area enclosed by different contours of site
are as follows.
S.No. Contour value (m) Area enclosed (sq.m)
1. 300 220
2. 301 250
3. 302 320
4. 303 370
5. 304 450
6. 305 530
7. 306 600
Take contour interval H =1m
Trapezoidal Rule:

Simpson’s rule computes the volume as

2) Calculate the volume of excavation required to construct a dugout farm pond, if

a. Average depth of pond is 4.5m
b. Bottom width is 12 m
c. Bottom length is 25 m
d. Side slope to be used as 2:1
Solution

Where
V= Volume of excavation (m3)
A = area of excavation at ground surface
B = area of excavation at middle of the pond
C = area of excavation at bottom of the pond
D = average ponds depth (m)
Computation of A
A = Top length x Top width of pond
Computation of 4 B
Mid length =
Mid width =
4 B = (Mid length x Mid width) x 4
Computation of C
C = Bottom width x Bottom length of pond
Volume of excavated pond

in m3
Advantages of Farm Ponds
 They provide water to start growing crops, without waiting for rain to fall.
 They provide irrigation water during dry spells between rainfalls. This increases the
yield, the number of crops in one year, and the diversity of crops that can be grown.
 Bunds can be used to raise vegetables and fruit trees, thus supplying the farm
household with an additional source of income and of nutritious food.
 Farmers are able to apply adequate farm inputs and perform farming operations at the
appropriate time, thus increasing their productivity and their confidence in farming.
 They check soil erosion and minimizes siltation of waterways and reservoirs.
 They supplies water for domestic purposes and livestock
 They promote fish rearing.
 They recharge the ground water.
 They improve drainage.
 The excavated earth has a very high value and can be used to enrich soil in the fields,
leveling land, and constructing farm roads.
Limitations of Farm Ponds
 They reduce the water flow to other people’s tanks and ponds situated in lower-lying
areas.
 They occupy a large portion of farmers’ lands. However, this can be compensated for
by rearing fish in the pond, effectively utilizing the bunds for vegetable and/or tree
plantations, etc.
Percolation Pond
Percolation ponds are small water harvesting structures artificially constructed across small
natural streams and water courses to collect and impound the surface runoff during monsoons
so as to facilitate the impounded water to infiltrate into the land and percolate through the
substrata there by recharging the ground water reservoir. The recharge area downstream
should have wells and cultivable land in order to benefit from the natural flow of augmented
groundwater
The objectives of percolation ponds:
 To impound surface runoff coming from the catchment and to facilitate percolation of
stored water into the sub soil strata with a view to raise the ground water level in the
zone of influence of the percolation tank.
 To hold the silt flow, which would otherwise reach the multipurpose reservoirs and
reduce their useful life.
Site Selection Criteria For Ponds
 Percolation tank is an artificially created surface water body, submerging in its
reservoir a highly permeable land, so that surface runoff is made to percolate and
recharge the ground water storage.
 Percolation tank should be constructed preferably on second to third order streams,
located on highly fractured and weathered rocks, which have lateral continuity down
stream.
 They should not be located in heavy soil or in impervious strata. The size of the
percolation pond varies according to the runoff. It will usually be located upstream of
the cultivated lands.
 Deep ponds are preferred because evaporation is minimum as also the area of land
submerged.
 The recharge area down stream should have sufficient number of wells and cultivable
land to benefit from the augmented ground water.
 The size of percolation tank should be governed by percolation capacity of strata in
the tank bed. Normally percolation tanks are designed for storage capacity of 0.1 to
0.5 MCM. It is necessary to design the tank to provide a ponded water column
generally between 3 & 4.5 m.
  The percolation tanks are mostly earthen dams with masonry structure only for
spillway. The purpose of the percolation tanks is to recharge the ground water storage
and hence seepage below the seat of the bed is permissible. For dams upto 4.5 m
height, cut off trenches are not necessary and keying and benching between the dam
seat and the natural ground is sufficient.
Function
To augment the ground water recharge
 In addition to runoff water collection, the percolation ponds are helpful in recharging
the ground water in the area and stabilising irrigation.
 It is estimated that the pond may be effective up to a distance of 1000 metres,
depending on the strata in that area.
 Despite all the care, if there is still excess water, it is led into the nallas. Through
vegetative cover, the nallas courses are stabilised. Gully checks with vegetative or
brushwood dams help control the speed of flow of water in the nalla.
Components of Percolation pond
The catchment yield and basin configuration drawn from topographic surveys at site
determine the height of the percolation tank. The top of dam wall is normally kept 2-3 m
wide. Upstream and downstream slopes of the dam wall are normally taken as 2.5:1 and 2:1
respectively
Tank Bund: The tank bund, for all practical purposes, is a small-sized earthen dam and its
design and construction should be carried out in accordance with the principles applicable to
earthen dams.
The bunds of a percolation pond may be of three types, i.e.
1. Type A: Homogeneous embankment type
2. Type B: Zoned Embankment Type
3. Type C: Diaphragm Type
Tank bunds in India are mostly of Type A and are constructed with soils excavated from pits
in the immediate vicinity of the bund and transported to the bund.
The Common Types of Bunds of Percolation Ponds are shown below

Type A- Homogeneous Type

 Type B-Zoned Type

Type C-Diaphragm Type

Difference between Percolation pond and Farm pond
Percolation pond Farm Pond
Catchment area is large and both cropped and Catchment area is few hectare of cropped
hilly area area only
Constructed on permeable beds Constructed on impermeable bed
Generally of impounding type located Generally of dug out type located within the
outside farm farm
Percolation ponds are not lined Farm pond surface is lined to arrest seepage
loss
Stored water is used for recharging ground Stored water is used for irrigation or any
water and indirectly assist well irrigation other farm use
Benefitted area lies below the pond. Benefitted area is mostly its own catchment.

Benefits of percolation pond

 The wells in the zone of influence gets additional supply
 The farmers are influenced to change to commercial crops which they had not
ventured earlier
 The economic status of the farmer is improved
 The silting of down stream reservoirs minimized
 Cattles get drinking water
 Villagers also use stored water for washing clothes, bathing, etc.,
 Lecture 11
Watershed concept – Integrated approach and management
Watershed definition:
The watershed is also nomenclature as drainage basin, catchment or drainage area refers to
the area drained by a stream in such a way that all flow originating in that are is discharged
through a single outlet.
The topographic divide or watershed boundary line, which covers the watershed designates
the area in which the overland flow approaches towards the drainage system (stream) which
finally becomes as surface runoff at the outlet.
The groundwater flow may not conform to the surface drainage boundaries because the
phreatic divide does not always coincide with the topographic divide.

Watershed boundary Small and large watersheds

Various definition about watershed
1. It is a divide, which separates one watershed from the other
2. It is a hydrological entity in which hydrologic cycle completes
3. It is a separating ridge between two river system
4. The watershed and drainage basin are synonymous term
5. The watershed is a divide separating one drainage basin from another
6. Drainage basin is referred as a catchment
7. The drainage basin contributes runoff to the main stream and its tributaries
Small and large watersheds
1. Small watershed – varies from few acres to 100 acres. Overland flow is more
predominant in small watershed, as there is less network of drainage system
2. Large watershed – size exceeds 100 acres. Channel flow is predominant.
Watershed characteristics
1. Size:
The size of watershed has significant effect on its function. A small watershed is pronounced
by overland flow which is main contributor to result a peak flow. Large watershed has no
overland flow, but channel flow is main. Large watersheds are affected by basin storage.
2. Shape
The common shapes are
1. Square
2. Rectangular
3. Triangular etc.,
The watershed shape can be described by shape index
L L2
Sw  or
W A
Where
Sw – shape index
L – length of watershed (km)
W – width of watershed (km)
3. Basin shape:
It is referred as shape of outline of watershed or drainage basin. The quantitative expression
of drainage basin shape was predicted in different forms.
1. Form factor
2. Circulatory ratio and
3. Elongation ratio
Form factor:
Horton (1932) explained the basin shape through a term called as form factor, defined as the
ratio of basin area to the square of the basin length
A
Rf  u
L
Where
Rf = form factor
Au = basin area
L = basin length
Circulatory ratio
It is the ratio of basin area (Au) to the area of a circle (Ac) having equal perimeter as the
perimeter of drainage basin.
A
Rc  u
Ac
Rc is dimensionless, value ranges from 0.6 to 0.7
Elongation ratio
It is defined as the ratio of diameter of a circle which has same area as the basin to the
maximum basin length
D
Rl  c
Lmax
Where
Rl = elongation ratio, dimensionless
Dc = diameter of circle having same area as the given drainage basin
Lmax = maximum basin length
Rl ranges between 0.6 and 1.0 over a wide variation of climate and geologic types. For the
regions of very low relief, the value of Rl is found very close to 1.0. for long relief and steep
ground slope the Rl ranges from 0.6 to 0.8
4. Drainage Density:
The drainage density (Dd) is defined as the ratio of total length of all stream segments (i.e
cumulative length of stream segments of all order) within the specified basin to the basin area
projected on horizontal surface, expressed as
 Lu
Dd 
Au

Where
Dd= drainage density
Lu = Length of stream segment
Au = basin area
The prediction of drainage density is carried out from the basin map, using the instruments as
planimeter and chartometer.
The planimeter measures the basin area from the map and chartometer measures the stream
length
Slope:
The average slope of watershed can be determined from the topographic map of the
watershed.
Time of concentration:
The time taken by water to travel from the most distant point of the watershed to the outlet or
some other down-stream point of reference is called as “Time of Concentration”. It can be
determined by using the nomograph.
Concept of Watershed
Soil, vegetation and water are most important vital natural resources for the existence of the
man and his animals. These three interdependent resources can be managed collectively,
conveniently, simultaneously and efficiently on watershed basis (unit of management).
1. Watershed is a geo hydrological unit or piece of land that drain at a common point.
2. A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which rain or irrigation water is
collected and drained through a common point.
3. The watershed and drainage basin are synonymous term indicating an area
surrounded by a ridge line that is drained through a single outlet.
Types of watershed
Watersheds is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use pattern.
1) Macro watershed (> 50,000 ha)
2) Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 ha)
3) Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 ha)
4) Micro watershed (100 to 1000 ha)
5) Mini watershed (1-100 ha)
Watershed Development
Watershed development refers to the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of all
the resources - natural (land, water, plants, animals) and human - within a particular
watershed. Watershed management tries to bring about the best possible balance in the
environment between natural resources on the one side, and human and other living beings
on the other.
Components of watershed development
• Human Resource Development (Community Development)
• Soil and Land Management
• Water Management
 • Crop Management
• Afforestation
• Pasture/Fodder Development
• Livestock Management
• Rural Energy Management
• Farm and non-farm value addition activities
All these components are interdependent and interactive.
Watershed management
The watershed management implies, the judicious use of all the resources i.e. land, water,
vegetation in an area for providing an answer to alleviate drought, moderate floods, prevent
soil erosion, improve water availability and increase food, fodder, fuel and fiber on sustained
basis. Watershed to achieve maximum production with minimum hazard to the natural
resources and for the well-being of people. The management should be carried out on the
watershed basis. The task of watershed management includes the treatment of land by using
most suitable biological and engineering measures in such a manner that, the management
work must be economic and socially acceptable
Principles of Watershed Management
The main principles of watershed management based on resource conservation, resource
generation and resource utilization are:
 Utilizing the land based on its capability
 Protecting fertile top soil
 Minimizing silting up of tanks, reservoirs and lower fertile lands
 Protecting vegetative cover throughout the year
 In situ conservation of rainwater
 Safe diversion of gullies and construction of check dams for in creasing ground water
recharge
 Increasing cropping intensity through inter and sequence cropping.
 Alternate land use systems for efficient use of marginal lands.
 Water harvesting for supplemental irrigation.
 Maximizing farm income through agricultural related activities such as dairy, poultry,
sheep, and goat forming.
 Improving infrastructural facilities for storage, transport and agricultural marketing,
 Improving socio - economic status of farmers
Objectives of watershed management
 To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby conservation of soil and
water.
To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
 To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more efficient and
sustained production.
 To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the watershed.
 To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the watershed.
 To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
 To moderate the floods peaks at down stream areas.
 To increase infiltration of rainwater.
 To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wild life resource.
 To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.
Factors affecting watershed management
a) Watershed characters
i. Size and shape
ii. Topography
iii. Soils
iv. Relief
b) Climatic characteristic
i. Precipitation
ii. Amount and intensity of rainfall
c) Watershed operation
d) Land use pattern
i. Vegetative cover
ii. Density
e) Social status of inhability
f) Water resource and their capabilities.
Watershed management Plan or Steps in watershed management
1. Recognition of problem
2. Analysis to determine the causes of watershed problem
3. Development of alternative solutions for the objectives formulated to solve the
problem
4. Selection of best solution
5. Application of selected solution
6. Protection and improvement of works, which have already been implemented
The above steps can further be grouped in following four phases,
(a) Recognition phase:
Under this phase, the recognition of watershed problems, their probable causes and
development of alternatives for them are described. It is carried out by conducting several
surveys.
(i) Soil survey
(ii) Land capability survey
(iii)Agronomic survey
(iv) Forest land under permanent vegetation survey
(v) Engineering survey
(vi) Socio-economic survey
(b) Restoration phase:
This phase covers the task of selection of best solutions and their applications for watershed
management. Treatment measures are applied to the critical areas for the recognized
problems identified earlier.
(c) Protection phase:
It is the third phase of watershed management, in which general health of watershed is taken
care off and its normal working is also ensured. The protection of watershed against all those
factors which cause deterioration is also carried out under this management phase.
(d) Improvement phase:
This is the last phase. The overall improvements made during management of watershed are
evaluated for all the lands covered. In addition attention is also given to make improvement
on agricultural land, forest land, forage production, pasture land and socio-economic status of
the people.

Watershed management plan (Biological)

In brief various control measures are:
I. Vegetative measures (Agronomical measures)
1. Strip cropping
2. Pasture cropping
3. Grass land farming
4. Wood lands
Watershed management plan - Engineering
II. Engineering measures (Structural practices)
1. Contour bunding
2. Terracing
3. Construction of earthern embankment
4. Construction of check dams
5. Construction of farm ponds
6. Construction of diversion
7. Gully controlling structure
 Rock dam
 Establishment of permanent grass and vegetation
8. Providing vegetative and stone barrier
9. Construction of silt tanks detention
Influence of soil conservation measures and vegetation cover on erosion, Runoff and Nutrient
loss. Rainwater harvesting is the main component of watershed management.
Watershed problems
1. Flood damage
2. Sediment damage
3. Erosion damage
Delineation procedure of watershed
Watershed delineation is to describe or sketching out the area bounded by ridge line,
contributing runoff at common point and dividing or separating it from the adjoining area.
The delineation of priority area can be performed to some extent by reconnaissance survey
and study of toposheets. However, this technique is slow and also not provides very accurate
information. Normally, the photographs of 1:15,000 can also be used for the purpose.
The demarcation of priority areas should be accomplished on watershed basis, because a
comprehensive watershed management approach is essential for carrying out for proper soil
conservation measures. It is also necessary that, that the size of watershed to be delineated
should be ranges from 10,000 to 20,000 ha, because for small watershed the formulation of
soil conservation working plans and their execution over reasonable period is practically
possible and easy, too.
The steps for demarcation of small size watershed are described as under:
1. Divide the entire watershed into different sub-watersheds following important tributaries.
2. Again, divide each sub watershed into small size, following distinct tributaries and streams
passing through respective sub watershed.
3. Further, sub-divided each small part of watershed [as obtained in step (2) in size ranges
from 10,000 to 20,000 ha.]
Causes of watershed Deterioration
Deterioration of watershed takes place due to faulty and bad management through the activity
of man and his animals. These activities are:
1. Faulty agriculture, forestry and pasture management leading to degradation of land.
2. Unscientific mining and quarrying.
3. Faulty road alignment and construction.
4. Industrialization
5. Fire.
6. Apathy of the people.
Results of watershed Deterioration:
1. Less production from agriculture, forests, grass lands etc.
2. Erosion increases and decreases biomass production
3. Rapid siltation of reservoirs, lakes and river beds.
4. Less storage of water and lowering of water table.
5. Poverty as a result of less food production.
People’s participation in watershed management
• People and their environment are interdependent. Any change in the surrounding
environment directly affects the people living therein. A degraded environment results
in a degraded quality of life of the people. Thus efforts to reduce poverty and improve
the standard of living of the people must aim at improving the environment they live
in. The environment does not recognize people determined administrative
boundaries. A watershed provides a natural environmental unit for planning a
developmental initiative.
• The environment is a living space on which the human community living within that
area depends on for its livelihood. When the economic condition of a community
deteriorates it leads to over-exploitation and degradation of natural resources which,
in turn, further worsen poverty. It is thus necessary for people to see the relationship
between their poverty and the degraded environment they live in.
• Thus, just as human beings and their activities are the cause of environmental
destruction, it is only they who can restore to health the ruined environment. Hence
 there can be no sustainable natural resources management unless it involves the
participation of all the inhabitants of the concerned environment / area in an active
manner.
• For a successful watershed development, team work is very essential. A task of this
nature requires community efforts. With the responsibility shared and the drive
towards a common goal, the fruits of labour can be enjoyed by all.
• Farmers owning land or having access to public land can seek the assistance of a
watershed team, voluntary agencies and banks. For optimum results plant protection
seed protection and processing, utilisation of ground water recharge, etc., have to be
taken up on a group basis in the watershed.
• Organization of inputs like improved seeds, fertilisers, etc., organising bio-mass
planning, and ensuring timely operation of critical elements in the watershed, can best
be taken up on a community basis. Such a group can also act as an intermediary
between banks and farmers.
 Lecture 12
Irrigation - measurement of flow in open channels - velocity area method -
Rectangular weir - Cippoletti weir - V notch - Orifices - Parshall flume

Volume Methods of Water Measurement

This method is suitable for measuring small irrigation stream. In this case, water is collected
in a container of known volume and the time taken to fill the container is recorded. The rate
of flow is measured by the formula

i) Velocity area methods - Float method

This method is cheap and simple but not very accurate and gives only an approximate
measure of rate of flow. An estimate of the velocity of flow is made by determining the
velocity of an object floating with the current. A straight uniform section of channel about 20
to 25 metres long is selected and marked on the banks. The time required to traverse the
distance by a floating object is measured and velocity is calculated. Mean velocity in the
whole of the cross section is obtained by applying a coefficient of 0.80 to the surface
velocity. The area of cross-section of the channel is calculated from its dimensions and this is
multiplied by the average velocity to get the rate of flow.
ii) Current Meters
In the area velocity method current meters are generally used to measure the velocity of flow
at the different sections. The current meter consists of a small revolving wheel or vane that is
turned by the movement of water. It may be suspended by a cable for measurements in deep
streams or attached to a rod in shallow streams. The propeller is rotated by the flowing water
and speed of propeller is proportional to the average velocity of flow. Corresponding to the
number of revolutions, the velocity can obtained from calibration graphs or tables.
iii) Water meter method
Water meter has a multi-blade propeller made of metal, plastic or rubber, rotating in a vertical
plane and geared to a totalizer in such a manner that a numerical counter can totalize the flow
in any desired volumetric units. The basic requirements are (1) the pipe must flow full at all
times; (2) the rate of flow must exceed the minimum range. When water meters are installed
in open channels, the flow must be brought through a pipe of known cross sectional area.
Water meters are very costly.
iv) Tracer method
The principle of this method is that a substance (referred to as tracer) which dissolves in
water but does not react with it is introduced into the flow and its concentration is measured
at two points. Assuming that the substance completely mixed with the water and that there is
not loss of water between the points of injection and measurement the rate can be deduced. In
the salt dilution method a chemical like common salt or dye is made into a solution of known
concentration and introduced into the flow at a known rate. The concentration of the
substance is measured downstream. If Q is the rate flow, Co is the initial concentration, C1 is
the concentration of the solution being added, q1 is the rate at which the solution is added, C2
the concentration measured downstream, the material balance equation can be written as
QCo + q1C1 = (Q + q1) C2
Direct discharge methods
In these methods, velocity measurements are not involved but rates of flow are measured
directly by using certain devices. There are many such devices but the most useful on the
farm are weirs, orifices and flumes
a) Weirs
A weir is a notch of regular form through which water flows. The weir can be made of
wooden planks, sheet metal or concrete and the opening cut on the top edge. Weirs may be
divided into broad classes as:
(1) Sharp-crested weirs and (2) Broad crested weirs.
Sharp-crested weirs are generally of three types depending upon the shape of the notch.
These are:
(i) Rectangular weir which has a level crest and vertical sides
(ii) Trapezoidal or Cipoletti weirs which has a level crest and sides of the notch sloping
outward from the vertical ie., one horizontal to four vertical
(iii) 900 triangular weir formed by the sides of the notch sloping outward from vertical at
450 angle.
Rectangular weirs
The rectangular weir takes its name from the shape of the notch. They are used to measure
comparatively large discharges. It has a horizontal crest and vertical sides. The discharge
through rectangular weirs may be computed by the Francis’ formula as below for suppressed
weir:
Q = 0.0184 L H3/2
Where, Q = discharge in litres / second
L = length of crest, cm
H = head over the crest, cm
The discharge through rectangular weirs may be computed by the Francis’ formula as below
for contracted weir:
Q = 0.0184 (L-0.2H) H3/2
Cipoletti weir
It is a contracted trapezoidal weir in which each side of the notch has a slope of 1 horizontal
to 4 vertical.
The discharge through Cipoletti weirs may be computed by the following formula:
Q = 0.0186 L H3/2
Where, Q = discharge in litres / second
L = length of crest, cm
H = head over the crest, cm
V notch weir
The 90° V notch weirs are commonly used to measure small and medium size streams. The
advantage of the V-notch weir is its ability to measure small flows accurately.
The discharge through 90° V notch weirs may be computed by the following formula:
Q = 0.0138 H5/2
Where, Q = discharge in litres / second
H = head over the crest, cm

b) Parshall flume
Parshall flume is an open channel type measuring device that operates with a small drop in
head. It is a self cleaning unit. Sand or silt in the flowing water does not affect its operation or
accuracy. Parshall flume allows reasonably accurate measurement even when partially
submerged. The velocity of the approaching stream has very little influence on its operation.
The floor of the upstream section of the flume is level and the walls converge toward the
throat section. The walls of the throat section are parallel and the floor is inclined downward.
The walls of the downstream section diverge toward the outlet and the floor is inclined
upward. Large size flumes have an approach section and wing walls at the upstream end.
Cutthroat flume
The cutthroat flume is an attempt to improve on the Parshall flume mainly by simplifying the
construction details. The flume has flat bottom, vertical walls and a zero length throat section.
Since it has not throat section, it was given the name cutthroat. The most obvious advantage
of a cutthroat flume is economy, since fabrication is facilitated by a flat bottom and removal
of the throat section.
c) Orifices
Orifices in open channels are usually circular or rectangular openings in a vertical bulkhead
through water flows. The openings are sharp and often constructed of metal. The cross-
sectional area of the orifice is small in relation to stream cross-section. These conditions
allow complete contraction of the stream flow and the velocity of approach becomes
negligible
The discharge through an orifice is calculated by:
Q = 0.61 x 10-3 a (2gH)0.5
Where, Q = discharge through orifice, litres/second
a = area of cross section of the orifice, cm2
g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2
H = depth of water over the centre of the orifice, cm
 Lecture 13
Duty of water - irrigation efficiencies - conveyance of irrigation water
Duty of water:
For proper planning of a canal system, the designer has to first decide the duty of water in the
locality under considerations. The duty is defined as the area irrigated by a unit discharge of
water flowing continuously for the duration of the base period of a crop. The base period of a
crop is the time duration between the first watering at the time of sowing and the last
watering before harvesting the crop. Duty is measured in ha/m3/s. the duty of a canal depends
on the crop, type of soil, irrigation and cultivation methods, climatic factors and channel
conditions.
When the base period is longer, the water requirement will be more and the duty will be low
and vice versa.
Relationship between duty of water, base period and delta (depth of water)

Where,
B – Base period in days
D- duty of water ha/cumec
Efficiency
An efficient irrigation system implies effective transfer of water from the source to the field
with minimum possible loss. The objective of the efficiency concept is to identify the nature
of water loss and to decide the type of improvements in the system.
1. Irrigation Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of water output to the water input, i.e., the ratio or percentage of the
irrigation water consumed by the crop of an irrigated farm, field or project to the water
delivered from the source.

Where
Ei = Irrigation efficiency (%)
Wc = Irrigation water consumed by crop during its growth period in an irrigation project.
Wr = Water delivered from canals during the growth period of crops.
In most irrigation projects, the irrigation efficiency ranges between 12 to 34%.
2. Water Conveyance Efficiency
It is a measure of efficiency of water conveyance system from canal network to watercourses
and field channels. It is the ratio of water delivered in fields at the outlet head to that diverted
into the canal system from the river or reservoir.

Where
Ec = water conveyance efficiency, per cent
Wf = water delivered to the farm by conveyance system (at field supply channel)
Wt= water introduced into the conveyance system from the point of diversion
Water conveyance efficiency is generally low; about 21% losses occur in earthen
watercourses only.
3. Water Application Efficiency
It is a measure of efficiency of water application in the field. It is the ratio of volume of water
that is stored in the root zone of crops and ultimately consumed by transpiration or
evaporation or both to the volume of water actually delivered at the field.
Where
Ea = Water application efficiency, per cent
Ws = Irrigation water stored in the root zone of farm soil
Wf = Irrigation water delivered to the farm (at field supply channel)
In general, water application efficiency decreases as the amount of water during each
irrigation increases. Water losses due to inefficient application of water in the field vary from
28 to 50 per cent.
4. Water Use efficiency
It is expressed in kg/ha cm. The proportion of water delivered and beneficially used on the
project can be calculated using the following formula.

Where
Eu = Water use efficiency, per cent
Wu = Water beneficially used
Wd = Water delivered
Water use efficiency is also defined as (i) crop water use efficiency and (ii) field water
efficiency.
5. Water Storage Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the water stored in the root depth by irrigation to the water needed
in the root depth to bring it to the field capacity. Also termed as water storage factor.

Where
Es = water storage efficiency, per cent
Ws = water stored in the root zone during the irrigation
Ww = water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation, i.e., field capacity
available moisture
6. Water Distribution Efficiency
Expression for distribution efficiency to evaluate the extent to which the water is uniformly
distributed is as follows:

Where
Ed = Water distribution efficiency, per cent
= Average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depth stored
during irrigation
d = Average depth of water stored along the run during irrigation
A water distribution efficiency of 80% means that 10% of water was applied in excess and
consequently 10% was deficient in comparison to the average depth of application.
 Lecture 14
Surface irrigation methods - borders, furrows and check basins

Surface irrigation methods refer to water application through gravity flow to the
cultivated land. Water is applied either the entire field (uncontrolled flooding) or part of the
field (furrows, basins, border strips). For efficient application of water it is important to select
the method of irrigation which best suits the crop and soil characteristics of the field. In doing
so it may be essential to use more than one method of irrigation in an area or a given farm.

Basin Irrigation
In this method the field is divided into square or rectangular plots of 4 to 4000 m²
guided by bunds on all the sides. In some cases, (ring basin) the plot may also be circular.
This method is usually practiced in nearly levelled lands and hence the depth of wetting is
more uniform in this method. However, it is particularly useful on fine textured soils with
low infiltration and percolation rates so that the water is retained on the surface and in the
root zone for a longer period of time. The field channels supply water to each basin, during
which the basins are filled to desired depth and water is retained until it infiltrates into the
soil. This method is most commonly used for irrigating crops like groundnut, finger millet,
sorghum, vegetable crops etc. Basin irrigation is generally not suited to crops which cannot
stand in wet or waterlogged conditions for periods longer than one day. These are generally
tuber and root crops like potato, cassava beet and carrot. Basins are also used for leaching
salts below the crop root zone depth by percolating water in the reclamation of saline soils.
Basins are mainly of two types:
1. Check basin (square or rectangular in shape)
2. Ring basin (circular in shape)
The size of check basins may vary from one meters square, used for growing vegetables and
other intensive cultivation, to as large as one or two hectares or more, used for growing rice
under wet land conditions. The shape and design of basins generally depends on the
topography of the area it is being designed for. Check basins can be further divided into
rectangular and contour types.
 Check basin method of irrigation
Advantages:
1. Water can be applied uniformly.
2. Even small streams can be used for irrigation of crops efficiently.
3. Simple and cheap when equipment is used for constructing bunds
Disadvantages:
1. Unless the land is levelled, distribution of water in plot is uneven.
2. Considerable area is lost under field channels and bunds i.e. nearly 30% of area.
3. Bunds interfere in working of inter-cultivation equipment
4. More labour is required for field layout and irrigation

Ring Basin Method

This method is a modification of check basin method and is suitable for sparsely
grown orchard crops and cucurbits. In this method a circular bund is constructed around each
tree/plant or group of plants/trees to create a basin for irrigation. These basins are suitably
connected to irrigation conveyance channels in such a way that either each basin is irrigated
separately or a group of basins are irrigated at once by flowing water from one basin to
another through inter- connections.

Ring basin method of irrigation.

Advantages:
1. High irrigation application efficiency can be achieved with properly designed system
2. Unskilled labour can be used
Disadvantages:
1. High labour requirement
2. Bunds restrict use of modern machinery in the field
3. Limited to relatively uniform lands
Border Irrigation Method
In case of border irrigation, the field is divided into a number of long parallel strips,
generally 5 to 15 m in width and 75 to 300 m in length separated by small border ridges or
low dykes of about 15 cm. Irrigation water is released into each strip connected directly to
irrigation channel situated at the upstream end of the border strip. The sheet of water
advances towards the downstream. After sufficient water is applied to one strip, the irrigation
stream is turned into another strip. A specific requirement in border irrigation is that the
longitudinal slope must be uniform, and the transverse slope must be zero or negligible (<
0.03%). This method is suitable for irrigating a wide variety of close growing crops such as
wheat, barley, groundnut, bajra and berseem.

Border irrigation method

1. Straight Border
These borders are formed along the general slope of the field. These are preferred
when fields can be levelled or be given a gentle slope economically.
2. Contour Border
These are formed across the general slope of the field and are preferred when land
slope exceeds the safe limits. Based on the management strategy adopted, borders can be
grouped into three major categories which are fixed flow, cutback and tail water reuse.
Advantages:
1. Large water streams can be used safely
2. Provides uniform wetting of soil profile
3. Low labour requirement
Disadvantages:
1. Requires relatively large water streams for quick advance of water to minimize deep
percolation losses at the upper end of the border strip.
2. Wastage of water by deep percolation in coarse textured soils
Furrow Irrigation Method
 Furrow irrigation system is primarily used for vegetables. Furrows are sloping
channels dug in the soil with the crops being planted on the ridges. It has advantage that
water is applied only in furrows instead of being applied on the whole field. This saves water
and at the same time the plant does not come in direct contact with water which is an added
advantage as some plants, like vegetable crops, are very sensitive to ponded water.
Infiltration occurs laterally and vertically through the wetted perimeter of the furrow thus the
root zone of the crops gets the desired moisture
. On the basis of their alignment furrows may be classified into straight furrows and
contour furrows Based on their size and spacing furrows may be classified as deep furrows
and corrugations. In general, small plants need small furrows; like vegetables need furrows of
7.5 to 12.5 cm depth while some row crops like orchards need much deeper furrows.
Corrugation irrigation consists of running water in small furrows called corrugation which
direct the flow down the slope. Corrugations (Fig 9) are V-shaped or U-shaped channels
about 6 to 10 cm deep, spaced 40 to 75 cm apart. It is commonly used for irrigating non-
cultivated crops like small grains and pastures growing on steep slopes.

Stright furrow Contour furrow

Advantages:
1. Fairly high irrigation application efficiency among surface irrigation methods
2. Furrows serve as field drains in areas of heavy rainfall
3. Low evaporation losses
Disadvantages:
1. Not suitable in coarse textured soils with high infiltration rates
2. Possibility of intra-furrow soil erosion
3. Labour intensive
 Lecture 15

Components of drip and sprinkler irrigation system

Drip irrigation also called as trickle irrigation is the method of applying filtered water (and
fertilizers soluble in water) at a low discharge through the emitters or drippers directly onto
or in to the soil. The pressure that need to maintained at the emitters, also called as operating
pressure, is usually small operating pressure (1 to 2 kg/cm2) compared to the operating
pressure required at the nozzle or sprinkler of the sprinkler irrigation system. The discharge
of the emitter varies from 0.5 to 12 lph depending on the soil type, discharge available at the
source and the area to be irrigated. The low discharge of the emitter results in partial wetting
of soil root zone.
It enables application of fertilizer along with irrigation water. Due to these facts, drip
irrigation ensures optimum growth, better fruiting and early maturity of crops by assuring
balanced soil water, air and nutrients throughout the crop period.
Advantages
a. Water Savings
b. Improved Plant Growth and Crop Yield
c. Labor Saving
d. Energy Saving
e. Suitability to Poor Soils
f. Weed Control
g. Enhanced Fertilizer Application Efficiency
h. No Soil Erosion
i. Minimum Diseases and Pest Problems
j. Adaptability to Application of Mulches
Limitations
a. Initial Heavy investment
b. Extensive Maintenance Requirement
c. Salinity Hazards
d. Economic and/or Technical Limitations
e. High Skill Requirements
The components of the drip irrigation system are classified into following principal
categories:
a) Pump and prime mover: The pressure necessary to force water through the components
of the system including fertilizer tank, filter unit, mainline, sub main, laterals and provide at
the emitters at the desired pressure is obtained by a pump of suitable capacity or the overhead
water tank located at suitable elevation.
b) Water source: Water sources such as river, lake, reservoir/tank, well, canal water supply
or connection to a public commercial or cooperative water supply network can be used. Drip
irrigation is a pressurized irrigation technology in which water is delivered from these
sources by increasing its internal energy (pressure) by pumping.
c) Pipe network: Mainline, submains and manifolds (feeder pipes) and laterals.
A drip irrigation system consists essentially of mainline, sub mains, lateral, drippers, filters
and other small fittings and accessories like valves, pressure regulators, pressure gauge,
fertilizer application components etc.
1. Filter:
It is the heart of drip irrigation. A filter unit cleans the suspended impurities in the irrigation
water so as to prevent blockage of holes and passage of drip nozzles. The type of filtration
needed depends on water quality and emitter type. A two-stage filter unit is usually needed.
a) Hydrocyclone Filter:
Hydrocyclone, also known as sand separator, centrifugal filters are mainly for the removal of
particles such as sand, and other solids from the irrigation water. They are ideal for situations
where a pile of sand, is present in water. The units are mounted in a vertical position;
the water enters through the tangential inlet producing a downward spinning movement.
Sediments are pressed against the filter body by centrifugal force and sediments accumulate
at the bottom of the filter. In order to flush accumulated sediments, a drain valve is installed
at the bottom of the unit or the collection manifold.
b) Sand Filter (Gravel Filter):
These filters are effective against inorganic suspended solids, biological substances and other
organic materials. This type of filter is essential for open reservoir, when algae growth take
place. The dirt is stopped and accumulated inside the media in the filter. Gravel filter consist
of small basalt gravel or sand (usually 1-2 mm dia.) placed in cylindrical tank, made of metal.
Water enters form the top and flows through the gravel while leaving the dirt in the filter. The
clean water is discharge at the bottom. The filter is cleaned by reversing the direction of flow.
c) Screen Filter:
These are installed with or without gravel filter, depending upon quality of water. The screens
are usually cylindrical shape and are made of non-corrosive metal or plastic material.
d) Disc Filter:
The filtration elements are grooved plastic disc, which are piled together around a telescopic
core, acceding to the desired degree of filtration. The water passes through the filter from the
outside to the inside. The pressure drop is slightly higher than screen filter but disc filters
have better cleaning capacity than screen filter.
2. Main Line:
The main line conveys the water from filtration system to the sub main. They are normally
made of rigid PVC pipes in order to minimize corrosion and clogging. Usually they are
placed below the ground i.e. 60 to 90 cm (2 to 3 ft), so that they will not interfere with
cultivation practices. The velocity of flow in mains should not be greater than 1.5 m/s and the
frictional head loss should be less than 5 %.
3. Submain:
The Submain conveys the water mainline to the laterals. They are also buried in ground
below 2 to 2.5 ft and made of rigid PVC. The diameter of Submain is usually smaller than
main line. The frictional head loss should be less than 10%.
4. Laterals:
Laterals are small diameter flexible pipes or tubing made of low density polyethylene (LDP)
or liner low density polyethylene (LLDPE) and of 12 mm, 16 mm, and 20 mm size. Their
colour is black to avoid the algae growth and effect of ultra- violet radiation. They can
withstand the maximum pressure of 2.5 to 4 kg/cm2. They are connected to Submain at
predetermined distance. The pressure variation between two extreme points of lateral should
not be more than 20 % and discharge variation should not be more than 10%. On slopping
ground, the laterals are placed along the contour with 1% extra length for sagging purpose.
5. Emitters or Drippers:
Objective: It is the main component of Drip irrigation system for discharging water from
lateral to the soil. i.e. to the plants. There are various types and size of drippers, based on
different operating principles. They are made of plastic, such as polythene or polypropylene.
6. Controls Valves (Ball Valves):
These are used to control the flow through particular pipes. Generally, they are installed on
filtration system, mainline, and on all Submain. They are made up of gunmetal, PVC cast
iron and their size ranges from ½” to more than 5”.
7. Flush Valve:
It is provided at the end of each sub main to flush out the water and dirt’s.
8. Air Release cum Vacuum Breaker Valve:
It is provided at the highest point in the main line to release the entrapped air during the start
of the system and to break the vacuum during shut off. It is also provided on Submain, if
Submain length is more.
9. Non Return Valve:
It is used to prevent the damage of pump from flow of water hammer in rising main line.
10. Pressure Gauge: It is used to indicate the operating pressure of the drip system.
11. Gromate and Take-off:
These are used to connect the lateral to Submain. A hole is punched with hand drill of pre
determined size in Submain. Gromate is fixed into the hole. Take off is pressed into the hole.
Take off is pressed into the gromate with take of punch upto the step provided. Gromate acts
as a seal. The sizes are different for 12 mm, 16mm, and 20 mm lateral.
12. End Caps (End Sets):
They are used to close the lateral ends, Submain ends or mainline ends. Sub mains and mains
are preferably provided with flush valve. They are convenient for flushing the line.
Drip irrigation systems installation guide
1. Marking pipe lines and intersections
2. Main lines ditches excavation
3. Assembling irrigation control and distribution heads.
4. Main lines piping placement and union.
5. Connections between main lines with control and distribution heads.
6. Main lines ends and intersections and anchoring.
7. Covering main lines ditches
8. Manifold lines, ditches excavation
9. Manifold lines, pipes placement, union and lateral outlets preparation.
10. Drip irrigation (mini sprinklers) laterals distribution.
11. Covering manifold lines ditches
12. Main lines flushing and testing.
13. Manifold lines flushing and testing.
14. Emitters insertion and placement.
15. Laterals flushing and testing, emitters inspection.
16. Irrigation shifts flow rates measurement inspection.
Installation procedure
The main items in the installation of drip irrigation system include installation of the
head assembly (control head), comprising the pumping set, non-return valve, water meter,
filters, fertilization equipment, flow control, air release and pressure release valves. The other
items of installation include connecting mains, sub-mains, and lying of drip tape or lateral
with drippers. While installing the control head or the pipe network, the minimum number of
accessories such as elbows, reducers etc should be used. This is required for proper
maintenance of the system and to reduce unnecessary head loss in the system due to these
connections.
a. Installation of Filters and Fertigation Equipment
1. A strong support in the form of hard base or concrete base along with the GI fittings
should be used for the installation of the sand and hydro cyclone filters to avoid any
vibrations due to load.
2. The filter size should be in accordance with the capacity of the system. This should
match with the pump discharge under size will lead to loss and over size will add cost.
3. The delivery pipe of the pump should be connected directly to the hydro cyclone or
the media or sand filter followed by the fertilizer equipment and the screen filter. All
of these components should be installed in the main pipe.
4. Once the sand/screen filter is essential requirement. Suitable arrangement to collect
and dispose of the bypass material should be made.
5. In pressurized irrigation system the fertilizer injection unit is located, between the
sand filter (if required) and the screen filter. The general recommendation is that the
fertilizer solution passes through at least two 90-degree turns to ensure adequate time
for thorough mixing and for any precipitate to come out in front of the screen filter. It
is must that fertigation unit is installed at the upstream end of the screen filter so as to
filter the under solved matter present in the fertilizer solution.
b. Installation of Mains and Sub-mains
1. Except for fully portable system, both mains and sub mains if made out from PVC
must be installed underground at a minimum depth of about 0.5m such that they are
unaffected by cultivation or by heavy harvesting machinery. Even for systems, which
have portable laterals that are removed at the end of each season, it is common
practice to install permanent underground mains and sub mains. Generally sub mains
run across the direction of the rows.
The United States Soil Conservation Service has recommended the following
minimum cover of earth over for various pipe sizes
Pipe size Depth of earth cover
1.2 to 6 cm diameter 45 cm
6 to 10 cm diameter 60 cm
Over 60 cm diameter 75 cm

2. If the mains and sub mains are made out of materials other than PVC such as HDPE or
GI, these may not be the need to install them below the ground surface; however it is
advisable to install them underground.
3. It is important to remove mud and other impurities in the pipe before fitting of mains
and sub-mains and gate valves. A ball valve is provided at the inlet end of the sub-
main. After the ball valve, the air release valve is provided. A flush valve facing the
slope of the sub-mains is provided at the end of each sub-main to facilitate sub-main
flushing.
c. Laying of Laterals
1. After the main and sub mains are installed, holes are drilled on the sub-main,
according to the grommet take off (GTO) i.e., 11.9 mm dia drill for 8 mm ID GTO
and 16.5 mm drill for 13 mm ID GTO.
2. Then grommet are fixed in it and theses take off are fixed.
3. Once the grommet take offs are fixed on the sub-mains, lateral/polytube laying is
done as per the design. Lateral is fixed to one end of the take off.
 4. Lateral placement is done according to row distance, with sufficient shrinking
allowance and extra lateral length is provided at the end.
5. The drippers are punched on the laterals as per the requirement.
6. Generally laterals are laid on the ground surface. Usually laterals are placed along
contours on sloping field. Burying laterals underground might be necessary or at least
have some advantages for some installations. Where this is done, the emission devices
should be fixed above ground level except for the subsurface drip lateral.
7. The downstream end of the lateral can be closed by simply folding back the pipe and
closing it with a ring of larger diameter pipe, known as end plug. This can be easily
slipped for flushing.
d. Punching of Laterals and Fixing of Emitters
1. Punching of laterals should start from sub-main. Water should be allowed to flow
through lateral so as to get bulging in pipe which makes easy punching.
2. Punch the lateral sideways.
3. The dripper position is fixed as per the spacing requirement.
4. All the drippers should follow the same straight line.
5. Do not fix the drippers on lateral until complete lateral is punched
6. Drippers are fixed on laterals as per the arrows marked (if having arrow marks) and it
should be towards the sub-mains.
7. While fixing the dripper, push it inside the lateral and pull it slightly. The end of
lateral should be closed with end cap.
Once the system is completely installed, it needs to be tested by allowing water to flow in to
the system. Before allowing the water in to the system, ensure that all the valves are open.
After main, sub mains and laterals are flushed completely close the flushed completely close
the flush valve and end caps. After closing of the valves and caps check the pressure at
pressure gages and ensure that the pressure at the selected points is as per the design pressure.
It is also required to check the working of filters, air release valves and the fertigation unit.
Once it is ensured that all the components are functioning properly and the required pressure
exists in the system, the system is ready for use.

Sprinkler irrigation
In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall
on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of
water under pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by
pumping. Optimum range of pressure to operate sprinkler is 2 to 4 kg/cm2 With careful
selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of irrigation
water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniform at the rate to suit the
infiltration rate of soil.

General classification of different types of sprinkler systems

Sprinkler systems are classified into the following two major types on the basis of the
arrangement for spraying irrigation water.
(i) On the basis of method of water application:
1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system
Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the length of
the lateral pipe and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the ground surface. They may also
be mounted on posts above the crop height and rotated through 90 0, to irrigate a
rectangular strip. In rotating type sprinklers, the most common device to rotate the
 sprinkler heads is with a small hammer activated by the thrust of water striking against a
vane connected to it
2. Perforated pipe system
This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles along their length through which water is
sprayed under pressure. This system is usually designed for relatively low pressure
(1kg/cm2). The application rate ranges from 1.25 to 5 cm per hour for various pressure and
spacing.
(ii) On the basis of portability:
1. Portable system: A portable system has portable main lines, laterals and pumping
plant
2. Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a portable system
except that the location of water source and pumping plant is fixed.
3. Semi permanent system: A semi permanent system has portable lateral lines,
permanent main lines and sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping
plant.
4. Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their
movement. The laterals are positions in the field early in the crop season and
remain for the season.
5. Permanent system: A fully permanent system consists of permanently laid
mains, sub mains and laterals and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
(iii) On the basis of precipitation rates
1. Low volume sprinkler system
2. Medium volume sprinkler system
3. High volume sprinkler system.
(iv) On the basis of principle of operation
1. Whirling sprinkler
2. Turbo hammer sprinkler
3. Propeller sprinkler
4. Mini-sprinkler.
(v) On the basis of movement
1. Set move irrigation system (hand move, tow move, side roll, gun type)
2. Solid set system
3. Continuous move system (center pivot system, liner move system, traveller system).
Components of sprinkler irrigation system
1. A pumping unit
2. Debris removal equipment
3. Pressure gauge / water-meter
4. Pipelines (mains – sub-mains and laterals)
5. Couplers
6. Raiser pipes
7. Sprinklers
8. Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs, etc.
(i) Pumping Unit: Sprinkler irrigation systems distribute water by spraying it over the fields.
The water is pumped under pressure to the fields. The pressure forces the water through
sprinklers or through perforations or nozzles in pipelines and then forms a spray. A high
speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be used for operating sprinkler irrigation for individual
fields. Centrifugal pump is used when the distance from the pump inlet to the water surface is
less than eight meters. For pumping water from deep wells or more than eight meters, a
turbine pump is suggested. The driving unit may be either an electric motor or an internal
combustion engine.
(ii) Tubings-Mains/submains: The tubings consist of mainline, submanins
and laterals. Main line conveys water from the source and distributes it to the submains.
The submains convey water to the risers which in turn supply water to the sprinklers.
Aluminum or PVC pipes are generally used for portable systems, while steel pipes are
usually used for center-pivot laterals. Asbestos, cement, PVC and wrapped steel are
usually used for buried laterals and main lines.
(iii) Riser: It carries water from main or sub main pipe line to the sprinkler head through the
rise pipe. They are portable and equipped with quick coupling devices. Commonly they are
available in 5,6 or 12m length are provided with U shaped rubber gasket in the female portion
of coupling. The water pressure forces outside of ‘U’ gaskets to form water seal when the
water is turned off the seal is broken and water is drained out from the pipe making it easy to
uncouple and more.
(iv) Couplers: Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and uncoupling quickly and
easily. Essentially a coupler should provide
(a) A reuse and flexible connection
(b) Not leak at the joint
(c) Be simple and easy to couple and uncouple
(d) Be light, non-corrosive, durable.
(v) Sprinkler Head: Sprinkler head distribute water uniformly over the field without runoff
or excessive loss due to deep percolation. Different types of sprinklers are available. They are
either rotating or fixed type. The rotating type can be adapted for a wide range of application
rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure of about 10 to 70 m head at the sprinkler.
Pressures ranging from 16 to 40 m head are considered the most practical for most farmers.
Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens. Perforated
lateral lines are sometimes used as sprinklers. They require less pressure than rotating
sprinklers. They release more water per unit area than rotating sprinklers. Hence fixed head
sprinklers are adaptable for soils with high intake rate.
(vi) Fittings and accessories: The following are some of the important fittings and
accessories used in sprinkler system.
(a) Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water delivered. This is necessary
to operate the system to give the required quantity of water.
(b) Flange, couplings and nipple used for proper connection to the pump, suction and
delivery.
(c) Pressure gauge: It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler system is working
with desired pressure to ensure application uniformity.
(d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and plugs.
(e) Fertilizer applicator: Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the sprinkler
system and applied to the crop. The equipment for fertiliser application is relatively cheap
and simple and can be fabricated locally. The fertilizer applicator consists of a sealed
fertilizer tank with necessary tubings and connections. A venturi injector can be arranged
 in the main line, which creates the differential pressure suction and allows the fertilizer
solution to flow in the main water line.

Sprinkler irrigation layout

Suitable crops
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed
over or under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for irrigation
of delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by the sprinklers
may damage the crop.
 Suitable for almost all field crops like Wheat, Gram, Pulses as well as Vegetables,
Cotton, Soyabean, Tea, Coffee, and other fodder crops.
 Suitable for Residential, Industrial, Hotel, Resorts, Public & Government Enterprises,
Golf Links, Race courses.
Suitable slopes
Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or
undulating. The lateral pipes supplying water to the sprinklers should always be laid out
along the land contour whenever possible. This will minimize the pressure changes at the
sprinklers and provide a uniform irrigation.
Suitable soils
Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is
always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil (see Annex 2) so that
surface ponding and runoff can be avoided.
Sprinklers are not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If sprinkler irrigation is
the only method available, then light fine sprays should be used. The larger sprinklers
producing larger water droplets are to be avoided.
Suitable irrigation water
A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid
problems of sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.
Advantages
1. Water saving to an extent of 35-40% compared to surface irrigation methods.
2. Saving in fertilizers - even distribution and avoids wastage.
3. Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands)
4. Reduces erosion
5. Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
6. Frost control - protect crops against frost and high temperature
7. Drainage problems eliminated
8. Saving in land
9. Fertilizers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water
Disadvantages
1. High initial cost
2. Efficiency is affected by wind
3. Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
4. Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
5. Not suitable for heavy clay soils
6. Poor quality water cannot be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and clogging
of nozzles)
Steps to be taken for reducing the salt deposits on leaves and fruits during sprinkler
irrigation
 Irrigate at night
 Increase the speed of the sprinkler rotation
 Decrease the frequency of irrigation
Operating Sprinkler Systems: The main objective of a sprinkler system is to apply water as
uniformly as possible to fill the root zone of the crop with water.
Wetting patterns
 The wetting pattern from a single rotary sprinkler is not very uniform (Figure).
 Normally the area wetted is circular (see top view). The heaviest wetting is close to
the sprinkler (see side view).
 For good uniformity several sprinklers must be operated close together so that their
patterns overlap (Figure 58). For good uniformity the overlap should be at least 65%
of the wetted diameter. This determines the maximum spacing between sprinklers.
 Wetting patterns for several sprinklers (Top View)

Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (Side View)

Wetting patterns for several sprinklers (Top View)

Wetting patterns for several sprinklers (Side View)

The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by wind and water pressure.
Application rate
 This is the average rate at which water is sprayed onto the crops and is measured in
mm/hour. The application rate depends on the size of sprinkler nozzles, the operating
pressure and the distance between sprinklers.
Sprinkler drop sizes
 As water sprays from a sprinkler it breaks up into small drops between 0.5 and 4.0 mm in
size.
 The small drops fall close to the sprinkler whereas the larger ones fall close to the edge of
the wetted circle.
Different Types of Sprinkler Irrigation
Spray Heads, Jets & Foggers
 They are used to maintain humidity or temperature control in greenhouse, shade house.
 Suitable for crops which require maintaining micro climate in the canopy area.
 Available in full and half circle spray pattern.
 Nominal operating pressure 1 kg/cm²
 Spray Jet - Wetted radius ranges from 0.5 to 1 m with discharge ranges from 15 to 50
LPH
 Mist and Foggers – Diameter of throw 1.5 to 2.5m with discharge ranges from 20 to 50
LPH
Micro/Mini Sprinkler
 They are mini irrigation system i.e., laterals and sprinklers can be easily shifted from one
place to other.
 Wide flow range, 16-180 lphat operating pressure of 1kg/cm²
 Diameter of throw 2.5 to 7.5 m
 It overcomes all the limitations of conventional sprinkler irrigation system and yet meets
the high standards of effective irrigation principles such as:
o High distribution uniformity,
o Controlled application rate.
o Gentle precipitation, low droplet impact on soil structure and no foliage damage.
 Short irrigation cycles to provide optimal growing conditions with highly accessible water
and nutrient in controlled wetted and aerated soil profile.
 In thisirrigation system, flexible polyethylene tubes are used as a laterals and high
performance low weight plastic sprinklers are connected to these tubes using easily
detachable connectors. Sprinklers are fixed on MS riser rods
Overhead Sprinklers – Impact sprinkler
 They are designed for a wide range of general field uses portable, semi-portable and solid
set systems.
 Full and part circle Brassimpact sprinkler are available Pressure: 2 to 4 KSC, Discharge
250 to 500 LPH, Diameter: 12 to 18 m
 Full and part circle plastic impact sprinkler are available Pressure: 2 to 4 KSC, Discharge
450 to 1000 LPH, Diameter: 20 to 25m
 Suitable for field crops like pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, sugarcane, cotton, cereals, tea,
coffee and fodder crops.
Rain Gun
 It produces artificial rain like conditions
 Pressure: 2 to 5 KSC, Discharge 3600 to 7200 LPH, Diameter: 20 to 30 m
 The use of rain guns saves up to 50% of water vs conventional canal irrigation and
meaningful power savings.
 It can irrigate up to ¾ acre in a single rotation
 Use of Rain guns improve yield Vs Canal irrigation as well
 Rain gun is suitable for a wide variety of crops. Cereals, vegetables, sugarcane, ginger,
groundnut plantation crops.
 Rain gun performance is comparable to imported and costlier Italian rain guns
Landscape & Residential Sprinklers
 Used for irrigating lawns and ornamental plants having small nozzle size with low flow
rates.
 Popup sprinkler –used for Lawns, gardens, parks, playgrounds, golf courses.
 Operating pressure range: between 1.5 to 4.0 kg/cm² Flow rate 450 to 1150 LPH,
Diameter of throw 20 to 25m.
Christiansen's Uniformity Coefficient

Christiansen's uniformity coefficient (UC) is another widely-used method of

calculating the uniformity of water application from sprinkler irrigation systems

The average deviation from the average depth of application is calculated by

averaging the absolute values of the differences between each of the individual depths and the
average depth, and the overall average depth of application is defined as before.

or

n – no. of the depth measurements of the water applied, each representing an equal irrigated area
Xi – measured application depth (m)
μ – mean application depths of (m)
Cu – coefficient of uniformity (%)
 Lecture 16
Agricultural drainage – need – surface and subsurface drainage systems -
drainage coefficient

Subsurface Drainage
Sub surface drainage refers to the removal of excess water present below the ground surface.
Agricultural lands affected by high water table generally need subsurface drainage. While surface
drainage removes the excess rain water before it enters the root zone, subsurface drainage lowers the
water table and provides a better environment in the root zone. In many areas affected by drainage
problems, a combination of both surface and subsurface drainage becomes necessary. While
subsurface drainage problems could be natural, often these problems are man-made. An example of
man-made problems is the waterlogging occurring in canal command areas of large irrigation
projects.
Benefits of subsurface drainage:
Provision of subsurface drainage in agricultural lands results in the following benefits:
1. Aeration of root zone for maximum development of the plant roots.
2. Opportunity for desirable soil micro-organisms to develop through aeration and higher soil
temperatures.
3. Availability of the soil for early cultivation and thus increased crop growth period.
4. Improvement of soil moisture conditions for operation of farm machinery.
5. Removal of undesirable salts from the root zone.
6. Greater storage of rainwater in the root zone because of a low initial water table before the rains.
In agricultural lands with high water table problems, if subsurface drainage is not provided, crop
growth is adversely affected because of negative aspects of the above listed benefits.
Subsurface drainage methods:
In subsurface drainage water moves under the influence of gravity to suitable outlets. This is
accomplished using one of the following:
(1) Tile drains including perforated pipes,
(2) Mole drains,
(3) Drainage wells,
(4) Deep open drains, and
(5) Combination of tile and open drains.
Tile drains:
Tile drains are a subsurface drainage method and consists of short length pipes (30 cm to 90 cm)
installed at a particular depth from the land surface. The pipes are made of concrete or burnt clay.
After digging the trench to the desired depth, the pipes are held end to end without any jointing. They
are covered with an envelope material in certain cases and the soil is backfilled. Water enters the tile
drains through the opening available between the pipes. A network of tile lines laid with a grade will
remove the subsurface water.
Perforated pipes:
Perforated pipes are like tile drains except that they are continuous and water enters the pipes through
openings provided on the pipe. PVC pipes are most commonly used for the purpose. These are also
laid below the soil surface by digging a trench to the required depth and backfilling the soil after the
pipes are laid.
Mole drains:
Mole drains are cylindrical channels formed at a desired depth below the soil surface. There is no
lining material and the inherent stability of the soil at the depth gives stability to the mole drains.
Water enters throughout the mole drains and is guided to the outlet.
Investigations for subsurface drainage:
For the design and installation of subsurface drainage system the following information will be
needed:
1. Topographic map of the area.
2. Data on soil salinity and alkalinity, drainable porosity etc.
3. Position and fluctuations of water table levels relative to the ground surface and artesian pressures.
4. Groundwater quality.
5. Logs of soil and subsoil materials,
6. Hydraulic conductivity measurements.
7. Crops proposed to be grown and their drainage requirements.
8. Irrigation practices and requirements.
A topographic map of the area is needed both for planning the surface and subsurface drainage
systems. The topographic map gives the details of land slope, possible outlets, existing drainage
pattern, undulating land areas etc., and serves as the base map for preparing the water table contour
maps. Information on soil salinity and alkalinity is needed if surface drainage systems are to be
planned along with reclamation of such soils.

Principles of flow in saturated zone:

The flow of water in saturated zone involves mechanical, chemical, thermal and molecular
attraction.
Total energy = kinetic energy + pressure energy + elevation energy
Here kinetic energy is negligible.
At water table level, total energy = datum head
Hydraulic head, H = P/W + Z

Permeability:
it is the ability of the soil to transmit water.
Hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability:
it is the rate of flow of water through a unit cross section area of water bearing
material under a unit gradient at temperature of 20deg c.
k = q/a. I or k = v/i
Darcy defined as quantity of flow per unit of time divided by total area of porous media.
Coefficient of transmisibility:
rate of flow of water through a unit vertical strip of water bearing material of unit width
and full depth under unit hydraulic gradient at temperature of 20 ˚c.
t= k.b
Rate of flow:
rate of flow in saturated soil in a given cross section area and effective velocity of flow
is
q = a.v
Hydrauli gradient:
it is the difference in hydraulic head divided by distance between the point measured
along the path of flow.
i= h1 – h2/l
Porosity:
it is the ratio of volume of voids to total soil volume.
Drainage porosity:
it is the volume of water released from known volume of saturated soil under the force
of gravity and the inherent soil and water tension.
also known as specific yield.
drainage porosity= volume of water drained/total volume of saturated soil
Drainage coefficient or drainage design rate or drainage module:
water is removed from an area in 24 hours’ time period.
Drainage efficiency:
it is the ratio of water discharged by drain during a certain period through precipitation
generated in the period.
Steady flow:
the properties (discharge, velocity, viscosity, pressure) of fluid does not depend on time
and the property does not change with time.
Unsteady flow:
the properties of flow depend on time and changes with time.
Uniform flow:
the velocity of flow at a given time does not change with space
Non-uniform flow:
The velocity of flow at a given time changes with space.
Drainage coefficient
The rate of drainage is a key factor in establishing the needed capacity of a drainage system.
This rate expressed as the depth in centimetres of water drained off from a given area in 24
hours is called the drainage coefficient or drainage design rate. It is the design value at which
water is to be removed from a drainage area. It may also be expressed in terms of flow rate
per unit of area as cubic metres per square kilometre per 24 hours, or in terms of the flow rate
per unit of area which varies with the size of the area. The coefficient also varies with the
geographical location and use, and size of area to be drained. While considering the drainage
requirement of humid areas. the rainfall amount, frequency, intensity, and duration; other
climatic factors: soil permeability; crops To be grown; and the size of the area to be drained
are considered. In arid and semi-arid irrigated areas, the irrigation system and field
application losses, rather than the rainfall, are the principal factors on which the drainage
coefficients are based on.
Drainage coefficients are selected with respect to the degree of protection to be provided for
various crops. For average small drainage projects, the drainage coefficient would range from
6 to 25 mm. The value of the drainage coefficient for a particular area is usually determined o
the basis of past experience with similar soil, crop and climatic conditions. Rainfall is the
most important factor influencing the value of the drainage coefficient in places where
drainage needed to remove rainfall-runoff.
 Lecture 17
Types of wells - Pump types – reciprocating pumps – centrifugal pumps - Turbine
pumps – submersible pumps - Jet pumps – Airlift pumps