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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Education is a fundamental right of every child either male or female, white or black,
healthy or physically disable. According to Spencer “Education is complete living” (National
Council of Educational Research and Training [NCERT], 2014, p. 18). Education leads to the
development of social, cultural and economic conditions of a nation which in turn have an
effect upon labour market in terms of productivity, growth and human resource development.
It contributes to the progress of society by providing equal opportunities to individuals and
improving sociality. Thus education becomes a basic instrument for eliminating poverty,
energizing growth and attaining the economic goals of a nation (Sustainable Development
Policy Institute [SDPI], 2012). In a nutshell, education plays a vital role in the social,
economic and political development of a nation.
The aim of Education is to develop individual personality and promote mutual
understanding, tolerance, friendship and peace. It enables one to lead a better life physically,
mentally, socially and spiritually. Education plays key role in making life and world better for
all human beings. For the achievement of these goals, girls’ education is equally important,
because, to educate a girl is like to educate the nation. An educated girl will always play a
more active role in the society as compared to an uneducated one (United Nations
International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF], 2012).
In the world approximately two-third (113 million) out-of-school (OOSC) children
are girls. In certain circumstances, such as social instability, conflicts and in natural calamity
this number tends to increase. There is variation in the number of out-of-school children in
various countries depends upon the geographical perspective of the region. In rural and in
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remote areas, For instance, the number of out-of-school children particularly girls, is greater
than in urban areas (Canadian International Development Agency [CIDA], 2003).
According to the convention on the rights of the child (CRC) report, in a large number
of countries of the world, gender equality in education at primary level has been a significant
challenge. Despite this, cultural norms, poor economic conditions, poor quality of education,
insecurity of girls students, and political turbulence are other challenges for girls education.
In rural areas of Pakistan, gender disparity in education exists and male and female children
do not have the same education opportunities. Owing to the cultural and religious constraints,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province has very poor rate of female literacy. (Kids Rights Report,
2013). In the province, there are about 7 million illiterate people between the ages of 9-39
years, in this age group the literate females are less than 30 percent (Mustafa, 2012, p.1). The
wider gender gap in literacy rate in the area is due to social factors, family constrains and in
general less importance to female education (SDPI, 2012).
Pakistan spends only 2.3% of its GDP on education which is the world’s lowest
education expenditures. However, the federal government decreased its education
expenditures up to 11% for the fiscal year 2014-2015. On other hand in the same fiscal the
education budget in the provinces is little improved. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa granted an
allocation of 27.4% of its total budget, Punjab earmarked 26.1% of its budget and Sindh
allocated 22% of its total budget for education expenditures (Pakistan Coalition for Education
[PCE], 2015).
Kohistan has the highest difference in literacy rates between men and women. In the
district, forty six percent (46%) more men are literate than women (Mustafa, 2012). This
district, from the very beginning has remained with low literacy rate for female, and
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underdevelopment in education. That is the reason that girls’ education is one of the major
concerns, which has to gain considerable attention by the all stakeholders.
This study focused on investigating the factors that affect girls’ education at primary
level in district Kohistan. The research work examines the available related literature on
female education in national, international and in religious context to establish the extent of
girls’ access and achievements in education. The study intends to collect data and analyze it
with the intent to evaluate the factors and their impact on girls’ education in district Kohistan.
It draws a conclusion and recommends measures for the improvement of girls’ education
particularly in district Kohistan.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
The government of Pakistan is the signatory of Jomtien Conference 1990 (Education
For All), Dakar framework 2000 (MDGs) and Conference on Sustainable Development 2012,
and Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has introduced reforms and adopted
Comprehensive Development Strategy (CDS) 2010-2017 for the achievement of Education
for All (EFA), Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) targets. Despite governments’ commitments, low girls participation and literacy rate
still persist, particularly in certain rural and backward districts of Pakistan. According to
Pakistan Education Statistics Report 2016-2017, the enrolment rate at primary stage is 61
percent and adult literacy rate is 72 percent (United Nations Development Programme
[UNDP], 2011; & Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training [MFE&PT],
2017). The adult literacy rate in Pakistan is 60 percent, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, it
is 53 percent (World Bank [WB], 2017) and in district Kohistan, it is 24 percent. In Kohistan,
the literacy rate among male is 42 percent and among female is 5 percent only (Pakistan
Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey [PSLM], 2016). This minimum literacy
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rate had serious implications regarding the achievement of national and provincial
governments’ goals of Basic Education for All (BEFA) by 2015 and ensuring the inclusive
and equitable quality education and 100 per cent literacy rate for all by 2030.
District Kohistan is one of the most backward districts of Pakistan in respect of poor
participation of girls in primary school education (PSLM, 2016). Therefore, there is need to
investigate factors which may have contributed to this low girls’ participation in primary
school education in the region.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study were to:-
1. Identify the socio-cultural factors that affect girls education at primary level in district
Kohistan.
2. Investigate the economic factors that affect girls education at primary level in district
Kohistan.
3. Explore the political factors that affect girls education at primary level in district
Kohistan.
4. Investigate facilities related factors that affect girls education at primary level in
district Kohistan.
5. Compare the perceptions of male and female respondents about the factors affecting
girls education in district Kohistan.
6. Compare the perceptions of teachers and parents about the factors affecting girls
education in district Kohistan.

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1.3 Research Questions
The research study was guided by six research questions:
1. What are the socio-cultural factors that affect girls education at primary level in
district Kohistan?
2. What are the economic factors that affect girls education at primary level in district
Kohistan?
3. What are the political factors that affect girls education at primary level in district
Kohistan?
4. What are the facilities related factors that affect girls education at primary level in
district Kohistan?
5. What is the difference between the perceptions of male and female respondents about
the factors affecting girls education in district Kohistan?
6. What is the difference between the perceptions of teachers and parents about the
factors affecting girls education in district Kohistan?
1.4 Significance of the Study
The research work may be of significance particularly at times when the national and
provincial governments in Pakistan are striving to achieve 100 percent literacy rate and
gender equality in education by 2030. Findings of the research may help in highlighting the
hindrances in participation of girls in primary school education in district Kohistan. The
research may also help the stakeholders in addressing the problem relating to girls education.
The research may also help the policy makers in Ministry of Education to address gender
disparities in the provision of primary school education in the district. It may be helpful for
the government to adopt strategies in improving the rate of participation of girls in primary
school education.
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The findings of this research work may be of value as it is expected that it may enable
the parents, teachers and students to address the factors which are affecting the girls’
education at primary level.
The researcher expects that the findings of the present research may be useful for
researchers, local community and other partner organizations. It is hoped that the study might
have procreative effects as it has devised measures for improving the processes of policy
formulation and implementation.
The research study is likely to have the capability of enabling educational
administration and management to take into consideration the issue of gender disparity and
culture taboos regarding girls’ education.
1.5 Delimitation of the Study
Owing to the scarcity of time and meager financial resources this research work was
delimited:
1. To public sector primary schools of district Kohistan.
2. To the socio-cultural factors, economic factors, political factors and facilities
related factors affecting girls education at primary level in district Kohistan.
1.6 Definitions of Key Terms
A Agree
ADB Asian Development Bank
AEPAM Academy of Educational Planning and Management
ANER Adjusted Net Enrollment Ratio
ASC Annual Schools Census
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BEFA Basic Education for All
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CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against

Women
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child
DA Disagree
EMIS Education Management Information System
EFA Education for All
FATA Federally Administered Tribal Area
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GGPS Government Girls Primary School
GHSS Government Higher Secondary School
GoKP Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
GPI Gender Parity Index
GPS Government Primary School
GER Gross Enrolment Ratio
IPMC Inter-Provincial Education Ministers Committee
I-SAPS Institute of Social and Policy Sciences
ISSRA Institute of Strategic Studies, Research and Analysis
KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
KPBIA Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Borstal Institute Act
KPESE Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Elementary and Secondary Education
MAF MDGs Acceleration Framework
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MFE&PT Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training
n.d. No date
NCERT. National Council of Educational Research and Training
NEC National Economic Council
NEMIS National Education Management Information System
NER Net Enrollment Ratio
NFBES Non Formal Basic Education School
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NGOs Non Governmental Organizations

NWFP North West Frontier Province
OOSC Out-of-School Children
P.B.U.H. Peace Be Upon Him
PC Planning Commission
PCE Pakistan Coalition for Education
PRP Provincial Reform Programme
PSLM Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey
PSTs Primary School Teachers
PTCs Parent Teacher Councils
PTR Parent Teacher Ratio
SA Strongly Agree
SDA Strongly Disagree
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SDPI Sustainable Development Policy Institute
SPDC Social Policy and Development Centre
UD Undecided
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development programme
UNCHR United Nations Human Rights Commission
UNICEF United Nations International children’s Emergency Fund
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
WB World Bank
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter reviews literature related to the problem of the study “factors affecting
girls’ education in district Kohistan”. This study was carried out with the realization that
relevant local literature was inadequate concerning female education in district Kohistan. So,
most of the literature presented was national or international policies or foreign studies. The
review of related literature is about the influence of socio-cultural, economic and political
factors on girls’ education, state of female education and gender discrimination in education.
2.1 Importance of Female Education
According to Ban Ki Moon, the ex-secretary-general of United Nations, “There is no
more valuable investment than in a girls education” (King & Winthrop, 2015, p. 6). Being
mother or wife, women play an important role in the society; therefore, the importance of
girls’ education cannot be overlooked. Napoleon Bonaparte says that “give me an educated
mother I will give you an educated nation” (Vadhera, 2015, p.21).
Education especially, primary education works as a catalyst for economic growth and
human development. It is the vital tool for removing the obstacles of poverty (King &
Winthrop, 2015). Education reduces poverty and boosts people’s income. It increases
employees’ earnings and provides them better livelihoods. The remuneration of a literate
person in Pakistan is 23% high as compared to an illiterate individual. Similarly, literacy also
has a strong effect on the earnings of women, and the wages of highly literate working
women are 95% higher than those women who have less or no literacy skills (United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2014). Hence, education is
very important for every child.

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There are so many reasons due to which countries, governments, civil society and
private sector are feeling deep concern about female education. Educated girls or women
have an ambitious plan to become leaders and thus provide more leadership and talent to the
country. Educated women have the confidence and skill of leadership and able to influence
the policies and programs of their country. Gender equality in education accelerates the
economic growth of the country. Hence, women achieve economic empowerment through
equality in education means greater economic empowerment gender equality in education.
Girls education is correlated with girls’ health, more educated girls are healthier, tend to
marry later and produce healthier children. Similarly, the education of mothers has a positive
effect on the education of their children, particularly daughters. Educated women have better
plan to avoid the adverse effects of economic crises and environmental changes. Above all,
education is the inherent right of girls and is valuable for them (King & Winthrop, 2015).
Women play an important role in the household as well as in the society. Therefore,
they are entitled to get full support full protection and indiscrimination. Women greatly
contribute in the happiness, prosperity and well-being of the family and in the process of
developing the society, which is needed recognition and acknowledgement. The social
importance of motherhood, childcare, role in reproduction and the role of parenthood in the
family should not be a basis of disparity and must also be acknowledged (United Nations
[UN], 1996).
In developing countries the investment with the highest return may be in the field of
female education. Educated female have little chance to be married off in childhood and are
expected to have opportunities to comfortable and prosperous life. Education empowers
women who are more likely to make their life decisive about their family size and unlikely
subject to domestic violence (Sperling, Winthrop, & Kwauk, 2016).

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Educated women are more powerful in their lives than those of uneducated. Education
empowers women in decision making; it boosts their morale, confidence and perceptions. It
gives them the power to act or speak or think without externally imposed restrains and thus
change the perceptions of society and social constrains to their liberty. In Pakistan, the girls
with minimum qualification of secondary education have a choice to say in the selection of
spouse 15 percentage points more than the girls with no education (UNESCO, 2014).
Education develops critical thinking in girls which is needed by them to play active
role in the society. An individual who has critical thinking is able to produce new ideas, solve
the problems and deal effectively. Education develops self-confidence, self awareness, and
sense of responsibility, value of dignity, value of human rights, and value of labor, patriotism
and self identity. Education also develops communication skills and curiosity among girls
and hence they can express their opinions effectively and can surmount the obstacles of life.
Educated girls are able to understand the significance of customs and traditions, and national
culture which will guarantee the process of development (HakiElimu, 2010).
2.2 Current Status of Female Education in Pakistan
In Pakistan the gender discrimination is evident in access to education and gender
discrimination is detrimental to society. There is a wide gender gap in education. As
compared to boys girls are falling behind in education access, quality of education, and in
education outcomes. In Pakistan gender gap in gross primary enrollment fell from 27% to
24% between 2000 and 2005 (World Bank [WB], 2008).
World education reports and indexes represent that in Pakistan equal educational
opportunities are not being provided to boys and girls. According to the World Economic
Forum Global Gender Gap Report 2014, Pakistan occupies 142 nd position out of 142
countries (UNESCO, 2014).

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In Pakistan the educational condition of women is very low and globally among the
lowest. The low participation rate and high dropouts at the primary level restrain girls from
further education. Only 19 percent of women have done Matriculation, 8 percent
Intermediate, 5 percent did graduation and 1.4 percent attained a Master’s degree. On the
other hand 60 percent of girls’ adult population is illiterate (Chitrakar, 2009).
According to the UNICEF progress report 2013-15, during the last ten years, the
number of out-of-school children of primary age has decreased from 7.54 million to 6.16
million. The report also reveals that only 14 girls out of 100 of the poorest families can read a
story in Pashto or Sindhi or in Urdu and 11 percent poorest girls can do two digit sums and
division, and 12 percent girls can read a sentence in English. In rural areas only 20 percent
poorest girls have education access compared to 58 percent richest girls (UNICEF, 2015).
2.3 Female education in Islamic perspective
Islam greatly emphasized the right to education and affirms this right to every one
without gender discrimination. The first revelation of the Noble Quran which was revealed to
the Prophet (P.B.U.H), Allah Almighty says:
Read with the name of your Lord, Who created (everything), He created man from a
clot of blood. Read, and your Lord is the most gracious, Who imparted knowledge by
means of the pen. He taught man what he did not know (Al-Quran: 96:1-5).
These verses draw the outlines of a religion which is based on knowledge, as well as
to set up the significance of the knowledge. Therefore, the first revelation starts by the word
“iqr’a” mean “read”, this indicates the importance of education in Islam. Reading is the basic
requirement to knowledge. However, writing is considered the complement of reading,
therefore, Allah highlights this act by saying “Taught by the pen”. The pen was and still is the
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effective writing implement used in the process of transmission and preservation of
knowledge. Human being acquires knowledge by reading and writing. Allah Almighty has
also mentioned the writing in the following verse:
O you who believe, when you transact a debt payable at a specified time, put it in
writing, and let a scribe write it between you with fairness. A scribe should not refuse
to write as Allah has educated him. He, therefore, should write… (Al-Quran: 2:282).
The above verse stresses the significance of obtaining the skill of writing. Beside this,
the importance of the amanuensis is also emphasized. The knowledge and skill of writing is a
Divine aid and a blessing and a favor from Allah. Allah has commanded us to record the
debts and agreements between people in writing. Therefore, gaining the knowledge and skill
of writing is inevitable for everyone without the discrimination of sex. The Holy Prophet
Muhammad imposed the ransom on each of his literate hostages in the battle of Badr was to
educate ten Muslims to learn reading and writing ( Najeebabadi, 2009).
The Holy Prophet Muhammad used to say, “The acquisition of knowledge is
compulsory for every Muslim men as well as women” (Sunan Ibni Maja, Hadith: 224, p.116).
Knowledge is the only thing due to which Allah preferred man over angels. Quran says, “And
He taught ‘Adam the names, all of them; then presented them before the angels, and said, tell
me their names, if you are right” (Al-Quran: 2:31).
In Islam, scholars have given respect and commendation. The high esteem for
knowledge as well as for the scholars is evident in the following verse. Allah Almighty says,
“Allah will raise those, in ranks, who have believed and are given knowledge” (Al-Quran:
58:11). The Allah Almighty also says highly of virtue of learned persons and their superiority
over the common people. He says in surah AzZumar (The Troops), verse 9, “Say, Can those
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who know and those who do not know become equal? It is only the people of understanding
who are receptive of the advice” (Al-Quran: 39: 9).
Allah is the Creator of humanity and commanded human beings to seek knowledge in
order to become stronger in their faith. Quran, the sacred book of Allah and the ultimate
source of guidance for human beings, repeatedly emphasizes the importance of education. In
Surah Ta’Ha, verse 114, Allah says, “And say, My Lord, improve me in knowledge” (Al-
Quran: 20: 114). This verse shows that human knowledge is limited and they need to make
request to Allah to increase them in knowledge. In Islam, the duty of seeking knowledge and
learning is obligatory for every Muslim.
The value and importance of knowledge and learning is equally emphasized by the
Hadith (Sayings and Deeds of the Holy Prophet). The Holy Prophet Muhammad (Peace be
upon him) said, as narrated by Abu Huraira:
When a man dies, his acts come to an end but three, recurring charity, or knowledge
(by which people) benefit, or a pious son, who prays for him (the deceased) (Sunan
Ibni Maja, Hadith: 242, p.117).
According to the text of the Noble Quran and the sayings of the Holy Prophet,
Muhammad (Peace be upon him) the acquisition of knowledge is the duty of every Muslim
both male and female. Thus female education is vital for the society because today’s girl is
one who is the mother of the future men and women. She is the first and fundamental
educational institution of child. Children are going to learn the foundations of humanity and
the basis of morality from their mothers at home.
Religion, belief and appreciation for religious values such as moral values, ethical and
spiritual values, perform a key function in the lives of people. The right to freedom, to
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professing religion, freedom of thought, conscience is non-negotiable and must be satisfied.
In order to become aware of the fact of equality of human beings’ peace and development,
there is a dire need to esteem all these rights. In spite of these facts, it is recognized that all
forms of extremist ideologies may have a strong negative effect on females and can cause
injustice and discrimination (United Nations [UN], 1996).
2.4 Female Education in the International Context
The UN General Assembly has adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
on 10 December 1948. According to Article 26 of the declaration, every person has the right
to free and compulsory fundamental and elementary education. Apart from compulsory
elementary education, higher education shall be made equally accessible to everyone on the
basis of merit (United Nations [UN], 1949).
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979. According to
article 10 of the convention all member States are required to eliminate all types of
discrimination against females in education. Female are to be provided the equal access to
studies at all levels of education as males, stereotyping and disparity shall be ended from
education, coeducation system shall be encouraged. Efforts should be made to reduce the
dropout rate of female students, and special programmes shall be arranged for the betterment
of out of school adult girls (United Nations [UN], 2003).
The World Conference on Education for All held under the auspices of Inter-Agency
Commission in Jomtien, Thailand in March, 1990, adopted World Declaration on "Education
for All" and "Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs". In this conference 1,500
delegates participated from 155 countries of the world including educationists, policy-
makers, and 20 inter-governmental and 150 non-governmental organizations. According to

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the article 1 of this declaration educational opportunities shall be designed in such a manner
that everyone;- child (male or female) youth or adult become its beneficiary and fulfill their
fundamental learning requirements. Learning requirements include necessary learning tools
as well as learning content which are needed by men for their survival, development and
dignified living. In article 3, a commitment was made to eliminate gender disparity and
gender stereotyping in schooling, to ameliorate the quality of education for females, and to
take away every barrier which restrains female education. Thus each and every person
should have the right to obtain basic education. In addition, the following targets were also
adopted;
i. Universalization and completion of primary education by the year 2000.
ii. To reduce the gender disparity in education and minimize the adult literacy rate up to
one half of 1990, by the year 2000 (UNESCO, 1994).
The Fourth World Conference on Women convened in Beijing in September 1995,
with the objectives to eliminate disparity in education at all levels, to make the education
systems more gender-sensitive, and to provide equal educational opportunities for females.
Education is a necessary instrument for realizing these aims. Equality in education is
beneficial for both boys and girls or men and women. Female education is a vital tool for
economic growth, giving more power to women to take part in decision making and for the
achievement of sustainable development (UN, 1996).
A decade after Jomtien Conference, again the world education forum was
summoned by the international organizations including the UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP,
UNFPA and the World Bank (WB, 2000), which is termed as "Dakar Framework for
Action". This world education forum outlined the achievement of the following goals and
targets in regard to education for all (EFA):

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i. To improve and expand the basic education, especially for the most deprived children.
ii. To make sure that all children, especially girls, children of deprived groups and
minorities, have access to and accomplish, free and compulsory quality primary
education by 2015.
iii. To ensure the fulfillment of learning requirements of all children through suitable
training and learning.
iv. To achieve fifty percent advancement in adult literacy rate by 2015.
v. To eliminate gender disproportion at primary and secondary level by year 2005, and
to achieve full gender equality by 2015.
vi. To improve the quality of education and make sure that the recognized learning
outcomes are attained by all (World Bank [WB], 2000).
2.4.1 Millennium Development Goals and education
At the United Nations Millennium Summit held in 2000 at New York, in which 192
United Nations member states, including Pakistan, and 23 international organizations
participated at the United Nations to give shape to a broad vision in the form of eight time-
bounded goals called Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). To terminate the extreme
poverty all around the world, improve literacy rate and to eliminate the gender disparity in
education are the major concerns of MDGs (Ministry of Planning [MoP], 2013). The aim of
MDG No. 2 is to obtain 100 percent enrolment at primary level, 100 percent accomplishment
of primary (grade 1 to 5) education and 88 percent literacy rate. Pakistan is much beyond the
proposed target with 58 percent overall literacy rates but female literacy rate is 47 percent
and males are 70 percent (Government of Pakistan, 2013, p.26). Millennium Development
Goal No. 3 “promotes gender equality in education” (Government of Pakistan, 2014).

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Pakistan is the signatory of Millennium Development Goals Declaration and has
affirmed to attain all eight MDGs by 2015. Goal No. 2 and 3 of Millennium Development
concerned to education and its target is to attain 100% access in terms of enrollment and
completion of primary education (Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training
[MFE&PT], 2017).The aim of Goal No. 3 is the elimination of gender disparity in education
at primary level as well as at secondary level by 2005, and at all levels by 2015 (Government
of Pakistan, 2013). In Pakistan gender equality in education has increased in youth literacy, in
primary and in secondary education, but still lags behind the Millennium Development Goal
No. 3 targets fix for 2015.
The Conference on Sustainable Development was held at “Rio+20”, Brazil in 2012. In
this conference the participant countries repeated their political allegiance to sustainable
development and agreed upon the establishment of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and the settlement of a political forum on these goals (UNESCO, 2014).
The Goal 4 of universal Sustainable Development Goals states that by 2030 ensure
the inclusive and equitable quality education for all boys and girls and promote life-long
learning opportunities as well (Osborn, Cutter, & Ullah, 2015). The goal No. 5 not only
stresses achieving gender equality but is also concerned with education, such as two of its
targets are, to guarantee uniform education access and to abolish all types of gender
discrimination in training and in education (Institute of Social and Policy Sciences [I-SAPS],
2015). Pakistan has become the signatory of SDGs during 2015. The Goal 4 of Sustainable
Development is concerned to education and to achieve 100% youth literacy rate by 2030 is
one of its major targets (MFE&PT, 2017).
The Article 10 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women states that appropriate measures should be taken by the participant countries
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to eliminate all kinds of discriminations against women and to ensure their equal rights with
men. Women shall access to the same curricula, the same education facilities, and the same
education opportunities as available to men. The prevailing stereotyped concept about the
roles of men and women shall be eliminated. Coeducation and adult literacy and functional
literacy programmes for women shall be encouraged to end discrimination (UN, 2003).
On the occasion of International Literacy Day in support of 8 September 2014, Dhaka
Declaration, it was affirmed that the importance of girls’ and women’s literacy quality
education and effective learning to sustainable development, should be recognized and it
must be acted upon by all governments (UNESCO, 2014). Women’s literacy is an essential
factor to improve health, and education and women participation in decision making in a
society. Investing in girls education and training with its extraordinary high social and
economic outcomes, has proved as the best way of achieving economic growth and
Sustainable Development (UN, 1996).
The World Education Forum was convened by the Director-General of UNESCO in
May 2015, at Incheon, Republic of Korea. In this Education Forum more than 1,600
delegates participated from 160 countries, including; Ministers, heads of agencies,
representatives of different organizations, teaching professions and civil society. The major
contributors of this forum were UNESCO, the World Bank, UNICEF, UNFPA, UNDP,
UNHCR and UN. The participants reaffirmed the global vision of Education for All
movement, which was initiated in Jomtien conference 1990 and repeated in Dakar
Framework for action in 2000 (Incheon Declaration, 2015).
To achieve the EFA goals and to improve the literacy rate with special focus on
women literacy, the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has established the Elementary
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Education Foundation through an ordinance in 2002. The main objectives of the ordinance
are as under:
 To enhance the literacy rate in the province, by establishing Community schools and
hiring teachers.
 To improve the quality of education by means of teacher training.
 To ensure community participation in education.
 To take measures for mainstreaming Madrasa (religious school) and Mosques’
education.
 To introduce advanced educational programs, particularly literacy relating programs.
(Government of Pakistan, 2014).
2.5 Female Education in National Context
The condition of female education is a reflection of the status given to women in a
society, because the girls of today are the women of tomorrow. The issues concerning the
female education have to be considered in the global context. In a theoretical manner,
Pakistani girls or women enjoy equal treatment with men and more. Since independence
education has always been considered the key subject and fundamental right in all the policy
documents as well as in the constitutions of Pakistan.
The interim constitution of Pakistan 1947 was provided by the Indian Independence
Act 1947, by making necessary amendments in the Government of India Act 1935. Under the
Act, education was placed in the executive realm of the provinces (Institute of Social and
Policy Sciences [I-SAPS], 2014). The founder of Pakistan, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali
Jinnah, in his message to the National Education Conferences, 1947 said:

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... the importance of education and the type of education cannot be over-emphasized
... there is no doubt that the future of our State will and must greatly depend upon the
type of education we give to our children, and the way in which we bring them up as
future citizens of Pakistan ... we should not forget that we have to compete with the
world which is moving very fast in this direction (Bengali, 1999. pp.1-2).
The First Five Year Plan (1955-60) was established in 1957, has declared that a
universal system of free and compulsory primary education, including girls education, is
expected to be in situ, by around 1975 to 1980 (Bengali, 1999). In the Constitution of 1956,
education was guaranteed as obligation of the state. According to Article 12(3) of the
constitution of Pakistan 1962, education was proclaimed as fundamental right but still was
delegated into the provincial domain (I-SAPS, 2014).
The constitution of Pakistan 1973, has also guaranteed the right of education to
every citizen. According to Article 37(a) and (b) of the Constitution of Islamic Republic of
Pakistan, education is the fundamental right of the citizens of Pakistan and it is the
responsibility of the state to take measures for the development of educational interests and
economic conditions of backward areas or classes. The state is responsible to eliminate
illiteracy from the country and to provide free and compulsory education to all the citizens up
to secondary level (Niazi, 2010). This statement further strengthens the idea that access to
education for all citizens of Pakistan, irrespective of race, gender, colour, religion and
ethnicity, is a basic right that they can and must demand from the state.
According to article 25(A) of the constitution of Pakistan 1973, all the citizens of
Pakistan are equal before law and have equal rights of protection. There shall be no
discrimination between male and female, and the state can make special provision for the
right of women and children, if necessary. It is the responsibility of State to provide free and
22
compulsory education to all children (male and female) of the age of five to sixteen years
(Niazi, 2010).
After 18th constitutional amendment, provincial governments are responsible to
provide free and compulsory primary education (Shah, Bari, & Ejaz, 2005) and the federal
government has bestowed more dependency to the federal units in several areas, one of these
is education. Therefore, now each federating unit is consequently autonomous in designing its
own educational preferences and curriculum with least coordination by the center. In the
result of 18th Amendment an important change has been made in the administration set up,
education has become a provincial subject and the federal ministry of education has abolished
(Rehman & Sewani, n.d.).
Education particularly, the primary education is placed on the concurrent list of
the 1973 constitution. Subsequently, after the national devolution in 2001, education up to
grade 12 became a district subject. Provincial and district governments are responsible for the
implementation of education laws, so national compulsory primary education law cannot be
devised (Government of Pakistan, 2014). Now the implementation of compulsory primary
education laws pertains at provincial and district level administrations.
In the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa primary education was made free and
compulsory for children between 5-10 years of age, through promulgation of the NWFP (now
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) Compulsory Primary Education Act that came into effect on 16
October, 1996 (Government of Pakistan, 2014). According to this law, it is the obligation of
parents/guardian or any other custodian of child, to make arrangements for his/her child to
attend school except in conditions of reasonable excuse, till the completion of child’s primary
education. Exemption from school attendance is at the discretion of the School Attendance
Authority. The government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has not succeeded in the establishment
23
of School Attendance Authority (Shujaat, 2015). In spite of the announcement of compulsory
primary education laws, still its implementation is not up to the mark. However, earnest
attempts are being made to make sure that every boy and girl of the school aged population
attends school (Government of Pakistan, 2014).
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Child Protection and Welfare Bill was passed by
Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in September, 2010. This law mandated the
government to establish Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Child Protection and Welfare Commission and
the government did it. The law aims to provide protection, care, welfare, training, education
and rehabilitation to children in danger (Shujaat, 2015). In 2012 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
government introduced the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Borstal Institution Act (KPBIA). The law
authorized the government to establish separate detention centers for young children convicts.
In these centers proper arrangement will be made for the mental, moral and psychological
development of convicted juvenile (Shujaat, 2015).
According to the goals of pillar 1 of Pakistan vision 2025, it was committed that
primary school enrolment as well as completion rate will be increased up to 100% and
literacy rate up to 90%. It was also committed that to ameliorate primary and secondary
school Gender Parity Index to 1 (Institute of Strategic Studies Research and Analysis
[ISSRA], 2017). The aim of the vision is to improve the quality and level of education. It was
suggested that public education expenditures should be reached to 4% of GDP by 2018.
Pakistan occupies 113th position in the UNESCO’s EFA development index among 120
countries. After the nationwide devolution, provinces have to play a leading role in the
development of education. However, the federal Government will play the role of a catalyst.
All the provincial governments are obligated to increase their education budgets in order to
attain the targets of MDGs set for education. Thus the quality of education will be improved
by making comprehensive reforms in the educational system, including; administration,

24
management, school curriculum, teaching methods and techniques, assessment and
evaluation (Planning Commission [PC], 2014).
The vision 2030 was approved by the National Economic Council (NEC) in a
meeting held in August, 2007. The vision envisages an advanced, industrialized, equitable
and prosperous Pakistan through very swift and sustainable process of developing the
resource restricted economy by applying knowledge inputs. The present condition of human
lives, education, skills and competition will be changed by 2030 (Government of Pakistan,
2007).
The vision 2030 acknowledged gender justice, equality and freedom - freedom
from hunger, illiteracy, poverty, conflicts and lawlessness, ethnic and religious intolerance,
tribalism, racism, class and linguistic boundaries. The vision recognized female education as
the key for social and economic development. To achieve the goals of Vision 2030 pertaining
to female education, the following targets were set up:
 Universalization of girls’ enrolment and completion of female education up to
secondary level by 2015.
 The provision of female teachers in schools, establishment of a school in every
village, and provision of drinking water, toilets, boundary walls, and other basic
facilities in schools.
 The provision of scholarships and nutritional supplements to all girls students.
(Government of Pakistan, 2007).
In pursuance of the achievement of EFA and MDGs targets, Government of
Pakistan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Provincial Reforms Programme (PRP) define the policy framework for education in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. Its main objectives include:

25
 To ensure that all children particularly girls have access to and accomplish free
and compulsory quality primary education by 2015.
 To achieve 50 percent increase in adult literacy especially for girls by 2015.
 To eliminate all types of gender disparities in primary and secondary education.
 To attain complete gender parity in education by 2015 (Government of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, 2012).
Being the signatory of EFA, Pakistan has launched various programs for the
achievement of EFA targets by attaining improvement in literacy and in basic education, and
eradication of illiteracy. These programs and projects include:
 National Literacy Plan 1985.
 Nai Roshni Schools and Iqra Program 1986-87.
 Quranic Literacy Project 1992-94.
 Non Formal Basic Education Schools (NFBES) 1995.
 Crash Literacy Programme 1998.
 Adult Literacy Centers 2001-06.
In addition to the above programs some other programs were also started by well
established and well reputed Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), which proved to be
very handy and effective in reducing the ratio of illiteracy and promotion of literacy through
adult education (Choudhry, 2005).
2.5.1 Policy measures for female education
Although in Pakistan different education policies and plans emerged, this
emphasized primary education particularly female education. However, still the education
26
indicators, such as participation rate, literacy rate, quality of education and gender parity
index are beyond the international standards and demanded to be improved.
The National Education Conference was held in 1947. The committee on
elementary and secondary education recommended free and compulsory primary education;
pre-primary education for children aged 3 to 6 years and primary education for age group of 6
to 11 years (Government of Pakistan, 1947). The education conference 1951, fixed the targets
for attaining universal primary education by 1971 (Ali, 2013).
The Commission on National Education (Sharif Commission) was inaugurated
by General Mohammad Ayoub Khan, the then President of Pakistan, on January 5, 1959. It is
the first ever comprehensive document covering all aspects of education at all levels. In
regard to compulsory eight years primary education, the Commission formulated the
following objectives:
 To make children functionally literate.
 To develop the all aspects of child personality.
 To develop the sense of civic responsibilities and patriotism among children.
 To promote desirable attitudes in children.
 To awake in children the love for physical activities such as sports and games.
 To provide equal education opportunities and facilities to boys and girls at
primary level.
The commission recommended female teachers for primary level, especially for
first three classes (Government of Pakistan, 1959).
The Education Policy 1972-1980 recommended the provision of free and
universal primary education, improvement in enrolment, supplying of free textbooks,

27
reconsideration and modification of national curriculum and teacher training curriculum, and
nationalization of all private education institutions. In 1977, curriculum and examination
system were revised, and teacher training was improved (Perveen & Shah, 2008). The policy
emphasized the “expansion and improvement of elementary education and envisaged
universal primary education up to class V for boys by 1979 and for girls by 1984”
(Government of Pakistan, 1973, p. 11).
In 1979 National Education Policy was introduced after the implementation of
Fifth Five year plan in 1978. In respect to primary education, the education policy’s
recommendations were; the achievement of universalization of primary education by 1986-
87, betterment in the quality of teacher education and in examination system, improvement in
the quality of education, revision of curricula and provision of free text books (Perveen &
Shah, 2008). In the policy, it was also emphasized that enrollment rate will be improved and
all boys and girls will be admitted in schools by 1982 and 1987 respectively. Special
measures will be taken for the education and training of special children (Government of
Pakistan, 1981).
The key objective of the education policy 1992 was basic Education for all and it
was committed that this should be pursued efficiently. The policy aimed to ensure 100 per
cent participation rate at primary level, eliminate illiteracy and improve literacy rate up to 70
percent as a whole and 100 percent in selected districts by 2002 (Bengali, 1999). The policy
had special focus on conditions of women and suggested measures for betterment in their
access and participation in education. These measures includes; non-formal education,
improvement in quality of teaching, provision of Masjid schools, provision of private sector
and community participation in education (Ali, 2013).

28
The Education Policy 1998 continued on the main targets devised in the education
policy 1992. The revised targets of the policy envisaged 90 percent participation by 2002 and
105 per cent by 2010 and reducing gender disparity up to 50 per cent and promoting equity in
the same period (Ali, 2013). Other recommendations of the policy were:
 Improvement of quality education and access of elementary education.
 Introduction of KACHI class at elementary level.
 Eradication of disparity in education (Shakoor, Azeem, Dogar, & Khatoon, 2011).
The National Education Policy 2009 was adopted by the government of Pakistan to
revitalise the then existing education policy to fulfill the spiritual, social and political needs
of individuals in society. According to the policy draft, primary education is facing two
critical problems: first one is the low participation rate and second one is weak quality of
provision. To overcome these problems, the policy recommendations are as under:
 All boys and girls shall be enrolled by the year 2015.
 Primary level education age shall be 6 to 10 years.
 Top priority shall be given to minimize the drop-out rates.
 Incentives in the form of stipends shall be given to needy children (particularly
girls) to improve the enrolment rate and increase retention and completion rates.
 The required financial resources shall be provided by government to attain the
EFA targets (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2009).
To achieve the EFA and MDGs targets by the year 2015-16, Government of
Pakistan has launched a National Plan of Action 2013-16 or MDGs Acceleration Framework
(MAF). The fundamental aim of the National Plan of Action is to attain:

29
1. The enrolment of out-of-school children of primary age group to the highest
number (91% by 2016).
2. The increase in retention and completion rate in primary education of all existing
enrolled children.
3. Betterment in quality of primary education and acceleration in implementation
for the attainment of education MDGs by 2016 (Academy of Educational
Planning and Management [AEPAM], 2013).
The National Education Policy 2017-2025 was developed after the approval of
Inter-Provincial Education Ministers Committee (IPMC) by Ministry of Federal Education
and Professional Training Islamabad, except Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA, where the
Primary age group is 6 years with inclusion of Awwal Adna, in the other parts of Pakistan the
duration of primary education like the previous policies is 5 to 9 plus years, but less than 10
years. In regard to primary education the following provisions were posed in the policy:
 The duration of primary education will be 5 to 9 plus years.
 Universalization of primary education will be ensured in relation to universal access
or enrolment, universal retention or completion and universal achievement by 2020
for male and by 2025 for female.
 Primary education will be free and compulsory, and recognized as the basic right of
all children without any discrimination.
 Performance based incentives will be provided to disadvantageous and deserving
students in the form of cash and food.
 Primary education budget will be at least 40–45% of the total education expenditure
(MFE&PT, 2017).
30
2.6 Factors Affecting Female Education
The factors of the problem of low number of female education are many folds. They
include: poverty, lack of ownership, lack of qualified and competent female teachers, lack of
community support, negative attitude of the society towards girls education, political
interference, and ambitious plans and unrealistic assumptions of policy makers (Mustafa,
2012). Beside these, there are some factors which refrain girls from enjoying the same
educational rights as boys enjoy. One of them, the most important factor is gender
discrimination, a number of other factors also play a crucial role in deciding to send their
daughters to school, including: (CIDA, 2003).
2.6.1 Socio-cultural factors
Apart from this, it is considered that girls’ education would not yield any benefit
but will change them and sending girls to school is a sin. Therefore, people thought that girls
should not receive any education (Demir, 2012).
In a society, school is an institution of great significance involving in socialization
of young generation in all walks of life including adult role and responsibility. More
institutional education has to yield many favorable outcomes, such as, late marriage, less
fertility, healthier children, and economic growth. Contrary to this, early marriage
unavoidably denies girls of their right to education which they need for their individual
development, preparation for maturity, and their efficacious act of contributing to the future
welfare of their household and the society. In fact, married girls would not continue their
further education irrespective of their wishes to do so (Bayisenge, 2015).
In poor families, the possible reward of daughters’ education is beyond of their
expectations and therefore girls' schooling is not recognized as an investment. People

31
presume that they will not be the only beneficiary of their girls education but their husbands’
family. While some people believe that girls do not require any schooling for their role in the
household as wives and mothers. In fact they are ignorant of the fact that an educated female
is the pioneering element for the construction of an educated nation.
In the traditional societies people strongly oppose the co-education system where
it is regarded as contrary to cultural norms and morality. Girls are not allowed to co-
education because of cultural and traditional taboos, male dominant society, patriarchic
system, gender discrimination, gender disparity, traditional values, religions misinterpretation
and women exploitation which results illiteracy in the area (Ahmad, Said, Hussain, & Khan,
n.d.).
The socio-cultural background of Pakistani society is primarily patriarchal. In a
conceptual manner home is considered the role defined sphere for women, while men enjoy a
commanding position in the world outside the home. However, this patriarchal structures is
not even everywhere in the country. The nature and degree of females’ oppression or
subordination differ across ethnic groups, regions, and the urban and rural divisions.
Patriarchal organizations are stronger in poor families, the tribal and rural setting than the
rich families and the urban setting. Hence, girls belonging to the middle and upper classes
and urban regions have greater access to education and job opportunities as compared to girls
from lower classes and rural areas (Asian Development Bank [ADB], 2000).
According to the cultural norms, in many regions of Pakistan girls are required to
either remain at home or must seek permission to leave home. If permission granted, then
girls or adult female must always be escorted by a male family member or other female and
children. The purpose of these measures is to provide security to girls as being harmed, and to
save theirs and families honour (UNESCO, 2010).

32
In the most backward and remote rural regions of Pakistan, parents have negative
attitudes about girls education. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, parents oppose girls
schooling and consider it against their culture and tradition. Women are expected to be
obedient, homemakers and completely take up the responsibilities of nurturing and cooking.
They believe that formal schooling is not essential; therefore, they do not permit their female
children to get admission in schools. Parents consider girls’ education a waste of time and
money, as they think that girls will leave them sooner or later after their marriage. Thus,
parents do not inspire the confidence of their daughters for acquiring education.
In addition to the above, education standard of father, his social status,
occupation, and size of the family also affect female education. The uneducated people of the
rural areas are often unaware of the importance of female education and do not communicate
with teachers for the betterment of their children education. The rural girls belonging to poor
and uneducated families are deprived of education. Thus the education of parents has a direct
effect on the education of their children, particularly girls (Suleman et al., 2015).
2.6.2 Economic factors
In Pakistan, the low income of people and poverty are the major constraints in the
universalization of primary education. This is evident from the results of empirical researches
that there exists a positive correlation between the economy of people and educational
achievements. It is estimated that in Pakistan 33 percent of population living below the
poverty line, most poverty is found in rural population (Shah, et al., 2005).
According to the estimates of national economic survey 2016-17, the frequency of
poverty in Pakistan was declined from 67 per cent in 2002 to 29.5 per cent in 2014, on the
other hand the latest estimates of Social Policy and Development Centre (SPDC) which is
based on 2015-16 report of house hold income and expenditure survey, reveal that the
33
frequency of poverty is 38 per cent (Social Policy and Development Centre [SPDC], 2017).
According to the education policy analysis report of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the province has
the highest poverty rate of 39.2 per cent. Poverty Rates in rural regions was much higher with
41.1 per cent than urban regions with 28.1 percent and much higher amongst women
compared to other provinces of Pakistan (Mustafa, 2012).
In Pakistan, between 70 percent and 80 percent of children in the richest segment
attain grade 6 schooling, while in the poorest segment less than 40 percent of children
complete the same grade schooling. This represents an astonishing gap between the two
quintiles in the same country (World Bank, 2008). In Pakistan 57 percent of out of school
children of age group 5 to 16 years are belonging to the families of lowest economic status
(Alif Ailaan, 2014). Poverty is the main obstacle in the way of girls’ education. Although
public schools, do not charge fees and render free textbooks to students. These schools are
generally located at the periphery of villages and provide education for poorer individuals of
the society (Oxfam, 2009).
Boys and girls, belonging to poorer families are facing greater discrimination in
respect to education access, as compared to those of richer families. Direct costs and indirect
costs of schooling greatly influence female education, particularly in developing countries.
Direct costs on education include school fees, transportation, uniforms and stationary.
Whereas, indirect costs on schooling in the form of loss of labour from family production
(Schulze, 2015). Therefore, parents are liable to pay other school costs such as for school
materials, cost of uniforms and transport fee, which establish a significant encumbrance for
poor households, particularly affecting girls’ education. Owing to poor economic conditions,
girls are usually involved in essential household work like supervising and taking care of
young children, fetching water, collecting firewood and preparing food and doing things for
34
their family. These tasks are demanding in terms of time and labor, and in many situations
their planning coincides with schooling and thus their study are affected (Atayi, 2008).
In developing countries girls’ education is greatly affected by costs of education. Girls
are used as cost-effective by the low income families. In such families parental investment
became gender-biased and the indirect cost of girls’ education restrained their education
career. Thus the socio-cultural aspects of the family affect the girls’ educational
achievements (UN, 1949). The opportunity costs of girls’ education are higher for poor
households as compare to the opportunity costs of boys’ education. Opportunity costs involve
lost of households’ chore and depart of net income. Generally girls are required to pass more
time in performing household activities than boys. Girls’ labour is accustomed to replace for
mothers’ in specific tasks such as fetching water and wood, caring for animals and for
siblings, and pounding grain. Girls schooling results the loss of girls’ labour which has a
significant effect on women’s earnings and on household income (Oxaal, 1997).
In Pakistan, giving education to boys is considered as a beneficial investment,
whereas giving education to girls is considered as loss of money. Therefore, parents prefer to
educate their male child than their female child (UNESCO, 2010). The low economic
conditions of parents are the main cause which restrains both girls and parents from primary
education. Other significant reasons are their interest in schooling, orphanage and
participation in family chores (Khan, Azhar, & Shah, 2011).
In Pakistan 15.8 percent children between the ages of 10 to 14 years, are involved in
economic work and 3.1 percent are involved in household duties. The gender disparity among
the children engaged in household chore is 6.3 percent and a little gender disparity is found
amongst children who are involved in economic activities. The school attendance is very low
in children involved in household jobs (i.e. 51.0 percent) compared to children involved in
35
economic tasks (11.2 percent). The demands of child labor increases as children grow up, and
thus, older children have less educational opportunities. The percentage of child labour of
girls is higher than that of boys, which increase the probability of dropout among girls
(UNICEF, 2013). Gender discrimination, poverty and insufficient educational opportunities
have a greater impact on girls’ education. In the world, there are 582 million girls between
the ages of 10 to 19 years and over 85 percent of them are living in poverty. In developing
countries nearly 25 percent girls are not on the roll, more than 50 percent and in some
countries more than 87 percent of adolescent girls do not complete primary education (Calder
& Huda, 2013).
2.6.3 Facilities related factors
The lack of facilities in government schools is a barrier in girls’ education. The
non availability of proper infrastructure such as insufficient number of class rooms, absence
of toilets, lack of playground and boundary walls, and distance of the school or non
availability of schools also have a negative role to play. Other factors include the lack of
qualified and trained teachers, site support and incentives given to teachers, poor institutional
management and teachers’ motivation, and little or no support from members of the society.
These problems raise pessimistic questions in parents' minds, that whether to enroll their
daughters or not to enroll and where to enroll (Oxfam, 2009).
The scarcity of female teachers, in rural areas of Pakistan is another significant
factor in girls schooling. According to prevailing cultural norms, only female teachers are
allowed to teach girls students, so parents enroll their daughters in those schools where
female teachers are available. However, due to low investment in girls’ education, very few
local female teachers are appointed (UNESCO, 2010).

36
In Pakistan, usually parents wish that there should be separate schools for boys
and girls but girls schools are fewer than that of boys schools, particularly in rural areas.
Moreover, girls must not only have separate schools for them, girls schools must easily
approachable because girls are not allowed to travel for miles to schools. Hence it can be
concluded that if the girls schools are not easily accessible, a valuable amount of girls would
have to say good bye to education (UNESCO, 2010). Girls schools which do not have
sufficient facilities, especially of drinking water and toilets can cause low attendance,
absenteeism and even dropouts (Pakistan Coalition for Education [PCE], 2015).
In district Kohistan 6.1 % education institutions have electricity, 48.8 % have
drinking water facility, 23.9 % have toilet facility and 29.3 % have boundary walls (AEPAM,
2012). According to AlifAilaan (2013) report district Kohistan occupies 22 nd position out of
26 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In the district 10.04 percent schools have electricity,
66.99 percent have drinking water, 25.68 percent have toilet facility and 29.44 percent
schools have boundary walls.
2.6.4 Political factors
The educational institutions in different areas of Pakistan are not equivalent in
respect to basic facilities, such as school buildings, availability of staff, qualification and
training of staff, availability of social welfare services and allotment of resources which
creates disparity in the system as well as in the turnover rate. Gender disparity causes the
very low male and female participation ratio in educational institutions, at primary level.
Government allocates insufficient funds for education which never went beyond 1.5% to
2.0% of the gross domestic product (GDP). Similarly, inadequate salaries, lack of incentives
and rewards, slow promotions to teachers in government schools affect girls’ education.
37
Beside this, teachers’ absenteeism, poor teacher training, and decrepit teaching materials
methods exaggerated the matter (Rashid & Mukhtar, n.d.).
The availability of school facility in village increases the chances of girls
schooling. Whereas, distant schools are more time consuming and expensive due to the
transportation cost and opportunity cost which affect girls’ education. Moreover, the
prevailing cultural norms do not permit girls to go out of home alone. In certain areas girls’
access to schools is a serious problem due to the rough and tough terrain and non availability
of appropriate linked roads. It reveals that school accessibility is an immense issue in the area
that restraint girls enrolment and girls’ education. Teachers do not give preference to distant
schools and hence they remain absent from their duties. These factors give rise to low
performance of girls in schools and even their drop-out (SDPI, 2012).
Other issues are the non availability of residential houses for teachers, lack of
transportation facilities for teacher and students, lack of or inadequate furniture and
insufficient number of classrooms. Hence pupils have to sit on the floors in the classrooms or
in open air, which is a challenge on their part (Ahmad et al., 2014). The lack of well equipped
girls schools, lack of support and training for head teachers and Parent Teacher Council, and
lack of security and boundary walls has great impact on female education (Mustafa, 2012).
The teachings of Islam, the constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan, all national
and international conventions, all national education policies and five years plans of Pakistan
accentuates the education of everyone specially the girls. Education for all is the common
goal of each and every education policy and convention. But unfortunately, in developing
countries and particularly in rural areas, girls are treated discriminately and unproportionately
in regard to their fundamental and innate right of education. Achieving gender equity and
38
equality demands an appropriate approach to make ensure that male and female have access
to education and are equally empowered (Baier, 2010).
To make sure gender equality, the education systems is required to act for the
elimination of gender bias and disparity, which are yielded by the socio-cultural attitudes and
socio-economic conditions of the people. Governments need to make such policies, which
mainstream male and female issues, avoid gender disparity and violence against women, and
promote gender equality in the educational institutions. It is the responsibility of policy
makers and administration to ensure that male and female are equally benefited from teaching
and learning process. In all situations, governments must ensure the security of all girls and
women in schools, colleges and in other educational institutions or on the way to and from
these institutions (Incheon Declaration, 2015).
2.7 Literacy
Literacy can be as simple as just to recognize the alphabets, or to write one’s own
name, or may be complex as to handle equipment efficaciously. It has so many definitions
ranging from simple reading and writing, to interpretation and implementation of knowledge,
skills and ideas (UNESCO, 2003). Literacy may also be defined as, a person of ten plus
years is said to be literate if he or she “can read a newspaper and write a simple letter, in any
language” (Government of Pakistan, 2008, p. 16). Literacy rate of an area is one of the
fundamental indicators of education level of that area. Its parameters change from one
geographical location to another and from one geological time to another (UNESCO, 2003).
In Pakistan the literacy rates for females (aged 15 to 24 years), are recorded 53%
which is very low as compared to 77% for men of the same age. The literacy rates among
adult women (aged 24 years and above), is 35%, however, even the lowest rates in the
women of rural areas. In addition, the other barriers in female education are the socio-cultural
39
conditions or traditions, early marriages, religious perceptions and the unavailability of
female teachers (UNESCO, 2013).
Based on PSLM survey report 2014-15, national literacy rate for 10 years and above
aged population is 60 percent, with 70 percent literacy rate in male and 49 percent in female.
Whereas, for the same period the adult literacy rate for 15 years and above aged population is
57 percent (PSLM, 2016). The overall youth literacy rate (between the ages of 15-24 years)
in Pakistan is 72 percent with 81 percent literacy rate in male and 64 percent in female
(NEMIS-AEPAM, 2017).
Table 1
Five years record of literacy rate in KP and in Pakistan
Indicator 2005 2010 2013 2014 2015
Pak Literacy rate 10+yrs 53% 58% 60% 58% 60%
KP Literacy rate 10+ yrs 45% 50% 52% 53% 53%
Note. Adapted from “Pakistan development update, growth,” by World Bank, 2017, p. 59.
Table 2
Detail of literacy-population 10 years and older in rural KP and in Kohistan
S. No. Region Male Female Total
(2010-11) (2010-11) (2010-11)
1 Rural Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 69% 31% 50%
2 District Kohistan 49% 03% 30%
Note. Adapted from “Education policy analysis report of KP,” by Ghulam Mustafa, 2012, pp. 114-115.
40
2.8 School Attendance
According to the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) survey
report 2016, ten years and older population of Pakistan that have ever on the roll is 62
percent. This ratio is higher in male than in female, 72 percent and 51 percent respectively.
This proportion is 55 percent in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. On the other hand, district Kohistan is
at the bottom with 27 percent population, the lowest value of population, ever attended the
school. As far as the gender disparity in enrollment is concerned, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has
the greatest gender differences with 74 percent boys and 36 percent girls (PSLM, 2016).
Despite this, among all districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Kohistan has the lowest girls’
enrolment (6 percent) and school attendance (13 percent). However, only two percent female
population in district Kohistan has ever attended school (PSLM, 2013).
2.9 Out of School Children (OOSC)
The number of children between the ages of 5 to 10 years, who are not attending
school, is termed as out-of-school children (OOSC) at the primary level (Jamal, 2012). In the
world the number of out of school children of primary school age is 58 million, in which 28
millions are male and 30 millions are female children (Schulze, 2015). In sustainable
development goals, a pledge was made to ensure, that all boys and girls will complete free
primary and secondary education by 2030, and they will have equitable access to all levels of
quality education. It was also affirmed that, to ensure, the elimination of all types of gender
disparities, the promotion of sustainable development and the empowerment of all women
(Osborn et al., 2015).
In the four provinces of Pakistan, the number of out of school children of the primary
school age is 6.1 million and 6.7 million in all over Pakistan including Islamabad capital
territory, Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Jammu and
41
Kashmir. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the number of out of school children is 2.1 million
(NEMIS-AEPAM, 2014), and more than half (62%) of them are girls (AEPAM, 2014).
In Pakistan, the number of out of school children between the ages of 5 to 16 years is
25 million, of them 11.4 million are boys and 13.7 million are girls. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
the proportion of out-of-school children aged 5 to 16 years is 34.4 percent, whereas in district
Kohistan, this proportion is 65.1 percent with 45.9 percent boys and 85.9 percent girls (Alif
Ailaan, 2014). UNICEF progress report 2013-15, has shown that 38.9 percent primary school
aged girls are out of school compared to 30.2 percent boys of the same age (UNICEF, 2015).
Globally, Pakistan had the second highest number of out of school children after
Nigeria and the third highest number of illiterate adults after India and China. Pakistan
ranked 21 amongst the countries who confronting widespread learning crisis that encloses so
many indices such as literacy rate, enrolment rate, academic performance and dropout rate
(UNESCO, 2014). On the basis of national education management information system report
2012-13, the number of out of schools children in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is 482,413, in which
12 percent are boys and 88 percent are girls. The percentage of out of schools children is
greater in poorest families compared to the richest, 71.4 percent and 55.7 percent respectively
(Shujaat, 2015).
According to the recent education statistics report 2015-16, the total number of out of
school children in Pakistan of primary school age is 5,025,968 of which 1,979,595 are boys
and 3,046,373 are girls. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, there are 445,411 out of schools
children of primary age group including 72,691 male children and 372,720 female children
(NEMIS-AEPAM, 2017).
42
2.10 Participation Rate
Participation rate at primary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province is 61.09, 73.81
amongst boys and 47.16 amongst girls, in district Kohistan total participation rate 66.44, with
85.38 male and 41.73 female (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2017).
2.11 Enrolment Rate at Primary Level
Enrolment is the act of enrolling or the state of being enrolled at an institution or on a
course (BBC English Dictionary, 1992). Enrolment rate of an area is one of the indicators
which can be used to detect the level of education of that area. There are two types of
indicators which are used to determine the enrolment at each level of education consisting of
gross enrolment (GER) and net enrolment (NER).
2.11.1 Gross enrolment rate (GER)
The nature of gross enrolment rate is determined by the ratio of the number of
children presently enrolled at a particular level and the total number of children in the
prescribed age category of the specific schooling grade (SDPI, 2012). In general, Gross
Enrolment Ratio may be defined as, the total number of children currently enrolled in a
specific level of education, irrespective of age, as a percentage of the required official school
age population to the same level of schooling in a given school year (Seka, 2012).
43
Table 3
Five years record of GER (at primary level) in Pakistan and in KP
Indicator 2005 2010 2013 2014 2015
Pak GER of 6-10 years 85% 91% 92% 91% 91%
KP GER of 6-10 years 80% 89% 92% 92% 92%
Table 4
Three years record of GER (at primary level) of girls in different education institutions of
district Kohistan
District Population Govt. Private Total Deeni Govt., Private. Schools
Kohistan (5-9) Schools Schools Madaris and Denni Madaris
Years (GER) (GER) (GER) (G E R)
2015-16 38759 48% 0.13% 0.04% 49%
2014-15 38186 55% 0.12% 0.04% 55%
2013-14 49823 63% 0.08% 0.03% 63%
Note. Adapted from “Annual statistical report of government schools (2015-16),” by KPESE, 2016, p. 20.
2.11.2 Net enrolment ratio (NER)
The net enrolment rate is defined as, the number of children currently enrolled in the
prescribed age category of specific levels of schooling divided by the total number of
children in the age group for that level of education (SDPI, 2012). In other words, the official
primary NER for Pakistan may be defined as the number of children between the ages 5 to 9
44
years attending primary level divided by the total number of children between the ages 5 to 9
years (PSLM, 2013). Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) is also referred to the number of children
of the same official age group enrolled in a specific level of education written as a percentage
of the related population (Seka, 2012).
Table 5
Five years record of NER (at primary level) in Pakistan and in KP
Indicator 2005 2010 2013 2014 2015
Pak NER 5-9 years 52% 56% 57% 57% 57%
KP NER 5-9 years 47% --- 54% 54% 56%
Table 6
NER of girls in govt., non-govt. and deeni Madaris institutions (primary level)
District Population Govt; Private Total Deeni Govt., Pvt. Schools
Kohistan (5-9) Years Schools Schools Madaris and Deeni Madaris
(NER) (NER) (NER) (NE R)
1 2015-16 38758 38.47% 0.12% 0.03% 38.6%
2 2014-15 38186 47.76% 0.12% 0.03% 48%
3 2013-14 38172 55% 0% 0% 55%
Table 7
45
Detail of three years comparison of enrolment in GPSs of district Kohistan
ASC 2013-14 ASC 2014-15 ASC 2015-16

District Kohistan
GPS GGPS Total GPS GGPS Total GPS GGPS Total
46774 22443 69217 45191 18005 63196 42629 15962 58591
--- --- --- -03% -20% -09% -06% -11% -07%
In district Kohistan, girls’ enrolment rate at primary level is lower than the boys,
whereas, the girls’ dropout rate is higher than boys. Apart from this, girls’ enrolment in
district Kohistan shows a negative change which is alarming for the stakeholders.
2.12 Gender Parity Index (GPI)
One of the major goals of MDGs is to “Promote gender equality and empower
women” (AEPAM, 2013). Gender Parity Index (GPI) is used to measure gender equality in
enrolment and in literacy. The GPI at any level (primary or secondary) is defined as the net
enrolment rate of girls at a specific level divided by net enrolment rate of boys in the same
level. It is used to measure the relative access to education of boys and girls. According to
PSLM survey 2013-14, the GPI in Pakistan at primary level is 0.88 whereas in youth literacy,
the GPI is 0.80 (PSLM, 2015).
Pakistan education statistics 2015-16, shows that the overall Gender Parity Index in
GER (Gross Enrollment Ratio) and in ANER (Adjusted Net Enrollment Ratio) at primary
level is 0.86, and GPI in the literacy rate of age 10 years and above is 0.70 and in youth
literacy (between the ages of 15 to 24 years) is 0.79 (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2017).
Table 8
46
Five years gender parity index of KP and Pakistan
Indicator 2005 2010 2013 2014 2015
Pak GPI in Lit: rate 10+ yrs 0.62 0.67 0.68 0.67 0.70
KP GPI in Lit: rate 10+ yrs 0.41 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.49
According to Education Atlas 2010, boys and girls enrolment at primary level in
Kohistan was 50,370 and 17879 respectively, and GPI was 0.35. In regard to survival rate,
the GPI in grade five is 1.68 (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2010). In 2015-2016 the male enrolment in
district Kohistan was 42629 and female enrollment was 15962 and GPI at primary stage was
0.37 whereas the GPI in literacy population of 10 years and above is 0.1 which is the lowest
among all other districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
2017).
Table 9
Education index, district ranking of Kohistan in KP
Rank District Education Enrolment Achievement Survival Gender
Score Score Score Score Parity Score
24 Kohistan 38.00 35.83 26.00 28.80 61.37
Note. Adapted from “Pakistan district education rankings 2013,” by Alif Ailaan, 2013, p. 17.
Table 10
47
Education index of district Kohistan in Pakistan
Rank District Province Education Learning Retention Gender
Score Score Score Parity Score
141 Kohistan KP 20.67 11.47 17.86 32.67
Note. Adapted from “Pakistan district education rankings 2017,” by Alif Ailaan, 2017, p. 16.
In national ranking, district Kohistan is ranked 141, which is the lowest rank
amongst all districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
2.13 Drop-Out and Repetition Rates
According to BBC English dictionary, drop-outs are defined as, “young people who
left school or college before finishing their studies” (BBC English Dictionary, 1992). In other
words, “drop-out is defined in terms of the percentage of students who, after enrolment, are
not able to finish primary school” (Shah et al., 2005, p.7).
In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the overall dropout rates at primary level is 20 percent, 10.9
percent boys and 32.9 percent girls. The drop-outs rates are much higher among female
children than males. The dropout rates of primary students in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were
decreased from 50 percent in 2005-06 to 36 percent in 2009-10 (Shujaat, 2015, p. 109).
Dropout rates decreases from higher grade level to lower grade level, 8 percent for Grade 8,
31.0 per cent for Grade 5 and 1.8 per cent for Grade 1 (Shujaat, 2015). In district Kohistan
the overall dropout rate is 72 percent (NEMIS-AEPAM. 2016).
2.14 Completion Rate at Primary Level

48
According to PSLM survey report 2014-15, in Pakistan 52 percent population has
completed primary level education. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has the second lowest percentage
of population after Balochistan with 44 percent who completed primary level education. In
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Kohistan and Tor Ghar have the highest gender differences
in completion of primary level with 30 percent males and only 3 percent females (PSLM,
2016).
2.15 Survival Rates
The proportion of a defined age group of students who reached to Grade 5, expressed
as a percentage of students enrolled in the first grade of a given level in a given school year is
called Survival Rate or Retention Rate (AEPAM, 2011) or simply the “proportion of students
who complete their studies from grade 1 to grade 5” is termed as survival rate or completion
or retention rate (Akram & Khan, 2007, p. 13).
In Pakistan the survival rate at primary level is 48 percent (AlifAilaan, 2014). In
primary schools the completion rate of male students is 37 percent and that of female students
is 35 percent (AlifAilaan, 2013). In district Kohistan the Survival Rate to Grade 5 is 28
percent (NEMIS-AEPAM. 2016).
Table 11
Dropout, repetition and promotion rates at primary level in KP
Rates Kachi Pakki Class-2 Class-3 Class-4 Class-5
Drop-Out Rate 11.52% 6.80% 6.63% 6.35% 9.26% 15.06%
Repetition Rate 7.17% 6.45% 6.09% 5.75% 5.80% 7.98%
Promotion Rate 81.31% 86.75% 87.28% 87.90% 84.94% 76.96%
Note. Adapted from “Education sector plan 2010/11 to 2015/16,” by GoKP, 2012, p. 19.
49
2.16 Primary to Secondary Transition
Transition rate is defined as the proportion of pupils that promotes from the last grade
of one level of schooling to the first grade of the higher level of education, expressed as a
percentage of those enrolled in the final grade of the preceding school year. Except the
Punjab province and Islamabad capital territory, the effective transition rate in other regions
of Pakistan is less than 80 percent, which is an alarming situation (AlifAilaan, 2015). In
district Kohistan the effective transition rate from primary level to lower secondary is 28
percent (NEMIS-AEPAM. 2016).
2.17 Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR)
In smaller classes teachers can give more time and attention to individual student and
are considered more beneficial for students. In case of high pupil-teacher ratio, a single
teacher has to manage a large number of pupils at a time and thus teacher pay attention to
individual pupil. In Kohistan pupil teacher ratio (PTR) in primary schools as shown in the
education atlas of Pakistan 2010 is 37 (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2010). According to the report of
National Education Management Information System 2013-14, the pupil teacher ratio at
primary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is 1:43 (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2014).

50
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a research problem. This part of
the thesis presents the methodological aspects of the research, which includes research
design, population of the study, sampling techniques and sample of the study, research
instrument, and procedure of data collection and statistical analysis of data. Survey type
descriptive research was conducted to explore the factors.
3.1 Research Design
A research design is actually the conceptual organization of the research study. “It
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data” (Kothari, 2004,
p.31). It is the outline of entire research process. It assists the researcher to obtain answers to
the research problem. Research design also tells the investigator about the collection and
analysis of data. It guides the researcher to accomplish research study step by step in an
effective way (McMillan, 1996). The research study was descriptive in nature. Descriptive
research is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, practices that prevail,
processes that are going on, attitudes that are held or trends that are developing (Best, 2011).
This design was used in gathering information regarding people’s behavior, feelings and
opinion about educational issues.
3.2 Population of the Study
The research study was conducted in district Kohistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province. There are 240 Government Girls Primary Schools (GGPS) and 519 Government
Boys Primary Schools (GPS) in district Kohistan (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
2017). The total population for this study consisted of 2660 respondents out of which twelve
51
hundred and thirty three (1233) were male primary school teachers (PSTs), five hundred and
eleven (511) were female primary school teachers (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
2017), and nine hundred and sixteen (916) were representatives of Parent Teacher Councils
(PTCs) of district Kohistan (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2015).
3.3 Sampling Techniques
Multistage sampling technique was used for the selection of sample. The stratified
sampling was followed by simple random sampling. The sampling of categories of
respondents was done through stratified sampling technique whereas simple random
sampling technique was used for the selection of respondents which consisted teachers,
parents and community members.
Furthermore, all government primary schools had only a single-gender teaching staff,
for instance boys schools have male teaching staff only and girls schools have female
teaching staff only. For each school, maximum two teachers and only a male parent were
selected to administer the questionnaire because the female parents were beyond the reach of
a male researcher.
3.4 Sample of the Study
Sample of the study comprised of three hundred and sixty (360) participants. It
consisted of two hundred and forty (240) primary school teachers (one hundred and sixty
male teachers, and eighty female primary school teachers), and one hundred and twenty (120)
representatives of Parent Teacher Councils of government primary schools. The sample was
selected on the basis of population from upper and lower Kohistan.
The sample of this study was designed in such a way as to make the study a true
representative of the population as much as possible. It is suggested that at least 10% of the
population is a good representation where the population is large and 20% where the
52
population is small (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012). The percentage used in this study is
nearly 14%. Detail of Population and Sample Size is given in Table 12.
Table 12
Detail of population and sample size
S. Population Upper Kohistan Lower Kohistan Total
No. Specification Number (Sample Size) (Sample Size) (Sample Size)
01 Male PSTs. 1233 80 80 160
02 Female PSTs 511 40 40 80
03 PTCs 916 60 60 120
Total 2660 180 180 360
3.5 Research Instrument
The researcher employed the self-developed questionnaire as research tool for the
collection of data and gaining insight into the teachers’ and parents’ decisions on girls’
education. The same questionnaire was used for collecting data from the different categories
of respondents. A questionnaire comprising of thirty six statements was developed on the
basis of pre-determined research objectives, and was administered by the researcher himself.
The questionnaire was divided into four parts; the first part consisted of 12 statements
that aimed to explore the socio-cultural factors, second part had 8 statements that aimed to
investigate economic factors, third part had 7 statements on political factors and fourth and
the last part was consisting of 9 statements which aimed to find out facilities related factors,
that affect girls education at primary level in district Kohistan.

53
The questionnaire was structured on a five point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA),
Agree (A), Undecided (UD), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD), and allowed the
respondents to specify their level of agreement or disagreement. In the beginning of the
questionnaire there was an introductory note by the researcher for the study, the importance
of the participants’ assistance and contribution to it and the assurance that the information
will be kept confidential, and will not be shared with anyone else.
3.5.1 Validity
The questionnaire was validated by four research experts in Department of Education,
Hazara University. In the process of validation, research experts directed the researcher to
improve the language, give clear instructions to respondents, and correct the wordings of
some statements and remove the irrelevant and inappropriate ones. On the recommendations
of research experts, some modification and deletion were made in some statements of the
questionnaire. Before validation, there were forty two statements included in the
questionnaire and after validation number of the statements was reduced to thirty six because
of the removal of six statements.
3.5.2 Reliability
Reliability refers to the degree to which a test scores or study data measuring
procedure provides consistency in results. Reliability is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for validity. A test which provides totally inconsistent results cannot possibly
provide accurate information about the behaviour being measured. Thus low reliability can be
expected to restrict the degree of validity that is obtained, but high reliability provides no
guarantee that a satisfactory degree of validity will be present. Numerically, reliability is
represented in terms of reliability co-efficient. It is necessary that a test having validity will
always have reliability but not the vice versa (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012).
54
After that, a pilot test was conducted in fourteen primary schools to explore the views
of seven male teachers, seven female teachers and fourteen PTCs members on the statements
of the questionnaire to determine the reliability of the instrument. Thus the reliability was
established by using the Cronbach’s Alpha method and the coefficient alpha of the
questionnaire was 0.889.
3.6 Data collection
The data was collected through field surveys using questionnaire. The questionnaire
was translated into Urdu because the respondents were either illiterates or cannot fully
understand the English questionnaire and was administered by the researcher himself.
The other data was taken from National Education Management Information System
(NEMIS), Education Management Information System (EMIS), District, Provincial and
National educational Census Reports, research papers, journals, books and internet.
3.7 Analysis of Data
The specified factors which affect girls education at primary school education in
district Kohistan were grouped into four categories:- social factors, economic factors,
political factors and facilities related factors.
Before statistical analysis the responses acquired through questionnaires were
marked. The following procedure was adopted by the researcher for scoring the
questionnaire:
Strongly Agree (SA) = 5 Marks
Agree (A) = 4 Marks
Undecided (UD) = 3 Marks
Disagree (DA) = 2 Marks and

55
Strongly Disagree (SDA) = 1 Mark
When the questionnaires were scored, then the available data was fed into the
computer divided in three sections; - male primary school teachers, female primary school
teachers and parents. To establish the extent to which the factors affect girls’ participation in
education, inferential statistics were applied. Consequently, frequency and percentage tables
were generated.
The data was analyzed by using computer software Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS). The data was analysed through inferential statistics and 0.05 level was fixed
as a criterion of statistical significance for the statistical method. The researcher also applied
chi-square (χ²) test of significance to determine generalizability of findings.

56
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
This chapter focuses on the analysis and interpretation of data on socio-
cultural, economic, and political and facilities related factors that affect girls’ primary
school education. The first part of the chapter presents analysis of data in tabular form
followed by its interpretation. The second part is based on discussion of the main findings
in the light of related literature.
4.1 Respondents’ Views on Socio-Cultural Factors Affecting Girls Education
In order to establish the effects of socio-cultural factors on girls’ education at
primary level in district Kohistan, the first research question (what are the socio-cultural
factors that affect girls’ education in district Kohistan?) of the study was structured into
twelve statements. All the respondents (male and female teachers and parents) were
required to explain the extent to which different socio-cultural factors are affecting girls’
schooling.
57
Table 13
Respondents’ views on socio-cultural factors affecting girls’ education
S. Statements SA A UD DA SDA χ² P
No.
1. Parents do not allow girls 198 107 19 19 17 357.6 0.00
to receive education in co- (55%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (5%)
educational institutions.
2. Learners’ needs are not 191 103 23 29 14 315.8 0.00
considered for receiving (53%) (29%) (6%) (8%) (4%)
education in girls schools.
3. Problem of girls’ safety 195 100 22 25 18 326.9 0.00
and protection is a barrier (54%) (28%) (6%) (7%) (5%)
in girls’ education.
4. Purdah (veil) and gender 217 82 25 19 17 405.1 0.00
segregation consciousness (60%) (23%) (7%) (5%) (5%)
affect girls’ education.
5. Constraints in the name of 203 93 26 20 18 351.9 0.00
religion affect girls’ (56%) (26%) (7%) (6%) (5%)
education.
6. Early marriage affects 200 99 23 22 16 349.3 0.00
girls’ education. (56%) (28%) (6%) (6%) (4%)
7. Illiteracy of parents is a 197 104 20 20 19 345.4 0.00
hurdle for giving education (55%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
to their female child.
8. Unawareness of the 191 106 23 21 19 321.2 0.00
benefits of girls’ education (53%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
is a factor which affects
girls’ education.
9. Orphanage is a barrier for 189 108 23 25 15 317.3 0.00
girls’ education. (53%) (30%) (6%) (7%) (4%)
10. Girls students leave school 202 98 22 21 17 357.0 0.00
at the onset of adolescence. (56%) (27%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
11. Parents prefer Madrasa 191 110 21 20 18 330.9 0.00
(Religious school) (53%) (31%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
education over formal
schooling for girls.
12. People of the area consider 199 100 19 23 19 346.3 0.00
formal education as an evil, (55%) (28%) (5%) (6%) (5%)
for girls.
Expected Frequency (N) = 72 Degree of Freedom (df) = 4
58
1. Eighty five percent (SA=55% and A=30%) of respondents agreed that parents do not
allow girls to receive education in co-educational institutions. The chi-square (χ²)
value = 357.6 and p-value = 0.00<0.05. This response was significant at 0.05 level
(Table 13).
2. Eighty two percent (SA=53% and A=29%) of respondents agreed that learners’ needs
are not considered for receiving education in girls schools. The chi-square (χ²) value =
315.8 and p-value = 0.00<0.05. This response was significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
3. Eighty two percent (SA=54% and A=28%) of respondents agreed that problem of
girls safety and protection is a barrier in girls education. The χ² value = 326.9 and p-
value = 0.00<0.05. This response was significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
4. Eighty three percent (SA=60% and A=23%) of respondents agreed that prevailing
social constraints affect girls education. The χ² value = 405.1 and p-value =
0.00<0.05. This response was significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
5. Eighty two percent (SA=56% and A=26%) of respondents agreed that constraints in
the name of religion affect girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 351.9 and p-
6. Eighty four percent (SA=56% and A=28%) of the respondents agreed that early
marriage affects girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 349.3 and p-value =
0.00<0.05. This response was significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
7. Eighty four percent (SA=55% and A=29%) of respondents showed their agreement
with the statement that illiteracy of parents is a hurdle for giving education to their
female child. The chi-square (χ²) value = 345.4 and p-value = 0.00<0.05. This
response was significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
8. Eighty two percent (SA=53% and A=29%) of respondents agreed that unawareness of
the benefits of girls education is a factor which affects girls education. The chi-square
59
(χ²) value = 321.2 and p-value = 0.00<0.05. This response was significant at 0.05
level (Table 13).
9. Eighty three percent (SA=53% and A=30%) of respondents agreed that orphanage is a
barrier for girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 317.3 and p-value = 0.00<0.05.
This response was significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
10. Eighty three percent (SA=56% and A=27%) of respondents agreed that girls students
leave school at the onset of adolescence. The chi-square (χ²) value = 357.0 and p-
11. Eighty four percent (SA=53% and A=31%) of respondents agreed with the statement
that parents prefer Madrasa (Religious school) education over formal schooling for
girls. The chi-square (χ²) value = 330.0 and p-value = 0.00<0.05. This response was
significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
12. Eighty three percent (SA=55% and A=28%) of respondents agreed with the statement
‘Formal education for girls is an evil’. The chi-square (χ²) value = 346.3 and p-value
= 0.00<0.05. This response was significant at 0.05 level (Table 13).
Overall it could be concluded from above statements that social factors which include
school based factors, parents attitude, social and cultural constrains, constrains in the name of
religion, early marriage, illiteracy of parents, lack of awareness and orphanage affect girls
education in the region.

60
Table 14 Perceptions of male and female respondents on socio-cultural factors
S. Statement Gender SA A UD DA SDA χ² P

No.
1. Parents do not allow Male 156 83 15 14 12
girls to receive (56%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (4%) 0.827 0.935
education in co- Female 42 24 4 5 5
educational Institutions. (53%) (30%) (5%) (6%) (6%)
2. Learners’ needs are not Male 152 80 16 23 9
considered for receiving (54%) (29%) (6%) (8%) (3%) 2.771 0.597
education in girls Female 39 23 7 6 5
schools. (49%) (29%) (9%) (8%) (6%)
3. Problem of girls safety Male 155 80 15 18 12
and protection is a (55%) (29%) (5%) (6%) (4%) 3.556 0.469
barrier in girls Female 40 20 7 7 6
education. (50%) (25%) (9%) (9%) (8%)
4. Prevailing social Male 172 62 19 14 13
constraints affect girls’ (61%) (22%) (7%) (5%) (5%) 0.747 0.945
education. Female 45 20 6 5 4
(56%) (25%) (8%) (6%) (5%)
5. Constraints in the name Male 161 71 20 15 13
of religion also affect (58%) (25%) (7%) (5%) (5%) 0.808 0.937
girls’ education. Female 42 22 6 5 5
(53%) (28%) (8%) (6%) (6%)
6. Early marriage affects Male 155 80 17 17 11
girls’ education. (55%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (4%) 1.491 0.828
Female 45 19 6 5 5
(56%) (24%) (8%) (6%) (6%)
7. Illiteracy of parents is a Male 155 81 15 15 14
hurdle for giving (55%) (29%) (5%) (5%) (5%) 0.465 0.978
education to their female Female 42 23 5 5 5
child. (53%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (6%)
8. Unawareness of the Male 151 82 17 16 14
benefits of girls (54%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 0.605 0.962
education is a factor Female 40 24 6 5 5
which affects girls (50%) (30%) (8%) (6%) (6%)
education.
9. Orphanage is a barrier Male 154 82 16 18 10
for girls’ education. (55%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (4%) 4.166 0.384
Female 35 26 7 7 5
(44%) (33%) (9%) (9%) (6%)
10. Girls students leave Male 161 73 17 16 13
school at the onset of (58%) (26%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 1.097 0.895
adolescence. Female 41 25 5 5 4
(51%) (31%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
11. Parents prefer Madrasa Male 148 89 16 15 12
(Religious school) (53%) (32%) (6%) (5%) (4%) 2.039 0.729
education over formal Female 43 21 5 5 6
schooling for girls. (54%) (26%) (6%) (6%) (8%)
12. People of the area Male 157 80 13 17 13
consider formal (56%) (29%) (5%) (6%) (5%) 2.553 0.635
education as an evil, for Female 42 20 6 6 6
girls. (53%) (25%) (8%) (8%) (8%)
Expected Frequency (N) = 72 Degree of Freedom = 4

61
4.1.1 Perceptions of male and female respondents about socio-cultural
factors
To determine the opinion of male and female respondents on socio-cultural factors
which influence girls’ education in district Kohistan, the researcher compared the responses of
males and female respondents.
1. Eighty six percent (56% SA and 30% A) of male and eighty three percent (53% SA
and 30% A) female respondents agreed that parents do not allow girls to receive
education in co-educational institutions. The researcher compared the responses of
both the respondents to find out the disagreement between them. Consequently, the
chi-square (χ²) value (0.827), p-value (0.935), reveals that, there is no significant
difference in the response of male and female respondents (Table 14).
2. Eighty three percent (54% SA and 29% A) of male and seventy eight percent (49%
SA and 29% A) female respondents agreed that learners’ needs are not considered for
receiving education in girls schools. The researcher compared the responses of both
the respondents to find out the disagreement between them. Consequently, the chi-
square (χ²) value = 2.771, p-value (0.597), shows that there is no significant difference
in the response of male and female respondents (Table 14).
3. Eighty four percent (55% SA and 29% A) of male and seventy five percent (50% SA
and 25% A) female respondents agreed that problem of girls’ safety and protection is
a barrier in girls’ education,. Then the researcher compared the responses of both the
respondents to determine the difference. As a result, the χ² = 3.556 and p-value =
0.469, at level 0.05 shows that, there is no significant difference in the response of
both the respondents (Table 14).
4. Eighty three percent (61% SA and 22% A) of male and eighty one percent (56% SA
and 25% A) female respondents agreed that Purdah (veil) and gender segregation
62
consciousness affect girls’ education. The researcher compared the responses of male
and female respondents to see the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value =
0.747 and p-value = 0.945, at level 0.05, indicates that, there is no significant
difference in the responses of both the respondents (Table 14).
5. Eighty three percent (58% SA and 25% A) of male and eighty one percent (53% SA
and 28% A) female respondents agreed that constraints in the name of religion affect
girls’ education. The researcher compared the responses of both respondents to see
the difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 0.808 and p-value =
0.937, at level 0.05, reflects that, there is no significant difference in the responses of
male and female respondents (Table 14).
6. Eighty four percent (55% SA and 29% A) of male and eighty percent (56% SA and
24% A) female respondents agreed that early marriage affects girls’ education. The
researcher compared the responses of male and female respondents to detect the
difference between them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value was 1.491 and
p-value was 0.828, at level 0.05. This shows that, there is no significant difference in
the response of male and female respondents (Table 14).
7. Eighty four percent (55% SA and 29% A) of male and eighty two percent (53% SA
and 29% A) female respondents agreed that illiteracy of parents is a hurdle for giving
education to their female child. The researcher compared the responses of both the
respondents to detect the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square (χ²)
value = 0.465 and p-value = 0.987, at level 0.05. This indicates that, there is no
significant difference in the response of male and female respondents (Table 14).
8. Eighty three percent (54% SA and 29% A) of male and eighty percent (50% SA and
30% A) of female respondents agreed that unawareness of the benefits of girls’
education is a factor which affects girls’ education. The researcher compared the
63
responses of male and female respondents to discover the difference between them.
As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 0.605 and p-value = 0.962, at level 0.05. This
indicates that, there is no significant difference in the response of male and female
respondents (Table 14).
9. Eighty four percent (55% SA and 29% A) of male respondents and seventy seven
percent (44% SA and 33% A) female respondents agreed that orphanage is a barrier
for girls’ education. The researcher compared the responses of male and female
respondents to perceive the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 4.166
and p-value = 0.384, at level 0.05 proves that, there is no significant difference in the
response of both the respondents (Table 14).
10. Eighty four percent (58% SA and 26% A) of male and eighty two percent (51% SA
and 31% A) of female respondents agreed that girls leave school at the onset of
adolescence. The researcher compared the responses of male and female respondents
to perceive the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.097 and p-value =
0.895, at level 0.05 proves that, there is no significant difference in the response of
11. Eighty five percent (53% SA and 32% A) of male and eighty percent (54% SA and
26% A) female respondents agreed that parents prefer Madrasa (Religious school)
education over formal schooling for girls. The researcher compared the responses of
male and female respondents to examine the difference between them. As a
consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 2.039 and p-value = 0.729, at level 0.05. This
shows that, there is no significant difference in the response of male and female
12. Eighty five percent (56% SA and 29% A) of male respondents and seventy eight
(53% SA and 25% A) female respondents agreed that people of the area consider
64
formal education as an evil, for girls. The researcher compared the responses of male
and female respondents to examine the difference between them. As a consequence,
the chi-square (χ²) value = 2.553 and p-value = 0.635, at level 0.05. This shows that,
there is no significant difference in the response of male and female respondents
(Table 14).
4.1.2 Perceptions of teachers and parents about socio-cultural factors
The researcher sought to investigate the difference in the perceptions of
teachers and parents about socio-cultural factors which affect girls’ education in
district Kohistan. This subsidiary part constitutes twelve items and the respondents
were required to respond to each item by indicating strongly agree (SA), agree (A),
undecided (UD), disagree (DA), or strongly disagree (SDA), as explained in Table 15:
65
Table 15 Responses of teachers and parents on socio-cultural factors

S. Statements R-Type SA A UD DA SDA χ² P
No
1. Parents do not allow Teachers 101 66 11 11 11
girls to receive (51%) (33%) (6%) (6%) (6%)
education in co- 3.944 0.414
educational
Institutions. Parents 97 41 8 8 6
(60%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (3%)
2. Learners’ needs are Teachers 105 60 13 14 8
not considered for (53%) (30%) (7%) (7%) (4%)
receiving education in 0.975 0.914
girls schools. Parents 86 43 10 15 6
(53%) (27%) (6%) (9%) (4%)
3. Problem of girls Teachers 104 55 14 15 12
safety and protection (52%) (28%) (7%) (8%) (6%)
is a barrier in girls Parents 91 45 8 10 6 2.084 0.720
education. (57%) (28%) (5%) (6%) (4%)
4. Purdah (veil) and Teachers 118 47 14 12 9
gender segregation (59%) (24%) (7%) (6%) (5%) 0.719 0.949
consciousness affect Parents 99 35 11 7 8
girls education. (62%) (22%) (7%) (4%) (5%)
5. Constraints in the Teachers 108 56 13 12 11
name of religion also (54%) (28%) (7%) (6%) (6%) 1.983 0.739
affect girls’ education. Parents 95 37 13 8 7
(59%) (23%) (8%) (5%) (4%)
6. Early marriage affects Teachers 110 55 13 12 10
girls’ education. (55%) (28%) (7%) (6%) (5%) 0.355 0.986
Parents 90 44 10 10 6
(56%) (28%) (6%) (6%) (4%)
7. Illiteracy of parents is Teachers 155 81 15 15 14
a hurdle for giving (55%) (29%) (5%) (5%) (5%) 0.465 0.978
education to their Parents 42 23 5 5 5
female child. (53%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (6%)
8. Unawareness of the Teachers 108 56 13 12 11
benefits of girls’ (54%) (28%) (7%) (6%) (6%) 0.467 0.977
education is a factor Parents 83 50 10 9 8
which affects girls’ (52%) (31%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
education.
9. Orphanage is a barrier Teachers 99 64 14 14 9
for girls’ education. (50%) (32%) (7%) (7%) (5%) 1.756 0.780
Parents 90 44 9 11 6
(56%) (28%) (6%) (7%) (4%)
10. Girls students leave Teachers 108 58 12 12 10
school at the onset of (54%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 0.984 0.912
adolescence. Parents 94 40 10 9 7
(58%) (25%) (6%) (6%) (4%)
11. Parents prefer Teachers 102 61 12 13 12
Madrasa (Religious (51%) (31%) (6%) (7%) (6%)
school) education over 2.003 0.735
formal schooling for Parents 89 49 9 7 6
girls. (57%) (31%) (6%) (4%) (4%)
12. People of the area Teachers 102 59 11 15 13
consider formal (51%) (30%) (6%) (8%) (7%) 4.156 0.385
education as an evil, Parents 97 41 8 8 6
for girls. (61%) (26%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
66
1. Eighty four percent (51% SA and 33% A) of teachers and eighty five percent (60%
SA and 25% A) of parents agreed that parents do not allow girls to receive education
in co-educational institutions. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and
parents respondents and consequently, the chi-square (χ²) value = 3.944, p-value =
0.414, reveals that, there is no significant difference in the response of teachers and
parents (Table 15).
2. Eighty three percent (53% SA and 30% A) of the teachers and eighty percent (53%
SA and 27% A) parents agreed that learners’ needs are not considered for receiving
education in girls schools. The researcher compared the responses of both teachers
and parents to find out the disagreement between them. Consequently, the χ² = 0.975,
p-value = 0.914, at 0.05 significant levels shows that, there is no significant difference
in the response of teachers and parents respondents (Table 15).
3. Eighty percent (52% SA and 28% A) of the teachers and eighty five percent (57% SA
and 28% A) of the parents agreed that problem of girls’ safety and protection is a
barrier in girls education. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and
parents to determine the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 2.084 and
p-value = 0.720, at level 0.05 shows that, there is no significant difference in the
response of both the respondents (Table 15).
4. Eighty three percent of teachers (59% SA and 24% A) and eighty four percent (62%
SA and 22% A) parents agreed that Purdah (veil) and gender segregation
consciousness affect girls education. The researcher compared the responses of
teachers and parents to investigate the difference in their perceptions. As a result, the
chi-square (χ²) value = 0.719 and p-value = 0.949, at 0.05 significant level, indicates
67
that, there is no significant difference in the responses of teachers and parents (Table
15).
5. Eighty two percent (54% SA and 28% A) of teachers and eighty two percent 82%
(59% SA and 23% A) of parents agreed that constraints in the name of religion
adversely affect girls’ education. The researcher compared the responses of teachers
and parents to investigate the difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value
was 1.983 and p-value was 0.739, at 0.05 significant levels. This reflects that, there is
no significant difference in the responses of teachers and parents (Table 15).
6. Eighty three percent (55% SA and 28% A) of teachers and eighty four percent (56%
SA and 28% A) of parents agreed with the statement that early marriage affects girls’
education. The researcher compared the responses of both teachers and parents to find
out the difference between them. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) value = 0.355 and
p-value = 0.986, at level 0.05. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the
response of teachers and parents (Table 15).
7. Eighty four percent (57% SA and 27% A) of teachers and eighty four percent (53%
SA and 31% A) of parents agreed that illiteracy of parents is a hurdle for giving
education to their female child. The researcher compared the responses of teachers
and parents to examine the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square (χ²)
value = 1.513 and p-value = 0.824, at 0.05 significant level. This indicates that, there
is no significant difference in the responses of teachers and parents (Table 15).
8. Eighty two percent (54% SA and 28% A) of teachers and eighty three percent (52%
SA and 31% A) of the parents agreed that unawareness of the benefits of girls’
education is a factor which affects girls’ education. The researcher compared the
responses of male and female respondents to discover the difference between them.
As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 0.467 and p-value = 0.977, at level 0.05. This
68
indicates that, there is no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents
(Table 15).
9. Eighty three percent (52% SA and 31% A) of the teachers and eighty two percent
(50% SA and 32% A) of the parents showed their agreement over the statement that
orphanage is a barrier for girls education. The researcher compared the responses of
teachers and parents to perceive the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value =
1.756 and p-value = 0.750, at 0.05 significant level. This indicates that, there is no
significant difference in the response of both the respondents (Table 15).
10. Eighty three percent (54% SA and 29% A) of teachers and eighty three percent (58%
SA and 25% A) of parents agreed that girls’ students leave school at the onset of
adolescence. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and parents
respondents to perceive the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 0.984
and p-value = 0.912, at 0.05 significant level. It proves that, there is no significant
difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table 15).
11. Eighty two percent (51% SA and 31% A) of teachers and eighty eight percent (57%
SA and 31% A) of parents agreed that parents prefer Madrasa education over formal
schooling for girls. The researcher compared both the responses and consequently, the
χ² = 2.003 and p-value = 0.735, at 0.05 significant levels. This shows that, there is no
significant difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table 15).
12. Eighty one percent (51% SA and 30% A) of teachers and eighty seven percent (61%
SA and 26% A) of parents agreed that people of the area consider formal education as
an evil, for girl. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and parents to
discover the difference between them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value =
4.156 and p-value was 0.385, at 0.05 significant level. This indicates that, there is no
significant difference in the response of both the respondents (Table 15).

69
Table 16
Respondents’ views on economic factors that affect girls’ education
S. Statement SA A UD DA SDA χ² P
No.
1. Lack of financial 194 104 23 21 18
support by parents (54%) (29%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 330.9 0.00
affects girls’
education.
2. Parents’ poverty is a 217 90 19 19 15
major hindrance in (60%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (4%) 419.7 0.00
the way of girls’
education.
3. Indirect cost (such as 199 102 20 23 16
transportation and (55%) (28%) (6%) (6%) (4%) 351.0 0.00
uniforms) is a barrier
in girls’ education.
4. Opportunity cost 200 112 17 17 14
(such as lost of (56%) (31%) (5%) (5%) (4%) 380.5 0.00
household or paid
labor) is a barrier in
girls education.
5. Wealthier families 12 27 57 162 102
may need child labor (3%) (8%) (16%) (45%) (28%) 206.2 0.00
and hire the poor
girls, which affects
girls education.
6. Parents believe that 214 96 16 19 15
girls will leave them (59%) (27%) (4%) (5%) (4%) 415.8 0.00
after marriage so
investment on girls
education will be
wasted.
7. Mothers encourage 213 101 14 18 14
girls to remain at (59%) (28%) (4%) (5%) (4%) 421.8 0.00
home and attend the
domestic chores.
8. Traditional seasonal 189 120 15 19 17
migration of the (53%) (33%) (4%) (5%) (5%) 348.3 0.00
families affects girls
education.
70
4.2 Respondents’ Perceptions about Economic Factors Affecting Girls Education
A number of variables pertaining to the economic factors that influence girls
education was a significant aspect of the study. The research question (What are economic
factors that affect girls’ education in district Kohistan?) was assisted by eight statements to
seek the opinion of the respondents.
1. Eighty three percent (SA=54% and A=29%) of respondents agreed that lack of
financial support by parents affects girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value =330.9
and p-value<0.05 reveals that this response was significant at 0.05 significant level
(Table 16).
2. Eighty five percent (SA=60% and A=25%) of respondents agreed with the statement
that parents’ poverty is a major hindrance in the way of girls education. The chi-
square (χ²) value =419.7 and p-value<0.05 reveals that this response was significant at
0.05 significant level (Table 16).
3. Eighty three percent (SA=55% and A=28%) of respondents agreed with the statement
that indirect cost (such as transportation and uniforms) is a barrier in girls education.
The chi-square (χ²) value for this response was 351.0 and p<0.05, which shows that
the response was significant at 0.05 significant level (Table 16).
4. Ninety percent (SA=56% and A=34%) of respondents showed their agreement that
opportunity cost (such as lost of household or paid labor) is a barrier in girls
education. The chi-square (χ²) value for this response was 380.5 and p<0.05, which
shows that the response was significant at 0.05 significant level (Table 16).
5. Seventy three percent (45% DA and 28% SDA) of respondents disagreed that
wealthier families may need child labor and hire the poor girls. The chi-square (χ²)
71
value for this response was 206.2 and p<0.05, which shows that the response was
significant at 0.05 significant level (Table 16).
6. Eighty seven percent (59% SA and 28% A) of respondents agreed that girls will leave
their parents after marriage so investment on girls education will be wasted. The
statistical analysis indicates that the chi-square (χ²) value was found to be 415.8 and
p-value = 0.00, which is statistically significant because this value is less than the
table value of χ² at 0.05 level (Table 16).
7. Eighty seven percent (59% SA and 28% A) of the respondents agreed with the
statement that mothers encourage girls to remain at home and attend the domestic
chores. The chi-square (χ²) value = 421.8 and p-value = 0.00, which is statistically
significant because this value is less than at 0.05 significant level (Table 16).
8. Eighty six percent (SA=53% and A=33%) of the respondents agreed with the
statement that prevailing social constraints affect girls education. The chi-square (χ²)
value = 348.3 and p-value = 0.00. This reveals that the response was significant at
0.05 significant levels (Table 16).
4.2.1 Perceptions of male and female respondents about economic factors
The researcher sought to investigate the difference in the perceptions of male and
female respondents about economic factors which affect girls’ education in district Kohistan.
72
Table 17
Perceptions of male and female about economic factors
S. Statement Gender SA A UD DA SDA χ² P

No
.
1. Lack of financial Male 155 80 17 15 13 1.558 0.816
support by parents (55%) (29%) (6%) (5%) (5%)
affects girls Female 39 24 6 6 5
education. (49%) (30%) (8%) (8%) (6%)
2. Parents’ poverty is a Male 169 73 14 13 11 1.898 0.755
major hindrance in (60%) (26%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
the way of girls Female 48 17 5 6 4
education. (60%) (21%) (6%) (8%) (5%)
3. Indirect cost (such as Male 158 78 14 18 12 1.177 0.882
transportation and (56%) (28%) (5%) (6%) (4%)
uniforms) is a barrier Female 41 24 6 5 4
(51%) (30%) (8%) (6%) (5%)
in girls education.
4. Opportunity cost Male 155 94 11 11 9 7.296 0.121
(such as lost of (55%) (34%) (4%) (4%) (3%)
household or paid Female 45 18 6 6 5
labor) is a barrier in (56%) (23%) (8%) (8%) (6%)
girls education.
5. Wealthier families Male 9 (3%) 18 42 127 84 3.806 0.433
may need child labor (6%) (15 (45 (30
and hire the poor %) %) %)
Female 3 (4%) 9 15 35 18
girls, which affects
(11%) (19 (44 (23
girls education. %) %) %)
6. Parents believe that Male 169 74 12 14 11 0.630 0.960
girls will leave them (60%) (26%) (4%) (5%) (4%)
after marriage so Female 45 22 4 5 4
investment on girls (56%) (28%) (5%) (6%) (5%)
education will be
wasted.
7. Mothers encourage Male 169 78 10 13 10 1.294 0.862
girls to remain at (60%) (28%) (4%) (5%) (4%)
home and attend the Female 44 23 4 5 4
(55%) (29%) (5%) (6%) (5%)
domestic chores.
8. Traditional seasonal Male 152 93 9 14 12 4.206 0.379
migration of the (54%) (33%) (3%) (5%) (4%)
families affects girls Female 37 27 6 5 5
education. (46%) (34%) (8%) (6%) (6%)
73
1. Eighty three percent (SA = 58% and A = 25%) of male and eighty one percent (53%
SA and 28% A) of female respondents agreed that lack of financial support by parents
affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses of male and female
respondents to detect the difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value =
1.558 and p-value = 0.816, at 0.05 significant level. This reflects that there is no
significant difference in both responses (Table 17).
2. Eighty six percent (SA = 60% and A = 26%) of male and eighty one percent (SA =
60% and A = 21%) of female respondents agreed that poverty is a major hindrance in
the way of girls education. The researcher compared the responses of male and female
respondents. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.898 and p-value= 0.755, at 0.05
significant level. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the response of
3. Eighty four percent (SA= 56% and A = 28%) of male and eighty one percent (SA=
51% and A = 30%) of female respondents agreed that indirect cost is a barrier in girls
education. The researcher compared the responses of both the respondents and as a
result, the value of chi-square (χ²) value = 1.177 and p-value = 0.882, at 0.05
significant level. This value is statistically non-significant and shows that male and
female respondents hold the identical views about the statement (Table 17).
4. Eighty nine percent (SA= 55% and A = 34%) of male respondents and seventy nine
percent (SA= 56% and A = 23%) of female respondents agreed that opportunity cost
is a barrier in girls education. The researcher compared the responses of both the
respondents to discover the difference between them. As a result, the value of chi-
square (χ²) value = 7.296 and p-value = 0.121, at 0.05 significant level. This value is
statistically non-significant and shows that male and female respondents have the
same views about the statement (Table 17).

74
5. Seventy five percent (45% DA and 30% SDA) of male and sixty seven percent (44%
DA and 23% SDA) of female respondents disagreed that wealthier families may need
child labor and hire the poor girls, which affects girls education,. The researcher
compared both the responses to find out the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²)
value = 3.806 and p-value = 0.433, at 0.05 significant level. This indicates that, there
is no significant difference in both the responses (Table 17).
6. Eighty six percent (60% SA and 26% A) of male and eighty four percent (56% SA
28% A) of female respondents agreed that parents believe that girls will leave them
after marriage so investment on girls education will be wasted. The researcher
compared the responses of both the respondents and as a result, the χ² value = 0.630
and p-value = 0.960, at 0.05 significant level. This proves that, there is no significant
7. Eighty eight percent (SA = 60% and A = 28%) of male respondents and eighty four
percent (SA = 55% and A = 29%) of female respondents agreed that mothers
encourage girls to remain at home and attend the domestic chores. The researcher
compared the responses of male and female respondents to perceive the difference.
Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.097 and p-value = 0.895, at 0.05
significant level. This reveals that, there is no significant difference in the response of
8. Eighty seven percent of male and eighty percent female respondents agreed that
traditional seasonal migration of the families affects girls’ education. The researcher
compared both the responses to examine the difference between them. As a
consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 4.206 and p-value = 0.379, at 0.05 significant
levels. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the response of male and
female respondents (Table 17).

75
Table 18
Perceptions of teachers and parents about economic factors
S. Statement R-Type SA A UD DA SDA χ² P

No.
1. Lack of financial Teachers 104 63 12 11 10
support by parents (52%) (32%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 1.552 0.817
affects girls Parents 90 41 11 10 8
education. (56%) (26%) (7%) (6%) (5%)
2. Parents’ poverty is a Teachers 120 47 12 12 9
major hindrance in (60%) (24%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 1.420 0.841
the way of girls’ Parents 97 43 7 7 6
education. (61%) (27%) (4%) (4%) (4%)
3. Indirect cost (such Teachers 109 58 13 11 9
as transportation (55%) (29%) (7%) (6%) (5%)
and uniforms) is a 1.402 0.844
Parents 90 44 7 12 7
barrier in girls’ (56%) (28%) (4%) (8%) (4%)
education.
4. Opportunity cost Teachers 109 59 10 12 10
(such as lost of (55%) (30%) (5%) (6%) (5%)
household or paid 3.524 0.474
labor) is a barrier in Parents 91 53 7 5 4
girls’ education. (57%) (33%) (4%) (3%) (3%)
5. Wealthier families Teachers 5 14 27 100 54
may need child (3%) (7%) (14%) (50% (27%
labor and hire the ) )
5.417 0.247
poor girls, which Parents 7 13 30 62 48
affects girls’ (4%) (8%) (18%) (39% (30%
education. ) )
6. Parents believe that Teachers 121 49 9 11 10
girls will leave them (61%) (25%) (5%) (6%) (5%)
after marriage so
investment on girls’ 1.672 0.796
education will be Parents 93 47 7 8 5
wasted. (58%) (29%) (4%) (5%) (3%)
7. Mothers encourage Teachers 115 57 9 10 9
girls to remain at (58%) (29%) (5%) (5%) (5%)
home and attend the 1.107 0.893
Parents 98 44 5 8 5
domestic chores.
(61%) (28%) (3%) (5%) (3%)
8. Traditional seasonal Teachers 100 67 11 12 10
migration of the (50%) (34%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
families affects 2.978 0.562
girls’ education. Parents 89 53 4 7 7
(56%) (33%) (3%) (4%) (4%)
76
4.2.2 Perceptions of teachers and parents about economic factors
1. Eighty four percent (SA = 52% and A = 32%) of teachers and eighty two percent (56%
SA and 26% A) of parents agreed that lack of financial support by parents affects girls
education. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and parents to detect the
difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.552 and p-value = 0.817, at
0.05 significant level. This reflects that, there is no significant difference in the responses
of teachers and parents (Table 18).
2. Eighty four percent (SA = 60% and A = 24%) of teachers and eighty eight percent (SA =
61% and A = 27%) of parents agreed that parents’ poverty is a major hindrance in the
way of girls education. The researcher compared both the responses to discover the
difference between them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.420 and p-
value= 0.841, at 0.05 significant level. This shows that, there is no significant difference
in the response of teachers and parents (Table 18).
3. Eighty four percent (SA= 55% and A = 29%) of teachers and eighty four percent (SA=
56% and A = 28%) of the parents agreed that indirect cost is a barrier in girls education.
The researcher compared the responses of both the respondents to discover the difference
between them. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.402 and p-value = 0.844, at 0.05
significant level. This value is statistically non-significant and shows that teachers and
parents hold the same views about the statement (Table 18).
4. Eighty five percent (SA= 55% and A = 30%) of teachers respondents and ninety percent
(SA= 57% and A = 33%) of the parents respondents agreed that opportunity cost is a
barrier in girls education. The researcher compared the responses of both the respondents
to see the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 3.524 and p-
value = 0.474, at 0.05 significant level. This value is statistically non-significant and
shows that teachers and parents have the same views about the statement (Table 18).
77
5. Seventy seven percent (50% DA and 27% SDA) of teachers and sixty nine percent (39%
DA and 30% SDA) of parents disagreed that wealthier families may need child labor and
hire the poor girls, which affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses
of teachers and parents to find out the difference between them. As a result, the χ² value =
5.417 and p-value = 0.247, at 0.05 significant level. This indicates that, there is no
6. Eighty six percent (SA = 61% and A = 25%) of teachers and eighty seven percent (SA =
58% and A = 29%) of parents agreed that parents believe that girls will leave them after
marriage so investment on girls education will be wasted. The researcher compared the
responses of teachers and parents to perceive the difference. As a result, the chi-square
(χ²) value = 1.672 and p-value = 0.796, at 0.05 significant level. This proves that, there is
no significant difference in the responses of both the respondents (Table 18).
7. Eighty seven percent (SA = 58% and A = 29%) of teachers and eighty nine percent (SA =
61% and A = 28%) of parents agreed that mothers encourage girls to remain at home and
attend the domestic chores. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and
parents to perceive the difference between the two. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²)
value = 1.107 and p-value = 0.893, at 0.05 significant level. This reveals that, there is no
8. Eighty four percent (SA = 50% and A = 34%) of teachers and eighty nine percent (SA =
56% and A = 33%) of parents agreed that traditional seasonal migration of the families
affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses of both the respondents to
examine the difference between them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value was
2.978 and p-value was 0.562, at 0.05 significant levels. This shows that, there is no

78
Table 19
Respondents views on political factors affecting girls’ education
S. Statements SA A UD DA SDA χ² P
No.
1. Political patronage of the 202 109 17 22 10 383.9 0.00
habitually absent female (56%) (30%) (5%) (6%) (3%)
teachers which causes
deterioration in girls’
education.
2. Political interference in 176 130 20 18 16 318.6 0.00
school management badly (49%) (36%) (6%) (5%) (4%)
affects girls’ education.
3. Non-availability of girls’ 200 109 17 19 15 372.7 0.00
schools in village is a (56%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
factor which affects girls’
education.
4. Ignorance and local and 207 106 18 17 12 401.7 0.00
tribal traditions play a (58%) (29%) (5%) (5%) (3%)
negative role in educating
girls.
5. There is lack of political 207 105 17 17 14 399.0 0.00
will for the improvement (58%) (29%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
of girls’ education.
6. Politicians deliberately 155 152 18 21 14 307.9 0.00
keep girls in the darkness (43%) (42%) (5%) (6%) (4%)
of ignorance.
7. Religious elites oppose the 216 94 20 18 12 422.8 0.00
girls’ formal schooling. (60%) (26%) (6%) (5%) (3%)
4.3 Respondents Views on Political Factors Affecting Girls Education
The third research question (what are the political factors that affect girls education?)
was aided by seven statements to investigate the effects of political factors on girls education.
The respondents were required to respond to each item by showing their level of agreement;
such as strongly agreed (SA), agreed (A), undecided (UD), disagreed (DA) or strongly
disagreed (SDA),
1. Eighty six percent (SA=56% and A=30%) of the respondents agreed that political
patronage of the habitually absent female teachers causes deterioration in girls

79
education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 383.9 and p-value = 0.00. This reveals that the
response was significant at 0.05 significant levels (Table 19).
2. Eighty five percent (SA=49% and A=36%) of respondents agreed that political
interference in school management badly affects girls education. The chi-square (χ²)
value = 318.6 and p-value =0.000<0.05. It reveals that this response was significant at
0.05 significant levels (Table 19).
3. Eighty six percent (SA=56% and A=30%) of respondents agreed that non-availability
of girls schools in village affecting girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 372.7
and p-value =0.000<0.05. It reveals that this response was significant at 0.05
significant levels (Table 19).
4. Eighty seven percent (SA = 58% and A = 29%) of respondents agreed that ignorance
and local and tribal traditions play a negative role in educating girls. The chi-square
(χ²) value for this response was 401.7 and p<0.05. This indicates that the response was
significant at 0.05 significant levels (Table 19).
5. Eighty seven percent (SA=58% and A=29%) of the respondents agreed that there is
lack of political will for the improvement of girls education. The chi-square test (χ²)
value for this response was 399.0 and p-value = 0.00<0.05. It shows that the response
was significant at 0.05 significant levels (Table 19).
6. Eighty five percent (SA = 43% and A = 42%) of the respondents agreed that
politicians deliberately keep girls in the darkness of ignorance. The chi-square (χ²)
value for this response was 206.2 and p<0.05, which shows that the response was
7. Eighty six percent (60% SA and 26% A) of the respondents agreed with the statement
that religious elites oppose the girls’ formal education. The chi-square test (χ²) value =
80
422.8 and p-value = 0.00, which is statistically significant because this value is less
than the table value of χ² at 0.05 level (Table 19).
4.3.1 Perceptions of male and female respondents about political factors
The subsidiary part of the third research question sought to investigate the difference
in the perceptions of male and female respondents about political factors which affect girls
education at primary level in district Kohistan. This subsidiary part constitutes seven
statements and the respondents were asked to respond to the extent they agreed or disagreed
with or neutral.
81
Table 20
Perceptions of male and female respondents about political factors
S. Statements Gender SA A UD DA SDA χ² P

No
.
1. Political patronage Male 131 100 16 22 11
of the habitually (47%) (36%) (6%) (5%) (4%)
absent female
teachers which Female 31 28 9 7 5 4.464 0.347
causes deterioration (39%) (35%) (11% (9%) (6%)
in girls’ education. )
2. Political Male 145 98 14 13 10
interference in (52%) (35%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
school management 5.776 0.217
Female 31 32 6 5 6
badly affects girls’
(39%) (40%) (8%) (6%) (8%)
education.
3. Non-availability of Male 158 84 14 13 11
girls’ schools in (56%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
villages is a factor Female 42 25 3 6 4 1.545 0.819
which affects girls’ (53%) (31%) (4%) (8%) (5%)
education.
4. Ignorance and local Male 165 80 15 11 9
and tribal traditions (59%) (29%) (5%) (4%) (3%) 2.829 0.587
play a negative role Female 42 26 3 6 3
in educating girls. (53%) (33%) (4%) (8%) (4%)
5. There is lack of Male 164 81 12 12 11
political will for the (59%) (29%) (4%) (4%) (4%) 1.298 0.862
improvement of Female 43 24 5 5 3
girls’ education. (54%) (30%) (6%) (6%) (4%)
6. Politicians Male 119 126 12 14 9
deliberately keep (43%) (45%) (4%) (5%) (3%) 6.653 0.155
girls in the darkness Female 36 26 6 7 5
of ignorance. (45%) (33%) (8%) (9%) (6%)
7. Religious elites Male 173 73 14 12 8
oppose the girls’ (62%) (26%) (5%) (4%) (3%) 3.513 0.476
formal schooling. Female 43 21 6 6 4
(54%) (26%) (8%) (8%) (5%)
1. Eighty three percent (SA = 47% and A = 36%) of male and seventy four percent (39%
SA and 35% A) of female respondents agreed with the statement that political patronage
of the habitually absent female teachers causes deterioration in girls education. The
82
researcher compared the responses of male and female respondents to detect the
difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 4.464 and p-value = 0.347, at
0.05 significant level. This reflects that, there is no significant difference in the responses
of male and female respondents (Table 20).
2. Eighty seven percent (SA = 52% and A = 35%) of male and seventy nine percent (SA =
39% and A = 40%) of female respondents agreed with the statement that political
interference in school management badly affects girls education. The researcher
compared the responses of male and female respondents to discover the difference
between them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 5.776 and p-value= 0.217,
at 0.05 significant level. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the
response of male and female respondents (Table 20).
3. Eighty six percent (SA= 56% and A = 30%) of male respondents and eighty four percent
(SA= 53% and A = 31%) of female respondents agreed that non-availability of girls
schools in village affecting girls education. The researcher compared the responses of
both the respondents to discover the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square
(χ²) value = 1.545 and p-value = 0.819, at 0.05 significant level. This value is statistically
non-significant and shows that male and female respondents hold the identical views
about the statement (Table 20).
4. Eighty eight percent (SA= 59% and A = 29%) of male respondents and eighty six
percent (SA= 53% and A = 33%) of female respondents agreed that ignorance, and local
and tribal traditions play a negative role in educating girls. The researcher compared the
responses of both the respondents to discover the difference between them. As a result,
the value of chi-square (χ²) value = 2.829 and p-value = 0.587, at 0.05 significant level.
This value is statistically non-significant and shows that male and female respondents
have the same views about the statement (Table 20).

83
5. Eighty eight percent (SA= 59% and A = 29%) of male and eighty four percent (SA=
54% and A = 30%) of female respondents agreed that there is lack of political will for
the improvement of girls education. The researcher compared the responses of male and
female respondents to find out the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square
(χ²) value = 1.298 and p-value = 0.862, at 0.05 significant level. This indicates that, there
is no significant difference in the response of male and female respondents (Table 20).
6. Eighty eight percent (SA = 43% and A = 45%) of male and seventy eight percent (SA =
45% and A = 33%) of female respondents agreed that politicians deliberately keep girls
in the darkness of ignorance. The researcher compared the responses of male and female
respondents to perceive the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 6.653 and
p-value = 0.155, at 0.05 significant level. This proves that, there is no significant
7. Eighty eight percent (SA = 62% and A = 26%) of male and eighty percent (SA = 54%
and A = 26%) of female respondents agreed that religious elites oppose the girls’ formal
education. The researcher compared the responses of male and female respondents to
perceive the difference between the two. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) value = 3.513
and p-value = 0.476, at 0.05 significant level. This reveals that, there is no significant
difference in the response of male and female respondents (Table 20).
4.3.2 Perceptions of teachers and parents on political factors
The second subsidiary part of the third research question sought to investigate the
difference in the perceptions of teachers and parents about political factors which affect girls
education at primary level in district Kohistan. This subsidiary part constitutes seven
with or remain neutral.

84
Table 21
Perceptions of teachers and parents on political factors

No.
1. Political patronage Teachers 113 68 6 9 4
of the habitually (57%) (34%) (3%) (5%) (2%)
absent female Parents 89 41 11 13 6 7.789 0.100
teachers causes (56%) (26%) (7%) (8%) (4%)
deterioration in
girls’ education.
2. Political Teachers 94 72 12 11 11
interference in (47%) (36%) (6%) (6%) (6%)
school management 1.843 0.765
Parents 82 58 8 7 5
badly affects girls’
(51%) (36%) (5%) (4%) (3%)
education.
3. Non-availability of Teachers 108 61 9 13 9
girls schools in (54%) (31%) (5%) (7%) (5%)
village is a factor 1.644 0.801
which affects girls Parents 92 48 8 6 6
education. (58%) (30%) (5%) (4%) (4%)
4. Ignorance and local Teachers 111 62 9 11 7
and tribal traditions (56%) (31%) (5%) (6%) (4%)
play a negative role 1.522 0.823
96 44 9 6 5
in educating girls.
Parents (60%) (28%) (6%) (4%) (3%)
5. There is lack of Teachers 116 55 10 11 8
political will for the (58%) (28%) (5%) (6%) (4%) 1.112 0.892
improvement of Parents 91 50 7 6 6
girls’ education. (57%) (31%) (4%) (4%) (4%)
6. Politicians Teachers 84 74 15 16 11
deliberately keep (42%) (37%) (8%) (8%) (6%) 15.27 0.004
girls in the darkness Parents 71 78 3 5 3 3
of ignorance. (44%) (49%) (2%) (3%) (2%)
7. Religious elites Teachers 118 49 12 12 9
oppose the girls’ (59%) (25%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 3.420 0.490
formal schooling. Parents 98 45 8 6 3
(61%) (28%) (5%) (4%) (2%)
1. Ninety one percent (SA = 57% and A = 34%) of teachers and eighty two percent
(56% SA and 26% A) of parents agreed that lack of financial support by parents
affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and parents
to detect the difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 7.789 and p-
85
value = 0.100, at 0.05 significant level. This reflects that, there is no significant
difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table 21).
2. Eighty three percent (SA = 47% and A = 36%) of teachers and eighty seven percent
(SA = 51% and A = 36%) of parents agreed that parents’ poverty is a major hindrance
in the way of girls education. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and
parents to discover the difference between them. As a consequence, the chi-square
(χ²) value = 1.843 and p-value= 0.765, at 0.05 significant level. This shows that, there
is no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table 21).
3. Eighty five percent (SA= 54% and A = 31%) of teachers and eighty eight percent
(SA= 58% and A = 30%) of parents agreed that indirect cost is a barrier in girls
education. The researcher compared the responses of both the respondents to discover
the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.644 and p-value
= 0.801, at 0.05 significant level. This value is statistically non-significant and shows
that teachers and parents hold the same views about the statement (Table 21).
4. Eighty seven percent (SA= 56% and A = 31%) of teachers and eighty eight percent
(SA= 60% and A = 28%) of parents agreed that opportunity cost is a barrier in girls
education. The researcher compared the responses of both the respondents to see the
difference between them. As a result, the χ² value = 1.522 and p-value = 0.823, at 0.05
significant level. This value is statistically non-significant and shows that teachers and
parents have the same views about the statement (Table 21).
5. Eighty six percent (58% SA and 28% A) of the teachers and eighty eight percent
(57% SA and 31% A) of parents disagreed that wealthier families may need child
labor and hire the poor girls, which affects girls’ education, and thus the statement is
negatively accepted. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and parents to
find out the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.112
86
and p-value = 0.892, at 0.05 significant level. This indicates that, there is no
6. Seventy nine percent (SA = 42% and A = 37%) teachers and ninety three percent (SA
= 44% and A = 49%) parents agreed with the statement “parents believe that girls will
leave them after marriage so investment on girls education will be wasted”. The
researcher compared the responses of teachers and parents to perceive the difference.
As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 15.273 and p-value = 0.004, at 0.05 significant
level. This proves that, there is no significant difference in the responses of both the
7. Eighty four percent (SA = 59% and A = 25%) of teachers and eighty nine percent (SA
= 61% and A = 28%) parents agreed that mothers encourage girls to remain at home
and attend the domestic chores. The researcher compared the responses of teachers
and parents to perceive the difference between the two. Consequently, the chi-square
(χ²) value = 3.420 and p-value = 0.490, at 0.05 significant level. This reveals that,
there is no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table 21).
8. Eighty four percent (SA = 50% and A = 34%) of the teachers and eighty nine percent
(SA = 56% and A = 33%) parents agreed that traditional seasonal migration of the
families affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses of both the
respondents to examine the difference between them. As a consequence, the chi-
square (χ²) value = 2.978 and p-value = 0.562, at 0.05 significant levels. This shows
that, there is no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table
21).
87
Table 22
Respondents’ views on facilities related factors affecting girls’ education
S. Statements SA A UD DA SDA χ² p
No.
1. Distance from home to 198 107 22 21 12 361.2 0.00
school is a problem in (55%) (30%) (6%) (6%) (3%)
girls’ education.
2. Non-availability of local 201 110 13 22 14 418.0 0.00
female teachers affects (56%) (31%) (4%) (6%) (4%)
girls’ education.
3. Irregularity in attendance 195 112 17 20 16 271.4 0.00
of teachers affects girls’ (54%) (31%) (5%) (6%) (4%)
education.
4. Lack of competent and 190 111 20 23 16 151.1 0.00
skillful teachers affects (53%) (31%) (6%) (6%) (4%)
girls’ education.
5. Non-availability of toilet 171 132 22 20 15 203.4 0.00
facility in girls schools is a (48%) (37%) (6%) (6%) (4%)
factor that affects girls
education.
6. Lack of transportation 193 119 14 19 15 177.1 0.00
facility affects girls’ (54%) (33%) (4%) (5%) (4%)
education.
7. Unfeasibility of schools’ 192 117 18 18 15 325.1 0.00
buildings is a barrier in (53%) (33%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
girls’ education.
8. Non-availability of 186 124 14 20 16 98.97 0.00
drinking water facility is a (52%) (34%) (4%) (6%) (4%) 2
problem in girls’
education.
9. Insufficient number of 162 128 25 29 16 105.7 0.00
classrooms in the schools (45%) (36%) (7%) (8%) (4%)
is a factor that affects girls’
education.
4.4 Respondents’ Views on Facilities Related Factors Affecting Girls Education
This section analyzes political factors that adversely affect girls’ education at primary
level in district Kohistan. In this respect data was collected from male teachers, female
teachers and parents. For this purpose, the fourth research question (What are the facilities
related factors that affect girls’ education?) was guided by nine statements to find out the
88
negative effects of facilities related factors on girls’ education in Kohistan. The respondents
were required to respond to each item by showing their level of agreement. Information
obtained from Table 4.4 reveals that there are so many factors related to facilitation that
affect girls’ education at primary level in district Kohistan:
1. Eighty five percent (SA= 55% and A= 30%) of respondents agreed that distance from
home to school is a problem in girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value =361.2 and
p-value= 000<0.05 reveals that this response was significant at 0.05 significant level
(Table 22).
2. Eighty seven percent (SA = 56% and A= 31%) of respondents agreed with the
statement that non-availability of local female teachers affects girls education. The
chi-square (χ²) value =418.0 and p-value= 000<0.05 reveals that this response was
3. Eighty five percent (SA= 54% and A= 31%) of the respondents agreed with the
statement that irregularity in attendance of teachers adversely affects girls education.
The chi-square (χ²) value for this response was 271.4 and p<0.05, which reveals that
the response was significant at 0.05 significant level (Table 22).
4. Eighty four percent (SA=53% and A=31%) of the respondents showed their
agreement with the statement that lack of competent and skillful teachers affects girls
education. The chi-square (χ²) value for this response was 151.1 and p =0.00<0.05,
which indicates that the response was significant at 0.05 significant level (Table 22).
5. Eighty five percent (SA= 48% and A= 37%) of the respondents agreed that non-
availability of toilet facility in girls schools is a factor that affects girls education. The
chi-square (χ²) value for this response = 203.4 and p<0.05, which indicates that the
response was significant at 0.05 significant level (Table 22).

89
6. Eighty seven percent (54% SA and 33% A) of the respondents agreed that lack of
transportation facility affects girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 177.1 and p-
value = 0.00<0.05, is statistically significant at 0.05 level (Table 22).
7. Eighty six percent (53% SA and 33% A) of the respondents agreed that unfeasibility
of schools’ buildings is a barrier in girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 325.1
and p-value = 0.00, is statistically significant because this value is less than at 0.05
significant level (Table 22).
8. Eighty six percent (SA=52% and A=34%) of the respondents agreed with the
statement that non-availability of drinking water facility is a problem in girls
education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 98.97 and p-value = 0.00<0.05. This reveals
that the response was significant at 0.05 significant levels (Table 22).
9. Eighty one percent (SA= 45% and A= 36%) of the respondents agreed with the
statement that insufficient number of classrooms in the schools is a factor that affects
girls education. The chi-square (χ²) value = 105.7 and p= 0.00<0.05. This revels that
the response was significant at 0.05 significant levels (Table 22).

90
Table 23 Perceptions of male and female respondents on facilities related factors
S. Statements Gender SA A UD DA SDA χ² P

No.
1. Distance from Male 156 84 17 13 10
home to school is (56%) (30%) (6%) (5%) (4%)
a problem in Female 42 23 5 8 2 3.428 0.489
girls’ education. (53%) (29%) (6%) (10%) (3%)
2. Non-availability Male 160 86 10 14 10
of local female (57%) (31%) (4%) (5%) (4%) 3.275 0.573
teachers affects Female 41 24 3 8 4
girls’ education. (51%) (30%) (4%) (10%) (5%)
3. Irregularity in Male 155 87 13 14 11
attendance of (55%) (31%) (5%) (5%) (4%)
teachers affects 1.802 0.772
Female 40 25 4 6 5
girls’ education.
(50%) (31%) (5%) (8%) (6%)
4. Lack of Male 150 88 15 16 11
competent and (54%) (31%) (5%) (6%) (4%)
skillful teachers 2.036 0.729
affects girls’ Female 40 23 5 7 5
education. (50%) (29%) (6%) (9%) (6%)
of toilet facility in (47%) (39%) (6%) (5%) (4%)
girls’ schools is a Female 40 24 5 6 5 3.157 0.532
factor that affects (50%) (30%) (6%) (8%) (6%)
girls’ education.
6. Lack of Male 155 92 10 13 10
transportation (55%) (33%) (4%) (5%) (4%) 3.092 0.543
facility affects Female 38 27 4 6 (8%) 5
girls’ education. (47%) (34%) (5%) (6%)
7. Unfeasibility of Male 150 93 13 13 11
schools’ buildings (54%) (33%) (5%) (5%) (4%) 1.025 0.906
is a barrier in Female 42 24 5 5 4
girls’ education. (53%) (30%) (6%) (6%) (5%)
of drinking water (55%) (33%) (3%) (5%) (4%)
facility is a 5.643 0.227
problem in girls’ Female 33 31 5 6 5
education. (41%) (39%) (6%) (8%) (6%)
9. Insufficient number Male 131 100 16 22 11
of classrooms in (47%) (36%) (6%) (5%) (4%)
the schools is a 4.464 0.347
factor that affects Female 31 28 9 7 5
girls education. (39%) (35%) (11%) (9%) (6%)
91
4.4.1 Perceptions of male and female respondents on facilities related
factors
The first subsidiary part of the fourth research question sought to investigate the
difference in the perceptions of male and female respondents about facilities related factors
which affect girls education at primary level in district Kohistan. This part constitutes nine
with or remained neutral.
1. Eighty six percent (SA = 56% and A = 30%) of male and eighty two percent (53% SA
and 29% A) of female respondents agreed that distance from home to school is a
problem in girls’ education. The researcher compared the responses of male and
female to detect the difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 3.428
and p-value = 0.489, at 0.05 significant level. This reflects that, there is no significant
difference in the responses of male and female respondents (Table 23).
2. Eighty eight percent (SA = 57% and A = 31%) of male and eighty one percent (SA =
51% and A = 30%) of female respondents agreed with the statement that non-
availability of local female teachers affects girls’ education. The researcher compared
the responses of male and female respondents to discover the difference between
them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 3.275 and p-value= 0.517, at 0.05
significant level. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the responses of
3. Eighty six percent (SA= 55% and A = 31%) of male respondents and eighty one
percent (SA= 50% and A = 31%) of female respondents agreed that irregularity in
attendance of teachers affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses
of both the respondents to discover the difference between them. As a result, the chi-
square (χ²) value = 1.802 and p-value = 0.772, at 0.05 significant level. This value is
92
statistically non-significant and shows that male and female respondents hold the
identical views about the statement (Table 23).
4. Eighty five percent (SA= 54% and A = 31%) of male respondents and seventy nine
percent (SA= 50% and A = 29%) of female respondents agreed with the statement
that lack of competent and skillful teachers affects girls education. The researcher
compared the responses of both the respondents to see the difference between them.
As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 2.036 and p-value = 0.729, at 0.05 significant
level. This value is statistically non-significant and shows those male and female
respondents have the same views about the statement (Table 23).
5. Eighty six percent (SA = 47% and A = 39%) of the male and eighty percent (SA =
50% and A = 30%) of the female respondents agreed with the statement that non-
availability of toilet facility in girls schools is a factor that affects girls education. The
researcher compared the responses of male and female respondents to perceive the
difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) value = 3.157 and p-value = 0.532, at 0.05
significant level. This proves that, there is no significant difference in the responses of
both the respondents (Table 23).
6. Eighty eight percent (SA = 55% and A = 33%) of male and eighty one percent (SA =
47% and A = 34%) of female respondents agreed that lack of transportation facility
affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses of male and female to
perceive the difference between the two. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) value =
3.092 and p-value = 0.543, at 0.05 significant level. This reveals that, there is no
significant difference in the response of male and female respondents (Table 23).
7. Eighty seven percent (SA = 54% and A = 33%) of the male and eighty three percent
(SA = 53% and A = 30%) of female respondents agreed that unfeasibility of schools’
buildings is a barrier in girls education. The researcher compared the responses of

93
both the respondents to examine the difference between them. As a consequence, the
chi-square (χ²) value was 1.025 and p-value was 0.906, at 0.05 significant levels. This
shows that, there is no significant difference in the response of both the respondents
(Table 23).
8. Eighty eight percent (SA = 55% and A = 33%) of the male and eighty percent (SA =
41% and A = 39%) of female respondents agreed with the statement that non-
availability of drinking water facility is a problem in girls education. The researcher
compared the responses of both the respondents to examine the difference between
them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 5.643 and p-value = 0.227, at
0.05 significant levels. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the
response of male and female respondents (Table 23).
9. Eighty three percent (47% SA and 36% A) of male and seventy four percent (39% SA
and 35% A) of female respondents showed their agreed that insufficient number of
classrooms in the schools is a factor that affects girls education. The researcher
compared the responses of male and female respondents to examine the difference
between them. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 4.464 and p-value =
0.347, at level 0.05. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the response
of male and female respondents (Table 23).
4.4.2 The perceptions of teachers and parents on facilities related factors
The second subsidiary part of the fourth research question sought to investigate the
difference in the perceptions of teachers and parents about facilities related factors which
affect girls’ education at primary level in district Kohistan. This subsidiary part constitutes
nine statements and the respondents were asked to respond to the extent they agreed or
disagreed with or remain neutral.

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Table 24
Perceptions of teachers and parents on facilities related factors

No
1. Distance from Teachers 105 57 14 13 8
home to school is (54%) (29%) (7%) (7%) (4%) 1.833 0.767
a problem in girls’ Parents 90 50 8 8 4
education. (56%) (3%) (5%) (5%) (3%)
2. Non-availability Teachers 108 62 7 14 9
of local female (54%) (31%) (4%) (7%) (5%) 1.329 0.856
teachers affects Parents 93 48 6 8 5
girls’ education. (58%) (30%) (4%) (5%) (3%)
3. Irregularity in Teachers 105 63 10 12 10
attendance of (53%) (32%) (5%) (6%) (5%) 0.799 0.939
girls’ education. (56%) (31%) (4%) (5%) (4%)
4. Lack of competent Teachers 105 57 13 15 10
and skillful (53%) (29%) (7%) (8%) (5%) 2.706 0.608
girls’ education. (53%) (34%) (4%) (5%) (4%)
of toilet facility in (48%) (35%) (7%) (7%) (5%)
girls’ schools is a 2.160 0.706
Parents 76 63 9 7 5
factor that affects
(48%) (39%) (6%) (4%) (3%)
girls’ education.
6. Lack of Teachers 103 66 9 12 10
transportation (52%) (33%) (5%) (6%) (5%) 2.001 0.736
facility affects Parents 90 53 5 7 5
girls’ education. (56%) (33%) (3%) (4%) (3%)
7. Unfeasibility of Teachers 108 61 11 11 9
schools’ buildings (54%) (31%) (6%) (6%) (5%) 1.161 0.884
is a barrier in Parents 84 56 7 7 6
girls’ education. (53%) (35%) (4%) (4%) (4%)
of drinking water (48%) (34%) (6%) (7%) (6%)
facility is a 10.926 0.027
Parents 91 57 2 6 4
problem in girls’
(57%) (36%) (1%) (4%) (3%)
education.
9. Insufficient Teachers 80 68 18 22 12
number of (40%) (34%) (9%) (11 (6%)
classrooms in the %) 12.837 0.012
schools is a factor Parents 82 60 7 7 4
that affects girls’ (51%) (37%) (4%) (4%) (3%)
education.
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1. Eighty three percent (SA = 54% and A = 29%) of teachers and eighty seven percent
(56% SA and 31% A) of parents with the statement that distance from home to school
is a problem in girls education. The researcher compared the responses of teachers
and parents to detect the difference. As a consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value =
1.833 and p-value = 0.767, at 0.05 significant level. This reflects that, there is no
significant difference in the responses of teachers and parents (Table 24).
2. Eighty five percent (SA = 54% and A = 31%) of teachers and eighty eight percent
(SA = 58% and A = 30%) of parents agreed with the statement that non-availability of
local female teachers affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses
of teachers and parents to discover the difference between them. As a consequence,
the chi-square (χ²) value = 1.329 and p-value= 0.856, at 0.05 significant level. This
shows that, there is no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents
(Table 24).
3. Eighty five percent (SA= 53% and A = 32%) of teachers and eighty seven percent
(SA= 56% and A = 31%) of the parents agreed that irregularity in attendance of
teachers affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses of both the
respondents to discover the difference between them. As a result, the chi-square (χ²)
value = 0.799 and p-value = 0.939, at 0.05 significant level. This value is statistically
non-significant and shows that teachers and parents hold the identical views about the
statement (Table 24).
4. Eighty two percent (SA= 53% and A = 29%) of teachers and eighty seven percent
(SA= 53% and A = 34%) of the parents agreed with the statement that lack of
competent and skillful teachers affects girls education. The researcher compared the
responses of both the respondents to see the difference between them. As a result, the
chi-square (χ²) value = 2.706 and p-value = 0.608, at 0.05 significant level. This value
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is statistically non-significant and shows that teachers and parents have the same
views about the statement (Table 24).
5. Eighty three percent (48% SA and 35% A) of the teachers and eighty seven percent
(48% SA and 39% A) of the parents agreed that non-availability of toilet facility in
girls schools is a factor that affects girls education. The researcher compared the
responses of teachers and parents to find out the difference between them. As a result,
the chi-square (χ²) value = 2.160 and p-value = 0.706, at 0.05 significant level. This
indicates that, there is no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents
(Table 24).
6. Eighty five percent (SA = 52% and A = 33%) of the teachers and eighty nine percent
(SA = 56% and A = 33%) of the parents agreed with the statement that lack of
transportation facility affects girls education. The researcher compared the responses
of teachers and parents to perceive the difference. As a result, the chi-square (χ²)
value = 2.001 and p-value = 0.736, at 0.05 significant level. This proves that, there is
no significant difference in the responses of both the respondents (Table 24).
7. Eighty five percent (SA = 54% and A = 31%) of teachers and eighty eight percent
(SA = 53% and A = 35%) of parents agreed that unfeasibility of schools’ buildings is
a barrier in girls education. The researcher compared the responses of teachers and
parents to perceive the difference between the two. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²)
value = 1.161 and p-value = 0.884, at 0.05 significant level. This reveals that, there is
no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table 24).
8. Eighty two percent (SA = 48% and A = 34%) of the teachers and ninety three percent
(SA = 57% and A = 36%) of parents agreed that non-availability of drinking water
facility is a problem in girls education. The researcher compared the responses of both
the respondents to examine the difference between them. As a consequence, the chi-
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square (χ²) value = 10.926 and p-value = 0.027, at 0.05 significant levels. This shows
that, there is no significant difference in the response of teachers and parents (Table
24).
9. Seventy four percent (SA = 40% and A = 34%) of teachers and eighty eight percent
(SA = 51% and A = 37%) of parents agreed that insufficient number of classrooms in
the schools is a factor that affects girls education. The researcher compared the
responses of both the respondents to examine the difference between them. As a
consequence, the chi-square (χ²) value = 12.837 and p-value = 0.012, at 0.05
significant levels. This shows that, there is no significant difference in the response of
teachers and parents (Table 24).
4.5 Discussion
This research work was designed to investigate the factors that affect girls education
at primary level in district Kohistan. This section discusses the findings of the research study
based on the objectives and research questions.
First objective of the study was concerned with the socio-cultural factors affecting
girls’ education in Kohistan. It is evident from the result of data analysis, presented in Table
13 that there are various socio-cultural factors that affect girls’ education. The comparative
views of male and female teachers and teachers and parents indicate that all of the
respondents had the similar perceptions about the socio-cultural factors affecting girls’
educations. Co-education is a hurdle as parents do not like it to send their daughters to
schools where boys are also enrolled. In government schools girl students’ needs are not met
accordingly. The safety and protection of girl students is also a deep concern of parents in the
region.
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Misunderstood and misinterpreted religious taboos and theories about veil (Pardah)
and the ignorance and conservatism of parents also have adverse effect on girls’ education.
Negligence of the role of educating girls in developing a society and extreme gender
sensitivity, an erroneous and self developed difference between religious and school
education and preference and reverence for the farmer one at the cost of the latter are some of
the huge problems girls education is to cope with.
These findings are supported by the earlier findings of Suleman et al. (2015). In their
work titled "Exploring Factors Affecting Girls’ Education at Secondary Level: A Case of
Karak District, Pakistan" they noted that girls education is affected by so many factors. These
factors include negative attitudes of parents about girls’ education, lack of encouragement
and attention and illiteracy on the part of parents, far flung schools, unfeasibility of school
building, early marriage of girls and their involvement in social activities. Apart from this,
the findings of the study are also supported by other studies of Shah and Shah (2012), Keiko
and Yoshinori (2006) and British Council (2014).
Second objective of the research study is about the economic factors affecting girls
education at primary level in Kohistan. Data analysis of Table 16 reveals the economic
factors that affect girls’ education. These factors include the lack of financial support by
parents, poverty of parents, education expenditures and cattle rearing. Similarly, girls are
encouraged to master domesticities rather than to get education by their parents especially
their mothers. Seasonal and locally necessary migration of families to the hill tops along with
their cattle does badly affect girls’ education in Kohistan.
The findings of this research study are in agreement with the findings of Chepleting,
Chepkemei, Yano and Chebet (2013). According to Chepleting et al. (2013) girls’ education
is influenced by economic factors. The parents have low economic background also have an
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adverse affect on the education of their daughters. In such families girls are generally
engaged in household work, which has a negative effect on their education.
The third objective of the research study was concerned with political factors
affecting girls’ education. The analysis of Table 19 showed that the following political factors
have negative impact on girls’ education in Kohistan. These factors include the
mismanagement on the part of the officials and political patronage of the habitual absent
female teachers, non-availability of girls schools at appropriate distances and at accessible
places, hard and dangerous pathways to these schools are also hindering the efforts made to
educate girls. Ignorance on the part of parents and religious quarter leads to the developing of
localized negative traditions that discourage girls’ education.
The comparative analysis of Table 20 and Table 21 revealed that there was no
significant difference in the response of all types of respondents on political factors affecting
girls’ education. The findings of this study are in consonance with their earlier findings of
Atayi (2008), Chitrakar (2009) and Shah and Shah (2012).
Fourth objective of the research study is about facilities that affect girls education at
primary level in Kohistan. Summary of the result presented in Table 22 shows the
respondents perceptions about facilities related factors. These factors include the
unavailability of local female teachers, and therefore, female teachers are hired from nearby
districts, are often untrained and not fully competent. Question may be arisen on their skills
too. Being non-local, absenteeism on their part is major weakness, destroying girls’ education
in particular. Other basic facilities such as toilets, insufficient number of class rooms,
transportation, ever missing facility of drinkable water and above all, insufficient number of
teachers are things responsible for the regrettable conditions of girls’ education in Kohistan.
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The findings of this study are in agreement with the earlier findings of Atayi (2008).
According to Chitrakar (2009) girls are educationally more deprived as compared to boys. In
rural Pakistan the public schools are poorly equipped and are at long distances which pose
restrictions on girls’ education.

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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter provides the summary of this research study. In addition, the chapter also
presents conclusions and recommendations of the study based on the objective of the study.
The objective of this study was to investigate factors affecting girls’ education at primary
level in district Kohistan.
5.1 Summary
This research study was conducted to explore the factors affecting girls’ education at
primary level in district Kohistan. For this purpose the following six objectives were
formulated;- (i) to find out the socio-cultural factors that affect girls’ education at primary
level in district Kohistan, (ii) to investigate the economic factors that affect girls education at
primary level in district Kohistan, (iii) to explore the political factors that affect girls
education at primary level in district Kohistan and (iv) to investigate facilities related factors
that affect girls education at primary level in district Kohistan. (v) To compare the
perceptions of male and female respondents about the factors affecting girls’ education in
district Kohistan. (vi) To compare the perceptions of teachers and parents about the factors
affecting girls’ education in district Kohistan.
Similarly, six research questions:- (i) What are the socio-cultural factors that affect
girls education at primary level in district Kohistan?, (ii) what are the economic factors that
affect girls education at primary level in district Kohistan?, (iii) what are the political factors
that affect girls education at primary level in district Kohistan?, (iv) what are the facilities
related factors that affect girls education at primary level in district Kohistan?, (v) what is the
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difference between the perceptions of male and female respondents about the factors
affecting girls education in district Kohistan? and (vi) what is the difference between the
perceptions of teachers and parents about the factors affecting girls education in district
Kohistan? were formulated for the achievement of set objectives. Descriptive research design
was employed. Population of the study comprised of 1233 male PSTs, 511 female PSTs and
916 representatives of PTCs. The research work was delimited to factors affecting girls’
education at primary level, in government schools in district Kohistan. Sample of the study
comprised of 360 participants: - 160 male PSTs, 80 female PSTs and 120 PTCs members.
Multistage sampling technique was employed. Stratified sampling technique fallowed by
simple random sampling technique to select the sample.
The self-developed questionnaire was used for the collection of data. It had
four parts; the first part consisted of 12 statements that aim to explore the socio-cultural
factors, second part has 8 statements that aim to investigate economic factors, third part has 7
statements on political factors and fourth and last part contains 9 statements which aim to
find out facilities related factors, that affect girls education at primary level in district
Kohistan.
The questionnaire was structured on a five point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA),
Agree (A), Undecided (UD), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD), and allowed the
respondents to specify their level of agreement or disagreement. Questionnaire was employed
as research instrument for the collection of data. Data was collected by the researcher and
then analyzed using computer software Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The
reliability was established by using the Cronbach’s Alpha method and the coefficient alpha of
the questionnaire was 0.889. Statistical techniques such as Chi-Square test, Frequency,
Percentage and Mean were used for data analysis.

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5.2 Findings of the study
This research study thoroughly investigated the factors affecting girls’ education at
primary level in district Kohistan. Based on the set objectives of the study, the following
findings were established from the analysis of the collected data:
I. Findings related to objective 1.
1. Majority of the respondent (85%) agreed that parents are reluctant to allow girls to
receive education through co-educational institutions (Table 13).
2. Majority (82%) of the respondents agreed that girls students’ needs are not met in
government girls schools (Table 13).
3. Majority (82%) of the respondents agreed that problem of girls’ safety and protection
is a barrier in girls’ education (Table 13).
4. Majority (83%) of the respondents agreed that Purdah (veil) and gender segregation
consciousness affect girls’ education (Table 13).
5. Majority (82%) of the respondents agreed that constraints in the name of religion
affect girls’ education (Table 13).
6. Majority (84%) of the respondents agreed that early marriage stood against the girls’
education (Table 13).
7. Majority (84%) of the respondents agreed that illiteracy of parents is a hurdle for
giving education to their female child (Table 13).
8. A significant number (82%) of the respondents agreed that unawareness of the
benefits of girls’ education is a factor which affects girls’ education (Table 13).
9. A significant number (83%) of the respondents agreed that orphanage is a barrier for
girls’ education (Table 13).
10. Majority (83%) of the respondents agreed that girls students left the school at the
onset of adolescence (Table 13).

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11. Majority (84%) of the respondents agreed that parents prefer Madrasa (Religious)
education over formal schooling for girls (Table 13).
12. A significant number (83%) of the respondents agreed that people of the area consider
formal girls’ education as an evil (Table 13).
II. Findings related to objective 2.
1. Significant number (83%) of the respondents agreed that lack of financial support by
parents affects girls’ education (Table 16).
2. Majority (85%) of the respondents agreed that parents’ poverty is a major hindrance
in the way of girls’ education (Table 16).
3. Majority (83%) of the respondents agreed that indirect cost (such as transportation
and uniforms) is a barrier in girls’ education (Table 16).
4. Significant number (90%) of the respondents agreed that opportunity cost (such as
lost of household or paid labor) is a barrier in girls’ education (Table 16).
5. A significant number (73%) of the respondents disagreed that wealthier families may
need child labor and hire the poor girls, which affects girls’ education (Table 16).
6. A significant number (87%) of the respondents agreed that parents believe that girls
will leave them after marriage so investment on girls education will be wasted (Table
16).
7. A significant number (87%) of the respondents agreed that mothers encourage girls to
remain at home and attend the domestic chores (Table 16).
8. A significant number (86%) of the respondents agreed that traditional seasonal
migration of the families affects girls’ education (Table 16).
III. Findings related to objective 3.
1. Majority (86%) of the respondents agreed that politicians, patronage the habitually
absent female teachers which causes deterioration in girls’ education (Table 19).
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2. A significant number (85%) of the respondents agreed that political interference in
school management badly affects girls’ education (Table 19).
3. A significant number (86%) of the respondents agreed that non-availability of girls
schools in village affecting girls’ education (Table 19).
4. A significant number (87%) of the respondents agreed that ignorance and local and
tribal traditions play a negative role in educating girls (Table 19).
5. Majority (87%) of the respondents agreed that there is lack of political will for the
improvement of girls’ education (Table 19).
6. Significant number (85%) of the respondents agreed that politicians deliberately keep
girls in the darkness of ignorance (Table 19).
7. Significant number (86%) of the respondents agreed that religious elites oppose the
girls’ formal education (Table 19).
IV. Findings related to objective 4.
1. Majority (85%) of the respondents agreed that distance from home to school is a
problem in girls’ education (Table 22).
2. Significant number (87%) of the respondents agreed that non-availability of local
female teachers affects girls’ education (Table 22).
3. Majority (85%) of the respondents agreed that irregularity in attendance of teachers
affects girls’ education (Table 22).
4. Majority (84%) of the respondents agreed that lack of competent and skillful teachers
discourages girls’ education (Table 22).
5. Majority (85%) of the respondents agreed that non-availability of toilet facility in girls
schools is a factor that affects girls’ education (Table 22).
6. Majority (87%) of the respondents agreed that lack of transportation facility affects
girls’ education (Table 22).

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7. Significant number (86%) of the respondents agreed that unfeasibility of schools’
buildings is a barrier in girls education (Table 22).
8. Majority (86%) of the respondents agreed that non-availability of drinking water
facility is a problem in girls’ education (Table 22).
9. Significant number (81%) of the respondents agreed that insufficient number of
classrooms in the schools is a factor that affects girls’ education (Table 22).
V. Findings related to objectives 5 and 6.
1. In connection to the statement that parents do not allow girls to receive education
through co-educational Institutions. The responses of male and female teachers, and
teachers and parents were compared. As a result, the chi-square (χ²) values are 0.827
and 3.944 and p-values at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.935 and 0.414 respectively.
This indicates that there is no significant difference in the responses of the
respondents concerned (Tables 14 & 15).
2. As far as the statement “learners’ needs are not considered for receiving education in
girls schools”. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared.
Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) values are 2.771 and 0.975 and p-values at the 0.05
significant levels are 0.597 and 0.914 respectively. This indicates that there is no
significant difference in the responses of the respondents concerned (Tables 14 & 15).
3. Regarding the statement “problem of girls’ safety and protection is a barrier in girls’
education”. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared.
As a result the chi-square (χ²) values are 3.556 and 2.084 and p-values at the 0.05
significant levels are 0.945 and 0.720 respectively at the significant level of 0.05. This
shows that there is no significant difference in the responses of the respondents
(Tables 14 & 15).

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4. In regard to the statement that Purdah (veil) and gender segregation consciousness
affect girls’ education. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were
compared. The resultant chi-square (χ²) values are 0.747 and 0.719 and p-values are
0.945 and 0.949 respectively at the significant level of 0.05. This shows that there is
no significant difference in the responses (Tables 14 & 15).
5. The responses of male and female teachers and parents on the statement that
constraints in the name of religion affect girls’ education were compared. The
resultant chi-square (χ²) values are 0.808 and 1.983 and p-values are 0.937 and 0.739
respectively. This reveals that there is no significant difference in the responses of the
respondents at 0.05 significant level (Tables 14 & 15).
6. In connection to the statement that early marriage stood against the girls’ education.
The responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared. As a result
the chi-square (χ²) values are 1.491 and 0.355 and p-values at the 0.05 significant
levels are 0.828 and 0.986 respectively. This indicates that there is no significant
difference in the responses of the respondents concerned (Tables 14 & 15).
7. As far as the statement “illiteracy of parents is a hurdle for giving education to their
female child”. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared.
8. Regarding the statement “unawareness of the benefits of girls’ education is a factor
which affects girls’ education”. The researcher compared the responses of male and
female teachers and parents. As a result the chi-square test (χ²) values are 0.605 and
0.467 and p-values are 0.962 and 0.977 respectively at the significant level of 0.05.
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The result shows that there is no significant difference in the responses of the
respondents (Tables 14 & 15).
9. In regard to the statement that orphanage is a barrier for girls’ education. The
responses of male and female teachers and parents respondents were compared. The
resultant chi-square (χ²) values are 4.166 and 1.756 and p-values are 0.384 and 0.780
respectively at the significant level of 0.05. This shows that there is no significant
difference in the responses of the respondents (Tables 14 & 15).
10. In connection to the statement that girls students left school at the onset of
adolescence. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared.
11. As far as the statement “parents prefer religious (Madrasa) education over formal
schooling for girls” is concerned. The responses of male and female teachers and
parents were compared. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) values are 2.039 and 2.003
and p-values at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.729 and 0.735 respectively. This
indicates that there is no significant difference in the responses of the respondents
concerned (Tables 14 & 15).
12. In connection to the statement that people of the area consider formal education as an
evil, for girls. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared.
significant difference in the responses of the respondents concerned (Tables 14 & 15)
13. In connection to the statement that lack of financial support by parents affects girls’
education. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared. As
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a result the chi-square (χ²) values are 1.558 and 1.552 and p-values at the 0.05
14. As far as the statement “parents’ poverty is a major hindrance in the way of girls’
education", is concerned. The responses of male and female and teachers and parents
were compared. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) values are 1.898 and 1.420 and p-
values at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.755 and 0.841 respectively. This indicates
that there is no significant difference in the responses of the respondents concerned
(Tables 17 & 18).
15. Regarding the statement “indirect cost (such as transportation and uniforms) is a
barrier in girls’ education”. The responses of male and female teachers and parents
were compared. As a result the chi-square (χ²) values are 1.177 and 1.402 and p-
values at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.882 and 0.844 respectively at the significant
level of 0.05. The result shows that there is no significant difference in the responses
of the respondents (Tables 17 & 18).
16. In regard to the statement that opportunity cost (such as lost of household or paid
labor) is a barrier in girls’ education, the responses of male and female teachers and
parents were compared. The resultant chi-square (χ²) values are 7.296 and 3.524 and
p-values are 0.121 and 0.474 respectively at the significant level of 0.05. This shows
that there is no significant difference in the responses of the respondents concerned
(Tables 17 & 18).
17. Comparing the responses of male and female teachers and parents respondents on the
statement that wealthier families may need child labor and hire the poor girls, which
affects girls’ education. The chi-square (χ²) values are 3.806 and 5.417 and p-values
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are 0.433 and 0.247 respectively. It indicates that there is no significant difference in
the responses of the respondents at 0.05 significant level (Tables 17 & 18).
18. In connection to the statement that parents believe that their daughters will leave them
after marriage, so an investment on girls’ education will be wasted. The responses of
male and female teachers and parents were compared. As a result the chi-square (χ²)
values are 0.630 and 1.672 and p-values at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.960 and
0.796 respectively. This indicates that there is no significant difference in the
responses of the respondents (Tables 17 & 18).
19. As far as the statement “mothers encourage girls to remain at home and attend the
domestic chores” concerns, the research weighed the perceptions of male and female
teachers and parents respondents. Consequently, the chi-square test (χ²) values are
1.294 and 1.107 and p-values at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.862 and 0.893
respectively. This indicates that there is no significant difference in the responses of
the respondents (Tables 17 & 18).
20. Regarding the statement “traditional seasonal migration of the families affects girls’
The chi-square (χ²) values are 4.206 and 2.978 and p-values are 0.379 and 0.562
respectively at the significant level of 0.05. The result shows that there is no
significant difference in the responses (Tables 17 & 18).
21. As far as the statement “politicians, patronage the habitually absent female teachers
which causes deterioration in girls’ education” is concerned. The responses of male
and female teachers and parents were compared. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²)
values are 4.464 and 7.789 and p-values at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.347 and
0.100 respectively. This indicates that there is no significant difference in the
responses of the respondents (Tables 20 & 21).

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22. Regarding the statement “political interference in school management badly affects
girls’ education”. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were
compared. As a result the chi-square (χ²) values are 5.776 and 1.843 and p-values at
the 0.05 significant levels are 0.217 and 0.765 respectively at the significant level of
0.05. The result shows that there is no significant difference in the responses of the
respondents (Tables 20 & 21).
23. In regard to the statement that non-availability of girls schools in village affecting
girls’ education. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were
0.819 and 0.801 respectively. This shows that there is no significant difference in the
responses at 0.05 significant levels (Tables 20 & 21).
24. Comparing the responses of male and female teachers and parents on the statement,
"ignorance and local and tribal traditions play a negative role in educating girls". The
chi-square (χ²) values are 2.829 and 1.522 and p-values are 0.587 and 0.823
respectively. The researcher reached the conclusion that there is no significant
difference in the responses of the respondents at 0.05 significant levels (Tables 20 &
21).
25. In connection to the statement that there is lack of political will for the improvement
of girls’ education. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were
compared. As a result the chi-square (χ²) values are 1.298 and 1.112 and p-values at
the 0.05 significant levels are 0.862 and 0.892 respectively. This indicates that there is
no significant difference in the responses of the respondents concerned (Tables 20 &
21).
26. As far as the statement “politicians deliberately keep girls in the darkness of
ignorance”. The responses of male and female teachers and parents compared.
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significant difference in the responses of the respondents (Tables 20 & 21).
27. Regarding the statement “religious elites oppose the girls’ formal education”. The
responses of male and female teachers and parents respondents were compared. As a
result the chi-square (χ²) values are 3.513 and 3.420 and p-values are 0.476 and 0.490
respectively at the significant level of 0.05. The result shows that there is no
28. In connection to the statement that distance from home to school is a problem in girls’
education, the responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared. The
chi-square (χ²) values are 3.428 and 1.833 and p-values at the 0.05 significant levels
are 0.489 and 0.767 respectively. This indicates that there is no significant difference
in the responses of the respondents (Tables 23 & 24).
29. As far as the statement “non-availability of local female teachers affects girls’
30. Regarding the statement “irregularity in attendance of teachers affects girls’
education”, the responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared. As
significant levels are 0.772 and 0.939 respectively at the significant level of 0.05. The
result shows that there is no significant difference in the responses (Tables 23 & 24).
31. In regard to the statement that a shortage of competent and skillful teachers affects
girls education. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were
113
0.729 and 0.608 respectively at the significant level of 0.05. This shows that there is
no significant difference in the responses (Tables 23 & 24).
32. Comparing the responses of male and female teachers and parents respondents on the
statement that non-availability of toilet facility in girls schools is a factor that affects
girls’ education. The researcher found that chi-square (χ²) values are 3.157 and 2.160
and p-values are 0.532 and 0.706 respectively. This shows that there is no significant
difference in the responses of the respondents (Tables 23 & 24).
33. In connection to the statement that lack of transportation facility affects girls’
education, the responses of male and female teachers and parents were compared. As
34. As far as the statement “unfeasibility of schools’ buildings is a barrier in girls'
education is concerned the responses of male and female teachers and parents were
compared. Consequently, the chi-square (χ²) values are 1.025 and 1.161 and p-values
at the 0.05 significant levels are 0.906 and 0.884 respectively. This indicates that there
is no significant difference in the responses of the respondents concerned (Tables 23
& 24).
35. Regarding the statement “non-availability of drinking water facility is a problem in
girls’ education”. The responses of male and female teachers and parents were
compared. As a result the chi-square (χ²) values are 5.643 and 10.926 and p-values are
0.227 and 0.027 respectively at the significant level of 0.05. The result shows that
there is no significant difference in the responses (Tables 23 & 24).

114
36. In regard to the statement that insufficient number of classrooms in the schools is a
factor that affects girls’ education, the responses of male and female teachers and
parents were compared. The resultant chi-square (χ²) values are 4.464 and 12.837 and
p-values are 0.347 and 0.012 respectively at the significant level of 0.05. This shows
that there is no significant difference in the responses of the respondents (Tables 23 &
24).
5.3 Conclusions
There are many aspects concluded in the research process. A short view of this whole
process is being presented.
1. The tradition of purdah (veil) in the region is so strong that parents do not feel
congenial while sending their daughters to co-educational institutions.
2. Parents are unaware of the benefits of girls education due to which they are reluctant
to send their daughters to schools. This is also because of illiteracy of parents in the
region.
3. Custom of early marriage is a barrier in educating the girls.
4. The economic factors which were significant in affecting girls schooling in Kohistan
constitute poor financial status of the parents and lack of financial support by parents
for female child. School cost (indirect cost or opportunity cost), parents preference to
invest on boys education and girls’ involvement in household affairs badly affects
girls’ education.
5. Parents believe that their female children are not safe and they are not facilitated with
sufficient arrangements. Thus the unavailability of basic facilities is a barrier in girls’
education.
6. Female teachers’ absenteeism affects girls’ education.

115
7. Political interference in the school management, political patronage of the habitually
absent female teachers and lack of political will, adversely affect girls’ education
8. Schools have been constructed at unfeasible places and at long distances from homes.
Besides these, there is lack of transportation facility which affects girls’ education.
9. There is lack of competent and skillful teaching staff in government primary schools
in district Kohistan which affects girls’ education.
10. It was also concluded that problem of girls’ safety and protection is a barrier in girls’
education.
In addition, some other factors are also responsible which adversely affect girls’
education. These includes:- constrains in the name of religion, orphanage, traditional seasonal
migration of the families, tribal traditions, lack of local female teachers and lack of basic
facilities.
All the respondents including male, female teachers and parents were found
significantly agreed upon the various factors concluded in this research study, that negatively
affect girls education in district Kohistan.
5.4 Recommendations
In order to improve girls’ education in district Kohistan, the following
recommendations are made in the light of the conclusions of this research study:
1. A finding of the research study indicated that parents are unwilling to send their daughters
to co-educational institutions. It is, therefore, recommended that girls schools should be
established by government in the proximity of each and every village.
2. As lack of awareness and an indifferent attitude towards girls' education, on the part of
parents, is a great hurdle in girls’ education. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that

116
district and provincial governments may organize awareness campaign programme on
girls education and parents may be made aware of the benefits and importance of girls
education through print and electronic media.
3. Early marriages hinder girls to get education. Therefore, it is recommended that parents
may be convinced not to arrange marriage of their daughters in early age. The
government should discourage this norm of the community through strict implementation
of the laws of minimum age for marriage.
4. A finding of the study also point out that poverty is one of the major barriers in the way
of girls’ primary education in district Kohistan. Parents cannot afford school expenditures
i.e. stationery, uniform and transportation cost. It is, therefore, recommended that
stationary, uniform and transport facility may be provided free of cost. In addition, poor
girls’ students may be given financial assistance and scholarships.
5. The unavailability of basic facilities in educational institutions tends to be a great hurdle
in girls education. So, it is also recommended that all types of basic facilities may be
provided by the government in girls’ school.
6. Female teachers’ absenteeism is very destructive for girls’ education. So, it is
recommended that this issue may be minimized by making the existing monitoring
system more effective and female teachers may be given special incentives and allowance
packages.
7. It was also found out in this particular study that political inference in the management of
schools and in education system badly affects girls’ education. So, its discouragement is
strongly recommended.
8. Lack of transport facilities and unfeasibility of schools buildings are the obstacles in girls
education. It is, therefore, recommended that a more convenient transport facility may be
provided by the local government to those girls students coming from far flung areas and
117
schools buildings may be constructed on feasible and suitable places to provide
educational opportunities to girls near to their homes.
9. As the study revealed that lack of competent and skillful teaching staff adversely affects
girls’ education at primary level. It is, therefore, strongly recommended that competent
and well trained teaching staff may be inducted on emergency basis to overcome the
deficiencies.
10. Safety and protection was founded to be a barrier to girls’ education. So, a safe and
peaceful education environment might be necessarily provided to girls students.
5.5 Suggestions for Further Research
1. This study was limited to girls’ education at primary level in district Kohistan. It would
be valuable to undertake the same type of research study at secondary level.
2. This type of research study should be conducted in other districts of the province.
3. This type of research study should also be undertaken at provincial and national level.
118
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healthy or physically disable. According to Spencer “Education is complete living” (National

It contributes to the progress of society by providing equal opportunities to individuals and

economic and political development of a nation.

The aim of Education is to develop individual personality and promote mutual

International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF], 2012).

In the world approximately two-third (113 million) out-of-school (OOSC) children

than in urban areas (Canadian International Development Agency [CIDA], 2003).

general less importance to female education (SDPI, 2012).

education expenditures. However, the federal government decreased its education

education budget in the provinces is little improved. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa granted an

concerns, which has to gain considerable attention by the all stakeholders.

particularly in district Kohistan.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The government of Pakistan is the signatory of Jomtien Conference 1990 (Education

and Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has introduced reforms and adopted

Comprehensive Development Strategy (CDS) 2010-2017 for the achievement of Education

school education in the region.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study were to:-

girls education in district Kohistan.

education in district Kohistan.

1.3 Research Questions

The research study was guided by six research questions:

the factors affecting girls education in district Kohistan?

factors affecting girls education in district Kohistan?

1.4 Significance of the Study

hindrances in participation of girls in primary school education in district Kohistan. The

education at primary level.

formulation and implementation.

The research study is likely to have the capability of enabling educational

culture taboos regarding girls’ education.

1.5 Delimitation of the Study

1. To public sector primary schools of district Kohistan.

2. To the socio-cultural factors, economic factors, political factors and facilities

related factors affecting girls education at primary level in district Kohistan.

1.6 Definitions of Key Terms

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against

NGOs Non Governmental Organizations

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Importance of Female Education

According to Ban Ki Moon, the ex-secretary-general of United Nations, “There is no

mother I will give you an educated nation” (Vadhera, 2015, p.21).

Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2014). Hence, education is

very important for every child.

equality in education means greater economic empowerment gender equality in education.

expected to have opportunities to comfortable and prosperous life. Education empowers

subject to domestic violence (Sperling, Winthrop, & Kwauk, 2016).

culture which will guarantee the process of development (HakiElimu, 2010).

2.2 Current Status of Female Education in Pakistan

In Pakistan the gender discrimination is evident in access to education and gender

discrimination is detrimental to society. There is a wide gender gap in education. As

24% between 2000 and 2005 (World Bank [WB], 2008).

countries (UNESCO, 2014).

further education. Only 19 percent of women have done Matriculation, 8 percent

other hand 60 percent of girls’ adult population is illiterate (Chitrakar, 2009).

2.3 Female education in Islamic perspective