28/5/2022

8.1 Transport system in mammals

8.1 Transport system in mammals

Learning outcomes :
• Describe the structure of a mammalian heart
• Define systole and diastole and explain the
sequence of evens in a cardiac cycle including
changes in pressure and volume in aorta, left
atrium and left ventricle.
• Describe the initiation and regulation of heart
beat.
• Explain hypertension, atherosclerosis,
arteriosclerosis and myocardial infarction and
state their causes and preventions.

1
 28/5/2022

• Describe the lymphatic system in relation to the

blood circulatory system.
• Determine the direction of fluid movement at the
arterial and venous ends of the capillary by
calculating the differences between osmotic
pressure / solute potential and hydrostatic
pressure.

8.1 TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN MAMMALS

Transport in humans
• The circulatory system functionally connects the organs of exchange with the body cells

• It consists of 3 basic components:

1. blood (the circulatory fluid)
2. blood vessels (tubes in which the blood moves)
3. heart (the pump that moves the blood)

The heart
• Located in the thoracic cavity
• Covered by pericardium (tough protective membrane)

• Consists mostly of cardiac muscle

• It has 4 chambers:
right atrium, right ventricle
left atrium, left ventricle
• The right and left ventricles are separated by the septum

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

2
 28/5/2022

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

…The heart
• The atria have relatively thin walls

• The ventricles have thicker walls and contract more strongly

• The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from anterior vena cava and posterior vena
cava

• It pumps the blood into the right ventricle

• The right ventricle then pumps the blood to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries

• The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via pulmonary veins

• It pumps the blood to the left ventricle

• The left ventricle then pumps the blood into the aorta (to be transported to all body organs)

• There are 4 valves which prevent backflow and keep blood moving in one correct direction

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

3
 28/5/2022

…The heart

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

4
 28/5/2022

…The heart

• Between each atrium and ventricle is the atrioventricular (AV) valve

• The right AV valve is called tricuspid valve

• The left AV valve is called bicuspid valve

• Semilunar valves are located at the exits of the heart (one where the pulmonary artery leaves
the right ventricle; and another where the aorta leaves the left ventricle)

• Closing of AV valves gives the ‘lub’ sound.

Closing of semilunar valves gives the ‘dup’

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

Mechanism of heart beat

• The heart is myogenic (contracts without any signal from the nervous system)

• The sinoatrial (SA) node is the pacemaker (sets the tempo of the heart beat)

• The SA node is located in the right atrium, near the point where anterior vena cava enters the heart

• SA node generates electrical signals

• The signals spread rapidly through both atria, making them contract simultaneously

• The signals then pass to a point (between right atrium and right ventricle) called the
atrioventricular (AV) node

• The AV node delays the signals for 0.1 sec to ensure the atria contract first and empty completely
before the ventricles contract

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

10

5
 28/5/2022

• Then the signals are conducted towards the heart apex through the bundle of His and
Purkinje fibers

• When the signals spread throughout the ventricles, both ventricles powerfully contract
from the apex (upwards)

• This drives the blood into the arteries

• The signals that travel through the heart produce electrical currents that can be recorded
as electrocardiogram (ECG)

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

11

…Mechanism of heart beat

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

12

6
 28/5/2022

Pressure and volume change

During atrial systole

• Atrial muscles contract; pressure in the atria ↑

• When atrial pressure > ventricular pressure, all the blood from the atria is pumped into the
ventricles

• The AV valves must be opened

• Ventricular volume ↑ as blood moves in

• The semilunar valves remain closed as long as ventricular pressure < arterial pressure

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

13

During ventricular systole

• Ventricular muscles contract; Pventricles ↑

• When Pventricles > Patria , AV valves close (giving the lub sound) to prevent blood flowing back
into the atria

• When Pventricles > Parteries , semilunar valves open and blood is pumped into the arteries

• Ventricular volume ↓ as blood moves out from the ventricles

• Meanwhile, the atria are in diastole (Patria ↓) and blood from veins starts to fill up the atria

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

14

7
 28/5/2022

During atrial and ventricular diastole

• When the ventricles are in diastole, Pventricles ↓

• When Pventricles < Parteries , semilunar valves close (giving the dup sound) to prevent backflow

• The atria are still in diastole where blood continues to flow into them

• When Patria > Pventricles , some of the blood starts to flow into the ventricles too

• Ventricular volume starts to ↑ as blood moves into the ventricles

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

15

Cardiac cycle
• The cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle

• When it contracts (systole), it pumps blood

• When it relaxes (diastole), blood fills its chambers

• One complete sequence of filling and pumping is called the cardiac cycle

• One cycle takes about 0.8 sec

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

16

8
 28/5/2022

• During the heart relaxation phase (when both atria and ventricles in diastole, about 0.4 sec),
blood from the veins enters the atria and some into the ventricles too

• About 0.1 sec of atrial systole then forces all remaining blood out of the atria into the ventricles
(the ventricles still in diastole)

• AV valves close when the ventricles are full and within the next 0.3 sec, ventricular systole
pumps blood into the arteries

• Semilunar valves close when all the blood enters the arteries

• During the ventricular systole, the atria are in diastole where the atria start to receive blood from
the veins

• The cycle will then continue

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

17

…Cardiac cycle

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

18

9
 28/5/2022

19

Cardiovascular regulation

• The SA node sets the tempo for the heart

• But it is influenced by some factors such as regulation by the nervous system and hormones

Regulation by nervous system:

• Involves 2 control centres in the medulla oblongata

i. cardiac accelerating centre
ii. cardiac inhibitory centre

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

20

10
 28/5/2022

• The cardiac accelerating centre

- is connected to the SA node through the accelerator nerves (sympathetic nerves)

- receives signals from baroreceptors (at the aortic and carotid bodies) which may detect a fall in
blood pressure

- speeds up the SA node and thus increases the rate and strength of the heartbeat
• The cardiac inhibitory centre

- is connected to the SA node and AV node through vagus nerves (parasympathetic nerves)

- receives signals from baroreceptors

- slows down the rate of the heartbeat and delays the cardiac electrical signals (via the AV
node)

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

21

22

11
 28/5/2022

Regulation by hormones:

• Under condition of stress, hormones such as adrenaline (from adrenal glands) will be released
into the circulatory system

• This will eventually increase the rate of the heartbeat

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

23

Cardiovascular diseases
• Diseases of the heart and blood vessels.

• The final blow is usually a heart attack (myocardial infarction) or stroke.

• A heart attack is the death of cardiac muscle tissue caused by blockage of coronary arteries (that
supply oxygenated blood to the heart).

• A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain caused by blockage of arteries there.

• A thrombus may clog an artery.

• The tissues may die from O2 deprivation.

• The arteries of most victims had initially become gradually impaired by atherosclerosis.

• Growths called plaques develop in the inner wall of the arteries, narrowing the lumen.

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

24

12
 28/5/2022

…Cardiovascular diseases

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

25

…Cardiovascular diseases
• The artery thickens and becomes infiltrated with fibrous connective tissue and lipids such as
cholesterol.

• Plaques may become hardened by calcium deposits, causing arteriosclerosis (hardening of the
arteries).

• Narrowed arteries are likely to trap an embolus and are common sites for thrombus formation.

• If a coronary artery is partially blocked, a person may feel occasional chest pains, a condition
known as angina pectoris.

• Hypertension (high blood pressure) is a condition when blood pressure is more than 140/90 mmHg.

• It promotes atherosclerosis.

• High blood pressure may cause damage to the walls of arteries, promoting plaque formation.

• Causing factors include lack of exercise, a diet rich in animal fat, high levels of cholesterol in the blood
and smoking.

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

26

13
 28/5/2022

The Lymphatic system

• Composed of :
- network of lymphatic vessels which carry the lymph (lymphatic fluid)
- various organs that are important in the body’s defense system (such as the spleen,
thymus and lymph nodes)
• An accessory of the circulatory system since it return fluid from interstitial spaces to the blood
stream

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

27

Lymphatic system

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

28

14
 28/5/2022

8.2 LYMPATHIC SYSTEM: ROLE IN TRANSPORT

• Functions of the lymphatic system:

i. returning excess tissue fluid and blood protein to the blood stream
- excess tissue fluid and lost blood proteins may enter the lymph vessels

- the lymph moves towards the heart region where it enters the right lymphatic duct or the
thoracic duct and eventually entering the subclavian veins

ii. helps defend the body against infection

- along the lymph vessel, the lymph will be filtered by the lymph nodes

- macrophages and lymphocytes inside the lymph nodes will attack and destroy
pathogens present in the lymph

iii. transports fats from the digestive tract to the circulatory system
- Lacteals (at small intestine) absorbs lipoproteins (fats) & transport them to the
bloodstream.

CHAPTER 8 : TRANSPORT

29

30

15
 28/5/2022

31

32

16
 28/5/2022

33

17