Combined Science

Chemistry page 1-24
Physics page 24-50

Biology page 47-72
C1- C3 : nature of matter, atoms, elements

compounds
● -physical properties: any property that can be measurable and can be observed
without chemical reaction taking place and without change in composition of
matter. It doesn’t change the chemical nature of matter.
● -melting point: the temperature at which a pure substance turns into a liquid.
● -freezing point: the temperature at which a pure substance changes to a solid
from liquid/ liquid is cooled down.
● -boiling point: the temperature at which the saturated pressure of a liquid is
equal to the surrounding atmosphere and it increases with pressure and it occurs
throughout the liquid.
● -volatile liquid: a liquid which evaporates easily and has a relatively low boiling
point. They have equilibrium vapour pressure.
● -sublimation: a few solids change directly from solid to gas on heating and the
reverse is called deposition or reverse sublimation.
● -evaporation: when liquids change into gases over a range of temperatures and
it occurs on the surface of the liquid and the opposite is condensation.
● -pure substance: consists of only one substance and no contaminating
impurities.
● -mixture: more than one substance present and substances may be in different
physical states and solutions, suspensions and colloids are types of mixtures.
● -atom: the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist.
● –molecule: a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest
fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical
reaction.
● -ions: an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of
one or more electrons.
● -decantation : a process carried out to pour of a liquid once the solid of the
solution has settled.
● -filtration: separation of insoluble solid from a liquid by collecting the insoluble
solid as residue on the filter paper and purified liquid as filtrate.
● -Buchner funnel: is used to increase the filtration process as a vacuum pump is
O LEVELS / IGCSE with Sir Hassan +923215475000 Page 1

connected to the side arm flask which speeds up the flow of liquid through the
funnel.
● -centrifugation: is a separating technique where the mixture is spun at a high
speed in a centrifuge so that the solid deposits at the bottom of the tube and
liquid can carefully be decanted.
● -distillation: is a method for separating the solvent from a solution. The more
volatile liquid is condensed and collected as distillate.
● -fractional distillation: is a process in which the volatile components having
different boiling points of a mixture are split from one another by heating the
mixture in a column and collecting and condensing the vapours drawn at different
levels of the fractionating column.
● -chromatography: used to separate a mixture of solids by passing it in solution
or suspension through a medium in which the components move at different
rates.
● -retention factor : the relation of the distance moved by a particular spot to the
distance moved by the solvent front.
● -solution: combination of a solute and solvent
● -solute: the substance that dissolves in the liquid.
● -solvent: the liquid in which the solute dissolves.
● -concentrated: a solution containing a high proportion of solute
● -dilute: solution containing less amount of solute in solvent
● -concentration: of a solution is the mass of solute dissolved in a particular
volume of solvent( 1dm^3 )
● -saturated solution: a point when no more of the solid will dissolve in the
solution at the temperature given.
● -diffusion: is the random movement of particles from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration causing the particles to evenly
spared out.
● -matter: anything that has mass and takes up space(volume). Three physical
states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
● -elements: are pure substances that cannot be chemically broken down into
simpler substances
● -compounds: are pure substances made of two or more elects chemically
bonded together.
● -chemical reaction: in a chemical reaction new chemical substances are formed
and the process is not easily reversed and energy is often given out.
● -physical change: the substances involved do not change identity and they can
easily be returned to their original form by physical processes
● -lattice: the highly structured ordered microscopic arrangements in solids which

produces regular crystal structures
● -nucleus: the positively charged part of the atom in the centre and contains
almost all of the mass of the atom.
● -electron: subatomic particle consisting of a negative electrical charge and
hardly has any mass.
● -proton: subatomic particle consisting of a positive electrical charge and mass of
one unit.
● -neutron: subatomic particle having no electrical charge ( neutral ) and mass of
one unit.
● - proton/atomic number: number of protons (Z)
● -nucleon/mass number: number of protons + number of neutrons (A)
● -mass spectrometer: the mass of one atom can be compared with that of
another using this
● -scanning tunneling microscope: helps to see individual atoms in structure
● -isotopes: atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but
different mass number due to different neutron number. But they have the same
properties due to same electron structure.
● - relative atomic mass: the average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an
element on a scale where the carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units
● - metals: an element that conducts electricity, is malleable, is ductile
● -non metals: an element that does not conduct electricity, isn’t malleable and
isn’t ductile
● -chemical bonding: keeps two ions or atoms together and it involves the outer
electrons of each atom also called valence electrons
● -diatomic molecules: molecules made up of two atoms of the same element
● -metallic bonding= metals + metals (metallic lattices) and they have positive
metal ions surrounded by sea of electrons
● -covalent bonding= non metals + non metals (simple molecules/giant
molecularlattices) and they share electrons from last shell forming covalent
bonds
● -ionic bonding= metals + non metals (giant ionic lattices) and transfer of
electrons from metals to nonmetals take place
● -molten state: when an object is reduced to liquid form by heating it
● -formulae of ionic compounds: the whole numbered ratio of the positive to
negative ions in the structure
● -formulae of covalent compounds: whole number ratio of the number of atoms
present in the giant lattice
● -types of solid physical structure:
● . Giant metallic lattice: a lattice of positive ions in a sea of electrons

● . Giant ionic lattice: a lattice of alternating positive and negative ions
● . Giant covalent (molecular) lattice: a giant molecule (macromolecule) making
the lattice
● . Simple molecular substance: consisting of simple molecules in a lattice held
together by weak forces
● -malleable: when metals can be beaten or rolled into sheets due to their
flexibility in their layered structure and how metal ions can be moved over one
another without breaking the structure
● -ductile: property of metals to be able to be drawn out into wires
● -alloys: are formed by mixing the molten metals together thoroughly and then
allowing them to cool and form a solid
● -bond length: the distance between the two nuclei of the two bonded atoms
● Structure of silicon oxide: tetrahedral structure, each Si atom bonds with 4
oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom bonds with 2 Si atoms
● Structure of diamond: hard, high m.p and b.p, not good conductors of heat and
electricity, colourless and transparent crystals that sparkle in light, the hardest
natural substance. Used in jewellery, ornamental objects, drill bits, diamond saws
and glass-cutters.
● Graphite: dark grey, shiny solid, soft and has a slippery feel, conducts electricity.
Used in pencils, lubricants, as electrodes and for the brushes in electric motors.
C4:
● Relative atomic mass: (Ar ) of an element is the average mass of an atom of the
element, taking into account the different natural isotopes of that element, on a
scale where carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units (amu)
● Relative formula mass ( Mr / RFM ): the sum of all the relative atomic masses of
all the atoms of all the elements of an ionic compounds which consists of ions is
taken as the basic unit
● Relative molecular mass ( Mr ): the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the
atoms of all the elements of a covalent compound consisting molecules
● Avogadro constant ( L ) = 6.02 X 1023
● Mole: one mole of a substance has a mass equal to its relative formula/
molecular mass in grams and contains 6.02 X 1023 atoms, molecules or formula
units, depending on the substance considered and contains as many species of
atoms, molecules or ions as there are In exactly 12g of C-12 isotope

● Molar mass: mass of one mole of any substance
● Number of moles = mass (g) / molar mass (mol/g)
● Finding the formula: number of moles of each element and their ratios in
simplest form
● Empirical formula: formula obtained by the ratio of moles of two substances
which are reacting
● Law of conservation of mass: the total mass of reactants is equal to the total
mass of the products
● Reacting ratios: molar mass of balanced equation is the ratio in which the
reactants should be reacted
● Avogadro’s law: one mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 or 24 l at
room temperature and pressure (r.t.p) and equal volumes of all gases measured
at rtp must contain the same number of molecules
● Molar gas volume( Vm ): of any gas has value 24dm3/mol
● 1dm3 = 1litre = 1000 cm3
● Number of moles = volume / molar volume (always 24)
● Concentration = amount of solute / volume of solution
● Molarity/concentration = weight/molecular weight X 1000/v (ml)
● Molality = weight/molecular weight X 1000/mass (kg)
● Normality = molarity X nf
● Mass concentration: of a solution is measured in g/dm3
● Molar concentration: of a solution is measured in mol/dm3
● Number of moles in solution = molar concentration X volume of solution in dm3
(or) concentration/1000 X volume of solution in cm3
● Standard solution: a solution that has been carefully made so that its
concentration is known precisely
● Mass of one molecule/atom has amu in units
● Relative atomic/molecular/formula mass has no units
● Molar mass has unit g/mol
C5: Electricity
● Electrical conductor: a substance that conducts electricity but is not chemically

changed in the process
● Electrical insulator: a substance that does not conduct electricity

● Electrolysis: the breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or in aqueous
solution, by the use of electricity. The three stages involved are mining the ore,
purification of the ore and electrolysis of the molten ore.
● Electrolytes: liquids or molten state solids or substances in solution which
conducts electricity by movement of ions. Ex: molten salts, solutions of salts in
water, solutions of acids and solution of alkalis
● Non-electrolytes: liquids or molten state solids or substances in solution which
do not conduct electricity as they usually can’t break their bonds
● Weak electrolyte: liquids or molten state solids or substances in solutions which
conduct electricity to a small extent
● Metallic conductivity: electrons flow, a property of metals and alloys, takes
place in solids and liquids and no chemical change takes place
● Electrolytic conductivity: ions flow, a property of ionic compounds, takes place
in liquids and solutions only and chemical decomposition takes place
● Electrochemical cell: A cell is a device which converts chemical energy into
electrical energy and is composed of two metals of different reactivity connected
by an external circuit and an electrolyte. Consist of a negative pole (the more
reactive metal) and a positive pole (less reactive metal) and an electrolyte. The
greater the difference in reactivity of the two metals, the greater the voltage will
be. The electrons flow because one metal is more reactive, so it has a stronger
drive to give up its electrons. The atoms give up electrons and enter the solution
as ions.
● Cations: positive ions that move towards the cathode during electrolysis
● Anions: negative ions that move towards the anode during electrolysis
● Cathode: negatively charged electrode which attracts cations(+ve) and is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery
● Anode: positively charged electrode which attracts anions(-ve) and is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery
● Electrolytic cell: the apparatus in which electrolysis is carried out. It consists of
the battery, electrodes and the electrolyte
● Inert electrodes: usually made up of unreactive metals like platinum,
graphite,etc.
● Reactive electrodes: usually made up of metals like copper, silver and gold for
electroplating and other reactive metals for purification of metal extracts
● Extraction of aluminium: Bayer process is used to firstpurify the bauxite ore.
The aluminium oxide obtained is treated with sodium hydroxide.
● Cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) is used in molten form as it will dissolve
oxide minerals and lower the melting point. The graphite anodes react

with oxygen and form carbon dioxide. The alminimum3+ goes to cathode and
forms aluminium. Reactions:
● At the anode: 6O2- —> 3O2 + 12e and C + O2 —> CO2 (electrode)
● At the cathode: 4Al3+ +12e—> 4Al
● Overall reaction: 2Al2O3 —> 4Al + 3O2
● Electrolysis of sulfuric acid/the Hofmann voltameter : is used as there are no
halides and thus water can split into hydrogen and oxygen gas by using the
Hofmann voltameter setup.
● At the anode: 4OH- —> O2 +2H2O + 4e
● At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e—> H2
● Electrolysis of conc.sodium chloride / brine solution / Chlor alkali process:
it is used industrially to obtain sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen. It is
done in a membrane cell setup which allows only Na+ and OH- ions to enter the
cathode chamber and thus sodium hydroxide can be obtained and purified. Brine
solution enters the anode chamber and water enters the cathode chamber at the
start. In the anode side chlorine gas bubbles are formed around the titanium
anode and Na goes to the cathode chamber where the hydrogen gas is given off
at the cathode and Na and OH ions combine to form a solution.
● At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e —> H2 gas
● At the anode: 2Cl- —> Cl2 + 2e gas and NaOH
● The membrane used is called ion exchange membrane/ proton exchange
membrane/ polymer electrolyte membrane
● Molten electrolysis of molten lead bromide: the melting point of lead bromide
is 373 C.
● At the anode:2Br- —> Br2 + 2e
● At the cathode: Pb2+ + 2e —> Pb
● RED CAT: reduction at cathode
● AOCR: anode..oxidation and cathode..reduction
● Aqueous electrolysis:
● At the anode: if a concentrated halide is present, then halogen is formed.
Otherwise oxygen is formed.
● At the cathode: if the metal is less reactive than hydrogen, then the metal is
formed, otherwise hydrogen is formed
● Molten electrolysis: at the anode, non metal is formed and at the cathode,
metal is formed
● Electroplating: is a process used to coat a metal with another metal. The anode
is the metal which is the coating and the cathode is the metal which needs to be
coated. The solution consists of the salt of the metal which is being used as a
coating. When current is passed through the solution, the anode ions deposit on

the cathode, making the cathode thicker and the anode eventually disappears.
The concentration of the solution remains the same all the time. The anode
releases ions into the solution and ions from the solution get deposited in the
cathode until the anode disappears.
● Electrolytic refining: is the process of obtaining pure metals like gold, silver,
copper etc. by the process of electrolysis.
● Refining of copper: the cathode is a strip of pure copper and anode is a strip of
impure copper. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of dilute copper sulphate.
When electricity is passed the Cu ions from the solution go to the cathode and
get deposited and the cu ions from the imputed rod enter the solution and it goes
on. Since the impurities on the rod have no attractive forces to hold them
together, they fall to the bottom of the container as anode mud.
● At the anode: cu —> cu2+ + 2e
● At the cathode: cu2+ + 2e —> cu
C6 -C7: energy changes in chemical reactions
● Hydrocarbons: molecules containing only hydrogen and carbon

● Endothermic process: breaking chemical bonds that takes in energy from the
surroundings
● Endothermic processes: making chemical bonds which gives out energy to the
surroundings
● Activation energy: a certain amount of energy given to the reactants as this
energy activated the reaction and is used to either break bonds or make bonds
● Exothermic reaction: if energy taken is less than energy released(reactants
,have more energy than products) examples: hydration, neutralisation,
respiration, combustion and displacement
● Endothermic reaction: if energy taken is more than energy given out (reactants
have less energy than products) examples: photosynthesis, dehydration and
thermal decomposition
● Enthalpy change/energy changed: the total energy change(energy in - energy
out). It is positive for endothermic reactions and negative for exothermic
reactions
● Energy level diagram/energy profile: the overall change in energy for eco or
endo reactions

● Heat of combustion: the energy change of a reaction when a substance is
burnt. A metal calorimeter and a spirit burner can be used for liquid fuels such.
● Heat of neutralisation: the heat energy given out during the neutralisation
reactions between acids and alkalis and can be measured by a polystyrene cup
used as a simple calorimeter.
● Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and it
remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
● Adsorption: the process by which a solid holds molecules of the gas or liquid or
solute as a thin film
● Chemical energy: energy stored in the chemical bonds of substances
● Physical forms: different forms of the same substance due to different
conditions in temperature and pressure
● Chemiluminescence: chemical reactions which give out energy in the form of
light
● Reactants: substances that react
● Products: the new substances that are formed after the reaction takes place
● Law of conservation of mass: the total mass of all the products is equal to the
total mass of the reactants
● Balanced equation: the number of each type of atom is equal on both sides of
the reaction
● Synthesis/direct combination:occur where two or more substances react
together to form just one product
● Decomposition reactions: one reactant which breaks down onto two or more
simpler products
● Neutralisation reactions: a reaction between an acid and an alkali which
results in the formation of salts and a gas and the solution is neutral
● Precipitation reactions: the sudden formation of a solid, either when two
solutions are mixed or when a gas is bubbled into the solution
● Displacement reactions: occurs because a more reactive element will displace
a less reactive one from a solution of one of its compounds
● Combustion: the reaction of a substance with oxygen causing the release of
energy. It is exothermic and often involves a flame
● Burning: combustion in which a flame is produced
● Oxidation: the addition of oxygen/ reduction of hydrogen/ removal of electrons/
addition of positive charge
● Reduction: the removal of oxygen/ addition of hydrogen/ addition of electrons/
removal of positive charge
● Reducing agent: An element or compound that will remove oxygen from other
substances. example: hydrogen, carbon, carbon monoxide

● Oxidizing agent: a substance that will add oxygen to another substance.
example: oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, potassium manganate 7 and potassium
dichromate 6
● Corrosion: the effect by which a reactive metal’s surface may be attacked by air,
water or other substances around it
● Rancidity: is a process where oxidation has damaging effect on food. Example:
fat and oils in butter and margarine are oxidized
● Chemical changes: they can be observed by change in pH, color, temperature,
precipitate formation and evolution of a gas
● Rate: is measuring changes in a given time range
● Rates of reaction: is understanding the chemical reactions and the rate at which
it takes place
● Redox reactions: reactions in which oxidation and reduction take place at the
same time
● Oxidation state: refers to the number of electrons that can be lost, gained or
shared by an atom during its compound formation
C8: acids, bases and salts
● pH scale: the numerical scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an

aqueous solution. It measures the hydrogen ion concentration in a given solution.
● Indicators: chemicals or chemicals in form of paper(aqueous) or liquids which
show if a substance is an acid or an alkali by colour change.
1. Damp litmus turns red in the presence of acid and turns blue in the
presence of a base. It stays purple if the solution is neutral. It is because
of H+ ions in acids and OH- ions in a base which causes colour changes
in a litmus.
2. Methyl orange is red in acid, orange in neutral solution and yellow in an
alkali.
3. Thymolphthalein is colourless in acidic and neutral solutions but blue in
alkali.
● Universal indicator / full-range indicator: is a mixture of indicator dyes. It gives
a range of colours (spectrum) depending on the strength of the acid or alkali
added. Acidic is red, neutral is green and basic is violet.
● pH meter: is an accurate method to measure pH which uses an electrode to
measure pH electrically.

● Acids: substances made of H+ ions and non metal ions which taste sour and
don’t feel slippery. The have a pH less than 7, corrode metals and are proton
donors. Solutions of acids conduct electricity very well. And acidic properties are
only shown if the acid is dissolved in water.
● Mineral acids: are powerful acids. Eg: hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid
(HNO3), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), carbonic acid (H2CO3) and phosphoric acid
(H3PO4).
● Organic acids: are not as powerful as mineral acids. Eg: ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH), methanoic acid (HCOOH) and citric acid ( C6H8O7).
● Bases: substances which are made of OH- ions and metal ions which taste bitter
and feel slippery. They have a pH greater than 7, don’t corrode metals and are
proton acceptors. Their alkaline nature is only shown if they are dissolved in
water. Example: metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates, metal
bicarbonate, ammonium hydroxide and ammonium carbonates.
● Alkali: a base that is soluble in water.
● All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis
● Oxides: are chemical compounds with one or more oxygen atoms combined with
another element (metal/non metal). They are classified into acidic, basic,
amphoteric and neutral oxides based on the acid-base characteristics.
● Basic oxides: they are metal oxides and react with acid and form salt and
water. They are solids and insoluble in water except group 1 metal oxides.
● Amphoteric metal oxides/amphoteric hydroxide: a metal oxide or hydroxide
which reacts with an acid and base to give a salt and water (or) oxides of
aluminum, zinc and lead which produce water and a salt when they react with
acid. Their hydroxides are amphoteric too and act as an acid when they react
with an alkali and vice-versa. Eg: ZnO and Al2O3
● Acidic oxides: non metal oxides except monoxides of nonmetals. They are all
gases and react with an acid to form a salt and water.
● Neutral oxides: metal monoxides which don’t react with acids or alkalis. Eg:
H2O, CO, NO
● Antacids: are compounds that are used to neutralise acidity to help get rid of
acid indigestion. Eg:
1. Magnesium oxide and magnesium hydroxide
2. Sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate
3. Calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
● Salts: they are neutral ionic compounds formed by the reactions in which the H+
ion from the acid is replaced by any other metal ion.
● Salt preparation: they can be prepared by the following reactions: metal+acid,
excess of metal oxide+acid, soluble base+solid(titration) or precipitation method.

● Strong acids: have pH 0,1,2,3 and they ionize fully. When dissolved in water
they give large amounts of H+ ions.
● Weak acids: have pH 4,5,6 and they don’t ionize fully. When dissolved in water,
they give a small amount of H+ ions.
● Solubility rules:
1. All salts of group 1 and ammonium are soluble
2. All salts of nitrates are soluble
3. All salts of halides are soluble except silver, copper, lead and mercury
4. All salts of sulfates are soluble except barium sulfate, lead sulfate and
strontium sulfate
5. All salts of carbonates, phosphates and sulfites are insoluble except for
group 1 and ammonium.
6. All hydroxides and oxides are insoluble except group1, calcium, strontium
and barium
7. All salts of sulfides are insoluble except group 1, group 2 and ammonium.
8. All metal oxide and hydroxides will neutralise acids, if they dissolve in
water or not.
● Reaction of acids:
1. With metals: acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
Eg: Mg + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + H2
Eg: Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
2. With bases and alkalis: acid + base → salt + water
Eg: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
3. With carbonates: acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon
dioxide
Eg: 2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
● Soluble salt preparation method:
1. Method 1 (acid plus solid metal, base or carbonate): only for MAZIT
metals (magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron and tin)
a. An excess of the solid is added and allowed to react with the acid
so that the acid is used up.
b. The excess solid is filtered out
c. The filtrate is gently evaporated to concentrate the salt solution
d. When crystals start forming (crystallisation point), heating is
stopped and the solution is left to crystallise
e. The concentrated solution is cooled to let the crystals form and then
the crystals are filtered off and washed with a little distilled water,
after which the crystals are dried between two filter papers.

2. Method 2 (acid plus alkali by titration): only for metals below hydrogen
in the reactivity series (copper, gold, silver, mercury and platinum, etc)
a. The acid solution is poured into a burette and a known volume of alkali is
placed in a conical flask using a pipette. Also, a few drops of an indicator
are added to the flask.
b. The acid is dropped into the flask using a pipette until the indicator
changes colour to show that the solution has become acidic. The
end-point is reached. The volume of acid used is noted. The second step
is repeated without the indicator and directly with the noted volumes of the
acid and base.
c. The salt solution is evaporated and cooled to form crystals.
● Precipitation: is the sudden formation of a solid either when two solutions are
mixed or when a gas is bubbled into a solution. This method is used to prepare
insoluble salts.
● Methods of collecting gases:
1. Downward delivery: is used to collect gases that are denser than air
2. Upward delivery: is used to collect gases that are less dense than air
3. Collection over water: is used to collect gases which are not very soluble
in water
4. Collection in a gas syringe: is useful when the volume of gas needs to
be measured
C9: periodic table

● Periodic table: it consists of elements in order of increasing proton number (
atomic number ). It is used to classify elements and to predict properties of
elements.
● Groups: the vertical columns of elements with similar properties. elements of the
same group have the same number of outer electrons.
● Periods: the horizontal rows of elements. The elements in the same period have
the same number of electron shells.
● Metals: an element that conducts electricity, is malleable and ductile
● Non-metals: an element that doesn’t conduct electricity well and neither is
malleable nor ductile

● Metalloids/semimetals: such elements have some properties of metals and
others that are more characteristic to non metals
● Group 1: the alkali metals- soft solids, low melting points, low densities, highly
reactive, density increases down the group, melting point becomes low down the
group.
Metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen
● Group 7: the halogens- most reactive nonmetals, reactivity increases down the
group, increase in melting and boiling points down the group, change in elements
from gases to solids down the group, all are poisonous and have a similar strong
smell, diatomic, intensity of color increases down the group, decreasing oxidizing
ability down the group
● Chlorine water: when chlorine dissolves in water to give two acids; hydrochloric
acid and hypochlorous acid. Chlorine water is an oxidizing agent and bleach.
● Halide: a halogen joined to a metal
● Group 8: the noble gases- inert, low melting and boiling points
● Trends across a period: from left to right, metallic to non metallic, atomic size
decreases
● Transition elements: hard and strong, high density, high melting and boiling
point, many of their compounds are colored, act as catalysts, have more than
one valency, few of them are magnetic, good conductors of heat and electricity.
C10: Metals
● Metal: an element that conducts electricity and heat. It is malleable, ductile and
sonorous. They have high melting and boiling points. They are dense in nature
and can be polished. Metals become positive ions as they lose electrons more
easily and form basic oxides.
● Non-metals: are elements which don’t conduct electricity or heat, aren’t
malleable or ductile, have low melting and boiling points, brittle when solid, aren’t
sonorous and have a dull surface. They form acidic oxides.
● Metallic bonding: happens between atoms and it is caused by the sea of
electrons which have delocalized from their atoms, holding the metallic structure
together. Due to the mobile electrons, metals conduct electricity and are
malleable (or) metallic bonding is a type of bonding that arises from the strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive metal cations and the
negative delocalised ions.

● Alloys: are combination of two or more metals or metal and non-metal, which
have been made molten and then mixed together.
● Aluminium is a light, strong metal with good electrical conductivity. It is extracted
by electrolysis of alumina, which is extracted from purifying the bauxite ore in a
bauxite plant. It is used in:
1. Building modern car bodies
2. Construction of aeroplanes
3. Overhead power lines
4. Food packaging in the form of aluminium foil
5. External structures like window frames
● Information about reactivity of metals can be obtained by:
1. Ease of their extraction
2. Reactions with air or oxygen
3. Reactions with water
4. Reactions with dilute acid
5. Metal displacement reactions
6. Heat stability of metal compounds
● Thermal decomposition of:
1. Carbonates: decompose to oxides and carbon dioxide on heating.
Reversible. Carbonates of potassium and sodium don’t decompose.
2. Hydroxides: thermally decompose to metal oxides and water. Unless
electrolysis is done, hydroxides of potassium and sodium don’t
decompose.
3. Nitrates: nitrates of sodium and potassium, break down to give nitrites
and oxygen. Lithium, group 2 and transition elements decompose to give
metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
● Electrolysis of molten ores: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al
● Reduction of oxides with carbon: Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb
● Occur native / uncombined: Cu, Ag, Au
● Production of iron in the blast furnace:
1. Charge ( iron ore, coke and limestone ) is added into the furnace.
2. The coke burns, giving off heat ( C + O2 → CO2)
3. Carbon monoxide is made ( C + CO2 → 2CO )
4. Iron oxide is reduced to give iron ( Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 )
5. Other reactions: CaCO3 + CaO → CO2 and CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
6. Waste gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide are released from the top of
the furnace but are reused and sent back inside
7. The furnace has walls of heat resistant magnesium bricks, which are
always cooled by water.

● Steelmaking (basic oxygen process):
1. Once the pig iron is collected from the blast furnace, it is put into another
furnace along with lime and scrap steel.
2. A water cooled oxygen lance is put into the furnace and fumes come out
3. Then the furnace is tilted to pour out the molten steel
4. Then the furnace is tilted again to pour out the slag
● Extracting zinc from zinc blende:
1. Roasting: zinc sulfide is turned into zinc oxide by roasting.
2. Smelting: zinc oxide is either reduced by carbon monoxide or it is
dissolved in sulfuric acid and then electrolyzed.
● Recycling metals is important as metal resources are finite, recycling needs
less energy compared to energy needed to extract metals, saves money and
helps the environment.
● Uses of metals:
1. Aluminium: aircrafts and food containers / packaging.
2. Copper: in electrical wiring and cooking utensils
3. Zinc: making brass and galvanizing
4. Stainless steel: in chemical plant and cutlery
C 11-13: air and water

● Water can be tested using either cobalt (II) chloride paper (blue to pink) or
copper (II) sulfate (white to blue).
● Water treatment procedure: Water from river → screens for floating rubbish →
river water pumping station → treated with ozone in storage reservoir →
precipitators to clear solid particles → rapid gravity sand filters → main ozone
pumps to break down pesticides and other material → activated carbon granules
to absorb some of the chemicals → microstrainers → chlorine to disinfect →
service reservoir → domestic use
● Clean air composition:
1. Nitrogen 78%: used in haber process, fertilisers, ammonia manufacture,
cryogenics, sealing food and substances
2. Oxygen 21%: used to make steel from cast iron, oxyacetylene torches
and oxygen cylinders in hospitals.
3. Argon 0.9%: is used to fill light bulbs as it is unreactive
4. Carbon dioxide 0.04% and noble gases 0.06%: used in advertising
signs
● Pollutants (how they are emitted and how they are damaging):

1. Oxides of nitrogen: cause photochemical smog, acid rain and global
warming. It is emitted by car engines, due to the high temperatures, which
causes it to combine with oxygen. N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
2. Unburnt hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide: cause photochemical
smog. They are emitted by car engines due to incomplete combustion that
takes place and from burning of carbon containing substances.
3. Sulfur dioxide: causes acid rain. It is also released from vehicles which
use high sulfur fuels and from fossil fuels. It can be reduced by the method
of flue gas desulfurization. (scrubbers containing CaO which neutralise the
effects of the SO2 being released)
4. Carbon dioxide: causes global warming. It enters the air through
respiration, burning of fuels, complete combustion of carbon containing
fuels, a product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate and as a
product of thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate.
5. Methane: causes global warming. It is a product of anaerobic decay of
organic matter and is produced in huge amounts in rice paddy fields and
landfill rubbish sites.
● Reactions that take place in catalytic converters:
1. 2CO +O2 → 2CO2
2. 2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2
3. 2NO → N2 + O2
● Rust: is a red-brown powder containing mainly of hydrated iron(III)oxide. It
occurs when iron or steel get corroded. The conditions needed for rusting are
water (moisture) and oxygen ( 4Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O → 2FeO3.2H2O). It can be
prevented by:
1. Painting
2. Oiling and greasing
3. Plastic coating
4. Electroplating
5. Galvanising
6. Sacrificial protection
● Corrosion: occurs when a metal is attacked by air, water or other surrounding
substances.
● Fertilizers: are the chemical substances which provide mineral ions needed for
healthy plant growth.
● Straight N fertilisers: are those fertilisers which consist of solid nitrogen, sold in
pellet form. Eg: ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4)
and urea (CO(NH2)2).

● NPK compound fertilisers: are mixtures that supply the three most essential
elements lost from the soil by extensive use; nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium. Majority of the ammonia in the fertilisers are obtained from the haber
process.
● Haber process: is used to obtain ammonia. The nitrogen is obtained from the
fractional distillation of air and hydrogen is obtained from the cracking of
hydrocarbons.(CH4 + H2O → CO2 + H2O) The catalyst is iron, the temperature
is 400-450 celsius and the pressure 200 atm. The reactions involved: N2 + 3H2
→ 2NH3
First, the gases are passed through compressors containing a pressure of 200
atm where they get heated to 450 celsius. Then they go through the iron catalyst
beds, which causes the formation of ammonia. The ammonia vapours go to the
cooling tank, where they get liquified and are filtered out. The N2 and H2 gases
go back to the compressor and the process repeats.
● Contact process: is used to manufacture sulfuric acid. The conditions required
are; temperature of 450 celsius, 2-3 atm pressure and vanadium(V)oxide catalyst
1. Combustion of sulphur: S + O2 → SO2 (or) 2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2
(or) 2H2S + 3O2 → 2SO2 + 2H2O
2. Formation of sulphur trioxide: 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 (CONDITIONS)
3. Formation of oleum: SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
4. Formation of sulphuric acid: H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
● Carbonates:
1. Limestone is a sedimentary rock and is composed of CaCO3 in the form
of the mineral calcite. When limestone, is thermally decomposed, it
produces calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. (CaCO3 → CaO + CO2)
2. Uses of limestone: steel, concrete, cement, mortar, paper, glass, building,
roads and neutralising acidic soil and lakes.
3. On heating CaCO3, lime is obtained. Also called calcium oxide and quick
lime. A little bit of water makes it slaked lime and more water makes it
limewater.
C 14: Organic chemistry

● Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds and it deals
with their structure, properties and reactions.
● Special features involving covalent bonding involving carbon:
1. Catenation: they can form very long chains and atoms of other elements
can also join that chain

2. The carbon atoms can be linked by single, double or triple bonds
3. Carbon atoms can also arrange themselves in rings
● Hydrocarbon: a compound that consists only of carbon and hydrogen
● Reason for large number of organic compounds:
1. Catenation: property of carbon which allows its atoms to form long chains
2. Tetravalency: carbon atom having a valency of 4, allows it to form
multiple bonds with atoms.
● Alkanes:
1. are saturated hydrocarbons.
2. Their molecules contain only single bonds between carbon atoms in the
chain
3. their general formula is CnH2n+2. Each molecule is increased by a CH2
group as the chain gets longer.
4. As the chain gets longer,the strength of the weak forces between the
molecules (the intermolecular / van der Waal’s) increases. Due to this,
their melting and boiling points increases gradually.
5. C1 to C4 alkanes are gases. C5 to C16 are liquids. C17 onwards are waxy
solids.
6. Eg: methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, heptane,
octane, nonane, decane.
7. Alkane + oxygen → water + carbon dioxide
8. They are very good fuels and burn exothermically.
9. Methane forms a major part of natural gas
10. Propane and butane burn with very hot flames and are sold as LPG.
propane tanks are used to supply the fuel for heating systems. Cylinders
of butane gas are used in portable fires around the home, portable
camping stoves, blowtorches and gas lighters.
11. When tested with bromine water, by shaking the alkane with it, the colour
of the water remains orange brown as no bonds are broken.
● Structural formula: shows how the molecules are bonded.
● Molecular formula: represents the actual number of atoms present in the
molecule.
● Functional group: is the group of atoms in a structure that determines the
characteristic reactions of a compound.
● Homologous series: is a family of organic compounds that:
1. Have the same general formula
2. Have similar chemical properties
3. Show a gradual increase in physical properties (melting and boiling points)

● Alkenes:
1. Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
2. Molecules of these compounds contain a carbon double bond (functional
group is c and c double bond)
3. General formula is CnH2n
4. Boiling point and melting point increase gradually
5. The double bonds are easy to break and add extra atoms to this molecule
6. more reactive than alkanes as the double bonds can easily break
7. When added to bromine water, the orange-brown colour of the solution
goes colourless as the bromine reacts with the alkene. This is also called
addition reaction.
8. The chemical reactions of the alkenes are: bromination. Hydrogenation
and hydration
9. Bromination (chemical test): ethene + bromine → 1,2-dibromoethane
10. Hydrogenation (manufacture of margarine form veg oils/alkene to alkane):
ethene + hydrogen → ethane (150-300 celsius, nickel as a catalyst)
11. Hydration (high purity ethanol/addition reaction): ethene + steam →
ethanol (300 celsius, 60 atmospheres and phosphoric acid as catalyst)
12. Eg: ethene, propene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, octene, nonene,
decene
● Alcohols:
1. A series of organic compounds containing the functional group -OH and
2. general formula CnH2n+1OH
3. The early alcohols are neutral, colourless liquids that don’t conduct
electricity
4. Boiling point increases gradually
5. Eg: methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, pentan-1-ol
6. Ethanol can be made either by fermentation or hydration of ethene
7. Hydration of ethene: ethene + steam → ethanol (300 celsius, 60 pressure
and phosphoric acid as a catalyst). The ethanol in this process from the
non-renewable resource;petroleum. It is a continuous process where the
rate of reaction is fast and small-scale equipment can withstand pressure.
But it is a sophisticated and complex method which yields high purity
ethanol.
8. Fermentation: glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (catalysts-enzymes in
yeast). It is made in a fermentation vessel where glucose solution with
yeast is confounded in copper/steel vats. The air-lock containing water
connected to the bung, allows CO2 produced to escape but not allow
air-borne bacteria to enter. Ethanol in this process is made from readily

available renewable resources. It is a batch process (need to start
processing each time) and is also slow. It is relatively simple and
straightforward but uses large vessels. The fermented product can be
used for a few purposes, but it needs to be purified by distillation.
9. Uses of ethanol: important solvent, raw material for making other organic
chemicals, paints, glues, perfumes, aftershaves, etc.
10. Ethanol burns exothermically giving out a clear flame. It can be used as
methylated spirit (ethanol mixed with methanol, etc) on a small scale in
spirit lamps and stoves. It can also be used industrially as a biofuel.
Ethanol + oxygen → water + carbon dioxide
● Fossil fuels: were formed in the earth’s crust from the material that was once
living. The three major fossil fuels are coal (fossil plant material), petroleum/crude
oil (bodies of marine microorganisms) and natural gas (bodies of marine
microorganisms). The formation of these fossil fuels took place over geological
periods of time. Thus, these fuels are non-renewable and finite.
● Petroleum was formed millions of years ago when dead marine microorganisms
sunk to the sea bed and got covered with layers of mud. The matter then
changed into hydrocarbons but compression of the mud from above changed it
into shale. Then the geological movements and pressure, changed the shale into
harder rocks, squeezing out the oil and gas from them which moved upwards,
from high to low pressure areas where they got trapped by non-porous rocks.
From here, they are extracted as petroleum.
● petroleum/crude oil is preheated to 350-400 celsius and passed through a

fractionating column for fractional distillation to take place. The products obtained
are bitumen, lubricating wax, fuel oil, diesel oil, kerosene/paraffin, naphtha,
gasoline and refinery gas.
● Catalytic cracking: larger molecules from heavier fractions can be broken into
smaller, more valuable molecules by the process of catalytic cracking. It is done
in a reactor. Particles of catalysts made of powdered minerals such as silica,
alumina and zeolites, are mixed with the hydrocarbon fraction at a temperature
around 500 celsius. The cracked vapous containing smaller molecules are
separated by distillation.
Eg: decane → octane + ethane (heat and catalyst)
● All cracking reactions give:
1. An alkane with a shorter chain than the original, and a short chain alkene
2. Or two or more alkenes and hydrogen

● Quality of the petrol can be increased by adding some of the products from
cracking to the gasoline fraction.
● Re-forming: many branched-chain hydrocarbons (made in the process of
reforming) are added to high-quality petrol, so that the engine doesn’t ignite too
soon.
● Compression ignition engines: are those engines in which the fuel ignites
spontaneously without a spark. Eg: diesel engines. Diesel engines are more
efficient than petrol engines as they produce much less CO, but due to their high
working temperatures, many oxides of nitrogen are produced.
● Polymerisation: is the reaction in which monomers covalently join to form one
large molecule.
● Carboxylic acid: is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group.
The general formula is R-COOH with R referring to an alkyl group.
Eg: methanoic acid (HCOOH),
ethanoic acid (CH3COOH),
propanoic acid (C2H5COOH)
butanoic acid (C3H7COOH).
● The first four are formed by alkanes as shown above
● Addition polymerisation:
1. Polymers: are large organic macromolecules. They are made up of small
repeating units called monomers, joined together by polymerisation.
2. Synthetic polymers: are man made polymers, which are often called
plastics. Their properties can be changed to match a variety of needs.
3. Addition reactions: in those reactions, where the double bonds between
the carbon atoms are broken, and other atoms join with carbon.
4. In addition polymerisation, many molecules of a single monomer are used.
The monomer is usually unsaturated (C=C). In an addition reaction,
monomers join together by opening the C=C double bond. The products
formed are the polymer which are non-biodegradable and resistant to
acids.
5. Eg: ethene → poly(ethane) / PE (high pressure, heat and a catalyst).
Polythene was very tough and durable, and a very good electrical
insulator. Used in plastic bags, bowls, bottles and packaging. Monomer
was ethene CH2=CH2.
6. Propene → poly(propene) / PP. It’s common trade name is polypropylene.
It’s structure is similar to poly(ethen) but it has a CH3 (methyl group)
attached. It is used to make crates, boxes and plastic ropes as it is easy to
melt, mould, tough and durable. Monomer is propene CH3CH=CH2
7. chloroethene/vinyl chloride → poly(chloroethene)/PVC. It is used for

making pipes, insulation, guttering and plumbings because it was harder
and stronger than polyethene but not as flexible. Its monomer unit is
chloroethene CH2=CHCl
8. Tetrafluoroethene → PTFE / teflon / poly(tetrafluoroethene). It is very
stable at high temperatures and formed a slippery surface which makes its
surface non-sticky. Thus, it is used in non-stick frying pans, non-stick taps
and joints. Its monomer unit is tetrafluoroethene CF2=CF2.
9. Phenylethene (styrene) → poly(phenylethene) / polystyrene / PS. Its light
and a poor conductor of heat which is why it is used in insulation and
packaging (foam). Its monomer unit is phenylethene (styrene)
C6H5CH=CH2
10. Properties of addition polymers:
● All polymers are long chain molecules made by joining together a
large number of monomer molecules.
● Addition polymerisation involves monomer molecules that contain a
C=C double bond.
● All the addition polymers are made from a single monomer
● During addition, the double bonds open up and the molecules join
themselves to make a molecule with a very long chain.
● Condensation polymerisation:
1. Molecules of two monomers are used. Monomers contain reactive
functional groups at both ends of the molecule. In condensation reaction,
a water molecule is formed every time a monomer joins the chain. The
products formed are, the polymer and water. The polymer is
biodegradable and can be hydrolysed by acids.
2. Nylon is a synthetic fibre which is used to make fabrics for shirts, ties,
sheets, etc, racquet strings, ropes and gear wheels.
3. The monomers used to make nylon have one functional group as NH2
(diamide) and COOH (dicarboxylic acid).
4. Nylon is also known as a polyamide because an amide link/peptide link is
formed during polymerisation.
………………………………………………………………………..

Physics
C1: making measurements

● Length: measure between two points of an object.
● Least count: the minimum measurement that can be measured with a device
● Micrometer screw gauge: it has two scales. Main scale which is on the shaft
and the fractional scale which is on the rotating barrel. The main scale is read to
the nearest 0.5mm and the fractional scale has 50 divisions, so one complete
turn represents 0.50mm. Used for measuring very small thicknesses.
● Displacement method for measuring volume: fill a measuring cylinder partially
with water and measure the volume. Then put the irregular object into the
cylinder and record the change in volume. Subtract both the volumes and thus
find the volume of the irregular shaped objects.
● Mass: of an object is the amount of matter that makes up the object.
● Volume: the space occupied by three dimensional objects
● Density: the ratio of mass to volume of a substance (or) the amount of mass that
is concentrated
● D=M/V
● Density of water= 1000kg/m3 or 1kg/dm3 or 1g/cm3
● Analogue clock: time is found by checking where the hands of the clock are
pointing on the scale
● Digital clock: it gives a direct reading of the time in numerals.
● Period of a pendulum: time taken for one swing of a pendulum from left to right
and back again
C2: describing motion

● Speed: the distance travelled by an object per unit time
S= D/T
● Average speed: total distance divided by total time taken
Avg.S = Tot.D / Tot.T
● Light gates: a peg on a trolley breaks the first beam of infrared radiation, which
starts the timer and after moving a known distance it breaks another beam of
infrared radiation, which stops the timer. Then the distance travelled by the trolley
is divided by the time taken to move from one ray to another to get the speed of
the trolley.
● Interrupt card: a card of fixed length starts and stops the timer by breaking the
same piece of radiation once and accordingly speed can be calculated.

● Slope of distance time graphs gives speed
● Area under speed time graph gives distance
● Slope of speed time graph gives acceleration
● Acceleration: the rate of change of an object’s velocity (or) change in speed per
unit time.
A = V-U/T
● Deceleration: negative acceleration ( when an object is decelerating )
● Acceleration of free fall: it has a value of 9.81 near the surface of the earth
● Velocity: an object’s speed in a particular direction (vector quantity)
● s= (u+v/2)*t
● g= v-u/t
● V2 - u2 = 2as
C3: forces and motion

● Mass: amount of matter in an object and the object’s resistance to motion
measured in kilograms
● Weight: is the force of gravity on mass measured in newton
● W = mg
● Friction: a force that opposes motion caused by contact of the two surfaces. It
acts in the opposite direction to the object’s movement.
● Force: the action on a body by another body that causes its velocity or shape or
direction of travel to change ( F = ma )
● Newton ( N ): the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2
● Resultant force: is a single force that has the same effect as two or more forces
● Weight of 1 kg mass = 10 N
● Gravitational force per unit mass = 10 N/kg
● Greater the mass of an object, the smaller the acceleration it is given by a
particular force
● Inertia of rest: opposition to change in state of rest to the state of motion
● Inertia of motion: opposition to change in state of motion to the state of rest
● Inertia of direction: opposition to change in existing direction
● Newton’s laws of motion:
1. First law / Law of inertia: every object continues to be in a state of rest or
uniform motion unless and until it is compelled by a net external force
2. Second law of motion: acceleration of a body is directly proportional to
the direction of force applied and it is inversely proportional to the mass of
the object. F = change in momentum/t , F = mv - mu/t, F = m(v-u/t), F =
ma

3. Third law of motion: every action has an equal and opposite reaction
● Momentum: of a body is the product of the body’s mass and velocity ( P=mv )
C4: turning effects of forces

● Pivot: the fixed point about which an object will turn
● Turning effect: can be increased by using a big force and applying force as far
from the pivot as possible.
● Moment of a force: is the quantity that tells us the turning effect of a force about
its pivot. It can be maximised by the force acting 90 degrees to the object, by
using a big force and applying the force as far from the pivot as possible.
M = F*d ( force*perpendicular distance from pivot to force)
● Equilibrium: if an object is in equilibrium, then the forces on it must be balanced
(no resultant force) and the turning effect of forces must also be balanced (no
resultant turning effect which is total clockwise moment=total anticlockwise
moment)
● Principle of moments: the idea that an object is balanced when anticlockwise
moments equal clockwise moments.
● Contact force: is the sum of all the downward forces acting on a beam
● Centre of mass/gravity: the point on an object where it is assumed that the
mass/weight of the object is concentrated.
● For an object to be stable, it should have a low centre of mass and a wide
base.
● A lamina is hung on a pin and a line is drawn across a plumb line when the
lamina stops moving. It is repeated on more sides of the irregular object and the
point where the lines coincide, it is assumed as the centre of mass.
C5: forces and matter

● Forces used for deforming objects: tensile forces, compressive forces,
bending forces and torsional forces.
● Load: weights hung to springs for experimental purposes
● Inelastically deformed: occurs when a spring becomes permanently stretched
as the load is increased way too much and it will not return to its original length.
● Extension: this is the quantity which measures the increase in length of the
spring as the force stretching the spring increases.
● Length of stretched spring = original length + extension

● Limit of proportionality / elastic limit: the point at which the graph slopes up
steeply. Beyond this point, if the string is stretched, it will be permanently
damaged.
● Hooke’s law: the extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it,
provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
● F = kx ( F is the load, k is the spring constant of the spring and x is the extension
of the spring )
● In the spring, the bigger the load, the bigger the extension and not the spring.
● Pressure: is the force acting per unit area at right angles to the surface.
P = F/A
● High pressure: large force acting on a small area
● Low pressure: small force acting on a large area
● Pa = N / m2 ( 1 pascal is equal to a force of 1 N by an area of 1 m2 )
● Atmospheric pressure: the pressure due to the air column above the earth’s
surface
C6: energy transformations and energy transfers

● Energy stores: kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, chemical energy,
nuclear energy, strain/elastic energy and internal energy
● Energy transfers: light energy, heat/thermal energy, sound energy and electrical
energy.
● Internal energy is the energy stored in a hot object where as the energy
radiating out of a hot object is thermal energy.
● Energy can be transferred by a force, by electricity, by heating and by waves.
● Principle of conservation of energy: in any energy conversion, the total
amount of energy before and after the conversion is constant
● Low-grade energy: energy wasted as heat and sound
● Efficiency: the efficiency of an energy conversion is the fraction of the energy
that ends up in the desired form.
efficiency=( useful energy output/energy input ) * 100%
● G.p.e = mgh: energy possessed by a body due to its position/h from ground
● K.e = ½ * m *v2 : energy possessed by a body due to virtue of its motion
C7: energy resources

● Solar panels: they are used to collect thermal energy from the sun by absorbing
the sun’s rays and later convert it into electrical energy for domestic use.
● Solar cells/photocells: used to absorb sunlight and produce electricity

● Wind and wave power: winds are produced by the warmth of the sunlight
heating a few parts of the atmosphere which causes the air to heat and expand
and move around as winds. These winds can be used in turbines and windmills
for producing energy.
● Biomass fuels: wood, animal dung and biogas.
● Fossil fuels: oil, coal and gas.
● Nuclear fuels: uranium, plutonium ( radioactive materials )
● Nuclear fission: a procedure in which inside a nuclear reactor, the radioactive
decay is speeded up of radioactive elements so that the energy they stored is
released much more quickly. Nuclear fuel is cheap, concentrated energy
resource however setup and close down costs are high. Nuclei are split apart to
produce energy
● Nuclear fusion: occurs when two energetic hydrogen atoms collide and fuse up
and form an atom of helium. Nuclei are fused to produce energy.
● Water power: used for hydroelectricity and water wheels. Water stored behind
the dam walls is released to turn turbines which make generators spin. This is
safe, clean and reliable but also causes wildlife, habitat and shelter loss.
● Geothermal energy: water is pumped down underground into radioactive rocks
where it gets hot and steam produced comes back up to generate electricity.
● Renewable resources: sources of energy which won’t run out and can be
regenerated. Eg: wind, solar, biomass
● Non-renewable: sources of energy which are present in limited amounts and
have to be used carefully. Eg: coal, oil, gas
● Comparing energy resources by: cost, reliability, scale and environmental
impact.
C8: work and power

● Doing work: is the means of transferring energy from you to the object with the
help of a force.
● Work done: is the amount of energy transferred. ( work done = energy
transferred ). Greater the force and distance moved in the direction of force, the
work done is increased.
● W = F * D (moved in the direction of the force)
● 1 J = 1N * 1m = 1Nm
● Joule: 1 joule is the energy transferred or the work done by a force of 1 newton
when it moves through a distance of 1m in the direction of the force. 1J=1Nm
● G.p.e / work done = mg * h

● 1 kJ=1000J, 1MJ=1,000,000J
● Power: the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. The more work
you do in a lesser time, make you more powerful.
● Power can be increased by lifting heavier objects and doing that fast.
● Watt: the power when 1 J of work is done in 1 second. 1 W = 1 J/s and 1 J=1Nm
● 1kW=1000W, 1MW=1,000,000W
C9: the kinetic model of matter

● Melting point: the temperature at which pure substances change into a liquid
from solid state
● Boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas. It occurs
throughout the liquid.
● Evaporation: a process in which a liquid changes to a gas over a range of
temperature and takes place only on the surface of the liquid.
● Freezing point: the temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid state.
Freezing point and melting point of a substance are the same.
● Brownian motion: the erratic movement of small particles when observed from
a microscope. It is caused by gas/liquid particles colliding larger molecules of
smoke, for example, with high speeds causing the larger particles to move
around.
C10: thermal properties of matter

● Thermal expansion: occurs when solids, liquids and gases expand when they
are heated. Uses of expansion are in rivets, loosening metal lids, bimetallic strips
and fitting steel tyres onto their wheels.
● The two types of thermometers are liquid in glass ( mercury in thin column of
the thermometer expands with increase in temperature ) and liquid crystal ( each
segment shows a particular temperature ).
● Thermal equilibrium: is achieved when energy is not being transferred between
two objects. Eg: the thermometer is in the same temperature as the water and
the water is no more transferring its energy.
● Internal energy: is the total energy of all the particles
● thermal/heat energy: energy radiated out of an object in the form of heat
● Temperature: is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the individual
particles.
● Calibration of the thermometer: is a process where the thermometer is marked
from 0 to 100 degree celsius to give it a proper scale.

● The scale on a thermometer is linear if the marks are evenly spaced out. It is
usually found in a mercury in glass thermometer as mercury expands at a steady
rate when it is heated.
● The thermometer can be made sensitive by making the tube containing mercury
very narrow.
● Mercury thermometers can also have a wide range of temperatures to get more
accurate readings and the opportunity to measure a wider range of temperatures.
● Thermistors: are resistors whose resistance changes by a large amount over a
narrow temperature range. But their resistance changes in a non-linear way and
the range is narrow.
● Thermocouple: a device that gives out an output voltage that depending on the
temperature. They are made from pieces of wires made up of two different
metals. A wire of metal X is joined at each end to wire of metal Y to form two
junctions. The ends of the thermocouple are joint to a sensitive voltmeter. Then
one of the junctions is placed in melting ice whereas the other is placed in the
object whose temperature is to be measured. The greater the voltage produced,
the greater the difference in the temperatures between the two junctions.
They are used for measuring rapidly changing temperatures and high
temperatures as well.
C11: thermal/heat energy transfers

● Thermal energy: is energy being transferred from a higher temperature to a
lower temperature and it requires a temperature difference to be transferred.
● Metals are good conductors of heat and it can be proven by the metal rods and
wax experiment. Water is a bad conductor of heat and it can be proven by the ice
cubes separated by wire and heating the mouth of the test tube experiment.
Diamond is the best conductor whereas glass wool is the worst.
● In non-metals/insulators, the atoms on the hot end gain energy and transfer it to
their neighbours which eventually makes the hot end cold and the cold end hot.
● In good conductors, electrons flow, transferring the heat.
● Conduction: the flow of heat through matter from higher temperature to lower
temperature without the movement of the matter as a whole.
● Convection: is the flow of heat in liquids/gases (fluids) from regions of higher
temperature to regions of lower temperature with the movement of the fluid as a
whole.
● Hot air rises because when air is heated, it becomes less dense as it expands
which causes it to float upwards and that causes cool air to descend.

● Convection current: is a movement of a fluid that carries energy from a warmer
place to a cooler one.
● Radiation: is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of
electromagnetic waves. It doesn’t require a medium.
● Infrared radiation is produced by warm/hot objects and it is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. It travels through empty space and air in the form of
waves and travels in straight lines. It also warms the objects that absorbs it and
is invisible to the naked eye but can be detected by nerve cells in the skin.
● Matt black surfaces readily absorb radiation and emit it as well. ( best absorbers,
best emitters and the worst reflectors )
● Shiny or white surfaces are the best reflectors, worst absorbers and the worst
emitters.
● Insulation is required to keep energy in something that is hotter than its
surroundings. Insulation in houses can be provided by double glazed windows
having vacuum between the glass panels (only radiation can pass through as
conduction and convection need an medium) and building of cavity walls with an
air gap or foam filled between the two layers of bricks which stops convection
currents from flowing, but minimal conduction takes place.
● Energy can be retained in the house by the use of thick curtains, draught
excluders, loft and underfloor insulating materials, double and triple glazing of
windows, cavity walls and foam or rockwool in wall cavity.
● In vacuum flasks, glass is used as it is a good insulator but sometimes steel is
used for added strength. The gap between double walls is vacuum to avoid heat
loss by conduction and convection, silvering reduces loss by radiation and the
stopper prevents heat loss by convection and evaporation.
● Thermal capacity: is the amount of heat energy required to increase the
temperature of the object by 1 degree celsius. It is also equal to the amount of
heat energy an object will give out when cooled by 1 degree celsius.
E = thermal capacity * T
Thermal capacity = m * c (m=mass and c= specific heat capacity)
● E = m*c*change in t
● Specific heat capacity (c): is the amount of thermal energy needed to raise the
temperature of a mass of 1kg by 1 degree celsius. Unit: J/kg degree celsius
Change in energy= mass*specific heat capacity*change in temperature

C 12 - C 14: waves and sound
Ripple tank: is a shallow glass-bottomed tank containing a small amount of water. Light
from above, shining through the water creates a shadow of the ripples on the floor below,
helping us see the pattern in which ripples form.
● Ripples are produced by something that moves up and down (vertically, usually
wooden bars or spherical dippers) but the ripples move out horizontally.
● Waves: disturbance in medium that transports energy and momentum
● Wavelength: of a wave is the distance from one crest to another or from one
trough to another. It is measured in meters.
● Amplitude (A): of a wave is the maximum distance that the surface of the water
is displaced from its undisturbed level (or) the height of the crest. It is measured
in meters.
● Frequency (f): of a wave is the number of waves sent out each second (or) the
number of waves per second passing a point. It is measured in Hz. 1 Hz = 1
wave or ripple per second
● Period (T): of a wave is the time taken for one complete wave to pass a point. It
is measured in seconds. It is measured from crest to crest.
● F = 1/T or T = 1/f
● Wave speed: is the rate at which the crest of a wave travels along (or) the speed
at which it transfers energy from one place to another
● Transverse waves: are waves in which particles carrying the wave move from
side to side, perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is moving. Eg: light,
ripples on water and electromagnetic waves.
● Longitudinal waves: are those waves in which the particles carrying the wave
move back and forth, along the direction in which the wave is moving. Eg: sound
Compressions are areas of the sound waves where the air particles are closer
together and the air is dense.
Rarefactions are areas of the sound wave where the particles are farther from
each other and the density of the air is less.
● Mechanical waves need a medium and non-mechanical don’t need a medium.
● When waves enter one medium from another, the wavelength and velocity
keep changing but the frequency remains constant.
● wavefront: a surface containing points affected in the same way by a wave in a
given time. The separation of the wavefronts of the ripples is equal to their
wavelength.
● Refraction occurs when the speed of light changes when it is travelling from one
medium to another.
● When a glass plate is submerged in water, the area where the glass plate is

present is shallow, so the waves travel slowly here and where the glass plate is
not present, it is deep and waves travel fast in those regions.
● Diffraction: occurs when ripples in the water encounter a slit/opening in a barrier
and they spread out into the space beyond the barrier. When the width of the gap
is equal to the wavelength, diffraction is the greatest.
● Types of musical instruments: percussion, stringed and wind.
● Speed of sound in air = 330m/s or 1200km/h
● Sound travels 1 km in about 3 s.
● Echo:is the reflection of sound when it hits a hard surface and reflects. s=2d/t
● Time of flight method: can be used to measure the speed of sound in a lab.
Two microphones should be arranged in a straight line at a suitable distance
apart. Each microphone should be connected to a timer. When a student bangs
two blocks of wood together, the first microphone senses this and sends the
signal to timer to start the timer and the second microphone, a split second later,
senses the sound made and stops the timer. So now, distance of the
microphones can be divided by the time displayed on the timer, to obtain the
speed of sound.
● Speed of sound in solids > liquids > gases
● Oscilloscope: it produces a trace on the screen which is the up and down
motion of the sound wave. A microphone detects sound waves and sends
electrical impulses to the oscilloscope.
● Higher pitch is due to higher frequency
● Louder sounds are produced due to greater amplitudes
● Sounds: are vibrations that travel through air and other mediums and are
produced by vibrating objects.
● Crests in a sound wave are compressions and troughs on a sound wave are
rarefactions. Sound waves also represent the changes in air pressure as the
sound travels from its source.
C 13: light
● Speed of light = 3 * 10^8 m/s
● Light changes direction only when it hits a shiny surface or travels from one
medium to another. ( reflection and refraction )
● Reflection: occurs when a light ray strikes a shiny surface and bounces back in
a straight line. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection ( law of
reflection ). The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie on the same
plane.
● Real image: is an image which can be formed/captured on a screen
● Virtual image: is an image which can’t be caught/captured on a screen
● The object reflected on a plane mirror is:
1. The same size as the object
2. Left-right inverted
3. Virtual
4. Same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front
● Refraction: is the bending of light rays when they enter one medium from
another, due to the change in speed. The two laws of refraction are; the incident
ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie on the same plane at the point of
incidence. The ratio of sin of angle of incidence to sin of angle of refraction is
constant for a pair of media.
If light is perpendicular (90 degrees) to the medium it is entering, refraction
doesn’t take place.
● Refractive index: is the quantity that tells us by how much light slows down
while entering particular media.
● n = speed of light in vacuum(3*10^8) / speed of light in the material
● Snell’s law: it relates the sin of angle of incidence with the angle of refraction
and also the refractive index, because as the refractive index increases, so does
the ray’s bending.
n = sin i / sin r (or) n1(sin i) = n2(sin r) (or) n = 1/sin critical angle
● Total internal reflection (TIR): occurs when light entering a semicircular glass
block reflects internally with no refracted ray produced. It is ― total ― because all
the light is reflected, it is ― internal ― because it happens inside the glass and ―
reflection ― because the ray is reflected. For TIR to happen the angle of incidence
should be greater than the critical angle or equal to it.
● Critical angle: the angle of incidence in the denser medium (glass) for which the
angle of refraction in rarer medium (air) is 90 degrees or more.
● Optical fibres: use total internal reflection to transport telephone messages and
electronic signals in the form of a flashing laser light. The optical fibres are made
up of high purity glass, so that the light inside the fibre is not absorbed and only
TIR takes place without any refraction. Optical fibres are used in
telecommunications and endoscopes.
● Converging lenses (convex): such lenses are thicker/fatter in the middle
compared to the sides and they make parallel rays of light converge at one point
called the principal focus Eg: magnifying glasses
● Diverging lenses (concave): such lenses are thinner in the middle,
● Principal axis: is a horizontal line passing through the centre of the lens. All the
light rays passing through the lens are parallel to the principal axis.
● Optical centre: the centre of the lens situated on the principal axis.
● Principal focus: points on either side of the lens, on the principal axis, where all

the light rays passing through the lens converge.
● Focal length: is the distance measured in between the optical centre and the
focal point on the principal axis. A fat lens has a shorter focal length compared to
a thin one.
● Characteristics of light:
1. Light is a transverse wave
2. It travels in a straight line
3. Speed of light in vacuum is c= 3*10^8 m/s
4. It can travel through vacuum, despite the lack of air molecules
5. Light carries energy with it / transfers energy but the matter through which
its moving doesn’t change position.
● An image formed by a converging lens is:

1. Real
2. Inverted
3. Reduced in size
4. Nearer to the lens than the object
● An image formed by a magnifying glass is:
1. Virtual
2. Upright
3. Magnified ( bigger than the object )
4. Further from the lens than the object
( object has to be closer to the lens than the principle focus )
C 15: spectra
● Spectrum of colours: is produced when white light passes through a prism. The
range of colours produced are VIBGYOR
● Red light: refracted the least, travels the fastest, least refractive index, most
temperature, least frequency, most wavelength
● Violet light: refracts the most, travels the slowest, has the highest refractive
index, least temperature, most frequency, least wavelength
● Infrared radiation: is the invisible form of radiation which is present beyond the
red end of the spectrum
● Ultraviolet radiation: is the invisible form of radiation which is present beyond
the violet end of the spectrum.
● Electromagnetic spectrum: is the ordered arrangement of wavelengths of
electromagnetic waves;
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, ROYGBIV, ultraviolet, X ray, gamma

rays
● Properties of electromagnetic waves:
1. All the electromagnetic waves are transverse
2. They travel at the speed of light approximately
3. They are non-mechanical (can travel through vacuum)
● Uses of electromagnetic waves:
1. Radio waves: are used to broadcast radio and television signals.
2. Microwaves: are used in satellite television broadcasting. They are also
used to transmit mobile phone signals between masts. It has to be made
sure no microwaves are leaking out of the microwave ovens used for
domestic purposes.
3. Infrared radiation: is used in remote control for devices such as
televisions and DVD players. It is used in security alarms to send out
infrared radiation and check if they are reflected back, which happens in
the presence of an intruder.
4. Ultraviolet radiation: is used in sunbeds, fluorescent lamps and
sterilisation of food by killing the microbes. Overexposure to tanning
lamps/sunbeds can cause skin cancer and cell damage.
5. X rays: can penetrate solid materials which is why they are used in
security scanners in airports. They are also used in hospitals and clinics to
see inside the patient’s body without performing surgery. Since bones
absorb the radiation they appear as shadows. To avoid the danger
caused by X rays, the equipment can be enclosed in a metal case, which
will absorb the X rays.
6. Visible light: is used in optical fibres (telecommunications and medical
purposes).
C 17, 18 and 19: electricity

● Two types of static electricity: positive charge and negative charge
● Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. (opposites attract)
● Static electricity arises from electric charges.
● Charging is caused by the force of friction, because when two substances
are rubbed with each other, friction causes transfer of electrons which
leaves one positively charged and the other negatively charged. Charge is
measured in coulombs ( C ).
● Electric field: Charged objects have electric fields around them and any
object placed in that field, will experience the force.
Q = ne (n= number of e, e= 1,6*10^-19
● Electric field lines: direction of force on unit charge (negative/positive)
● Electron charge = -1.6 * 10^-19 C
● Proton charge = +1.6 * 10^19
● Methods of charging: frictional/rubbing method, Contact method,
Earthing method and induced/induction method
● Electric circuits can be used to transport energy and contain devices to
transform energy.
● Cell: provides push in the electrical circuit for electricity to flow
● Battery: is a combination of cells/ two or more cells connected end to end
● Direct current (DC): current that flows in the same direction all the time
(positive to negative terminal of the battery)
● Short circuit: is caused when two metal wires come in contact with each
other. It can be avoided by insulating wires with plastic/polymers.
● Electric charge travels around the circuit
● Current: is the flow of electric charge (or) the rate at which electric charge
passes a point in a circuit. In a metal current is a flow of e.
I = Q/t
● Ammeter: is used to measure electric current in the units amps. The two
types are analogues and digital. It is connected in series. Red is positive
(current flows in) and black is negative (current flows out).
● Trip switches: are used to cut out current if the current passing in a circuit
gets too large.
● Resistance: is the opposition a substance offers to the flow of electric
current. Greater the resistance, smaller is the current. It is measured in ―
ohms ― . Longer and thinner wires have more resistance than shorter and
wider ones.
● Resistance if a wire is proportional to its length
● Resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its area
R = V/ I and R = p.d. / current
● Ohm’s law: states that, at constant temperature and fixed dimensions,
current through a conductor is proportional to the potential difference
across its ends. V = IR.
1 ohm = 1V/A ( it takes 10 V to make a current of 1 A flow
through a 10 ohm resistor )
● Voltage/ Potential difference: is the work done in moving a unit of
positive electric charge from one point to another. The unit is volts.
● Voltmeter: is connected in parallel and is used to measure the difference
in electric potential across a resistor/p.d. across a resistor.

● e.m.f (electromotive force): work done to move a unit charge across the
circuit and it drives the electric charge. It is a voltage and not a force. (or)
energy supplied by a source in driving charge around a complete circuit.
● Current-voltage characteristic: is a graph with the x-axis representing
p.dV/V, as this is what we vary and the y-axis represents current I,
because this is the value that varies as we change V.
● Ohmic resistor: a resistor which has a current-voltage characteristic
which shows that current is proportional to voltage.
● A filament lamp acts an ohmic resistor until its filament stays cool, but at
high temperatures,as the filament starts getting hot, it acts as an excellent
resistor,due to which increasing p.d. doesn’t increase the current.
● A negative current can be achieved by connecting the voltmeter the other
way around.
● Power rating of an appliance: shows the rate at which the appliance
transforms energy, and indicates the maximum power the appliance draws
from the mains supply when it is operating at full power. They are
indicated in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
● Power: is the rate at which energy is transferred from place to place or
transformed from one form to another. P = E / t
● The rate at which a cell or power supply transfers energy to a circuit
depends on both the e.m.f of the supply and the current it pushes round
the circuit. P = IV (watts = amps * volts)
● Energy transformed = current * p.d * time , E = IVt ( J = A * V * sec )
● Circuit components:
1. Resistor: can be used to control the amount of current in a circuit.
It has two terminals so that current can flow in from one terminal
and then out from the other. High resistance resistors are made
from carbon (graphite) or metal alloys.
2. Variable resistor/potentiometer: is used to alter the current
flowing in a circuit. It has three terminals and all of them don’t need
to be connected in a circuit. Its enough, even if two of them are
connected. Its working: as the control is turned, the contact slides
over the resistive track. The current flows from the other end and
flows till the contact and after that it leaves the resistor. Such
resistors are used for volume control in stereos and radio systems.
3. Light-dependent resistor (LDR): is a type of variable resistor
whose resistance depends on the amount of light falling on it. In the
dark, an LDR has a very high resistance because it is made up of a
material that does not normally conduct well and in the light it has a

very low resistance. They are used in circuits to detect light, as
current flows in the circuit when light is shone on it.
4. Thermistor: is a type of resistor whose resistance depends on the
environment’s temperature. The resistance changes by a large
amount over a narrow range of temperature. A few resistor’s
resistance decrease as they are heated and such ones are used in
temperature probes(NTC thermistor). For other thermistors, their
resistance increases with the temperature. They are used in circuits
where overheating has to be prevented because the resistance
increases in the circuit with the temperature, and thus current
flowing will be reduced and other components in the circuit won’t
burn out. NTC thermistor stands for negative temperature
coefficient and their resistance decreases with the increase in
temperature.
● Combined resistance (series): R = R1 + R2 and V = V1 + V2
● Combined resistance (parallel): 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2
● For resistors in series:
1. The combined resistance is equal to the sum of all the resistances
2. The current is the same at all points around the circuit
● For resistors in parallel:
1. The effective resistance is less than the resistance of either resistor
2. The current from the source is greater than the current through
either resistor.
● Earthing is a process carried out so that the chances of electric shocks
decreases by connecting the metal case of any wire to the earth wire.
● Each cable has a live, neutral and earth wire. The earth wire is not
insulated (covered with plastic).
● Fuse: contains a thin section of wire, designed to melt and break if the
current gets above a certain value. The fuse should have a current rating
just above the rating of the appliance when the current is flowing normally.
● Trip switches: can be used instead of fuses. If the current flowing through
a trip switch is too high, it trips, breaking the whole circuit.
● All formulae:
1. Q = ne (e = 1.6 * 10^-19)
2. Q = It
3. V = W/Q = work done/charge = energy/charge
4. V = IR
5. R = rL/A (r= resistivity)
6. Rs = R1 + R2

7. Rp = 1/R1+ 1/R2
8. P = VI = (I^2) * R = (V^2)/R
C 16, 20, 21: magnets

● Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
● North pole of the compass is attracted to the earth’s geographical north pole as
there is a magnetic south pole nearby.
● Examples of magnetic materials are iron, cobalt, steel, nickel, lodestone, ferrite
and neodymium.
● Magnetisation: is the process by which materials can be made magnetic either
by stroking them with a magnet in one direction, or placingthe material in a strong
magnetic field produced by an electromagnet, or placing it in a north-south
direction in a magnetic field and hammering it or inducing it by keeping it close to
a magnet which makes it magnetic for a while.
● Hard magnets are those which are hard to magnetise but retain their
magnetism for a long time and are hard to demagnetise.They are used in
loudspeakers, permanent magnets and compass needles. Hard steel is an
example.
● Soft magnets are those which can be magnetised and demagnetised easily.
They are used in radio aerials, transformers and cores for electromagnets.
● Magnetic fields come out from the north pole and go into the south pole of a
magnet. The closer the magnetic field lines are to each other, the stronger the
field.
● Strength of an electromagnet can be increased by: increasing the current
flow, increasing the number of turns of wire on the coil and add a soft iron core.
● Electromagnets are used in electric doorbells, relays, transformers, electric
motors and loudspeakers.
● Maxwell’s right hand grip rule: when a wire carrying current is held, the thumb
shows direction of current flow and the curl of fingers show the direction of
magnetic field lines. The magnetic field lines are circular and farther from the
wire, the greater the distance/space between the circular lines and thus lesser is
the magnetic field strength.
● ( . ) represents current going out of the plane
● ( X ) represents current going into the plane
● Solenoid: is a length of wire wound to form a coil

● Electric motor: in an electric motor there is a coil of wire which has current in it,
so it has its own magnetic field. Permanent magnets or electromagnets produce
a magnetic field in which the coil is present. The result of this is the turning effect
on the coil which causes it to spin around.
● DC motor consists of:
1. A coil of wire which acts as an electromagnet when a direct current flows
through it
2. Two magnets to provide a magnetic field passing through the wire
3. A split-ring commutator, through which current reaches the coil
4. Two carbon brushes which are springy wires, press against the two metal
sections of the commutator.
● Working of a DC motor: ( DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy)
1. A current flows in through the right hand brush (red) and flows out through
the left hand brush (green).
2. Since the current is flowing, the wire acts as an electromagnet. So the part
of the wire near the north pole of the wire becomes the north pole and wire
near the south pole becomes the south pole. Since the north pole is
attracted to the south pole, the wire starts turning in that direction
(anticlockwise).
3. The commutators are used in this stage because, once the north pole gets
attracted to the south pole it stops there. To avoid that, the brush
connections to the split rings are reversed, so that the electricity flows the
other way around.
4. So now we have north pole on the uppermost side of the coil and thus it
turns 180 degrees anticlockwise again. This continues which causes the
movement until the electricity is supplied.
● The axle of this setup can be connected to a pulley, a wheel or a pump, to make
use of it which are parts of fans and vehicles.
● Speed of the DC motor can be increased by:
1. Increasing number of turns of coil
2. Increasing strength of the magnet
3. Passing more current
● Motor effect is a force all motors experience. It can be demonstrated using a
copper rod and magnet setup. A copper rod is kept on two aluminium rods and in
between two magnets separated vertically. When the current flows from the left
side, the forces due to the interaction of the magnetic field produced by the
magnets and the wire interact, pushing the copper rod ahead. If the connections

of the current are reversed or of the magnets with north on the top and south at
the bottom, the rod will roll backwards.
The force can be increased by increasing the current and using magnets with
stronger magnetic fields.
● Fleming’s left hand rule: the thumb finger represents force, the index finger
represents magnetic field and the middle finger represents current.
It is used to predict the direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field.
● Generator: is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy which is
opposite to the working of the motor. In a generator, an electric motor is
connected to a meter and its axle is spinned due to which the meter’s reading will
show a presence of voltage. It works because the motor is being spun in a
magnetic field produced by magnets due to which the current flowing in the coil
has been induced.
● Induced current: occurs when a coil and the magnetic field move relative to
each other and the current flows if it is part of a complete circuit.
● Induced e.m.f/voltage: occurs when the generator is not connected to a circuit,
due to which there will be induced e.m.f/voltage across its ends, ready to make a
current flow around a circuit.
● Electromagnetic induction: is the process of generating electricity from motion.
● Dynamo effect: occurs when a coil and magnetic field are moving relative to
each other and are needed to induce a voltage across the ends of a wire. If the
coil is a part of a complete circuit, the induced e.m.f will make an induced current
flow across the circuit.
● galvanometer/centre-zero meter: used to indicate the direction in which the
current is moving.
● The induced e.m.f can be increased by:
1. Use a stronger magnet
2. Move the coil more quickly relative to the magnet
3. Use a coil with more turns of wire
● A.C generator: alternating current generator, is unlike a d.c in which current
flows in one direction. In an a.c generator, alternating current flows back and
forth. The frequency of an a.c supply is the number of cycles it produces each
second. The graph has time on the x axis and voltage on the y axis. The graph is
like that of a sound wave, half the time the voltage is positive and the next half it
is negative and keeps alternating that way.
● Factors that affect the magnitude and direction of induced e.m.f:
1. If the magnet is stationary, no e.m.f is induced because there is no cutting
of the magnetic field lines.

2. If the magnet is further from the wire, the e.m.f induced is smaller as the
field lines are farther apart and fewer are cut.
3. If the magnet is moved quickly, a greater e.m.f is produced as the lines
are being cut more often and quickly.
4. The use of coil, compared to a single wire, generates a greater e.m.f as
each turn of the wire cuts the magnetic field lines.
● Working of an a.c generator: when the axle is turned, each side of the
armature goes through the north and south poles of the magnet and the current
reverses every half rotation which produces the graph. The peak is caused by
the horizontal section of the wire cutting through the magnetic field. The zero
point is caused by the vertical position of the coil, cutting no magnetic field. The
negative peak is caused by the horizontal coil cutting through the opposite
magnetic field.
● The voltage generated by the a.c generator can be increased by:
1. Turning the coil more rapidly
2. Using a coil with more number of turns
3. Using a coil with bigger area
4. Using stronger magnets
● Power lines: are cables slung high above the ground between tall pylons which
carry electricity generated in power stations to the modern homes for daily use.
● When this power enters a local distribution centre, the voltage is reduced and the
power is sent through more cables to local substations. In the substations,
transformers reduce the voltage to the local supply voltage and then it is
branched out to various homes and buildings.
● High voltage is used to transfer electricity because by using high voltage, less
current is flowing due to which the energy loss is minimum.
Power loss is proportional to the square of the current
● Transformer: is a device used to increase or decrease the voltage of an electric
supply. It only changes the size of an alternating voltage and works only with
alternating current a.c. Every transformer has three parts;
1. Primary coil: the incoming voltage (Vp) is connected across this coil
2. Secondary coil: this provides the voltage (Vs) to the external circuit
3. Iron core: this links the two coils
● Step-up transformer: increases the voltage, so there are more turns on the
secondary coil compared to the primary coil.
● Step-down transformer: decreases the voltage, so there are more turns on the
primary coil compared to the secondary coil.
● The ratio of the numbers of turns tell us the factor by which the voltage will
be changed. From this:

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
(Vp= voltage across primary coil, Vs= voltage across secondary coil, Np=
number of turns on primary, Ns= number of turns on secondary)
● For a 100% efficient transformer:
Ip * Vp = Is * Vs (power in to primary coil = power out of secondary coil)
C 22: atomic physics

● A = mass number, Z = proton number, X = element symbol.
● Nuclide: different types of nucleus formed by different combinations of Z and A
which gives rise to different elements.
● Atom: the smallest particle of a chemical substance that can exist.
● Proton number + neutron number = nucleon number ( Z + N = A )
● Isotopes: have the same proton number but different number of neutrons giving
different masses. The isotopes of the same element have similar chemical
properties but those with a greater number of neutrons are heavier.
● Unstable isotopes: are those isotopes which undergo radioactive decay,
emitting radiation as they change from one element to another.
● Radioactive substances can cause problems:
1. By contamination in our body if it gets inside in concentrated amounts.
2. By getting irradiated, which happens when their radiation hits our body
● Background radiation: low levels of radiation present in the atmosphere at all
times.
● Sources of natural background radiation:
1. Ground and buildings: because they are built from substances found in
the ground and the ground contains radioactive substances.
2. Radon and thoron in atmosphere: which seep upwards from the
uranium rocks underground.
3. Food and drink: as living things tend to grow by taking in materials from
air and ground containing radioactive substances.
4. Cosmic rays: from sun and outer space which are mostly blocked by the
earth’s atmosphere.
● Sources of artificial radiation:
1. Medical: use of X-rays, gamma rays and radiation for destroying cancer
cells.
2. Fallout from weapons tests: it happens only if bombs are denoted above
ground. Now everything as such is done underground.

3. Air travel, TV sets, etc : since you are high up in the atmosphere, the
radiation is stronger compared to on the ground.
4. At work: professions like radiographers and staff in a nuclear power
station are more exposed to such radiation.
5. Nuclear discharges: from industries dealing with nuclear substances to
use as fuel.
● Radiation can be detected by:
1. Photographic film: when a radioactive substance is left on a
photographic film for a long time, it darkens/blackens the area where it is
left.
2. Geiger counter: this is a quicker method compared to the photographic
film method. The geiger-muller tube is the detector and it is held close to
the suspected source of radiation. If any radiation is coming out of the
source, it enters the tube which produces an electrical impulse every time
it detects any radiation. The electronic counter adds up all these impulses.
● Radioactive decay: is the radiation emitted by an unstable nucleus in order to
become more stable.
● Radioactivity: is the spontaneous disintegration of heavy nuclei by emitting
particles and energy to become a stable nuclei.
● Alpha particle is the same as the helium atom. Beta particle is the same as
1 electron. Gamma ray is the same as the photon of electromagnetic
radiation.
● Alpha particles travel the slowest as they have the most mass whereas gamma
rays travel at the speed of light. An atom emits either alpha or beta particles
along with gamma rays at the same time.
● When the radioactive substances decay, alpha and beta particles release kinetic
energy whereas gamma rays release electromagnetic radiation.
● Alpha particles are the least penetrating (paper can absorb them) but gamma
rays are the most penetrating (lead which is very dense, only can absorb it). Beta
particles are absorbed by metals.
● Ionised: when radiation passes through air it may interact with air molecules,
knocking electrons from them which causes the air molecules to become
charged. Now, the air molecules are ionised.
● Since radiation from radioactive substances causes radiation of the materials that
absorb it, it is often known as ionising radiation. Alpha particles are the most
ionising and gamma rays are least.
● In an electric field, the alpha particles are attracted to the negative charge, the
beta particles are attracted to the positive charge and the gamma rays go
undeflected as they have no charge.

● In a magnetic field, the beta particles get deflected towards the north pole, the
alpha particles get deflected to the south pole but the gamma rays go
undeflected.
● Radiation can damage living cells by:
1. Intense dose of radiation can cause a lot of ionisation in the cell, killing it
(radiation burns)
2. The DNA in the cell nucleus gets damaged and the mechanisms that
control the cell may break down causing uncontrolled division of the cell
(cancer)
3. If a gamete is affected by radiation, then the mutations may be passed on
(genetic mutation)
● In radioactive decay, nucleon number and proton number are conserved.
● An exponential decay graph is used to display the time it will take a radioactive
substance to decay. If the graph is steeper it shows that the substance has a
shorter half life.
● Half-life: of a radioactive substance is the average time it will take for half of the
atoms in a sample to decay.
● Activity of a sample: is the number of atoms that decay each second. It is
measured in becquerels (Bq).
● Uses of radioisotopes are related to their:
1. Penetrating power
2. Damage caused to the cells
3. Detection of tiny quantities
4. Radioactive decay and half life
● Uses related to penetrating power:
1. Smoke detectors ( alpha particles ): americium-241, a radioactive
material is chosen. It emits alpha radiation in the direction of a detector
which is connected to an alarm. If the smoke enters and absorbs these
radiations, then there is no electric charge from the radiation, so no
current flows in the detector and thus the alarm rings.
2. Thickness measurements ( beta particles ): in plastic and paper
industries, beta radiation is passed through bundles of paper/plastic and
the radiation that is getting through is calculated by detectors. This
ensures uniform thickness.
3. Medical diagnosis ( gamma rays ): the patient is injected with a
radioactive substance in the area of the disease. Then the gamma rays
being emitted can be used to detect the image of the tissue under study.
4. Fault detection ( gamma rays ): used to find faults in welding, etc. a
photographic film of any faults is developed by emitting gamma rays.

● Uses related to cell damage:
1. Radiation therapy (alpha or x rays): it is used in killing cancerous cellsby
directing the radiation at them. Chemical drugs are used as a combination
for cancer cure.
2. Food irradiation ( gamma rays ): it is used to preserve food as the
intense gamma rays kill the microbes which cause decay in the food.
3. Sterilisation ( gamma rays ): it is used to kill microbes on syringes,
scalpels, tampons, sanitary towels and other instruments by tying them in
plastic bags and exposing to radiation.
● Uses related to detectability:
1. Radioactive tracing: for example in detecting underground water supply by
injecting water containing a radioactive substance into the cracks in the
ground and monitor using gamma detectors at ground level.
2. Radioactive labelling and genetic fingerprinting: chemicals bond to
particular parts of the molecules of interest, so that they can be tracked
through a set of reactions.
● Uses related to radioactive decay:

1. Half-life and radiocarbon dating: used to calculate how much carbon-14is
left in an organism to calculate how long ago, it was alive.
2. Other radioactive dating techniques: since potassium-40 in rocks decays
by beta radiation it turns into argon. So more the amount of argon,older the
rock is.
…………………………………………………………………………….

Biology
C1: cells
● movement: an action by an organism or a part of an organism causing a change of
position or place
● Metabolism: chemical reactions that take place in the body
● Anabolism: when a complex molecule is formed from simpler ones
● Catabolism: when a complex molecule is broken down into a simple molecule
● Respiration: the chemical reactions in the cell that break down nutrient molecules
and release energy for metabolism
● Sensitivity: the ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external
environment and make appropriate responses
● Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number
or cell size or both
● reproduction: the processes that make more of the same kind of organism
● Excretion: removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism which
include chemical reaction in cells including respiration taking materials and
substances in excess of requirements
● Nutrition: taking in of materials for energy, growth and development. plants require
light ,carbon dioxide ,water and ions whereas animals need organic compounds,
ions and usually need water.
● Cell : the functional and structural basic unit of life
● Light microscope :a microscope that uses light which shines through the piece of
animal or plant you’re looking at and uses glass lenses to magnify and focus the
image which can magnify up to 1500 times. It is used to make photo micrographs.
● electron microscope: a microscope which uses beams of electrons to magnify up
to 500,000 times. It is used in making an electron micrograph.
● Eyepiece: lens present at the top and is used to see the objects understudy which
have magnification of 10 to 15 times
● Tube: also called the body tube which connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
● Resolving nosepiece : it allows the rotation of lenses while viewing and has holders
for the different objective lenses
● Coarse adjustment knob: use for focus on scanning
● Fine adjustment knob: use for focus on Oil. Moves the body tube for focusing the
high power lens
● Arm: It supports the tube of microscope and connects to the base of the microscope
● Stage: the platform that is flat used for placing the slides under observation

● Stage dip: holds the slides in proper place
● Base: provide basal and support
● Power switch: the main power station that turns the illumination on and off in a light
microscope
● Magnification of a diagram: is how many times it is larger than the real object. The
formula is M=I/A
● Cell membrane: is the partially permeable membrane made up of proteins and fat. It
controls what enters and leaves the cell.
● Cell wall: is made up of cellulose (polysaccharide) and is fully permeable. It protects
and supports the cell.
● Cytoplasm: is 70% water and consists of proteins dissolved in it for metabolic
reactions to take place.
● Vacuoles: a plant vacuole consists of sugar solution and cell sap. An animal vacuole
is called a vesicle and consists of nutrients or water.
● Chloroplast: present only in plants and contains chlorophyll and starch grains.
Animals store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen granules.
● Nucleus: consists of chromosomes which have DNA.
C2: movement in and out of cells

● diffusion: the net movement of molecules from a region of their higher
concentration to a region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient,
as a result of their random movement.
● osmosis: is the diffusion of water molecules through a partially permeable
membrane(semi-permeable membrane) from a region of high water potential to low
water potential.
● High water conc to low water con
● Low solute con to high solute concert
● High water potential to low water potential
● Dilute to concentrated solution
● partially permeable membrane: allows small molecules like water to pass through,
but not large dissolved solutes.
● Water potential :is a property of a solution that describes how free the water
molecules are and it’s stored energy of the water molecules before it has to use it for
dissolving the solute
● Hypertonic: More solute concentration (low water potential)
● Isotonic: Equal solute concentration
● Hypotonic: Less solute concentration (high water potential)

● Concentration gradient: it’s where there is a different number of nutrients on both
sides of the cell membrane
● Passive transport: moment of molecules from high concentration to lower
concentration and energy is not required as molecules move towards the gradient
● Active transport: moment of molecules from low concentration to higher
concentration and energy is required in the form of ATP and it doesn’t work for
maintenance of equilibrium
● Hydrophobic: they don’t dissolve in water
● Hydrophilic: they dissolve in water
● Animal cells burst in pure water as too much water enters the cell.
● Animal cells shrink in low water potential as too much water leaves the cell.
● Plant cells become swollen and full in pure water.
● Plant cells become flaccid and plasmolysed in a conc. solution.
● Turgor pressure: is experienced by a plant cell placed in pure water as water enters
the cell, thus exerting pressure outwards, making the cell turgid.
● Flaccid: when a plant cell is placed in a concentrated solution, too much water
leaves the cell, making it floppy and shriveled up.
● Plasmolysis: is a process in which the cell membrane tears away from the cell wall
when a cell is placed in a concentrated solution.
C3: biological molecules

● Uses of water:
1. Metabolic reactions take place only if chemicals are dissolved in water
2. Transport of glucose by dissolving it in water
3. Digestion takes place only if enzymes and nutrients are dissolved in water
● carbohydrates: includes starches and sugars and are made of elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. Provides energy.
● Functions of carbohydrates:
1. Release energy from respiration
2. Glucose transport
3. Sucrose transport in plants
4. Stored as starch in plants and glycogen in humans
5. Cellulose formation for cell wall
● Sugars/monosaccharides: the simplest kinds of carbohydrates. They taste sweet
and are soluble in water. Eg: glucose
● Complex sugars/disaccharide: a large molecule formed by joining of two simple
sugar molecules. They taste sweet and dissolve in water. Eg: sucrose, maltose

● Polysaccharides: when many simple sugar molecules join together, a
polysaccharide is formed. They are not sweet and are insoluble in water. Eg:
cellulose, starch and glycogen.
● Benedict's solution: used to test the presence of reducing sugars and changes
colour from blue to green to yellow to orange and then brick red in presence. Or else
remains blue.
● Iodine solution: used to test the presence of starch. If it is present, the colour
changes to blue black or else remains orange brown.
● Fats/lipids: made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are formed by joining
one glycerol molecule to three fatty acid molecules ( triglycerides) and are insoluble
in water. Provide instant energy, found as large oil droplets under the skin, help in
making new cell membranes and provide insulation.
● Oils: fats which are liquid at room temperature and don’t dissolve in water.
● Functions of fats:
1. Provide energy when carbohydrates are used up
2. Insulation
3. Energy for germinating seeds in the form of oil reserves in the seeds
● Ethanol emulsion test: used to test the presence of fats. When food is shaken in
ethanol and added to water, if an emulsion forms, fat is present. But if the solution
remains transparent, fats are not present.
● Emulsion: a mixture consisting of millions of tiny droplets which appears opaque
like milk
● Proteins: made up of amino acids and contains elements like carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur in some cases. Used for making new cells, enzymes,
haemoglobin, keratin and also provide energy.
● Biuret test: used to test the presence of proteins. First, the food is shaken with
water and then dilute copper sulfate solution and then dilute potassium hydroxide
solution is added and if protein is present colour changes to purple or else remains
blue.
● Catalyst: alters the rate at which the reaction is taking place without being changed
itself and is still present at the end of the reaction.
● Enzymes: proteins/biological catalysts which ensure metabolic reactions take place
in the cells
● Properties of enzymes:
1. All enzymes are proteins
2. Enzymes are made inactive by high temperatures
3. Enzymes work best at their optimum temperatures
4. Enzymes work best at particular pH
5. Enzymes are biological catalysts

6. They are substrate specific
● Catalase: works inside the cells of most living organisms which breaks down
hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen
● Non catalyst enzymes: enzymes like starch phosphorylase which builds starch
from glucose molecules in plant cells
● Substrate: the substance which is present in the start of the reaction
● Product: a substance made by the reaction
● Active site: the dent in every enzyme molecule which is complementary to the
shape of the substrate so that it can fit in it and form an enzyme-substrate complex
● Lock and key mechanism: substrate is the key and the enzyme is a lock
● Denatured enzyme: when a substrate no longer fits into the enzyme due to the
active site losing its shape due to high temperatures
● Optimum temperature: the temperature at which the enzymes work their best
● Hydrate: anything that dissolves in water and has ratio 2:1
C4: plant nutrition
● Feeding/nutrition: taking in of useful substances

● Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw
materials using energy from sunlight ( carbon dioxide + water —sunlight and
chlorophyll—> glucose + oxygen )
● Chlorophyll: present in plant cells which traps sunlight so that it can be used in the
process of photosynthesis
● Epidermis: layer of cells with no chloroplast on the upper and lower sides of the leaf
which protect the cells inside and allow easy penetration of sunlight
● Cuticle: waxy substance released by the epidermis which stops too much water
transpiration and is thin to allow maximum light penetration
● Stomata: small openings present in the lower epidermis which help in gas exchange
which have chloroplasts
● Palisade mesophyll cells: rod shaped cells that contain large number of
chloroplasts for photosynthesis and they are close to the leaf surface, upright,
elongated and tightly packed to maximise light absorption.
● Spongy mesophyll: smaller cells found in the lower part of the leaf. They have less
number of chloroplasts and large air spaces for easy diffusion of gases.
● Vascular bundle(vein): contain xylem and phloem arranged as a group
● Translocation: movement of sugars and amino acids via the phloem

● Autotrophs: get their energy from sunlight and build organic food molecules from
carbon dioxide and make energy and synthesizes sugars through photosynthesis
● Heterotrophs: get energy from feeding on other organisms
● Tip: pointed part of the leaf
● Midrib: middle sectioning of the leaf
● Margin: outer perimeter of the leaf
● Vein: bundle of xylem and phloem vessels
● Lamina: photosynthesis happens here and it is a broad surface
● Petiole: on the surface of the leaf, it extends as midrib and then veins
● Uses of glucose:
1. Used for energy
2. Stored as starch
3. Used to make proteins and other organic substances
4. Changed to sucrose for transport
● Nitrate ions are used by plants to make amino acids, which are used for making
proteins, which leads to plant growth. Lack of it makes plants look stunted, gives
them yellow leaves and weak growth.
● Magnesium ions are used to make chlorophyll and lack of it causes yellowing
between the veins of leaves.
C5: animal nutrition
● Diet: the food an animal intakes everyday

● Seven types of important nutrients: carbohydrates (macro), proteins (macro), fats
(macro), vitamins (micro), minerals (micro), water and roughage.
● Balanced diet: a diet which consists of all the 7 types of nutrients in the correct
amounts and proportions.
● Energy needs depend on gender, work you do and your age.
● Vitamin C: obtained from citrus fruits and raw vegetables which helps in making the
stretchy protein collage and keeps skin in good repair. Lack of it causes scurvy
which causes pain in joints and muscles and bleeding from the gums and other
places.
● Vitamin D: obtained from butter, egg yolk and can be made by skin when sunlight
falls on it. Helps in calcium absorption for making bones and teeth. Lack of it causes
rickets, where the bones become soft and deformed.
● Calcium: obtained from milk, bread and dairy products. Needed for strong bones

and teeth and blood clotting. Lack of it causes brittle bones and teeth and poor blood
clotting.
● Iron: obtained from liver, red meat, egg yolk and dark green vegetables. Needed for
making haemoglobin and lack of it causes anaemia, where the person gets tired
easily due to lack of red blood cells which causes low supply of oxygen to the
tissues.
● Inorganic nutrients: minerals, water
● Organic nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins
● Fibre: it helps to keep the alimentary canal working properly. Peristalsis, movement
of muscles contracting and relaxing to squeeze the food along, is simulated by fibre
as it is a hard food. Bran is the combination of the outer husk of cereal grains, such
as oats, wheat and barley. It prevents bowel cancer, constipation and keeps the food
moving down the alimentary canal.
● Saturated fat: fat obtained from animals, containing cholesterol.
● Unsaturated fat: obtained from vegetable oils and oils from fish, better for the
health.
● CHD (coronary heart disease): occurs when fat deposits build up on the inside of
the arteries, making them stiffer and narrower, which decreases the blood supply to
the heart muscles due to which heart muscles run out of oxygen quickly and can’t
work properly. This can cause a blood clot, and thus a heart attack.
● Obesity: occurs when people consume more energy than they use, which causes
the fat to get stored. Obese people tend to have more risks of heart attack, heart
disease, jointpains, diabetes and strokes.
● Malnutrition: improper intake of nutrients/not eating a balanced diet
● Kwashiorkor: caused by lack of protein in the diet. Children suffering from it are
underweight, have a swollen abdomen,
● Marasmus: caused by lack of protein and energy in the diet. The child has body
weight much lower than normal and looks emaciated.
● Alimentary canal: long tube inside a mammal’s body running from one end to
another
● Ingestion: taking substances into the body through the mouth
● Digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small,
water-soluble molecules using chemical and mechanical processes
● Mechanical digestion: the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical
change to the food molecules
● Chemical digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small soluble
molecules by the use of chemicals
● Absorption: the movement of digested food molecules through the walls of the
intestine into the blood
● Assimilation: the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used, becoming part of the cells
● Egestion: passing out of food that has not been digested, as faeces, through the
anus
● Teeth: help with the ingestion and mechanical digestion of the food we eat. They
chop, crush or grind the food into smaller pieces. Parts of the teeth are:
1. Root: the part of the tooth that is embedded into the gum
2. Crown: part of the tooth which is not embedded into the root
3. Enamel: is the hard covering over the crown of the tooth. It can’t be broken or
chipped, but can be dissolved by acids.
4. Dentine: it is under the enamel and has channels containing living cytoplasm.
5. Pulp cavity: it contains nerves and blood vessels which supply the cytoplasm
in the dentine with food and oxygen.
6. Cement: the root of the tooth is covered with cement which attaches it to the
jawbone but allows minimal movement.
● different types of teeth are:
1. Incisors: are the sharp-edged, chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth
used for biting off pieces of food. (8)
2. Canines: are the more pointed teeth on either side of the incisors used for
gripping food and tearing meat apart. (4)
3. Premolars: are the broad teeth at the back of the mouth. They are used for
crushing and grinding food. (8)
4. Molars: are the broad teeth at the total end of the jawline and are used for
crushing, grinding and breaking down the food. (8)
● Plaque: is a sticky film formed by the bacteria in the mouth, reacting with the saliva.
It forms in between the teeth and between the teeth and gums. It is soft and easy to
remove in the start but sooner it hardens and forms tartar which can’t be removed by
brushing.
● Tooth decay: If there is sugar in your mouth, the bacteria in the plaque will feed on
it and use it in respiration, changing it into an acid. This acid starts dissolving the
enamel and dentine and if it reaches the pulp cavity, the tooth will have to be
removed.
● Cavities and tooth problems can be avoided by:
1. Not eating too much sugar
2. Using a fluoride toothpaste and mouthwash
3. Making regular visits to the dentist
● Alimentary canal: is a part of the digestive system and it is a long tube which runs
from the mouth to the anus.
● Digestive system: consists of the alimentary canal and accessory organs (liver and
pancreas) which helps in the digestion of food.
1. Mouth: the food is ingested via the mouth. Teeth break it down into smaller
pieces and the tongue mixes the food with saliva, forming a bolus.
● The water in the saliva dissolves the food, helping taste it.
● The mucus in the saliva, lubricates the food, pushing it down the
esophagus.
● The enzyme amylase in the saliva, start digesting any starch in the
food.
2. Oesophagus: it takes food down to the stomach by a movement called
peristalsis. The sphincter muscle which guards the entrance to the stomach,
relaxes to let the food pass through.
3. Stomach: the muscular walls of the stomach relax and contract to churn and
mix the food with enzymes and mucus, forming chyme. The goblet cells in the
stomach make the mucus. Other glands make hydrochloric acid (which kills
any harmful microorganisms and bacteria) and the protease pepsin which can
work in acidic conditions.
● Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides.
4. Small intestine: it is divided into duodenum and ileum. It helps in the
absorption of water, mineral salts and vitamins. The pancreatic duct is
connected with the small intestine which releases pancreatic juices made in
the pancreas which is a cream-coloured gland lying underneath the stomach.
The pancreatic juices contain sodium hydrogencarbonate which neutralises
the acidity of chyme, so that the following enzymes can work:
● Amylase breaks down starch to maltose
● Trypsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides
● Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
5. Bile is an yellowish-green alkaline, watery liquid, which helps neutralise
chyme due to the presence of sodium hydrogencarbonate that is present. It is
made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder after which it is secreted into
the small intestine via the bile duct. The bile salts help in a process called
emulsification, where fats are broken down into smaller drops of oil,
increasing their surface area, so that they can be broken down chemically, by
other enzymes.
6. Villi: cover the inner walls of the small intestine and cells covering the villi
make enzymes which stay close to their production cell. These enzymes
complete the digestion of food.
● Maltase breaks down maltose into glucose
● Proteases finish breaking down any polypeptides into amino acids
● Lipase completes the breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol
● Sucrase breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose
● Lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose
7. Large intestine/colon: more amounts of water and salts are absorbed here.
All the undigested food (fibre and roughage), bacteria and some dead cells
pass on from here into the rectuma and anus, to be excreted.
C6: transport in plants
● Xylem tissue: transports water from roots to leaves.

● Xylem vessels: are dead at maturity. They are joined end to end and the endwalls
of cells are perforated. Their walls are made up of cellulose and lignin and they are
unidirectional and transport water and mineral ions via passive transport ( energy is
not used )
● Phloem tissue: transports sap (water and sugar) from ―source‖ to ―sink.‖
● Phloem vessels: are alive at maturity, but need companion cells and they are
bidirectional and use active transport ( energy is required )
● Source: where the sugar starts its journey (either where it is produced or stored)/
where substances are produced
● Sink: where sugar ends up (either where it is needed or will be stored)/ where the
substance can be stored
● Companion cells: narrow, thin wall with an abundance of cytoplasm and a nucleus.
They keep the sieve tube alive by providing nutrients and contains many
mitochondria to provide energy for translocation.
● Vascular bundle: A strand of conducting vessels in the stem or leaves of a plant,
typically with phloem on the outside and xylem on the inside.
● Cambium cells: they can divide to give rise to new xylem and phloem tissue, hence
thickening of the stem
● Pith: the central region, serving as a storage tissue, that is formed due to xylem and
phloem vessels arranging themselves in a ring
● Cortex: region between xylem and phloem vessels which also serves as a storage
tissue for food
● Cuticle: waxy layer covering the epidermal cells which avoids excess transpiration
● Pericycle cells: present around the xylem and phloem vessels in the stem which
helps keep the stem upright and the plant grow
● Root cap: layer of cells at the tip of the root which protects the root as it grows
through the soil
● Transpiration: is the loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water
at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through
the stomata
● Adaptations that help transpiration:

1. Root hair cells provide large surface area
2. Hollow, narrow xylem vessels, providing an easy pathway
3. Many air spaces inside the leaf, providing a large surface area
4. Open stomata, encouraging more water to evaporate
● Cohesion: water molecules stick together to each other - So they will stay together
in the xylem tissue
● Adhesion: water molecules stick to other molecules. So the water molecules will
stick to the walls of the xylem as they move up.
● Transpiration pull/stream: This is because when the water evaporates at the top of
the plant, it removes water from the xylem vessel, creating a negative pressure at
the top.This negative pressure causes water to ―suck‖ up the xylem vessel.
● Translocation:Movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem- from regions of
production to regions of storage or to regions of utilisation (in respiration or growth)
via the phloem (source to sink)
● potometer: can be used to measure the volume of water absorbed.
C7: transport in humans
● Circulatory system: consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels (arteries, veins
and capillaries). It is a system of a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of
blood.
● Open circulatory system: heart pumps into open cavities, blood vessels carry
blood to all parts of the body
● Closed circulatory system: blood remains in a network of closed blood vessels
● Fish circulatory system: it is a single loop system. Atrium collects blood from the
body and sends it to the ventricle which sends this blood to the gills where it will get
oxygenated and goes to body cells where it gives off oxygen and picks up carbon
dioxide
● Double circulation: consists of pulmonary and systemic circulation. In pulmonary
circulation, the veins and arteries carrying blood to and from the lungs are
considered. In systemic circulation, the flow of blood around the body and the blood
vessels which do that are considered. In double circulation, the blood travels through
the heart twice, in one complete circuit of the body.

● Single circulation: the blood passes through the heart only once in one complete
circuit around the body. In fish, the blood to the body is pumped by the gills.
● Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart to the lungs
● Pulmonary vein: carries oxygenated blood towards the heart
● Oxygenated blood: is the blood rich in oxygen because it has just travelled through
the lungs and then picked up oxygen there by diffusion and has come to the left side
of the heart to get pumped around the body.
● Deoxygenated blood: is the blood which has passed through the body and the
oxygen from it has been used by the cells, so it is sent to the right hand side of the
heart and then to the lungs to get rich with oxygen.
● The heart is made up of cardiac muscle.
● Blood flow: the blood from the head and body travel through superior and inferior
vena cava and enter the right atrium. The AV valves open, sending the blood into
the right ventricle. From here, the deoxygenated blood goes to the lungs via
pulmonary artery. From the lungs, oxygenated blood comes into the left atrium via
the pulmonary vein. The AV valves open again, pushing the blood into the left
ventricle. The left ventricle pumps the blood around the body, via the aorta.
● CHD (coronary heart disease): is the blockage of the coronary arteries which
supply the heart muscles with oxygen and nutrients. If the heart runs short of
oxygen, it stops beating, thus an heart attack/cardiac arrest has occurred. The
following increase the chances of getting CHD:
1. Smoking cigarettes
2. Diet: high in salt and saturated fats or cholesterol, increase the chances.
3. Obesity
4. Stress
5. Genes: most likely to pass on
● Pulse: is caused by the expansion and relaxation of an artery, caused by the heart
pumping blood into it. Thus, pulse rate and the heart rate are the same.
● Pacemaker: is a patch of muscle in the right atrium which controls the pace at which
the heart beats.
● How the heart pumps blood: (AV- atrioventricular valves, SL- semilunar valves)
1. Diastole / relaxation: all muscles are relaxed. Blood flows into the heart. AV
valves are open but SL valves are closed. The valves in the veins (vena cava
and pulmonary vein) are open.
2. Atrial systole / atrial contraction: the muscles of the atria contract but the
muscles of the ventricles remain relaxed, which causes the blood to be
squeezed into the ventricles. The AV valves open, but the SL valves remain
closed. The valves in the veins remain shut.

3. Ventricular systole / ventricular contraction: the muscles of the atria relax.
The muscles of the ventricles contract. Blood is pumped out of the ventricles
into the arteries. The SL valves and valves in the veins are open but the AV
valves remain shut.
● Arteries: take blood away from the heart (oxygenated blood). They have very strong
walls to withstand the pressure with which the blood is being pumped out. They have
elastic walls to stretch and recoil as the blood surges through them unevenly.
● Capillaries: take nutrients, oxygen and other materials to all cells of the body and
take away waste materials. Their walls are only one cell thick for easy diffusion to
take place. Arterioles are arteries extending into capillaries and venules are veins
extending into capillaries.
● Veins: carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart. Since the blood travels with a
low pressure, veins don’t need thick, strong and elastic valves. Instead they have
wider lumens to provide an easy passage for blood flow. They have valves which
avoid backward flow of blood.
● Liver has connections with hepatic vein and artery. Kidneys have connections with
renal artery and vein.
● Plasma: is the liquid part of the blood. It consists of water, plasma proteins
(fibrinogen and antibodies), lipids (cholesterol and fatty acids), carbohydrates,
mineral ions, hormones and dissolved gases. Its functions are to:
1. Transport carbon dioxide in solution
2. Transport nutrients in solution
3. Transport hormones in solution
4. Transport heat
5. Transport antibodies
6. Acts as a liquid medium in which cells and platelets can float
● RBC: They are made in the bone marrow of some bones. They don’t have a
nucleus, instead they have a red pigment called haemoglobin which is a protein and
contains iron. The iron readily combines with oxygen which increases the oxygen
carrying capacity of the RBC. They are biconcave discs which gives them a lot of
surface area which increases the rate at which oxygen diffuses into and out of the
cells.
● WBC: they have a large and lobed nucleus. Their function is to fight pathogens and
to clear up dead body cells.
1. Phagocytes fight bacteria and viruses by taking in bacteria and digesting
them in a process called phagocytosis. They have a lobed nucleus.
2. Lymphocytes fight pathogens by releasing antibodies on them.
● Platelets: are made in the red bone marrow and they are involved in blood clotting.
They are small fragments of cells with no nucleus.

C8: respiration and gas exchange
● Cells need energy for:
1. Contracting muscles
2. Making protein molecules
3. Making new cells
4. Cell division
5. Producing heat inside the body
● Respiration: is the process that takes place in living cells which releases energy
from food molecules which takes place in the mitochondria
● Aerobic respiration: the chemical reaction in cells that uses oxygen to break down
nutrient molecules to release energy
● Glucose+oxygen—> carbon dioxide+energy+water
● Anaerobic respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules to release little energy without using oxygenate
● Alcohol fermentation: glucose—> ethyl alcohol(c2h6o)+carbon dioxide + 2ATP
● Lactic acid fermentation: glucose—> lactic acid (c3h5o3)+ 2ATP
● Oxidative respiration: the respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen.
Reaction: glucose + oxygen—> carbon dioxide + water + 38ATP
● Fermentation: anaerobic respiration where oxygen is not present. It’s of two types;
alcohol and lactic acid fermentation
● Oxygen debt: After anaerobic activity, oxygen is needed to neutralize the lactic acid.
This is called an oxygen debt. It is repaid after exercise by heavy breathing. The
oxygen reacts with the lactic acid to form CO2 and water.Rapid and deep breathing
is needed for a short period after high intensity exercise in order to repay the debt.
● Ventilation: is the movement of air into and out of the lungs in two stages;
inspiration and expiration. Movement of diaphragm and rib cage controls this
● Gas exchange: the exchange ( diffusion ) of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from
the blood at the alveoli and respiring tissues
● Special characteristics of gas exchange sites:

1. Thin to allow easy diffusion of gases across them
2. Close to an efficient transport system
3. Large surface area
4. Good supply of oxygen
● Cell respiration: production of ATP in the cellular level (mitochondria)
● Larynx - the voice box. Infection here causes laryngitis
● Trachea - also called the windpipe, trachea is the main respiratory tube. The
flexible tube is kept open by the rings of C-shaped cartilages so it prevents
collapsing (like a straw). Mucus present here traps bacteria and dust helping to keep
the air going to the lungs clean.
● Bronchus - subdivides the trachea into smaller tubes, one large bronchus into
each of the lungs. Infection here causes bronchitis
● Bronchiole - even smaller subdivisions of the tubes, the bronchioles branches off in
the lungs, leading into the
● alveoli.
● Alveolus - is the air sac which is the site of gas exchange. Each of them is
surrounded with blood capillaries which takes the blood away with the oxygen in it.
● Lung - the spongy tissue found in the chest containing the organs for breathing.
● vital capacity: the maximum volume of air that can be stored in the lungs
● Diaphragm - the sheet of muscle forming the floor of the chest, controls the
expansion of the lungs.
● Ribs - the bones which protect the organs in the chest.
● Intercostal Muscles - the set of muscles in the ribs which move the ribs up and
down to allow more room for expansion during breathing.
● Pleural fluid: allows the lungs to move freely
● Pleural membranes: consists of fluids which cushions the lungs
● Nose: air here is moistened by mucus, warmed by blood vessels and cleaned by
cilia hairs.
● Epiglottis: a small piece of cartilage above the larynx which automatically closes the
opening to the trachea so that food doesn’t enter it
● Goblet cells and mucus glands: produce and release mucus onto the surface so
that any pathogens can be stopped from entering further into the body and then the
mucus is removed by the cilia.
● Ciliated cells: these cells have cilia that can move and wave in coordination so that
the mucus can easily be swept along the surface of the respiratory tubes so that it
can be swallowed and safely digested.
● Breathing: alteration of inhalation (active) and exhalation (passive)
● Inspiration: external intercostal muscles are used to inhale air. Inhaled air has a
lower concentration of carbon dioxide, higher concentration of oxygen, lower water
content and temperature. Here rib cage moves up and out and the diaphragm
contracts and moves down and thus pressure decreases and air enters the lungs
● Forced expiration: internal intercostal muscles are used to exhale air. Exhaled air
has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide, lower concentration of oxygen, more
temperature and more water content. Here the rib cage moves in and down and the
diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards, which increases the pressure in the lungs
and thus the air is pushed out
● Smoke: consists of tar, benzene, nicotine, carbon monoxide and smoke particles.

● Passive smoking: when non-smokers are in a smokers environment and end up
inhaling the harmful smoke from the cigarette
● Carcinogen: cancer causing chemicals
● Asthma: a severe allergic reaction in which contraction of the bronchioles makes
breathing difficult
● Bronchitis: an inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes. The passageways
to the alveoli become swollen and clogged with mucus
● Emphysema: lungs lose their elasticity, deterioration of the lung structure
● Pneumonia: alveoli become filled with fluid. Caused by a bacterial or viral infection
● Lung Cancer: a disease in which tumors form in the lungs as a result of irregular
and uncontrolled cell growth
● COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease caused by the chemicals released by
WBC which damage the lungs itself
● Leukemia: cancer of WBC caused by benzene found in cigarette smoke
C9: coordination and homeostasis

● Sensitivity: ability to detect and respond to changes in an organism's environment (
internal and external )
● Stimuli: changes in an organism's environment
● Coordination: the way in which receptors pick up stimuli and pass it on to effectors
● Receptors: nerve cells which detect stimulus and produce electrical signals in
response
● Effectors: muscles and glands which produce a response based on the electrical
impulses sent to them from the receptors
● Neuron: specialised cell that carries electrical impulses around the body
● Sensory neuron: conducts impulses to cord and has a long dendrite, short axon
and cell body/ dendrite outside spinal cord and cell body is a dorsal root
● Relay/interneuron: it interconnects sensory neurons with motor neurones and has a
short dendrite and axon, and cell body is entirely within CNS
● Motor neurone: conducts impulses to effectors and has short dendrites and long
axon and cell body/dendrites in spinal cord and axon outside spinal cord
● Impulse: is an electrical message that is carried along a neutron
● Autonomic: controls self regulated action if internal organs and glands
● Somatic: controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles
● CNS: the central nervous system which consists of the brain and spinal cord which
coordinates the information traveling through the nervous system
● PNS: the peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and receptors

● Reflex action: A means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating
stimuli with the responses of effectors ( muscles and glands ) to minimise any further
damage to the body
● Reflex arc: The nerve pathway followed by a reflex action
● Voluntary action: slow response which is under conscious control and response is
with the benefit of experience. Same stimulus may result in various actions
● Involuntary action: fast response which is not done consciously and response is to
avoid/minimise danger. Same stimulus results in one action
● Sense organs: An organ of the body which responds to external stimuli by
conveying impulses to the sensory nervous system.It contains different specialized
receptors
● Conjunctiva - a clear, thin layer that protects the cornea and front of the eye
● -Cornea - the tough transparent part of the outer surface of the eye to allow light
through/clear window of the sclerotic layer.
● -Iris - Aperture like ring that controls the amount of light that is let into the lens by
changing size to control the size of pupil and give eye its colour
● -Pupil - the hole in the middle of the iris that changes size according to intensity of
the light
● -Aqueous humour - the watery liquid in between the cornea and lens which helps
maintain shape of the eye
● -Lens - focuses the incoming light, can change thickness according to the distance
of focus of vision and helps focus the image at the back of the eye
● -Ciliary body - muscles that pull the lens to make it thinner or thicker.
● -Suspensory ligament - Ligaments that connect the ciliary body to the lens and
holds the lens in place
● -Vitreous humour - the major liquid that forms the volume of the eye and help
maintain its shape
● -Retina - The inner surface of the eye where there are many light receptors (sensory
neurons) and they send messages to the brain from here
● -Choroid - the black layer between the retina and the sclera which prevents light
from reflecting all around the eye and nourishes the eye with blood and oxygen
● -Fovea - most of the light is focused onto this point in the retina (most densely
arranged receptor)
● -Optic nerve joins the eye to the brain and passes on information about the object
so that the image is seen the right way up
● -Blind spot - at this point, there are no light receptors, because the optic nerve and
blood vessels join the eyeball
● -Sclera - the tough outside protection layer of the eye

● The pupil reflex: an involuntary action which causes the pupil to dilate or contract
based on the amount of light entering the eye
● Dilation of pupil: occurs when low amount of light is entering the eye which causes
the pupil to become big and the iris to become smaller. The radial muscles contract
and the circular muscles relax
● Contraction of pupil: occurs when large amounts of light enters the eye which
causes the pupil to become smaller as the radial muscles relax and the circular
muscles contract.
● Accommodation: the ability of the lens of the eye to change its shape depending on
the distance of the object from the eye to focus on the object
● Distant object: the light rays bend while entering the eye, the lens are thin,
suspensory ligaments are tense and ciliary muscles are relaxed
● Near object: the light rays don’t bend as much while entering the eye, the lens are
fat, suspensory ligaments are loose and ciliary muscles contract.
● Hormones: substances produced by endocrine glands, carried by the blood, which
alters the activity of one or more specific target organs and then destroyed by the
liver
● Endocrine glands: ductless glands that transport their secretions via the
bloodstream
● Exocrine glands: glands with ducts that transport their secretions to the target
organs via the ducts
● Tropism- growth of all or part of an organism in a particular direction in response to
an external stimulus
● Positive tropisms – the plant grows towards the stimulus
● Negative tropisms – the plant grows away from the stimulus
● Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards or away from gravity
● Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards or away from the
direction from which light is coming
● Auxins: are a family of plant hormones (phytohormone).They are mostly made in
the tips of the growing stems and roots, which are known as apical meristems, and
can diffuse to other parts of the stems or roots and they control the growth of plants
by promoting cell division and causing elongation in plant cells
● Weed killers/herbicides: similar to auxins and if sprayed on the plants they cause
rapid, uncontrolled growth and respiration leading to death of the plants
● Homeostasis: is the maintenance of constant internal environment, which is vital for
an organism to stay healthy.
● Negative feedback: Homeostatic control is achieved using negative feedback
mechanisms which are,if the level of something rises, control systems reduce it
again and if the level of something falls, control systems raise it again.

● Thermoregulation: is a homeostatic function which helps the body maintain a
constant temperature despite the external environment. The body has mechanisms
to lose heat if we get too hot or retain heat if we get too cold.
● Temperature receptors-Detect change in temperature (too hot or cold) and sends a
message to adjust the body accordingly.
● Sweat glands -Produces and secretes sweat through the pores to cool down the
body if it gets too hot
● Blood Capillaries -By vasoconstriction and vasodilation, it can control the loss of
heat through the blood capillaries
● vasoconstriction: when it’s cold, the vessels are pulled closer in the body and hair
stands up, minimising heat loss
● vasodilation: allows the vessels to be closer to the surface and hair lays flat down,
to lose heat when its hot
● Hair muscles: allow the hair to stand up and this allows the hair to trap air
● shivering: muscles contract and relax spontaneously which produces heat and
warms blood
● Hypothalamus: a part of the brain which coordinates temperature control by
measuring the temperature of blood flowing through it and sending signals across
the body accordingly
C10 - C11: reproduction in plants and animals

● Reproduction: is the biological process by which new individual organisms –
"offspring" – are produced from their "parents".
● Asexual reproduction: needs only one parent and all the offsprings are genetically
identical to each other/ clones
● Sexual reproduction: needs two parents and offspring are genetically different from
each other and the parents
● Fertilisation: The process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid
zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring (OR) formation of a new
organism by the fusion of gametes
● gamete: a haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization in
organisms that sexually reproduce.They contain half the number of chromosomes (
haploid )and are formed by meiosis division
● Petal : have attractive colours and scents so that pollinators are attracted to the
flower
● Sepal : protective leaf that protects the flower when it is in the bud
● Petiole : joins the flower to the stem
● Nectary : produces and contains nectar, a sweet liquid, to attract insects and birds

● Stamen : the male sex organ of a flower, divided into the anther and filament
● Anther : contains pollen sacs that open to release pollen
● Filament : stalk that holds the anther
● Carpel : the female sex organ of a flower, divided into the stigma, style, and ovary
● Stigma : collects and receive pollen
● Style : tube that connects the ovary and the stigma
● Ovary : contains ovules (egg cells), after fertilisation, the ovary becomes the fruit
● Testa - the hard protective cover on the outside of the seed
● Cotyledon - food store until the plant grows leaves for photosynthesis
● Micropyle - this is where the pollen tube connected with the ovule.
● Plumule - grows upwards into a shoot (upper part) of the plant
● Radicle - grows downwards into a root (lower part) of the plant
● Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther of
stamen) to the female part of the plant ( stigma)
● Self pollination: pollen from the same flower land on the same flower’s stigma
● Cross pollination: pollen of the flower gets transferred to another flower’s stigma
● Ovary : ova (egg cells) are stored in and released by the ovaries. Female hormone
oestrogen is made here.
● Oviduct : (Fallopian tube) -The tube through which the ova travel through to reach
the uterus.The oviduct is lined with cilliated cells which move the ova across.
● Uterus : Commonly called the womb, is where the baby develops until birth
● Uterus Lining : The soft inner wall of the uterus which hold the ova, and break down
during menstruation.
● Uterus Wall : The muscular wall of the womb which contract to push the baby out
during birth.
● Cervix : Separation between the vagina and the uterus. The cervix dilates when a
baby is due to be delivered.
● Vagina : Passage leading to the cervix which the penis can enter during sexual
intercourse
● Testes: produces sperms, releases male sex hormones, androgen and
testosterone, which causes physical and psychological changes in males
● Scrotum: a sac which covers and protects the testes and holds them outside the
body
● Seminal vesicles: stores sperms and secretes fluid into the sperm ducts which
provide nutrients for the sperms to swim in and avoid them from sticking to each
other
● Prostate gland: secretes fluid into the semen which activated the sperms
● Sperm duct: carries sperm from the testes to the urethra
● Urethra : a duct which carries urine and sperm outside the body

● Implantation: The uterus has a thin, spongy lining, and the embryo sinks into it
● Morula: a ball of cells formed after some mitosis divisions
● Blastocyst: the unequally formed fluid-filled cavity in the middle when a ball of cells
divides which happens before implantation. It consists of inner mass of cells (
develops into embryo ), outer layer ( develops into the placenta ) and a fluid filled
cavity
● Placenta: is the life support system of the baby. It releases progesterone (maintains
endometrium and prevents contraction) , HCG (initially maintains the corpus luteum)
and oestrogen (maintains lining of uterus). Exchange of materials between maternal
and fetal blood takes place as well.
● Umbilical cord: connects foetus to placenta. 2 arteries have blood from fetus to
placenta and 1 vein returns blood to fetus.
● Process of birth: first the oxytocin hormone triggers labour. Muscular walls of the
uterus start to contract and the pressure breaks the amniotic sac. Contractions
become more frequent pushing the baby out through the cervix. Cervix dilates and
the vagina stretches to push the baby out. Placenta breaks away from the uterus
wall and the umbilical cord is cut and tied.
● Menstruation: the thickened uterine lining falls away in the form of blood, so the
body can start making a new one.
● Follicular: hormones prompt the creation of follicles on the ovaries and usually just
one follicle will mature into one egg.
● Ovulation: the mature egg is released from the follicle and is ready for fertilisation.
● Luteal: if there is no fertilised egg, your body will prepare to shed its thickened lining
and the cycle will begin again.
● AIDS ( acquired immunodeficiency syndrome): a disease caused by the HIV virus
● HIV (human immunodeficiency virus): a fragile virus which is transported via the
human fluids and can’t survive outside the human body.
C12: inheritance
● Chromosome: a thread like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the
form of genes, present in the nucleus of every cell. The cell is in chromosome form
when dividing.
● Chromatin: the form in which the cell is present when it is not dividing
● Autosome/somatic chromosome: they make up the 22 pairs of the chromosome
and they make proteins,enzymes, hormones.
● Sex chromosome: the make up the 23rd pair in the chromosome and they
determine the gender
● 1pair of chromosome: has 2 chromosomes with each having 4 DNA strands

● DNA: di-ribonucleic acid, a bio molecule which has genetic information
● Gene: it is the functional unit of DNA and it is the length of DNA that codes for a
protein
● Allele: different forms of genes; recessive and dominant alleles
● Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present
● Recessive: an allele that is expressed only when there is no dominant allele of the
gene present
● Homozygous: both alleles are the same; either recessive or dominant / having two
identical alleles of a particular gene
● Heterozygous: both alleles are not same; either R and D or D or R / having two
different alleles of a particular gene
● Haploid nucleus: a nucleus contains a single set of unpaired chromosomes ( 23 )
● Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (46 )
● Homologous Chromosomes: the two chromosomes of a pair where one is from
the mother and the other is from the father
● Mitosis: cell division giving reuse to the genetically identical cells in which the
chromosome number is maintained by the exact duplication of chromosome. ( 1 cell
divides into 2 )
● Meiosis: reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid
to haploid. 1 cell divides into 4 different haploid cells.
● Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present
● Phenotype: the observable features of an organism / physical features
● Monohybrid inheritance: the inheritance of one pair only of contrasting
characteristics / study of one gene’s inheritance
● 2 allele make up one gene, 2 chromosomes make up one homologous pair of
chromosomes, 23 pairs make up a DNA strand
● Pure breeding: happens when both the parents are homozygous
● Pure breed: when the alleles are in homozygous condition ( exact copy of the
parent cell )
● Gene of Y chromosome: controls male characteristics and produces sperm cells
● Gene of X chromosome: controls female characteristics,etc
● XX female( homogametic ) , XY male ( heterogametic )
● Pedigree analysis: it is the transfer / inheritance of one gene through many
generations and it is in a tree form ( circle represents female, square represents
male, circle and square joint by a line is married )
● Carriers : half shaded, carry the defective genes but don’t show symptoms and fully
shaded are fetched individuals

C13: variation and selection
● phenotypic variation: differences between the features of different individuals
● Genetic variation: caused due to differences in genotypic variation
● Variation: differences between the individuals of the same species
● Normal distribution: when most people come into the middle range, with fewer on
the lower or upper ends when comparing phenotypes/features
● Mutation: an unpredictable change in the gene or chromosome number causing
formation of new alleles
● Gene mutation: defect in DNA base sequence
● Chromosomal mutation: defect in chromosome number
● Natural selection/ survival of the fittest: is a theory proposed by Charles Darwin
which states ― the different survival and reproduction of individuals due to their
different phenotypes ―
● Evolution: the change in inheritable traits of a population over time
● Speciation: occurs when two individuals of the species can’t interbreed to produce
fertile offspring due to different adaptations and thus changes in the genes of the
individuals
● Artificial selection: is a method used by humans to produce varieties of plants and
animals which yield more economic benefit
● continuous variation: is influenced by genes and environment, resulting in a range
of phenotypes between two extremes
● natural selection: the greater chance of passing on of genes by the best-adapted
organisms.
● discontinuous variations: caused by genes alone and results in a limited number
of distinct phenotypes with no intermediates
● process of adaptation: the process resulting from natural selection by which
populations become more suited to their environment over many generations
C14: organisms and their environment

● Sun: is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.
● Food chain: a chart showing a flow of energy (food) from one organism to the next,
beginning with a producer.
● Food web: a network of interconnected food chains showing the energy flow
through a part of an ecosystem
● Causes for energy loss:
1. Lost as heat energy due to respiration
2. All parts of the organism aren’t completely consumed

3. Undigested molecules are lost as faeces
● Producer: an organism that makes organic nutrients by usually using sunlight
through photosynthesis
● Herbivore: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on plants
● Carnivore: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other animals
● Omnivores: an organism that gets its energy b6 feeding on plants and/or animals
● Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
● Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic matter
● Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain or food web or pyramid of
biomass or numbers
● Combustion: when fossil fuels are burnt, the carbon in them combines with oxygen
in the air, forming carbon dioxide
● Enhanced greenhouse effect: as the concentration of greenhouse gases increases
in the atmosphere, more heat is trapped, making the atmosphere warmer
● Ecology: the study of the interaction between living organisms and their
environment
● Habitat: the area where an organism lives
● Population: a group of organisms of the same species, living in the same area at
the same time
● Community: all the organisms, of all the different species, living in the same habitat
● Ecosystem: a unit containing all the organisms and their environment , interacting
together, in a given area (community and its environment )
● Carbon cycle: how CO2 is released in the atmosphere:

1. Combustion of fuels
2. Respiration
3. Decomposers decomposing urine, faeces, etc.
4. Death of organisms
How CO2 is taken from the atmosphere: photosynthesis
● Problems rising due to deforestation:

1. Soil erosion
2. Silting of water bodies
3. Flooding
4. Extinction of plants and animals
5. Increased concentration of CO2
6. Decreased concentration of O2
7. Disturbances in water cycle
8. Uneven / no rainfall

● Causes of eutrophication:
1. Fertilisers
2. Pollutants
3. Slurry (cattle and pigs)
4. Silage (pits where grass is left to rot)
5. Untreated sewage water
● Eutrophication: is a process in which substances causing water pollution fill

up water bodies. Due to this algal bloom takes place so enough sunlight can’t
penetrateinto the water body, so underwater plants tend to die. The death
causes rise of bacteria which feed on these dead matter. These respiring
bacteria reduce the oxygen concentration in the water, so even the fish and
other organisms die.
● Leaching: the washing off of fertiliser nutrients from the soil into water bodies
due torain
● Causes of water pollution:
1. Fertilisers
2. Untreated sewage
3. Discharge of chemical waste
4. Discarded rubbish

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Chemistry page 1-24

Physics page 24-50

C1- C3 : nature of matter, atoms, elements

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● Electrical conductor: a substance that conducts electricity but is not chemically

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C6 -C7: energy changes in chemical reactions

● Hydrocarbons: molecules containing only hydrogen and carbon

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C8: acids, bases and salts

● pH scale: the numerical scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an

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C9: periodic table

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C 11-13: air and water

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C 14: Organic chemistry

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● petroleum/crude oil is preheated to 350-400 celsius and passed through a

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C1: making measurements

C2: describing motion

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C3: forces and motion

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C4: turning effects of forces

C5: forces and matter

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C6: energy transformations and energy transfers

C7: energy resources

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C8: work and power

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C9: the kinetic model of matter

C10: thermal properties of matter

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C11: thermal/heat energy transfers

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● An image formed by a converging lens is:

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C 17, 18 and 19: electricity

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C 16, 20, 21: magnets