CONCEPT OF SCIENCE
the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)
“The observation, identification, description,
experimental investigation, and theorical
explanation of natural phenomena” – The
American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language (2004)
“An ongoing theoretical dialogue with nature, in
which scientists have developed successively
more powerful models to account for a wider
range of phenomena” - Snir et al. (2003)
“Science is also a way of understanding the
world and human interactions with it.” - Cobern
(1993)
“A human endeavor within which people try to
make sense of the environment and a
worldview that is built around practices that
purport to guide the individual towards a
personal understanding” - Watters and
Diezmann (2003)
“An intellectual as well as a social activity
carried out by humans in their pursuit to have a
better understanding of the natural world” -
Gribbin (2003)
“Science as a cultural as well as individual
process of thoughts” - Bybee (1997)
Science as an idea, a personal or social activity,
a course or field of study, and an intellectual
study
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
 It was an era of enlightenment that allowed the
development of different scientific fields which
changed the observations of society about
environment
 It was a golden age for the people committed to
principles of science
 Invention of the microscope
 Invention of the telescope
 Empiricism and the scientific method
 Heliocentrism vs Geocentrism
 Flat earth vs Spherical earth
INTELECTUAL REVOULUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY
NICOLAS COPERNICUS
 An astronomer in the Renaissance
 His work was often cited as the beginning of the
Scientific Revolution
 Work: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On
 The Earth is not the center of the universe.
HELIOCENTRISM
 Copernicus proposed in Commentariulus (Little
Commentary) that the Earth and the planets
revolve around the Sun
 This went against the prevailing view of
Ptolemy’s geocentrism, where the Earth is at
the center.
 Copernicus proposed that… Venus and Mercury
are nearer to the Sun than Earth. Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn are farther from the Sun than to
Earth.
 The Catholic Church believed that the Earth is at
the center of the universe (Psalm 93:1)
 Critics claim that Copernicus failed to provide a
physical theory to justify the cause for the
Earth’s motion.
o This critique inspired a rethinking in the
field of physics.
o Kepler (planetary motion), Galileo
(inertia) and Newton (gravity)
influenced the general acceptance of
heliocentrism.
CHARLES DARWIN
 An English naturalist and biologist in the 19th
Century
 Darwin published his book On the Origin of
Species (1859), which opened the idea of
evolution as the central theme of biology.
 Theory of natural selection as a mechanism of
evolution
 He also published The Descent of Man that
stirred controversy.
 Natural selection played a role in the evolution
of man.
 This theory defies creationism, especially of the
Catholic Church.
Natural Selection of Charles Darwin
 Organisms that are more adapted to their
environment are more likely to survive and pass
on the genes that aided their success.
 This process causes species to change and
diverge over time.
Human Evolution
 Misconception: Humans came from monkeys
and apes.
 Correct: We share a common ancestor with
monkeys and apes.
 Evolution is a long-term process that results in
species diversification
SIGMUN FREUD
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICA
 An Austrian neurologist in the late 19th to early
20th Century
 He founded psychoanalysis to understand the
human’s inner life
 His theory states that experiences shape
personality and human behavior.
 Aside from psychoanalysis, he also contributed
to understanding:
o the unconscious mind,
o defense or coping mechanisms,
Maya Civilization - Known for their works in astronomy
o psychosexual development, and
o the emotional and psychological side
of mental health
The Mind’s 3 Components
 Id – a part that makes you do what you want
right away (pleasure)
 Ego – a part that makes sure that you don’t do
whatever you want right away (reality)
 Superego – conscience; deals with what is right
or wrong
Scientist – because of their Curiosity, Creativity, Critical
Thinking they were able to produce scientific
knowledge, scientific discoveries and practices, and
technology
Civilization
 Describes a complex way of life characterized by
the urbanization of a community, division of
labor (social stratification), and shared methods
of communication beyond natural spoken
language (writing system)
 Earliest civilizations developed between 4000
and 3000 B.C.E. in Mesopotamia “when the rise
of agriculture and trade allowed people to have
surplus food and economic stability.”
Cradles of Early Science
 Science was developed in Asia, Europe,
Mesoamerica, and Africa.
 Science provided different ancient civilizations
the means to survive and understand the
natural and physical world.
 Science enables them to develop technologies
that helped them in their everyday life.
 Covers the entire area of Central America, from
southern Mexico up to the border of South
America
 Cultural area in the Americas - Known for their
rich culture and indigenous knowledge system
 The Maya civilization is one of the prominent
ancient civilizations that lasted for about 2000
years.
 Accurately predicting eclipses
 Developing sophisticated calendar systems:
o Haab Calendar (365 days): based on the
solar cycles
o Tzolkin Calendar (260 days): related to
agricultural cycles, religious rituals, and
movement of celestial bodies
 Constructing well-designed temples (i.e.,
pyramid at Chichén Itzá, Mexico) to conduct
naked-eye astronomical observations of the
sun, moon, planets, and other celestial bodies
 Most scientifically-advanced people in
Mesoamerica
o Building of hydraulics system with
complex waterways
o Developing technology for growing
different crops
o Designing cities using ordinary
machineries and tools
o Devising a rainbow of glittery paints
made from mica
o Producing rubber products
 Mayan Hieroglyphics – one of the world’s first
writing system
 Mayan positional number system – number
system based on the numeral 20. The concept
of zero and positional value
 Medicine

Inca Civilization  Indians developed Ayurveda, system of

traditional medicine
 Renowned civilization in Mesoamerica
o Discovered medicinal properties of
 Incas incorporated a large portion of western
plants to cure illnesses
South America, centered on the Andes
o Susrutasamhita of Sustruta - an ancient
Mountains
text that describes surgical & medical
 Developed scientific ideas and technologies:
procedures
o Building roads covered with stones
o Constructing structures that can survive Astronomy
natural calamities like earthquakes
 Ancient India developed theories on the
o Creating quipu, a system of knotted
configuration of the universe as well as the year
ropes for record-keeping
of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.
o Inventing a 12-month calendar to mark
 Interests of ancient India in astronomy, as noted
their festivals and planting seasons
by Sama (2008) from Siddhanta Shiromani:
o Constructing irrigation system for their
o Longitudes and latitudes of the planets
agricultural crops
o Diurnal rotation and its problems
o Building suspension bridges
o Eclipses and syzygies
o Creating Inca textiles
o Planetary conjunctions
Aztec Civilization o Paths of sun and moon

 A Mesoamerican culture that flourished in Mathematics

central Mexico from 14th to 16th centuries
 Ancient India tried to standardize measurement
 Consisted of different ethnic groups, particularly
of length via the Mohenjo-daro ruler.
those who spoke the Nahuatl language
 Aryabhata: introduced trigonometric functions
 Extensive contributions to science and
and techniques of algebra
technology:
 Brahmagupta: Hindu-Arabic numeral system
o Putting value in education
 Madhava: founder of mathematical analysis
o Using antispasmodic medication
o Developing an Aztec technology for EAST ASIA: CHINA
agriculture called chinampa
 Ancient China significantly contributed to areas
o Inventing canoe for travelling
like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics,
o Producing chocolates from cacao beans arts, philosophy, and music.
o Creating an Aztec calendar for their  Their influence was observed in their
rituals and planting season neighboring countries especially those that
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA belong to the Silk road

 Asia is a home to diverse cultural, economic, Medicine

scientific, and political activities.  Discovered medical properties of plants and
 Ancient civilizations in India, China, and the animals
Middle East are known in the fields of S&T and  Developed acupuncture as a medical method
mathematics. Technology
EAST ASIA: INDIA  Discovered and invented compass, gunpowder,
printing tools
Metallurgy  Invented tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow,
propeller
 Indians are known for their metallurgical works
and their iron manufacture
Technology
 Invented seismological detector
 Developed first dry rock facility Astronomy
 Recorded and preserved data on supernovas,
eclipses, comets
 Used lunar calendars and developed knowledge
in seismology that made them prepared during
natural events
MIDDLE EAST COUNTRY
 The Golden Age of Islam (7th-13th century)
brought a period of intellectualization.
 Muslim scientists put greater value on science
experiments rather than plain thought
experiments.
 The Golden Age of the Muslim in Science
declined in 11th to 13th century when the
Mongols destroyed learning institutions.
Physics and Optics
 Ibn al-Haytam as the Father of Optics
 Empirical proof of the intromission theory of
light
Mathematics
 Introduction of the concept of algorithm and
the term algebra (al-jabr) by Muhammad ibn
Musa al-Khwarizmi
 Refinements to the Arabic numeral system such
as the introduction of decimal point notation
Chemistry and Alchemy
 Jabir ibn Hayyan as the Father of Chemistry
 Extensive description of qualities of different
metals
Medicine
 Ibn Sina as the first physician to conduct clinical
trials
 Founded the science of experimental medicine
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA
 The African continent has many natural and
mineral resources that can be used to improve
the quality of life
 The early civilizations in Africa are also
considered knowledge-producers similar to
other ancient civilizations.
Mathematics and Architecture
 Geometry was a product of necessity to
preserve the layout and ownership of
farmlands along the Nile River
 Rules of geometry were created to make
rectilinear structures, vital to the
architecture in Egypt, resulted in:
o Great structures of the Egyptian
pyramids
o Ancient Egyptian cities
o Early dams built to divert water
from Nile
Chemistry and Alchemy
 Egypt was known in Africa to be a
center of alchemy.
 They tried to study human anatomy,
pharmacology, and applied vital
components to the treatment of
diseases.
o Examination, diagnosis,
treatment, prognosis → strong
parallels to the basic empirical
method of studying science
Astronomy
 The Africans used lunar, solar, and
stellar calendars or a combination of the
three to predict seasons and climates.
Metallurgy
 Africans invented metal tools used in
their homes, in agriculture, and in
constructing their magnificent
architectures
Mathematics
 Lebombo Bone as the oldest known
mathematical artifact dated from 3500
BCE
 Egyptians are good in the four
fundamental mathematical operations,
algebra, geometry