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Homeostasis Part 1
Homeostasis Part 1
Learning outcomes :
• Explain the importance of homeostasis
• Describe the homeostatic control system
in mammals
• Explain the physiological and behavioural
control in thermoregulation of endotherms.
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• In negative feedback, the output or product of a process slows or stops that process
• This will reverse the change and prevent the small change from becoming too large
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Importance of Homeostasis
• It ensures an optimum internal environment for cells to carry out their functions and for the
survival of the organism.
• It allows biological systems to function efficiently so that there is less energy wastage.
• It allows organisms to increase or decrease the rate of metabolism to suit their requirements.
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• A control centre processes information it receives from the receptor and directs an appropriate
response
• An effector receives the signals from the control centre and produces a response to prevent a
bigger change
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Homeostatic control
Level keeps
increasing
positive
feedback
Level Correctional
negative
increases mechanism
feedback
Normal Normal
level level
positive
feedback Level keeps
decreasing
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Temperature Regulation
• To maintain a constant body temperature, the heat gained by an organism must equal the heat
loss.
Heat gained = Heat loss Constant body temperature
• Endotherm is animal that produces heat within the body to regulate its temperature. The heat
produced from respiration. Their body temperature fairly constant and independently of the
environment temperature.
• Ectotherm is animal that receives heat from the environment to regulate its body temperature.
Their body temperature follows the temperature of environment.
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Stratum
granulosom
Malphigian layer
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Thermoregulation
• Thermoregulation is the process by which an organism regulates its internal temperature within a
tolerable range.
• The skin surface temperature is constantly monitored by thermoreceptor in the skin. Thermoreceptor
comprise of
Cold receptor – detect decreases in skin temperature
Heat receptor - detect increases in skin temperature
• Normal adults maintain the core body temperature in the range of 36-37oC.
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Thermoregulation
• Hypothalamus has two thermoregulatory centres, the heat loss centre and the heat gain centre.
that help in physiological control.
• Heat loss centre ( anterior hypothalamus )
Vasodilation
Sweating
Insulation
Low metabolic rate
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11.2 Liver
Learning outcomes :
• Describe the structure of liver, and explain
the roles of its components.
• Describe the carbohydrate metabolisme in
the liver (glycogenesis, glycogenolysis,
gluconeogenesis)
• Describe protein metabolism
(transamination, deamination and urea
formation) in the liver.
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Liver
• Body’s largest organ (~ 1.5 kg)
• Situated under the diaphragm, mainly towards the right side of the abdomen
• Hepatic artery supplies the liver with oxygenated blood (from the aorta/heart)
• From hepatic portal vein, it receives deoxygenated blood containing newly absorbed nutrients,
drugs and possibly microbes and toxins (from the intestines)
• Hepatic vein carries deoxygenated blood from the liver towards the heart
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• At the centre of each lobule is an intralobular vein (branch of hepatic vein or central vein). It
receives blood that flows along the sinusoids. The blood from the intralobular veins passes into
the hepatic vein and then passes to the heart through inferior vena cava.
• Outside of the lobules are the interlobular blood vessels (branch of hepatic artery and branch of
hepatic portal vein) and a branch of bile duct.
• The arrangement of blood vessels, hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery as well as hepatocytes
forms the functional unit of liver called acinus.
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Intralobular
blood vessel
Interlobular blood
vessel
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1 2
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Intralobular
Interlobular blood vessel
blood vessel
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• Blood (from interlobular blood vessels) flow through channels called sinusoids (towards the
intralobular vein)
• Hepatocytes lining the sinusoids takes up substances (eg: O2, excess nutrients, toxins) from the
blood to perform the liver’s functions
• Also present in the walls of the sinusoids are Kuffer cells (phagocytic cells which destroy worn-out
erythrocytes, bacteria, foreign materials)
• Bile (secreted by hepatocytes) enters the canaliculi that empty into the bile ductules. Bile is
stored in the gall bladder before secreted into the small intestine.
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Functions of liver
i. Regulating blood glucose level (carbohydrate metabolism)
• When glucose level ↑, insulin stimulates hepatocytes to take up glucose (forming CO2 and H2O) or
convert it into glycogen (glycogenesis)
• When glucose level ↓, glucagon stimulates hepatocytes to convert glycogen into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
Glucose can also be synthesized from fatty acids, glycerol or amino acids (gluconeogenesis)
INSULIN
Glucose Glycogen
Glycogenesis
GLUCAGON
Glycogen Glucose
Glycogenolysis
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• Pancreas has islets of Langerhans. Each islet has alpha cells (that releases glucagon) and
beta cells (releases insulin)
• Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that regulate blood glucose level
pancreas detects change → β cells release insulin → insulin triggers the liver to take up glucose
and to convert glucose into glycogen → blood glucose level declines to normal level
pancreas detects change → α cells release glucagon → glucagon triggers the liver to break down
glycogen and release glucose to the blood → glucose level increases to normal level
• A disorder called diabetes mellitus is the condition when the blood glucose level is high and always
found in the urine of the patient.
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• They will be broken down in the liver through the process of deamination where the amino group
(NH2) is released from an amino acid
• NH3 will be converted to urea (less toxic) through a pathway called urea cycle / ornithine cycle
• Urea will be released by the hepatocytes into the blood and carried towards the kidneys to be
excreted as urine
• Liver is also involved in transamination in which an amino group is transferred from an amino
acid to a keto acid. This forms a new amino acid
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ORNITHINE
CYCLE
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Ornithine cycle
• Deamination involves the removal of the amino group (NH2) from an amino acid to form ammonia
(NH3). Ammonia is very toxic and soluble. It should not be allowed to accumulate in the body.
• Ammonia (NH3) will be converted to urea (less toxic) through a pathway called urea cycle / ornithine
cycle. The process is occurs in the hepatocytes.
• The ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbamoyl phosphate. ATP is used. Carbamoyl
phosphate then reacts with ornithine to produce citrulline. These processes occur in the
mitochondrial matrix of the hepatocyte.
• Citrulline then diffuses into the cytoplasm of the hepatocytes and reacts with aspartate to form
argininosuccinate.
• Argininosuccinate breaks down into arginine and fumarate. Fumarate enters the Kreb cycle.
• Arginine is then hydrolysed to produce urea and ornithine. Ornithine can be used again in the cycle.
• Urea will be released by the hepatocytes into the blood and carried towards the kidneys to be
excreted as urine.
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Transamination
• Transamination refers to the synthesis of new amino acids by the enzymatic transfer of amino groups
between the amino acid and the keto acid.
• For example the amino acid, glutamic acid can be synthesized by the following reaction.
• Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized from other amino acids in this way in the liver cells.
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