Soil pollution

Sources of pollutants and mitigation measures

Basic Soil Chemistry
• Soils are composed roughly equally of solid particles, about 90% of which
are inorganic in nature and 10% organic matter, and of pore space, about
half of which is air and half water.

• The inorganic particles are residues of weathered rock; chemically they are
mainly silicate minerals.

• At the atomic level, these minerals consist of polymeric inorganic structures

in which the fundamental unit is a silicon atom surrounded tetrahedrally by
four oxygen atoms.
Soil Composition
 Soil types

Soil types depends on particle size, factor-of-ten increase in size with each
transition of type
Sources of Soil pollution.
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural
activities which may cause harmful effect on living organisms”
Cause of Soil pollution:
1. Industrial wastes • Inorganic Pollutants
2. Urban wastes • Organic wastes
3. Agricultural practices [Pesticides, Salts (fertilizers), etc.]
4. Radioactive pollutants
5. Biological agents
Industrial wastes
Disposal of Industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution
Sources: Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from various origins
such as pulp and paper mills, chemical fertilizers, oil refineries, sugar
factories, tanneries, textiles, steel, distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal
and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement, petroleum and
engineering industries etc.

Effect: These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological
properties of soil. As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human
food chain from the soil or water, disturb the biochemical process and
finally lead to serious effects on living organisms.
Urban wastes
Urban wastes comprise of both commercial and domestic wastes
consisting of dried sludge and sewage. All the urban solid wastes are
commonly referred to as refuse.
Constituents of urban refuse: This refuse consists of garbage and
rubbish materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper,
rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves, containers, abandoned
vehicles and other discarded manufactured products. Urban domestic
wastes though disposed off separately from industrial wastes, can still be
dangerous. This happens because they are not easily degraded.
Agricultural practices
Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a
large extent. With the advancing agro-technology,
huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides
and weedicides are added to increase the crop yield.
Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry, debris,
soil erosion containing mostly inorganic chemicals are
reported to cause soil pollution
 The main insecticide and herbicide groups
Pesticide groups Specified pesticide types
Insecticides
Organochlorines DDT, Aldrin, Heptachlor
carbamates

Herbicides
Phenoxyacetic acids 2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T
Toluidines Trifluralin
Triazines Atrazine, Simazine
Phenylureas Fenuron
Bipyridyls Diquat, Paraquat
Glycines Glyphosate
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
Chemical substances Designed use Major concerns
Aldrin Pesticide to control soil insects and to Toxic to humans, may be carcinogenic
protect wooden structures from
Chlordane Broad-spectrum insecticide to protect crops Biomagnification in food webs
DDT Widely used insecticide, malaria control Biomagnification in food webs

Dieldrin Termite control, crop-pest control Toxic, biomagnification in food webs, high
persistence
Endrin Insecticide and rodenticide Toxic, especially in aquatic systems

Heptachlor General insectivide Toxic, carcinogenic

Hexachlorobenzene Fungicide Toxic, carcinogenic
MirexTM General insecticide, against ants High aquatic animal toxicity, carcinogenic

ToxapheneTM General insecticide High aquatic animal toxicity, carcinogenic

PCBs Variety of industrial uses, especially in Toxic, teratogenic, carcinogenic

transformers and capacitors
Dioxins No known use; by products of incineration Toxic, carcinogenic, reproductive system
and paper bleaching effect
Furans No known use; by products of incineration, Toxic, especially in aquatic systems
PCB production
Common range of persistence of a number of pesticides
Pesticides Persistence

Arsenic Indefinite

Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides (e.g., DDT, chlordane, 2-5 yr

dieldrin)

Triazine herbicides (e.g., atrazine, simazine) 1-2 yr

Benzoic acid herbicides (e.g, amiben, dicamba) 2-12 month

Urea herbicides (e.g., monuron, diuron) 2-10 yr

Phnexy herbicides (2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T) 1-5 month

Organophosphate insecticides (e.g., malathion, diazinon) 1-12 wk

Carbamate insecticides 1-8 wk

Carbamate herbicides (e.g., baran, CIPC 2-8 wk

Radioactive pollutants
Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear testing
laboratories and industries giving rise to nuclear dust radioactive wastes,
penetrate the soil and accumulate giving rise to land/soil pollution.
Example:
1. Radio nuclides of Radium, Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and Carbon (C-14) are commonly
found in soil, rock, water and air.
2. Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include neutron, proton reactions by which Nitrogen (N-15)
produces C-14. This C-14 participates in Carbon metabolism of plants which is then into animals and human beings.
3. Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine129, Cesium-137 and isotopes of
Iron which are most injurious. Strontium get deposited in bones and tissues instead of calcium.
4. Nuclear reactors produce waste containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium140, Cesium-144 and Lanthanum-
140 along with primary nuclides Sr-90 with a half life 28 years and Cs-137 with a half life 30 years. Rain water carries
Sr-90 and Cs-137 to be deposited on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil particles by electrostatic forces.
All the radio nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.
Biological agents
Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta which
constitute a major source of land pollution by biological agents.
Example: Heavy application of manures and digested sludge can cause
serious damage to plants within a few years
Green House Impact
• Continuing declines in soil moisture can increase the need for
irrigation in agriculture and lead to smaller yields and even
desertification.
• Affect soils, leading to changes in soil erosion, organic carbon,
nutrients and alkalinity. Decreasing soil carbon due to climate
change also has implications for accounting of carbon emissions
from the land, which is an important
Acid Rain
Control measures of soil pollution
1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm
practices.
Example:
§ Planting trees on barren slopes
§ Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of
shifting cultivation
§ Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal
wastes also helps arrest soil erosion in the long term
Control measures of soil pollution…
2. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and
animals pose a disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly
practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid
waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
3. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in
place of toxic chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in
place of synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal
dung may be used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them
wastefully and polluting the soil.
Control measures of soil pollution…
4. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary
habits.
Example: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective
disposal methods.
5. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs
should be imparted to educate people on health hazards by
environmental education.
Example: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies
can achieve this.
Control measures of soil pollution…
6. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes
such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and
industrial effluents etc should be recycled and reused. Ex: Industrial
wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste
treatment methods should be adopted.
7. Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and
pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc. which are fatal to plants and animals.
Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be
banned.
DDT = Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane. BHC = Benzene hexachloride.
3R technique in solid waste management- Here 3R implies Reduce,
Recycle and Reuse

• Waste reduction is the best method to be practiced

• Recycling is a simple phenomenon of reusing the used items from
which utilities can still be derived
• It is important to recycle waste for the conservation of some of our
natural resources for the generations to come
Solid Waste Management
The main objective of solid waste management is to
minimize this adverse effect. Solid waste management can
be done by the following steps:

1. Collection
2. Storage
3. Transportation
4. Recycling
5. Treatment and
6. Disposal.
Collection: the efficient collection of solid waste leads to
dumping of waste management. Improper collection of solid
waste leads to dumping of waste in the open spaces

Storage: The waste bins act as storage points. Cleaning of

those waste bins is necessary for avoiding unhygienic
condition. Storage facilities are not yet developed in some
urban areas

Transportation: the solid waste collected from the bins are

finally transported to waste disposal site by truck. The
frequency of transportation is controlled by municipal
authorities and entirely depend on the rate of solid waste
formation
Disposal: this is the final step in solid waste management.
Due to the unorganized solid waste disposal causes
environment pollution. Generally solid wastes are disposed
off in low land area. Disposal of solid waste can be done by
three ways

(1)Land fill

(2)Incineration and

(3)Composting
Land fill:
• In land filling, the solid wastes are compacted and spread in thin layers
over a low land area, each layer being uniformly covered by thin layer of
soil. The final layer is covered by a final cover of about one meter of earth
to prevent solid waste scattering
• Land filling is a biological method of solid waste degradation and it will
produce CO2, CH4, NH3 as renewable source of energy
 Landfills

Schematic of a hazardous waste landfill

• Beneath the hazardous wastes, there must be a double-liner system to stop the flow of liquids,
called leachate, from entering the soil and groundwater beneath the site.
• The upper liner must be a flexible-membrane lining (FML) usually made of sheets of plastic or
rubber.
• The lower liner is usually an FML, but recompacted clay at least 3 feet thick.

• Leachate that accumulates above each liner is collected in a series of perforated drainage pipes
and pumped to the surface for treatment.
• To help reduce the amount of leachate formed by precipitation seeping into the landfill, a low
permeability cap is placed over completed cells.
• When the landfill is finally closed, a cap that may consist of an FML along with a layer of
compacted clay is placed over the entire top with enough slope to assure drainage away from
the wastes.
 Restrictions and standards for land disposal facilities

• Banning liquids from landfills

• Banning underground injection of hazardous waste within a quarter-mile of a
drinking water well
• Requiring more stringent structural and design conditions for landfills and
surface impoundments, including two or more liners, leachate collection
systems above and between the liners, and groundwater monitoring
• Requiring cleanup or corrective action if hazardous waste leaks from a facility
• Requiring information from disposal facilities on pathways of potential
human exposure to hazardous substances
Anthropogenic sources of methane emissions
 Landfills

Three classifications for landfills.

Class I landfills, or secure landfills, are those designed to handle hazardous wastes

Class II landfills, or monofills, handle so-called designated wastes, which are particular types of waste,
such as incinerator ash or sewage sludge, that are relatively uniform in characteristics and require
special handling;

and Class III landfills, or sanitary landfills, are engineered facilities designed to handle municipal solid
waste.
 Landfills

Basic features of a municipal solid waste landfill

• Moisture contained in the wastes themselves is rather quickly dissipated, so it is water that
percolates through the surface, sides, and bottom that eventually dominates the water balance
in the landfill.

• Leachate collection and treatment is essential to the protection of the local groundwater.

• Composite liners and leachate collection systems prevent groundwater contamination

• The composite liner consists of a FML above a layer of compacted clay soil. Leachate is collected
with perforated pipes that are situated above the FML

• A final cover over the completed landfill must be designed to minimize infiltration of water.

• During waste decomposition, methane gas is formed, so completed landfills need collection
and venting systems.
Decomposition in Landfills

• When MSW is deposited in landfills, microbial decomposition breaks down the wastes creating
gaseous end products, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and various volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), as well liquid leachate.

• The main focus of environmental engineers has traditionally been on keeping leachate from
contaminating groundwater, but more recently attention has shifted to the global warming
implications of keeping potent methane emissions from reaching the atmosphere, capturing
those emissions for clean power generation, and the potential for longterm carbon storage in
landfills
The decomposition of landfill materials can be thought of as a four-stage process.

I. Aerobic Phase: When wastes are placed in a landfill, there is enough entrained oxygen to allow
aerobic decomposition to take place for the first few days. Oxygen levels drop, and at the end of this
phase, anaerobic conditions begin.

II. Acid Phase: During this phase, anaerobic conditions prevail, and a two-step process begins.
• First, hydrolyzing-fermentative organisms produce enzymes that break down complex organics
such as cellulose and starch into simpler products that can be fermented into hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, fatty acids, and alcohols.
• In the second step, those products are converted by bacteria, called acetogens, into simpler
organic acids, typified by acetic acid. As these acids form, the pH of the leachate drops, which can
allow heavy metals to be solubilized. The concentration in the waste rises and small amounts of
hydrogen gas are produced.
III. Methanogenesis: Another group of microorganisms, called methane formers or methanogens, convert
the organic acids into and CO2
. The pH begins to return toward more neutral conditions and the release of heavy metals into the leachate
declines. This phase can last for months.

IV. Methanogenesis, steady: The duration of each phase depends on the availability of moisture and
nutrients, but typically on the order of a year or so after a landfill cell is completed the generation rate of
and settles down into nearly equal percentages, which is the characteristic of Phase IV. After many years,
perhaps several decades, the decomposition process and the rate of production of methane decline
significantly.

The rate of landfill decomposition is affected by a number of factors, including moisture, available nutrients,
pH, and temperature.

Equation that describes the complete decomposition of organic materials under

anaerobic conditions
Waste Incineration
• Incineration is particularly effective with organic wastes, not only in soils but in other
solids, gases, liquids, and slurries (thin mixtures of liquids and solids) and sludges (thick
mixtures) as well.
• Carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens as well as pathological wastes can all be
completely detoxified in a properly operated incinerator.Combustion of solid waste at a
temperature range of 900-1200 o C in a specially designed furnace is known as
incineration
• Various types of rotary kiln, air –controlled incinerators have been used for this purpose
• Volume of the waste an be reduced up to 90% by this process.
• The completion of combustion in an incinerator depends on following factors :
temperature and the amount of oxygen available for combustion
• The rotary kiln incinerator unit consists of a slightly inclined, rotating cylinder.
• Wastes and auxiliary fuel are introduced into the high end of the kiln, and combustion takes place
while the cylinder slowly rotates.
• The rotation helps increase turbulence, which improves combustion efficiency.
• Partially combusted waste gases are passed to a secondary combustion chamber for further
oxidation.
The most critical factors that determine combustion completeness are
(1) the temperature in the combustion chamber,
(2) the length of time that combustion takes place,
(3) the amount of turbulence or degree of mixing,
and (4) the amount of oxygen available for combustion.
 Composting
• Composting is the term used to describe the aerobic degradation of organic materials under
controlled conditions, yielding a marketable soil.

• It is a natural process that can be carried out with modest human intervention, or it can be
carefully controlled to shorten the composting time and space required, and to minimize offensive
odors.

• The stabilized end product of composting is rich in organic matter, which makes it a fine soil
conditioner, but the concentrations of key nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
are typically too low for it to compete with commercial fertilizers.
• In the composting systems, yard wastes are stacked in long, outdoor piles called windows.
• Their length is determined by the rate of input of new materials, the length of time that
materials need for decomposition, and the cross-sectional area of the pile.
• The composting process is affected by temperature, moisture, pH, nutrient supply, and the
availability of oxygen.
• Bacteria and fungi are the principal players in the decomposition process, but
macroorganisms such as rotifers, nematodes, mites, sow-bugs, earthworms, and beetles
also play a role by physically breaking down the materials into smaller bits that are easier
for microoganisms to attack.

Composting piles, called windrows

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the assessment
of the environmental consequences (positive and negative)
of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the
decision to move forward with the proposed action

• Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of

administrative procedure regarding public participation
and documentation of decision making, and may be subject
to judicial review

• The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA)

defines an environmental impact assessment as "the
process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and
mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant
effects of development proposals prior to major decisions
being taken and commitments made"
Environmental Clearance from central government is
required for 32 categories of development projects – under
industrial sectors:

• Mining
• Thermal power plants
• River valley
• Infrastructure (road, highways, ports, harbours, and
airports)
• Industries including very small electroplating in
foundry units
EIA benefits:

•Protection of Environment
•Optimum utilization of resources
•Saves overall time and cost of the project
•Promotes community participation
•Helps decision/policy makers to take appropriate decision
•Lays base for environmentally sound projects. History &
Evolution of EIA
 Steps in EIA

EIA not EIA

required required
Screening is the First stage of EIA, which determines whether the
proposed project requires an EIA and if requires, then the level of
assessment required. Its criteria are based upon:
• Scales of investment
• Type of development
• Location of development

Project Category ‘A’ : Category ‘B’ : Only Category ‘C’: This

Projects in this category difference between category is for projects
typically require an EIA. projects in this category that typically do not
The project type, scale and those in Category ‘A’ re q u i re a n E I A . T h e s e
and location determine is the scale. Larger Power projects are unlikely to
this designation. The plants fall under category ‘A’, have adverse environ-
potentially significant Medium Sized Power Plants mental impacts.
environmental issues projects are in category ‘B’.
for these projects may T h e s e p ro j e c t s a r e n o t
lead to changes in land- located in environmentally
use, as well as changes sensitive area. Mitigation
to social, physical, and measures for these projects
biological environment. are more easily prescribed.
Scoping:

• This stage identifies key issues and impact that should

be further investigated

• This stage also defines the boundary and the time limit
of the study

• Quantifiable and non quantifiable impact (aesthetic or

recreational value) are to be assessed

• Baseline status of these should be monitored and then

the likely changes in these on account of the
construction and operation of the proposed project
should be predicted
AIR
• Changes in the ambient level and the ground level
concentrations due to emissions from point, line and area
source
• Effects on soils, materials, vegetation and human health.
NOISE
• Changes in the ambient level due to noise generated from
equipment and movement of vehicles
• Effects on fauna and human health.
WATER
• Availability to competing users
• Changes in the quality
• Sediment transport
• Ingress of saline water
LAND
• Changes in the land-use and drainage pattern
• Changes in land quality including effects of waste disposal
• Changes in shoreline/riverbank and their stability.
BIOLOGICAL
• Deforestation and shrinkage of animal habitat
• Impact on flor a and faun a due to con taminants
/pollutants
• Impact on rare and endangered species, endemic
species and migratory path of animals including birds
• Impact on breeding and nesting grounds

SOCIO-ECONOMIC
• Impact on the local community including demographic
changes
• Impact on economic status
• Impact on human health
• Impact of increased traffic
Cont.
Feasibility
study
Prediction and Mitigation

• Possible alternative should be identified and

environmental attributes compared

• Alternatives for project location & process technologies

• Alternative of ‘no project’ should also be considered

• Ranking of alternatives based on the best

environmental option for optimum economic benefits
to the community at large

• Mitigation plan for the selected option have to be

drawn, and is supplemented with the Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) to guide towards,
Environmental Improvement
(1)

(2)