»Complete and detailed explanation of the formulas and principles *Over S00 solved and supplementary problems Useful tables and conversion factor In the Appendix «With index for easy access to topics in the book ‘includes the recent board examination questions wy DIT GH LESANIA Uy wll DILLOOAT LA www.gertcrev.comut Mechanics & Hydraulics AbLtitis Ss DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Civil Engineer BSCE, LIT — Magna Cum Laude 5th Place, PICE National Students’ Quiz, 1989 Awardee, Most Outstanding Student, 1989 3rd Place, CE Board November 1989 Review Director & Reviewer in all Subjects Gillesayia Engineering Review Center Reviewer in Mathematics and General Engineering Sciences MERIT Philippines Review, Manila Author of Various Engineering BooksFluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Revised Edition Copyright © 1997, 1999, 2003 by Diego Inocencio Tapang Gillesania All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transferred, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the author ISBN 971-8614-28-1 Printed by: GPP Gillesania Printing Press Ormoc City, Leyte Philippines Cover design by the author The cardinal objective of this book is to provide reference to Engineering students taking-up Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. This may also serve as a guide to engineering students who will be taking the licensure examination given by the PRC. The book has 9 chapters. Each chapter presents the principles and formulas involved, followed by solved problems and supplementary problems. Each step in the solution is carefully explained to ensure that it will be readily understood. Some problems are even solved in several methods to give the reader a choice on the type of solution he may adopt. To provide the reader easy access to the different topics, the book includes index. Most of the materials in this book have been used in my review classes, The choice of these materials was guided by their effectiveness as tested in my classes. I wish to thank all my friends and relatives who inspired me in writing my books and especially to my children and beloved wife Imelda who is very supportive to me. I will appreciate any errors pointed out and will welcome any suggestion for further improvement. .- DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Cebu City, Philippines *To my mother Iluminada, my wife Imelda, and our Children Kim Deunice, Ken Dainiel, and Karla Denise TABLE OF CONTENTS ' Preface........ Dedication CHAPTER 1 Properties Of Fluid... cece eset teetesesenteseseteneaeeeenneneenernseees aL Types of Fluid... ; Mass Density....... Specific Volume Unit Weight or Specific Weight «0... Specific Gravity ...:ccccesseceeseseseseesessenseeseeseees VISCOSITY iss. csebeletas . Kinematic Viscosity .....c.csccccccsccseseteeeersnescevanessesenenensnsssansreenens 5 Girriace VORSIOM:. acess ssesertess Cohesion (b) Cohesion > adhesion Capillarity (Capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension ané depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter. _ 4ocos0 yd h For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle 0 is 0°. Hence the formula becomes n= 42 Eq. 1-12 ya where: l= capillary rise or depression in m y = unit weight in N’/m? d = diameter of the tube inm o = surface tension iin PaFLUID MECHANICS 3 CHAPTER ONE & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Table 1 - 3: Contact Angles, 0 Materials Angle, 0 mercury-glass 140° water-paraffin -107° water-silver 90° kerosene-glass glycerin-glass COMPRESSIBILITY, B Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant- Temperature process, where; f AV = change in volume V = original volume Ap = change in pressure dV/V = change in volume (usually in percent) BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E, The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume. CHAPTER ONE 9 Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS stress Ap Fo.1-15 Pak, q- strain = AV. Vv dp rEp=- Eq. 1-16 CEE ay EY PRESSURE DISTURBANCES Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is c= Ep ale Eq. 1-17 p Bp PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS for any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by: expressed as: PiVi _ P2V2 bide - eG When temperature is held constant, Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Boyle’s Law) Eq.1-19 | When temperature is held constant (isothermal condition), Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Charle’s Law) * oi V2 Eq. 1- 20 eae | pi Vi = p2 V210 CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids 3 & HYDRAULICS For Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions (no heat exchanged) pr Vil= po Vat = Constant where: pi = initial absolute pressure of gas p2 = final absolute pressure of gas V, = initial volume of gas V2 = final volume of gas T; = initial absolute temperature of gas in °K (°K = °C + 273) T2 = final absolute temperature of gas in °K k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent. VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium | ' processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the vapor pressure or saturation pressure. Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers. The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure. Thus, a liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize. PLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE 11 & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Table 1 - 4: Typical Vapor Pressures mercury [0.000173 turpentine 0.0534 water. ethyl alcohol ether butane Freon-12 propane ammonia Solved Problems Problem 1 - 1 A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m find its (a) weight, W, (b) unit weight, y, (c) mass density, p, and (d) specific pravity (s). Solution « (a) Weight, V=Meg = (1,200) (9.81) Weight, W = 11,772 N or 11.772 KN (b) Unit weight, y= < i 1772 0.952 Unit weight, y = 42.366 kN/mé M ye Density, = — (¢) ensity, p Vv 1200 0,952 Density, p = 1,260.5 kg/m$ Density, p =12 CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS (d) Specific gravity, s= 8 P water 1,260.5 1,000 Specific gravity, s = 1.26 Specific gravity, s = Problem 1 - 2 The specific gravity of certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its (a) specific weight, in Ib/f8 and kN/m3, and (b) mass density in slugs/ft® and kg/m’, Solution (2) Specific weight, y = ywater x $ Specific weight, y = 62.4 x 0.82 = 51.168 lb/ft? Specific weight, y = 9.81 x 0.82 = 8,044 kN/m3 (b) Density, p = pwater * $ Density, p = 1,94 x 0.82 = 1.59 slugs/ft3 Density, p = 1000 x 0.82 = $20 kg/m3 Problem 1 - 3 A liter of water weighs about 9.75 N. Compute its mass in kilograms. Solution Mass = me & Mass = ae 9.81 Mass = 0.994 kg Problem 1 - 4 If an object has a mass of 22 kg at sea level, (a) what will be its weight at a point where the acceleration due to gravity g = 9.75 m/s?? (b) What will be its mass at that point? c CHAPTER ONE 1D MECHANICS ; Di esiauiics Properties of Fluids 1 3 Solution (a) W=mg = 22(9.75) W=214.5N (b) Since the mass of an object is absolute, its mass will still be 22 kg Problem 1-5 What is the weight of a 45-kg boulder if it is brought to a place where the acceleration due to gravity is 395 m/s per minute? Solution W=Me Imin = 305 m/s mir min 60sec g = 6.583 m/s? W = 45(6.583) W = 296.25 N Problem 1 - 6 lf the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 m?/kg, what is its specific Weight? Solution p = 1.2742 kg/m? 5 Specific weight, y= p x g = 1.2742 x 9.81 Specific weight, y =12.5 N/m?FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS 14 CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids Problem 1-7 What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21°C? Solution = where R = 287J/kg-°K _ _ 480x10° 287(21 + 273) p = 5.689 kg y= 5.689 x 9.81 y= 55.81 N/m? Problem 1 - 8 Find the mass density of helium at a temperature of 4 °C and a pressure of 184 kPa gage, if atmospheric pressure is 101.92 kPa. (R = 2079 J/kg * °K) Solution ; Pp D p= ee ensity pP P = Peage + Patm = 184 + 101.92 p = 285.92 kPa Peat 273= 277K 285.92. 10° 2,079(277) Density, p = 0. 4965 kg/m$ Density, p = Problem 1-9 \t 32°C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/m’. | etermine the gas constant of this gas. FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS CHAPTER ONE 15 Properties of Fluids Solution Density, p = ae § zie 9.81 = 1.397 kg/m? nn Density, p = —— y,P RT > 3 jenay Cates Laas) 10" Note: Pym = 101.325 kPa R(32 + 273) Gas constant, R = 718.87 J/kg - °K Problem 1 - 10 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30°C in a 500-liter container. What is the mass of air? Solution Eee RT 200 x 10° p=23 kg/m} p= Mass =p x V = 500 2.3% ao0 Mass = 1.15 kg Problem 1- 11 A cylindrical tank 80 cm in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. The tank and the liquid weighed 420 kg. The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid in kN/m*’.16 CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Solution -M Re = tna = 840 kg/m? 4 ‘i - VEPs = 840(9.81) = 8240.4 N/m3 y = 8.24 kN/m3 Problem 1 - 12 A lead cube has a total mass of 80 kg. What is the length of its side? Sp. gr. of lead = 11.3. Solution Let L be the length of side of the cube: M=pV 80 = (1000 x 11.3) L3 L=0.192 m=19.2 cm Problem 1 - 13 A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a pressure of 1 MPa and a volume of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 MPa. The bulk modulus of elasticity (Eg) of the liquid is: Solution _ PrdPh en oar oat ~~ dV/V— (0.995=1)/1 Eg = 200 MPa Problem 1 - 14 What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water, Es = 2.2 GPa. _ FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE 17 & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Solution 2 dP dV/V dp = pr-pr pi =O dp = pa dV= V2 3 V; dV = -0.6% V = -0.006V Es = E,= ode Nad DD ae 5 0.006V /V p2 = 0.0132 GPa p2 = 13.2 MPa x y Problem 1-15 Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116,280 kPa absolute. Using Ez = 2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water. Solution dp dV/V a} me 3 15x10 =- (116,280 — 137) x 10 dV/V ae 2 -0.0465 Vv dV —— = 4.65'% decrease V Problem 1 - 16 * If 9 m3 of an ideal gas at 24 °C and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2 m%, (a) what is the resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (b) What would have been the pressure and temperature if the process is isentropic. Use k = 1.3CHAPTER ONE 19 UID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids A HYDRAULICS CHAPTI 1 8 Prone er| bles Br eHanicg & HYDRAULICS Solution (2) For isothermal condition: Pi Vi = P2 V2 150(9) = pa (2) p2 = 675 kPa abs Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity 1 = 0.958 Pa-s. Assuming the velocity gradient to be # straight line, what force is required to pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m? area at ‘constant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate is 8.4 mm from one of the surfaces? (b) For isentropic process: i nn Vik= pre Solution 150(9)!3 = po (2)13 P= F, + Fe po = 1,060 kPa abs pene /y (kK-1)/k TS | Po = FLA e Ps uU/y me pltA T, a a —_—_— = Sacer: y 24 5; ate 150 0.958(0,3)(0.37) To = 466.4°K or 193.4°C A= Qo1e6 - 7 OAN ‘ : 0.958 (0.3) (0.37) 5 no Bh ePIC eG OROD BAY AGA a EM ee CE = =12. Problem 1 - 17 2 0.0084 66 N If the viscosity of water at 70 °C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978 BiG Ae Oe ‘ F=19.06 N determine its absolute viscosity in Pa - s and its kin tic € ty m/s : ema viscosity in m? and in stokes. : Problem 1 - 19 A cylinder of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 140 mm radius. Both cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is Solution Absolute viscosity: 4 = 0.00402 poise x 2:1 Fa—s Tpoise Lt = 0.000402 Pa - s f fequired to maintain an angular velocity of 21 radians/sec Assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line Kinematic viscosity: vote 0.000402 p (1000x 0.978) v= 411x107 m/s ¥ lstoke v= 4.11 x 107 m2/s x —=— 0.0001 m?/s v = 4,11 x 107 stokeFLUID MECHANICS 2 0 CHAPTER ONE & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Solution fixed t aN -- y=0.005m u/sy U=ro U = 0.125(2z) rotating U = 0.785 m/s oes y= 0.005 m Torque = F(0.125) Torque = tA (0.125) 0.88 = t [27(0.125)(0.3)] (0.125) Tt = 29.88 Pa L=0.3m (ie fixed cylinder liquid 0.005 Bh, et 0,125 0.13 m 20.88 4 0.785 /0.005 = 0.19 Pa-s Problem 1 - 20 An 18-kg slab slides down a 15° inclined plane on a 3-mm-thick film of oil with viscosity 1. = 0.0814 Pa-sec. If the contact area is 0.3 m?, find the terminal velocity of the slab. Neglect air resistance. Solution W = 18(9.81) = 176.58 N slab S Y Terminal velocity is attained when the sum of all forces in the direction of motion is zero. ; FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE 2 1 & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids [ZE, = 6] Wsin@- F,=0 F,=W sin 0 F, = 176.58 sin 15° [Rata aaa y 176.58 sin 15° = 0.0814 4 (0.3) 0.003 Ul =5.614 m/s 0, = 5.614 m/s Problem 1 - 21 Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 mm. Use o = 0.0728 N/m and y = 9810 N/m? for water. Solution Note: 0 = 90° for water in clean tube Capillary rise, h = a yd 4(0.0728) 9810(0.003) Capillary rise, = 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm Capillary rise, h = Problem 1 - 22 Estimate the capillary depression for mercury ina glass capillary tube 2 mm in diameter. Use o = 0.514 N/m and 0 = 140°. Solution 4ocos@ _ 4(0.514)(cos 140°) yd (9810 x 13.6)(0.002) Capillary rise, h = -0.0059 m (the negative sign indicates capillary depression) Capillary rise, h = Capillary depression, li = 5.9 mmE CHAPTER ON 2 3 CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS Properties uf Fluids 22 UID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Problem 1 - 23 What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa? “sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device 1s held to © surface of fresh water (Ex = 2.04 x 10° Pa) and the echo is received midway {ween impulses, how deep is the water? Solution lution = ao \ velocity of the pressure wave (sound wave) is 5 d _ |Es 561 = —2° p 0.0003 Bonet 5 = 0.042 N/m Z 9 transmitter Sound wave be oe = 1,428 m/s bie sci ech ag es ; ) e vice the echo is received § Problem 1 - 24 ; h i é e i lses, then An atomizer forms water droplets 45 4m in diameter. Determine the excess iidlway poet aoe d 2 ressure within these droplets using o = 0.0712 N/m © total time of travel of sound, 8 ; . , » (0.5) = % sec and the total Solution distance covered is 2/1, then; to | thect d 2h = 1,428(4) = 40.0712) _ 6 359 Pa = 178.5 m 45x 107° Problem 1 - 25 Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 mm diameter at a height of 24 mm. What is the true static height? Use o = 0.0742 N/m. At what pressure will 80 °C water boil? {Vapor pressure of water at 80°C = 47 4 kPa) Solution Solution Water will boil if the atmospheric pressure equals the vapor piessure _ 40cos8 yd where @ = 0° for water in glass tube Therefore water at 80 °C will boil at 47.4 kPa 4(0.0742) h= —S 1 = 0.00336 m= 3.36 mm 9810(0.009) ie True static height = 24 - 3.36 True static height = 20.64 mm24 CHAPTER ONE © Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS [Supplementary Problems Problem 1 - 28 What would be the weight of 1 3- mass or re! ere cceleratior b : g 3-kg a plar wh he accel 0. Ans: 30 N Problem 1 - 29 Cee ee tank with a diameter of 12 m and a depth of 4 m is filled er to the top with water at 20°C. [f the w i F : ter is heated to 50°C, } much water will spill over? Uni i ; 979 ? t weight of A FC i kN/m3 and 9.69 kN/m3, respectively. VA cae e Ans: 4.7 m3 Problem 1 - 30 A ee ae container is partially filled with a liquid at 15 atm. The volume of ee fe a ee L. At a of 30 atm, the volume of the liquid ‘is : average bulk modulus of elasticity of the liqui 8iven range of pressure if the tem: ie ge of perature after compression j return to its initial value. Whatis the coefficient of femnprees ie oe Ans: Eg = 1.872 GPa; B = 0.534 GPa"! Problem 1 - 31 Calculate the density of water : ne Bik Pome/iene vapor at 350 kPa abs and 20°C if its gas constant Ans: 2.59 kg/m Problem 1 - 32 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa and a t Ct container. What is the mass of the air? Ee pee eee Ans: 1.15 kg CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids 2 5 ‘FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Problem 1 - 33 (a) If 12 m3 of nitrogen at 30°C and 125 kPa abs is permitted to expand jsothermally to 30 m3, what is the resulting pressure? (b) What would the pressure and temperature have been if the process had been isentropic? Ans: (a) 50 kPa abs (b) 34.7 kPa abs; -63°C Problem 1 - 34 A square block weighing 1.1 kN and 250 mm on an edge slides down an incline on a film of oil 6.0 um thick, Assuming a linear velocity profile in the vil and neglecting air resistance, what is the terminal velocity of the block? The viscosity of oil is 7 mPa-s. Angle of inclination is 20°. Ans: 5.16 m/s Problem 1 - 35 Hlenzene at 20°C has a viscosity of 0.000651 Pa-s. What shear stress is required to deform this fluid at a strain rate of 4900 s?? Ans: t= 3.19 Pa Problem 1 - 36 A shaft 70 mm in diameter is being pushed at a speed of 400 mm/s through a bearing sleeve 70.2 mm in diameter and 250 mm long. The clearance, assumed uniform, is filled with oil at 20°C with v = 0.005 m2/s and sp. gr. = 0.9. Find the force exerted by the oil in the shaft. Ans: 987 N Problem 1 - 37 Two clean parallel glass plates, separated by a distance d = 1.5 mm, are dipped in a bath of water. How far does the water rise due to capillary action, if o = 0,0730 N/m? « Ans: 9.94 mmFLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS 26 CHAPTER ONE Properties of Fluids Problem 1 - 38 Find the angle the surface tension film leaves the glass for a vertical tube immersed in-water if the diameter is 0.25 inch and the capillary rise is 0.08 inch. Use o = 0.005 lb/ft. a Ans: 64,3° Problem 1 - 39 ba force is required to lift a thin wire ring 6 cm in diameter from a water surface at 20°C? (o of wat PC = i oa ( water at 20°C = 0.0728 N/m). Neglect the weight of the Ans: 0.0274 N | & HYDRAULICS FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TWO 2 7 Principles of Hydrostatics Chapter 2 Principles of Hydrostatics UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE, p Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a body or surface, with the force. acting at right angles to the surface uniformly in all directions. In the English system, pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi); in international usage, in kilograms per square centimeters (kg/cm?), or in atmospheres; and in the international metric system (SI), in Newtons per square meter (Pascal). The unit atmosphere (atm) is defined as a pressure of 1.03323 kg/cm? (14.696 Ib/in?), which, in terms of the conventional mercury barometer, corresponds to 760 mm (29.921 in) of mercury. The unit kilopascal (kPa) is defined as a pressure of 0.0102 kg/cmé (0.145 Ib/sq in). PASCAL'S LAW Puscal’s law, developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that the pressure on a fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container. In Figure 2 - 1, as liquid flows into the large container at the bottom, pressure pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the container. The liquid rises to the same level in all of the tubes, regardless of the shape or angle of the tube.28 CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS . Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS -PLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TW/O 29 & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURES Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure) Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be Measured by pressure gauges or manometers., For small pressure differences, a U- tube manometer is used. It consists of a U-shaped tube with one end connected to _ the container and the other open to the atmosphere. Filled with a liquid, such as Water, oil, or mercury, the difference in the liquid surface levels in the two Manometer legs indicates the pressure difference from local atmospheric fonditions. For higher pressure differences, a Bourdon gauge, named after the Trench inventor Eugéne Bourdon, is used. This consists of a hollow metal tube with an oval cross section, bent in the shape of a hook. One end of the tube is rlosed, the other open and connected to the measurement region. Figure 2 ~ 1: Illustration of Pascal’s Law The laws of fluid mechanics are observable in many everyday situations. For : example, the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a pond will be the same as the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a much narrower. pipe, provided depth remains constant. If a longer pipe filled with water is tilted so that it reaches a maximum height of 15 m, its water will exert the same pressure as the other examples (left of Figure 2 - 2). Fluids can flow up as well as down in devices such as siphons (right of Figure 2 - 2). Hydrostatic force causes water in the siphon to flow up and over the edge until the bucket is empty or the suction is broken. A siphon is particularly useful for emptying containers that should not be tipped. Atmospheric Pressure & Vacuum _ Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth's surface from the Weight of the air above it. A vactium is a space that has all matter removed from it. It is impossible to create a perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum system is, some molecules are always present in the vacuum area. Even remote regions of outer space have a small amount of gas. A vacuum ran also be described as a region of space where the pressure is less than the Hormal atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.9 in) of mercury. Under Normal conditions at sea level: Patm = 2166 Ib/ ft? = 14,7 psi = 29.9 inches of mercury (hg) = 760 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa Absolute Pressure Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum) Py =o = Py Figure 2 - 2: Illustration of Pascal’s Law Pabs = Pgage + Patm Eq. 2-2 Note: * Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure attainable. * Absolute pressure can never be negative. * The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the ambient atmospheric pressure,CHAPTER TW/O 31 Principles of Hydrostatics “PLUID MECHANICS #& HYDRAULICS FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS 3 0 CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics IARIATIONS IN PRESSURE se Consider any two points (1 & 2), whose difference in elevation : h, e = ba Bands i i -sectional area a and a leng' "ends of an elementary prism having across-sect eee, Bince this prism is at rest, all forces acting upon it must be in equilibrium Standard atmosphere-= 101.325 abs a Free liquid surface Current atmosphere = 100 abs -40 gage 41.325 gage Dy & pz are gage pressures 60 abs Absolute zero = -101.325 gage or -100 gage All pressure units in kPa Figure 2 - 3: Relationship between absolute and gage pressures Note: Unless otherwise specified in this book, the term pressure signifies gage pressure. vacuum MERCURY BAROMETER 760 mm A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in atmospheric pressure. At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.9 in) up a calibrated Atmospheric glass tube. Higher elevations yield lower readings pressure because the atmosphere is less dense there, and the thinner air exerts less pressure on the mercury. i Figure 2 - 4: Forces acting on elementary prisir 1 , : Note: Free Liqufd Surface refers to liquid surface subject to zero gage r atmospheric pressure only. pressure or with With reference to Figure 2 - 4: sat Sea Level PRIA W=7V W=y (aL) ANEROID BAROMETER pee Waite In an aneroid barometer, a Fhb-Fi=Wsin® partially evacuated metal drum 7 poa-pia=y (aL) sin Riad expands or contracts in response a po-pi=yLsin® but L sin 8 = to changes in air pressure. A 3 : , .2° series of levers and springs pa-pi=yh Eq translates the up and down movement of the drum top into the circular motion of the pointers along the aneroid barometer's face. Therefore; the difference in pressure between any hvo ponte ina ee a at yest is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (y) to the vertica metal drum (partial vacuum) (h) between the points. HairspritigFLUID MECHANICS 3 2 CHAPTER TWO & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics Also: po =pitwh Eq. 2-4 This means that any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change at point 2. Therefore; a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the liquid. Let us assume that point ® in Figure 2 - 4 lie on the free liquid surface, then the gage pressure py is zero and Eq. 2 - 4 becomes: This'means that the pressure at any point “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (y) and h. Consider that points ® and @ in Figure 2 - 4 lie on the same elevation, such that h = 0; then Eq. 2 - 4 becomes: Pi= pp Eq. 2-6 This means that the pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid at rest are equal. Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids Air, pressure = py hi Liquid 1 he Liquid 2 hg FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS CHAPTER TWO 33 Principles of Hydrostatics Consider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different densities coe with air at the top under a gage pressure of pa, the pressure at the bottom o the tank is: Pootiom = DY n+ p= yl Yo he + ys hs + pa Eq. 2-7 PRESSURE HEAD Sch Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unt weight y that will produce an intensity of pressure p. To Convert Pressure head (height) of liquid A to liquid B YA Itg = ha SA or hg = in 2 or hg = ha —— 5B PB YB To convert pressure head (height) of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by its specific gravity ; Itwater = Miquid % Stiquid Eq: 2-10CHAPTER TWO 34 FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics D MECHANICS CHAPTER TW/O & HYDRAULICS © HYDRAULICS ~ Principles of Hydrostatics 35 MANOMETER ps in Solving Manometer Problems: 1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed, (water is most advisable). 2 Starting from an end point, number in order, the interface of different fluids. 4, Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a Types at Mapometer homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressure along the same horizontal plane are equal). Label these points with the same number. A Proceed from level to level, adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up) pressure heads as the elevation decreases or increases, — respectively with due regard for the specific gravity of the fluids. A manometer is a tube, usually bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure. It is used to measure pressure Open Type - has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage pressures Differential Type - without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only differences of pressure. Piezometer - The simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube tapped into a_ wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. The fluid in the container or conduit rises in this tube to form a free surface olved Problems Limitations of Piezometer: ° Large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes Gas pressures can not be measured because gas can not form a free Pressure, p= yh surface 7 = (981s) (1) e ee » s=0.714 => Specific Gravity H! iblem 2 - 2 Whatis the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use sp. gr. = 1.03 for salt water. ‘Problem 2 - 1 Wa depth of liquid of 1 m causes a pressure of 7 kPa, what is the specific “vity of the liquid? lution > (a) Open manometer (b) Differential manometer slution p=yh p = (9.81 x1.03)(12.5) p= 126.3 kPa (c) Piezometer36 CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TW/O 37 Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics Problem 2 - 3 lf the pressure 23 meter below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, dseenine te uni weight y, mass density p , and specific gravity s. Problem 2-5 If the pressure in the air space above an oil (s = 0.75) surface in a closed tank is 115 kPa absolute, what is the gage pressure 2 m below the surface? Solution Solution P = Psurface # ¥ h Psurface = 115 - 101.325 Note: Patm = 101.325 kPa Psurface = 13.675 kPa gage p= 13.675 + (9.81x0.75)(2) (a) Unit weight, y p=yh 338.445 = y (23) y = 14.715 kN/m3 = 28, «°) Mass density, p p = 28.39 kPa hich : Problem 2 - 6 ~ 14.715 «10° Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 10 m below the free surface of 9.81 p = 1,500 kg/m! oil of sp. gr. 0.75 if the barometric reading is 752 mmHg. Solution (c) Specific gravity, s Pats = Patw * Pg its = Pat. + Page — Prtuid Patm = Yn Hm Pwate = (9.81 x 13.6)(0.752) == 200 Pau = 100.329 kPa ’ 1,000 Pabs = 100.329 + (9.81 x 0.75)(10) s=15 Pats = 173.9 kPa f : Problem 2 - 4 Problem 2 - 7 If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa, what is the pressure 27 meters Kala t oo A pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 elow this poin kPa. Another gage height 4 m reads 103 kPa. Determine the specific weight of the liquid : Solution The difference in pressure between any two points ina Solution liquid is p2- py, =yh p2= pit yh m-pi=yh = 60 + (9.81x1.03)(27) p2 = 332.82 kPa 103 - 90 = y(2) * y = 6.5 kN/m338 CHAPTER TWO . FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS CHAPTER TWO & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics 39 Problem 2 - 8 Solution An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2 m of kerosene (y = 8 Since the density of the mud varies with depth, the pressure kN/m3). Find the pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank. should be solved by integration Solution dp=ydh (a) Pressure at the interface dp = (10 + 0.5 h)dh pa = Yx hu f ; ; = (8)(3.2) [« = ic +0.5h)dh pa = 25.6 kPa Kerosene 5 : . 5 (b) Pressure Te bottom re aNn p= 10h+ 0.25h2 =5 a a + yh Wate go eee ‘i . 5816 Bee ss y=.9.81 kim? [eee : = [10(8) + 0.25(5)2] - 0 =9) ; 3 : = 56.25 kPa pra = 82.498 kPa r Problem 2-11 Problem 2-9 If atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads 188 in the figure shown, if the atmospheric mmHg vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank. pressure is 101.03 kPa and the absolute essure at the bottom of the tank is “111.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity Solution , af olive oil? Povs = Pui * Pgoge 5 ' Pgage = Ymercury mercury . = (9.81 x 13.6)(0.188) = 25.08 kPa vacuum Pgage = -25.08 kPa Pubs = 95.7 + (-25.08) Pavs = 70.62 kPa abs Problem 2 - 10 Solution The weight density of a mud is given by y = 10 + 0.5h, where y is in kN/m? and Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 231.3 - 101.03 his in meters. Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of 5m Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 130.27 kPa [p= Zyh] P= Yu lin + Yo Ho + Yar Hw + Yoit Hout 130.27 = (9.81 x 18.6)(0.4) + (9.81 ~ s)(2.9) + 9.81(2.5) + (9.81 x 0.89)(1.5) 5 = 1.38